Introduction to Vectors

and Some Operations

MATHEMATICS 22

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman

1 / 18
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Examples are displacement, velocity, and force.
Definition
A vector in the three-dimensional space is an ordered triple of real numbers
〈a, b, c〉. The numbers a, b, and c are called components of the vector.

Remarks.
1 A vector may be represented by a letter with an arrow above it, say~v.
The vector~v = 〈a, b, c〉 may be represented by any directed line
segment from a point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the point (x0 + a, y0 + b, z0 + c).
z
(x0 + a, y0 + b, z0 + c)

(a, b, c)
~v

~v
(x0 , y0 , z0 )

x
2 / 18
2 The vector from point P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) z

to point Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is denoted by Q(x2 , y2 , z2 )

−→
PQ and has components P(x1 , y1 , z1 )
−→
PQ
−→
PQ = 〈x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 〉. y

x
3 The vector~v = 〈a, b, c〉 with initial
point at the origin and terminal
point at (a, b, c) is called the
position representation of the
vector.

4 Two vectors~v1 = 〈a1 , b1 , c1 〉 and

~v2 = 〈a2 , b2 , c2 〉 are equal if and
only if a1 = a2 , b1 = b2 and c1 = c2 .

3 / 18
Notation.
1 zero vector in R3 : ~0 = 〈0, 0, 0〉.
2 If one component of a vector is zero, the vector lies on a coordinate
plane. In particular, if the third component is zero, the vector is on the
xy-plane, and we write 〈a, b〉.

Example 1
1 The vector from the point (4, 1, −3) to the origin is given by

~v = 〈0 − 4, 0 − 1, 0 − (−3)〉 = 〈−4, −1, 3〉.

2 The vector from the point (2, −5, 1) to the point (0, 2, −4) is given by

~v = 〈0 − 2, 2 − (−5), −4 − 1〉 = 〈−2, 7, −5〉.

4 / 18
Norm of a vector

Definition
The magnitude or norm of the vector~v = 〈a, b, c〉, denoted by k~vk, is the
length of a representation of~v, and is given by
p
k~vk = a2 + b2 + c2 .

Remarks.
1 For any vector~v in R3 , k~vk ≥ 0.
2 In particular, k~vk = 0 if and only if ~v =~0.

5 / 18
Example 2
Find the magnitude of the following vectors.
* p p p +
10 10 2
1 v~1 = 〈−4, 3, 12〉 2 v~2 = − , ,
10 5 2

Solution.
p
r
1 2 1
1 v1 k = 16 + 9 + 144
k~ 2 v2 k =
k~ + +
p 10 5 2
= 169 =1
= 13

Remark. A vector with magnitude 1 is called a unit vector.

6 / 18
Definition
The direction angles of a nonzero vector~v are the least nonnegative angles
α, β, and γ that its position representation makes with the positive x-axis,
positive y-axis, and positive z-axis, respectively. The cosines of the direction
angles are called direction cosines of the vector~v.

Remarks.
1 Each direction angle has value on
the interval [0, π].
2 If~v = 〈a, b, c〉, then

a b c
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = .
k~vk k~vk k~vk

It follows that

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1.

7 / 18
Direction Angles of a Vector

Example 3
p
Determine the direction angles of the vector~v = 〈 2, −1, 1〉.
p
Solution. Since k~vk = 2 + 1 + 1 = 2, then
p
2 1 1
cos α = , cos β = − , and cos γ = .
2 2 2
Since α, β, γ ∈ [0, π], we have

π 2π π
α= , β= and γ = .
4 3 3

8 / 18
Direction Angles of a Vector

Example 4
5π π π
Show that there is no vector with direction angles α = , β = , and γ = .
6 3 4

Solution. Suppose that there is a vector with the given direction angles.
Then its direction cosines are
p
3 1 1
cos α = − , cos β = , and cos γ = p .
2 2 2

Therefore,
3 1 1 3
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = + + = 6= 1.
4 4 2 2

Thus, no such vector with the given direction angles exists.

9 / 18
Vector Operations

Scalar Multiplication
Let ~
A = 〈a1 , a2 , a3 〉 and c ∈ R. Then c~
A = 〈ca1 , ca2 , ca3 〉.

Remarks.
1 0~
A =~0. z

2 kc~Ak = |c| · kAk

3 If c > 0, then c~A has the same
2~
direction as ~
A
A.
4 If c < 0, then c~
A is opposite the −1
2A
~ ~
A

~
direction of A.
y
5 Two nonzero vectors~v1 and~v2
are parallel if and only if~v2 = c~v1 ,
for some c ∈ R \ {0}.
x

10 / 18
Vector Operations

Vector Addition and Subtraction

Let ~
A = 〈a1 , a2 , a3 〉, and ~
B = 〈b1 , b2 , b3 〉. Then

~
A +~
B = 〈a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 〉
~
A −~
B = 〈a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 〉

When adding two vectors: When subtracting two vectors:

~
A ~
A

~
B
~
A −~
B
~
A +~
B ~
B (−~
B)

11 / 18
Vector Addition and Subtraction

Alternatively, the sum ~

A +~B and the difference ~
A −~
B are vectors defining the
diagonals of the parallelogram having the position representation of ~A and
~
B as two adjacent sides.

~
A

~
B ~
A −~
B

~
A +~
B
~
B

~
A

12 / 18
Vector Operations

Example 5
Let ~
A = 〈1, 2, 3〉 and ~
B = 〈−4, 5, −6〉. Find the following:

1 ~
A +~
B 2 2~
A −~
B 3 k3~
A + 2~
Bk

Solution.
1 ~A +~
B = 〈1, 2, 3〉 + 〈−4, 5, −6〉 = 〈−3, 7, −3〉

2 2~
A −~
B = 〈2, 4, 6〉 − 〈−4, 5, −6〉 = 〈6, −1, 12〉

3 3~
A + 2~
B = 〈3, 6, 9〉 + 〈−8, 10, −12〉 = 〈−5, 16, −3〉.
Thus, p p
°3~
A + 2~
° °
B° = k〈−5, 16, −3〉k = 25 + 256 + 9 = 290.

13 / 18
Normalization of vectors

Remarks.
1 Let~v be a nonzero vector. The vector ~ u~v = k~1vk~v is a unit vector in the
same direction as~v. Indeed,
° ° ¯ ¯
° 1 ° ¯ 1 ¯
k~ ~
° k~vk ° ¯ k~vk ¯ k~vk = 1,
u~v k = ° v °=¯ ¯

since k~vk > 0.

Moreover, ~
u~v and~v have the same direction since k~vk~
u~v =~v and
k~vk > 0.
2 The components of u~v are the direction cosines of~v.

The process of obtaining a unit vector along a given nonzero vector is called
normalization.

14 / 18
Normalization of Vectors

Example 6
Given the points P(3, −1, 1) and Q(0, 5, −1), find the unit vector that has the
−→
same direction as the vector PQ.

Solution. Note that

−→ −→ p
PQ = 〈−3, 6, −2〉 and kPQk = 9 + 36 + 4 = 7.

−→
The unit vector in the direction of PQ is
−→
PQ
¿ À
1 3 6 2
~
uPQ
~ = −→ = 〈−3, 6, −2〉 = − , , − .
kPQk 7 7 7 7

15 / 18
Example 7
Find the vector of norm 5 that has the same direction as~v = 〈1, −2, 2〉.

Solution. Observe that p

k~vk = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3.

The desired vector must be 5 times the unit vector along~v. That is,
¿ À
5 5 5 10 10
u~v =
5~ ~v = 〈1, −2, 2〉 = ,− , .
k~vk 3 3 3 3

16 / 18
Consider the three unit vectors
z
ı̂ := 〈1, 0, 0〉
k̂
̂ := 〈0, 1, 0〉
̂
k̂ := 〈0, 0, 1〉

in their position representation. ı̂

x y

Note that any vector~v = 〈a, b, c〉 can be written as

~v = a〈1, 0, 0〉 + b〈0, 1, 0〉 + c〈0, 0, 1〉 = aı̂ + b ̂ + ck̂

For this reason, ı̂, ̂ and k̂ are called the standard basis vectors in R3 .

For example, in terms of the three standard basis vectors, we have

〈3, 5, −2〉 = 3ı̂ + 5 ̂ − 2k̂,

〈1, 0, 3〉 = ı̂ + 3k̂,
〈0, 7, −4〉 = 7 ̂ − 4k̂.
17 / 18
Exercises

I. Define~v as the vector from A(3, 1, −2) to B(1, 5, 2).

1 Find k~vk and its direction angles.
2 Find the unit vector opposite the direction of~v.

II. If ~
u = 〈2, −3, 1〉,~v = 〈1, 0, −1〉 and ~
w = 〈−1, 3, −2〉, find:
1 u − 3~v
2~
2 ~
u −~v + ~
w
3 unit vector in the direction of 3~v + ~
w

18 / 18