Introduction to deepwater

sedimentary environments

Rev: 1.1 10/01/01

Author: Peter Aird www.kingdomdrilling.co.uk Ref:

Table of contents
INTRODUCTION TO DEEPWATER SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS ........................1
Table of contents ...........................................................................................................................2
Weathering and erosion.................................................................................................................3
Deepwater marine environments...................................................................................................4
Deepwater Depositional processes................................................................................................5
Transportation agents. ...................................................................................................................6
Turbidity currents..........................................................................................................................8
Debrites .........................................................................................................................................9
INFLUENCING CHARACTERISTICS.....................................................................................10
Geological characteristics of deep marine environments............................................................10
Formation characteristics. ...........................................................................................................13
Formation Characteristics: Rules of thumb.................................................................................16

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Weathering and erosion
Mechanisms of weathering and erosion cause sediments to formed where they are
eventually transported and deposited in differing environments as can be seen from
figure 1.

Figure 1: Classic Sedimentary environments

When considering deepwater sediments it is also

important to note that sediment grains are
modified the further the distance they are
transported. This is illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2: Sediment transporation

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Deepwater marine environments.
Rotary drilling in deepwater marine environments begins with the drilled cuttings returned
to the seabed using sea water and viscous mud sweeps pumped through the drill string
and out through the wellbore. Here the Sedimentary Environments drilled are broadly
described as “Shallow to Deep marine.”
Figure 3: Typical Atlantic passive continental margin.

Shallow marine
“Shallow” marine extends from the shore to the edges of the continental shelves. Lime,
mud’s and sands are the principle solids deposited.

Deep marine
“Deep” marine characterises the deep oceans beyond the continental slopes and
include deep sea fans and abyssal plains. Sands and mud’s are the principle sediments
deposited

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Deepwater Depositional processes.
Fig. 3 presents that specific factors are contributory to sediments transportation and
deposition to result in the deepwater sedimentary rock and facies produced. On a gross
scale, overriding factors are;
1. Depositional processes
2. Depositional environment
3. Tectonic content
4. The climate.

In deepwater specific geological factors therefore combine to form a unique identity to

the sediments deposited that ultimately have then to be drilled to find and develop
commercial hydrocarbons. A principle fundamental for driller’s to appreciate.

The environment by which sediments are transported however change as sub sea
topography will vary from region to region. E.g. West of Shetland, Gulf of Mexico, West
Africa, Brazil deepwater environment do have individual characteristics. However in most
deep open water environments, tectonic content in the first three to four thousand feet
below the mudline is limited, although effects of storms, earthquakes etc. (slumping, mass
shifting of sediments) can play their part in sediment deposition.

Finally climate, notably

water temperature and
overburden of the water
itself does however play a
significant part as to how
sediments are deposited
and to the diagenetic
effects that take place. I.e.
Once deposited, sediments
are subjected to processes of
diagenesis, that is physical,
chemical, and biological
processes, that result in
compaction, cementation, re-
crystallisation and other
modifications to the original
Figure 4: Sedimentary processes sediment. In deepwater
these processes result in
sediments of differing characteristics in relation to other shallower water drilling
environments.

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Transportation agents.
The agent for transportation of deep open water sediments is through a sequence of
repeating sliding, slumping, sediment gravity flows, and in particular ocean (turbidity)
currents, debris flow, and less important grain flows and fluidised sediment flows.

In addition ocean bottom currents produced through thermo line density difference can
transport and re-work sediments. Apart from these re-sedimentation processes deeper
water environments are sites of pelagic and hemi pelagic deposition.

Slides and slumps

Slides and slumps (see fig 5) involve small to large masses of sediment, with more
internal deformation, occurring in slumps. Slumps may develop into sediment-gravity
flows. Slides and slumps are typical for slope environments and give rise to scars and
discontinuities in generally evenly bedded fine-grained sediments.

Slope failure
Slope failure, generating slumps and sediment gravity flows can be induced by
earthquake shocks, but also by storm wave loading. Over steepening of slopes by rapid
sedimentation is also important.

Sedimentary gravity flows

Five types of sedimentary gravity flows are recognised based on their rheology (liquid vs.
plastic behaviour) and particle support mechanism. (table 1; Lowe 1982.)
Table 1: Classification of laminar sediment gravity flows based on flow rheology and particle
suport mechanisms.

Flow behaviour Flow type Sediment support mechanism

Fluid Turbidity current Fluid turbulence
Fluidised flow Escaping pore fluid
Liquefied flow Escaping pore fluid

Plastic Grain flow Dispersive pressure

Matrix density and strength

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- Turbidity currents, sediment is supported buy the fluid turbulence and low-high
density flows can be distinguished.
- Fluidised flows, sediment is supported by upward –moving pore fluid.
- liquefied flows, sediment is not fully supported; the grains settle through the fluid
which is displaced upwards.
- grain flows sediment is supported by the dispersive pressure arising from grain
collisions.
- Debris flows also called mud or cohesive flows, are ones where the sediment is
supported by a cohesive matrix. Sediment is deposited from decelerating gravity
flows by two different mechanisms. In fluid flows grains are deposited individually,
either from the bed load (traction sedimentation) or from suspension, so that
deposition takes place from the base of the bed upwards. With debris flows , the
flow freezes as the shear stress falls below the yield strength of the moving
material , so that deposition takes place en masse or from the outside inwards.

Figure 5: How turbidity currents develop

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Turbidity currents.
Turbidity currents are the most important of the sedimentary gravity flows and they
deposit sediments with characteristic internal structure that change along the
transportation path.
High density turbidity
High density turbidity currents can carry
gravel and coarse sands, mostly in the form
of a traction carpet at the base of the flow
and in suspension just above. Fluid
turbulence, dispersive pressure from grain
collisions, and finer sediment exerting a
matrix buoyancy life, keep the gravel and
sands moving until the flow decelerates
through increasing slope or dilution.

Low density turbidity

Low density turbidity currents transport
sediment up to medium sands, kept in
suspension by the fluid turbulence. As the
flow decelerates sediment is moved as bed
load in a traction carpet. The deposits of
these currents are commonly “classic”
turbidites. Note: Typical bed thickness for each
type is in the range 0.3m (1ft) – 1m (3ft). (Based
on Lowe, 1982) Figures 5 & 6 illustrate how
turbidity currents typically form in the ocean.
Currents can erode, and transport large
Figure 6: Turbidity sequence quantities of sand, mud, deposits etc. that
are transported and deposited down the
continental slopes and into the Abyssal
plains.

Turbidite sequences can be less than one metre to several metres thick and can be
traced for many miles (fig 6.). Not all sub units may be present and exact patterns vary
with differing environments.

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Debrites
Finally, of the other sediment gravity-flow
deposits, debris-flow deposits (debrites) are
the more significant.

The strength of the muddy matrix in some

debris flows is sufficient to transport block
many metres across. Debrites are typically
mud-dominated with scattered clasts, in a
matrix-support fabric.

Due to the relative geological time period

involved and depositional age of the
sediments they are deposited in nearly
horizontal layers. Typical sequences are
illustrated in figure 7 and are typical of
“open water” formation sequences that may
be encountered in the drilling process.

Figure 7: Debrite flow sequences

Thus understanding the depositional region

can be appreciated to be fundamental even
for drillers.

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Influencing characteristics
Geological characteristics of deep marine
environments.
In the deep open water marine environments, formations drilled are composed of
sedimentary rocks, i.e. Sands, Muds silts and limestone, and as previously illustrated are
deposited mainly from suspension, turbidity currents and debrites to deposit massive,
laminated and graded beds.

All other factors being equal, Sandstone are classed as medium strength, Shale, high
and limestone very high. Note: Sandstone exhibits the lowest compressive and tensile rock
strength. This is a key fundamental in deepwater drilling when considering pore and
fracture pressure understanding, and evaluating both in-situ stresses, rock and stability
mechanics.

Other key influencing characteristics presented when drilling such sedimentary

stratigraphy in the open water environments are the depositional process, depositional
environment, porosity, permeability and the stresses of the formation(s). The main
process after the depositional sequence occurs in relation to the formations ultimately to
be drilled in the open water below the seabed, is burial and then compaction. This is
especially important in the mud rocks where compaction expels water, reducing the
thickness of the sediment by a factor up to ten.

When initially deposited, mud rocks may contain 70-90% water by volume compaction
through overburden, reducing to approximately 30% at a burial depth of 1Km below the
seabed. Much of the water contained within the rocks is not then free pore water but is
contained in the lattice of the clay minerals and absorbed by the clays. As water depth
increase however the overburden of the water itself results in much more water being
contained in the lattice of the clay minerals and absorbed by the clays that would occur
at shallow depths. Thus a 50m interval of clay minerals will tend to have much > porosity
and permeability that would be exhibited if it was deposited in shallower waters.

Sedimentary rocks drilled in open water environments can therefore be concluded to

have much higher porosity and permeability’s and are probably not as fully compacted or
cemented, than formations buried and compacted more deeply. The overall formation
integrity of sedimentary rocks can therefore be concluded to be poor.

While drilling, every measure should therefore be taken to ensure that the well bore
remains intact to maintain both hole quality and to prevent well instability, hole collapse
or enlargement. In that, preventative measures while drilling and tripping must ensure
that formations are not eroded, enlarged, mechanically or hydraulically agitated
sufficiently to cause formations to become unstable or collapse. backreamer’s take note!

Author: Peter Aird www.kingdomdrilling.co.uk Ref:

Finally, the formation or rock stress originates from the overburden (burial and
compaction) stress and the formation fluid pressure. Overburden stress is produced by
the combined weight of the rock and formation fluids overlying a depth of interest,
exerting a vertical stress to the formation. A resulting value of horizontal stress is
developed and depends on the rock stiffness. As rock stiffness is poor, horizontal
stresses will be high. Finally, the formation fracture strength is defined by the overburden
stress, cementation, compaction formation pressure and strength of the rock type. i.e.
Sandstone, Shale and limestone

The important influencing characteristics of the sediments in deep open water for drillers
to appreciate different from conventional shallow water offshore drilling are
• porosity,
• permeability and
• in situ-stress of the formation(s)
• pore and fracture gradients.

Porosity and permeability

After deposition, sediments are buried and compacted. Porosity and permeability of
sedimentary formations decrease with depth due to this. Sediments drilled in the deep
open water environments have due to overlying large water column exclusive higher
porosity, high permeability, are not well compacted, resulting in poor formation integrity,
than would be experienced in shallower water depths.
While drilling in deepwater, the driller’s must appreciate how sediments form and why
every practicable measure must be taken to ensure the well bore is maintained to
prevent hole collapse or enlargement. In that, the most important preventative measure
due to the nature of construction of the sediments should be to ensure that formations
are not agitated (either mechanically or hydraulically) to result in formation instability,
undue in-situ stress conditions that may ultimately result in hole collapse.

In situ stress of formations

To enforce such fragility of these formations, the rock stresses originate from the
overburden and the formation fluid pressure. Stress produced by the combined weight of
the rock and formation fluids overlying a depth of interest, exert vertical stresses to the
formation. The resulting horizontal stress developed depends on the rock stiffness. As
rock stiffness is poor in open water, horizontal stresses will be high and rock can be
prone to shear failure.

The formation fracture strength of formations is further defined by the overburden stress,
degree of burial, compaction, formation pressure and strength of the rock type.

As no leak off tests are conducted in the open water sections. Exact fracture and pore
pressure gradients are in general unknown but to some extent may be extrapolated from
the shallow seismic data.

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Pore and fracture prediction.
Most deepwater wells are hydrostatic penetrating into slightly over-pressure when
entering the reservoir. Over pressured formations in areas such as the Gulf of Mexico,
Norway and Caspian seas do exist however and have resulted in the requirement to set
several strings of protective casing in the first few thousand feet of sediments below the
sea floor. Problems due to the shallow water flows and operational difficulties that result
(e.g. inability to set more casing strings) are therefore not uncommon.

Because of the risks and high costs, associated with such expensive and time
consuming operations in the deepwater environment. Accurate pre-drilling and while-
drilling pore and fracture gradient pressure predictions are critical to meeting well
objectives.

Two points are however fundamental:

1. A well drilled directly at the crest of a large over-pressured structure is at

considerable risk of mechanical failure and
2. Models for pressure prediction require a precise value for overburden pressure.

Pore pressure prediction, detection and management are discussed in more specific
details later in this manuscript.

Author: Peter Aird www.kingdomdrilling.co.uk Ref:

Formation characteristics.
Formation & Filtrate Invasion.
Under ideal conditions the pressure exerted by the column of drilling fluids results in that
fluid is forced to invade into the formation (ref. Fig 8).
Note: 30ft of cuttings in a 36” hole of 40% porosity,
equates to approx. 15,000lbs of drilled cuttings in Figure 8: Filtration and solids invasion
the wellbore annulus.

Under such conditions it is logical to conclude

that the pressure head exerted by the cuttings
result in a filtration loss to occur to the
formations that have been recently drilled.

From this it can then be concluded that the

porous and permeable rocks act as a filter,
separating the drilling fluids from their liquid
and solid constituents. The heavier drilling
fluid flow into the formation, while the solids
(mud products and solids drilled) form a deposit
around the bore-hole after it is drilled,
accumulating in a mud cake on the wellbore
wall, building to a point where a skin is formed
over the interval drilled.
Figure 9: Fluid invasion effects.
Again fundamental for all driller’s to
appreciate. (backreamer’s take note!!)
Initially then as the bit enters new
formation, there is complete dis-
equilibrium & a dynamic filtration takes
place (fig 9). Below and around the bit
there is then a continuous flow of filtrate
into the formation, depending on
pressures present.

Gradually as the mud cake build up, an

impermeable barrier forms and filtration’s
ceases.

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The replacement of original formation fluids by drilling fluid filtrate is called invasion.
Invasion is important to understand since it effects both porous and permeable
formations in the immediate vicinity of the borehole and is a vital ingredient to wellbore
stability and hole quality a subject much discussed within these articles.

Finally, invasion is described by the

depth or diameter of invasion, i.e. the
distance reached by the invading filtrate
with respect to the bore-hole (figure 10.)

Figure 10: Depth of fluid invasion

Elastic limit & formation strength

The elastic limit and strength of formation(s) effect ROP and drilling performance. Each
deepwater formation therefore has a threshold force that requires bit weight to initiate
drilling. The fact that deepwater formations are normally pressurised allows the drilling
fluid filtrate to readily penetrate into the rock ahead of the bit equalising pressure. This
makes the rock easier to drill. High drillability is thus possible under normal
conditions in deepwater. Some formation characteristics can however inhibit
performance. E.g.

Soft sticky clays.

Soft sticky clays can be experienced and can cause the bit and stabilisers to “ball up”
i.e. become plugged off with clay particles. This can reduce drilling efficiency and overall
performance. The importance of maintaining the cutters clean and applying properly
afforded bit/bottom hole cleaning hydraulics in such formations is therefore a
fundamental to be appreciated

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Boulders/cobble beds.
Due to the age, deposition and environment associated with top holes in sedimentary
basins. Glacial drift, i.e. rocks ranging from boulder size to cobble bed intervals are often
deposited e.g. at the bottom of a sand in a turbidite sequence. Intervals can range from metres
to tens of metres thick, resulting in drilling difficulties, instantaneous doglegs, high hole
angle, ledges, difficulty running tubular’s, well instability and on occasion stuck pipe
situations. Note: if such an interval becomes unstable or hole is enlarged. Softer over and
underlying formations may also then become unstable and collapse.

Unconsolidated formations (sands)

Porous permeable sands also often encountered in top hole section and present unique
hazards e.g. shallow gas, unconsolidation, shallow water flows. Once unstable they can
mechanically “flow” into the wellbore, where once breakdown is initiated, sands may
continue to flow and collapse into the wellbore . Stabilisation of the wellbore can then
become time consuming, and if not effected can result in a stuck drillstring or
requirement to re-spud the well.

Pre-planning
Geological and formation data can be evaluated from offsets, similar regional data or
through drilling a pilot hole to highlight all potential hazards. One should be constantly
reminded to the importance to review offset well data, and to record relevant drilling data,
e.g. mud logger charts, trend sheets, etc for the primary function to be used in future
deepwater drilling evaluation. Only by measuring and evaluating relevant data, can
preventative measures be initiated to ensure formations problems are adequately
managed to achieve best performance and results.

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Formation Characteristics: Rules of thumb.
1.) Log open water sections while drilling. (mud logs, MWD, LWD etc.)
2.) Control instantaneous penetration rates through unconsolidated formations.
3.) High instantaneous penetration rates and torque could indicate a more sandier
sequence, (note: be aware of shallow gas, water flows, drag, fill or well instability.)
4.) Sweep the hole regularly, based on hole size type and quantity of cuttings generated.
Note: If section is predominantly clay, seawater will essentially disperse with clays and sweeps
could potentially be eliminate in these sections.
5.) Estimate transport ratio in each hole size and account for this in sweep size and
frequency pumped.
6.) If fill or drag is experienced on connections, consider increasing sweep size, pumping
or spotting a sweep around the BHA on connections.
7.) If a known problematical sequence is drilled, consider spotting a stabilising fluid over
the section and allow it to soak prior to drilling ahead.
8.) Avoid mechanical or hydraulic agitation of the wellbore e.g. Pressure fluctuations, When
tripping, rotate as a last resort, and even then, control rotary speeds. Closely monitoring pump
pressures when pumping out to achieve desired results.
9.) Proper bottom hole assembly planning and design, and the use of correct practices
can alleviate formation drilling difficulties. E.g. avoid bladed stabiliser as they will enlarge the
hole in soft formations.
10.) Back reaming will deteriorating hole conditions, in deepwater sediments, resulting
in pack off, wellbore collapse, stuck pipe and in worst cases re-spud re-drilling of
sections required. e.g. field data testify to this.
11.) Deepwater sediments by nature of transportation, deposition and the way they are
formed are different
12.) Porosity and permeability of formation sequence to be drilled > significantly in
deepwater, especially at shallower depths.
13.) Inherent (fracture) strengths of formations decrease in open water environments.
The deeper the water the weaker the open water sediments to be drilled
14.) A formed mud cake is the primary combatant to wellbore stability. This is
fundamental and should be reflected in practices used for drilling and tripping
15.) A non penetrating wellbore is much stronger than a penetrating wellbore.
16.) Invasion is shallow in very porous and permeable formations. In that mud cake
builds up rapidly to block dynamic filtration.
17.) In less permeable zones, mud cake formation is slow. Time dependency will play
a factor in how hole will exhibit and react during drilling and tripping.
18.) During drilling and tripping; once formed, the mud cake should not be
mechanically or hydraulically agitated, removed or eroded. Drilling and tripping practices
should ensure this.
19.) In view item 18.), continuous rotation of the top drive (backreaming) is again not
recommended e.g. where circumferential rotation of a stabiliser can remove 100% of the mud
cake formed.
20.) A formation that is mainly shale below the mudline has a lower geostatic gradient
than if it were predominantly sand.
21.) At deeper depths, shales will tend to have a higher geostatic gradient , because
their porosity is generally less than that of the sands.

Author: Peter Aird www.kingdomdrilling.co.uk Ref: