Ophiolite

An ophiolite is a section of the Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper
mantle that has been uplifted and exposed above sea level and often emplaced onto
continental crustal rocks. Ophio is Greek for snake, and lite (from Greek lithos)
means stone , after the green-color rocks that make up many ophiolites.

Their great significance relates to their occurrence within mountain belts such as the
Alps and the Himalayas, where they document the existence of former ocean basins
that have now been consumed by subduction. This insight was one of the founding
pillars of plate tectonics, and ophiolites have always played a central role in plate
tectonic theory and the interpretation of ancient mountain belts. Ordovician ophiolite inGros Morne
National Park, Newfoundland.

Contents
Pseudostratigraphy and definition
Research
Groups and assemblages
Formation and emplacement
Origin as ocean crust
Ophiolite emplacement
Hypotheses
Emplacement by irregular continental margin
Ophiolites as trapped forearc

Origin and evolution of the concept

Notable ophiolites
Notes
References
External links

Pseudostratigraphy and definition

The stratigraphic-like sequence observed in ophiolites corresponds to the
lithosphere-forming processes at mid-oceanic ridges:

Sediments: muds (blackshale) and cherts deposited since the crust

formed.
Extrusive sequence: basaltic pillow lavas show magma/seawater
contact.
Sheeted dike complex: vertical, paralleldikes that fed lavas above.
High level intrusives: isotropicgabbro, indicative of fractionated magma
chamber.
Layered gabbro, resulting from settling out of minerals from a magma
chamber.
Cumulate peridotite: dunite-rich layers of minerals that settled out from a Stratigraphic sequence of an
magma chamber.
ophiolite.
Tectonized peridotite: harzburgite/lherzolite-rich mantle rock.
The Penrose field conference on ophiolites in 1972 redefined the term ophiolite to include only the igneous rocks listed above,
excluding the sediments formed independently of the crust they sit on.[1] This definition has been challenged recently because new
studies of oceanic crust by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and other research cruises have shown that in situ ocean crust can
be quite variable, and that in places volcanic rocks sit directly onperidotite tectonite, with no intervening gabbros.

Research
Scientists have drilled only about 1.5 km into the 6- to 7-kilometer-thick oceanic
crust, so their understanding of oceanic crust comes largely from comparing
ophiolite structure to seismic soundings of in situ oceanic crust. Oceanic crust has a
layered velocity structure that implies a layered rock series similar to that listed
above. In detail there are problems, with many ophiolites exhibiting thinner
accumulations of igneous rock than are inferred for oceanic crust. Another problem
relating oceanic crust and ophiolites is that the thick gabbro layer of ophiolites calls
for large magma chambers beneath mid-ocean ridges. Seismic sounding of mid-
ocean ridges has revealed only a few magma chambers beneath ridges, and these are
quite thin. A few deep drill holes into oceanic crust have intercepted gabbro, but it is A simplified structure of an ophiolite
suite:
not layered like ophiolite gabbro.
1. axial magma chamber
2. pelagic sediments
The circulation of hydrothermal fluids through young oceanic crust causes
3. pillow basalts
serpentinization, alteration of the peridotites and alteration of minerals in the
4. sheeted basaltic dykes
gabbros and basalts to lower temperature assemblages. For example, plagioclase, 5. intrusive, layered gabbro
pyroxenes, and olivine in the sheeted dikes and lavas will alter to albite,chlorite, and 6. dunite/peridotite cumulates
serpentine, respectively. Often, ore bodies such as iron-rich sulfide deposits are
found above highly alteredepidosites (epidote-quartz rocks) that are evidence of (the
now-relict) black smokers, which continue to operate within the seafloor spreading centers of ocean ridges today
.

Thus there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking
closer. Compositional differences regarding silica (SiO2) and titania (TiO2) contents, for example, place ophiolite basalts in the
domain of subduction zones (~55% silica, <1% TiO2), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalts typically have ~50% silica and 1.5–2.5%
TiO2. These chemical differences extend to a range of trace elements as well (that is, chemical elements occurring in amounts of
1000 ppm or less). In particular, trace elements associated with subduction zone (island arc) volcanics tend to be high in ophiolites,
[2]
whereas trace elements that are high in ocean ridge basalts but low in subduction zone volcanics are also low in ophiolites.

The crystallization order offeldspar and pyroxene (clino- and orthopyroxene) in the gabbros is reversed, and ophiolites also appear to
have a multi-phase magmatic complexity on par with subduction zones. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that most ophiolites are
generated when subduction begins and thus represent fragments of fore-arc lithosphere. This led to introduction of the term "supra-
subduction zone" (SSZ) ophiolite in the 1980s to acknowledge that some ophiolites are more closely related to island arcs than ocean
ridges. Consequently, some of the classic ophiolite occurrences thought of as being related to seafloor spreading (Troodos in Cyprus,
[3]
Semail in Oman) were found to be "SSZ" ophiolites, formed by rapid extension of fore-arc crust during subduction initiation.

A fore-arc setting for most ophiolites also solves the otherwise-perplexing problem of how oceanic lithosphere can be emplaced on
top of continental crust. It appears that continental accretion sediments, if carried by the downgoing plate into a subduction zone, will
jam it up and cause subduction to cease, resulting in the rebound of the accretionary prism with fore-arc lithosphere (ophiolite) on top
of it. Ophiolites with compositions comparable with hotspot-type eruptive settings or normal mid-oceanic ridge basalt are rare, and
those examples are generally strongly dismembered in subduction zone accretionary complexes.

Groups and assemblages

Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in
Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare.[4]
Most ophiolites can be divided into one of two groups: Tethyan and Cordilleran.
Tethyan ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the eastern Mediterranean
sea area, e.g., Troodos in Cyprus and in the Middle East such as Semail in Oman,
which consist of relatively complete rock series corresponding to the classic
ophiolite assemblage and which have been emplaced onto a passive continental
margin more or less intact (Tethys is the name given to the ancient sea that once
separated Europe and Africa). Cordilleran ophiolites are characteristic of those that
occur in the mountain belts of western North America (the "Cordillera" or backbone
Classic ophiolite assemblage in
of the continent). These ophiolites sit on subduction zone accretionary complexes
Cyprus showing sheeted lava
(subduction complexes) and have no association with a passive continental margin.
intersected by a dyke with pillow lava
They include the Coast Range ophiolite of California, the Josephine ophiolite of the on top.
Klamath Mountains (California, Oregon), and ophiolites in the southern Andes of
South America. Despite their differences in mode of emplacement, both types of
ophiolite are exclusively SSZ in origin.[5]

Based on mode of occurrences, the Neoproterozoic ophiolites appear to show characteristics of both MORB-type and SSZ-type
ophiolites and classified from oldest to youngest into: (1) MORB intact ophiolites (MIO), (2) dismembered ophiolites (DO), and (3)
arc-associated ophiolites (AAO) (El Bahariya, 2018).Collectively, the investigated ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert (CED) fall
into two groups,MORB or BABB and SSZ ophiolites. They are spatially and temporally unrelated, and thus, it seems likely that the
two types are not petrogenetically related. Ophiolites occur in different geological settings, and they represent change of the tectonic
setting of the ophiolites from MORB to SSZ with time.

Formation and emplacement

Ophiolites have been identified in most of the world's orogenic belts.[6] However, two components of ophiolite formation are under
debate: the origin of the sequence and the mechanism for ophiolite emplacement. Emplacement is the process of the sequence's uplift
over lower density continental crust.[7]

Origin as ocean crust

Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic lithosphere. Seismic velocity structure studieshave provided
most of the current knowledge of the oceanic crust's composition. For this reason, researchers carried out a seismic study on an
ophiolite complex (Bay of Islands, Newfoundland) in order to establish a comparison. The study concluded that oceanic and
ophiolitic velocity structures were identical, pointing to the origin of ophiolite complexes as oceanic crust.[8] The observations that
follow support this conclusion. Rocks originating on the seafloor show chemical composition comparable to unaltered ophiolite
layers, from primary composition elements such as silicon and titanium to trace elements. Seafloor and ophiolitic rocks share a low
occurrence of silica-rich rocks; those present have a high sodium and low potassium content.[9] The temperature gradients of the
metamorphosis of ophiolitic pillow lavas and dykes are similar to those found beneath ocean ridges today.[9] Evidence from the
metal-ore deposits present in and near ophiolites and from oxygen and hydrogen isotopes suggests that the passage of seawater
through hot basalt in the vicinity of ridges dissolved and carried elements that precipitated as sulfides when the heated seawater came
into contact with cold seawater. The same phenomenon occurs near oceanic ridges in a formation known as hydrothermal vents.[9]
The final line of evidence supporting the origin of ophiolites as seafloor is the region of formation of the sediments over the pillow
lavas: they were deposited in water over 2 km deep, far removed from land-sourced sediments.[9] Despite the above observations,
there are inconsistencies in the theory of ophiolites as oceanic crust, which suggests that newly generated ocean crust follows the full
Wilson cycle before emplacement as an ophiolite. This requires ophiolites to be much older than the orogenies on which they lie, and
therefore old and cold. However, radiometric and stratigraphic dating has found ophiolites to have undergone emplacement when
young and hot:[9] most are less than 50 million years old.[10] Ophiolites therefore cannot have followed the full Wilson cycle and are
considered atypical ocean crust.
Ophiolite emplacement
There is yet no consensus on the mechanics of emplacement, the process by which oceanic crust is uplifted onto continental margins
despite the relatively low density of the latter. All emplacement procedures share the same steps nonetheless: subduction initiation,
.[11]
thrusting of the ophiolite over a continental margin or an overriding plate at a subduction zone, and contact with air

Hypotheses

Emplacement by irregular continental margin

A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland suggests that an irregular continental
margin colliding with an island arc complex causes ophiolite generation in a back-arc basin and obduction due to compression.[12]
The continental margin, promontories and reentrants along its length, is attached to the subducting oceanic crust, which dips away
from it underneath the island arc complex. As subduction takes place, the buoyant continent and island arc complex converge,
initially colliding with the promontories. However, oceanic crust is still at the surface between the promontories, not having been
subducted beneath the island arc yet. The subducting oceanic crust is thought to split from the continental margin to aid subduction.
In the event that the rate of trench retreat is greater than that of the island arc complex's progression, trench rollback will take place,
and by consequence, extension of the overriding plate will occur to allow the island arc complex to match the trench retreat's speed.
The extension, a back-arc basin, generates oceanic crust: ophiolites. Finally, when the oceanic lithosphere is entirely subducted, the
island arc complex's extensional regime becomes compressional. The hot, positively buoyant ocean crust from the extension won't
subduct, instead obducting onto the island arc as an ophiolite. As compression persists, the ophiolite is emplaced onto the continental
margin.[12]

Ophiolites as trapped forearc

Ophiolite generation and subduction may also be explained, as suggested from evidence from the Coast Range ophiolite of California
and Baja California, by a change in subduction location and polarity.[13] Oceanic crust attached to a continental margin subducts
beneath an island arc. Pre-ophiolitic ocean crust is generated by a back-arc basin. The collision of the continent and island arc
initiates a new subduction zone at the back-arc basin, dipping in the opposite direction as the first. The created ophiolite becomes the
tip of the new subduction's forearc and is uplifted (over the accretionary wedge) by detachment and compression.[13] Verification of
the two above hypotheses requires further research, as do the other hypotheses available in current literature on the subject.

Origin and evolution of the concept

The term ophiolite originated from publications of Alexandre Brongniart in 1813 and 1821. In the first, he used ophiolite for
serpentinite rocks found in large-scale breccias called mélanges.[14][15] In the second publication, he expanded the definition to
encompass a variety of igneous rocks as well such as gabbro, diabase, ultramafic and volcanic rocks.[15] Ophiolites thus became a
name for a well-known association of rocks occurring in the Alps and Apennines of Italy.[15] Following work in these two mountains
systems, Gustav Steinmann defined what later became known as the "Steinmann Trinity": the mixture of serpentine, diabase-spilite
and chert.[15] The recognition of the Steinmann Trinity served years later to build up the theory around seafloor spreading and plate
tectonics.[16] A key observation by Steinmann was that ophiolites were associated to sedimentary rocks reflecting former deep sea
environments.[15] Steinmann himself interpreted ophiolites (the Trinity) using the geosyncline concept.[17] He held that Alpine
ophiolites were "submarine effusions issuing along thrust faults into the active flank of an asymmetrically shortening
geosyncline".[18] The apparent lack of ophiolites in the Peruvian Andes, Steinmann theorized, was either due to the Andes being
preceded by a shallow geosyncline or representing just the margin of a geosyncline.[17] Thus, Cordilleran-type and Alpine-type
mountains were to be different in this regard.[17] In Hans Stille's models a type of geosyncline called eugesynclines were
[17]
characterized by producing an "initial magmatism" that in some cases corresponded to ophiolitic magmatism.
As plate tectonic theory prevailed in geology[1] and geosyncline theory became outdated[19] ophiolites were interpreted in the new
framework.[1] They were recognized as fragments of oceanic lithosphere, and dykes were viewed as the result of extensional
tectonics at mid-ocean ridges.[1][20] The plutonic rocks found in ophiolites were understood as remnants of former magma
chambers.[1]

In 1973, Akiho Miyashiro revolutionized common conceptions of ophiolites and proposed an island arc origin for the famous
Troodos Ophiolite in Cyprus, arguing that numerous lavas and dykes in the ophiolite had calc-alkaline chemistries.[21]

Notable ophiolites
Examples of ophiolites that have been influential in the study of these rocks bodies
are:

Coast Range Ophiolitein the California Coast Ranges, from Santa

Barbara through San Francisco Counties,California.
Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates, widely
considered one of the best exposed ophiolite sequences
Troodos Ophiolite in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus, of economic
interest since it contains thecopper deposits of Cyprus (from which
copper is named)
Macquarie Island, Tasmania, Australia was named a UNESCO World
A pillow lava from an ophiolite
Heritage Site in 1997, as "the only known example of an
ophiolite...complex in the process of being formed and currently in its sequence, Northern Apennines, Italy
original geological setting".[22]

Bay of Islands Ophiolite inGros Morne National Park, Newfoundland,

named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 because of its superbly exposed complete ophiolite stratigraphic
sequence
Yakuno, Horokanai, and Poroshiri, three full ophiolite sequences in Japan
Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, South Island, New Zealand. The rocktype dunite is named after this locality.[23]
Zambales ophiolite complex[24] including the Coto and Acoje blocks, Luzon, Philippines. The ~45 Myr old
[25]
[26]
Zambales ophiolite forms part of the basement of the Luzon island arc complex.
[27]
Naga Hills and Andaman ophiolite belt, Northeast India
Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt (El Bahariya, 2018).

Notes
1. Dilek 2003, p. 5
2. Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)
3. Shervais, J.W., (2001), Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)
4. Peltonen, P. (2005). "Ophiolites". In Lehtinen, Martti; Nurmi, Pekka A.Precambrian Geology of Finland. Elsevier
Science. pp. 237–277.ISBN 9780080457598.
5. e.g. Shervais, J.W., (2001)
6. Ben-Avraham, Z., (1982)
7. Kearey, P., et al., (2009)
8. Salisbury, M.H., and Christensen, N.I., (1978)
9. Mason, R., (1985)
10. Moores, E.M., (1982)
11. Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2003)
12. Cawood, P.A. and Suhr, G., (1992)
13. Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2000)
14. Brogniart, A. (1813)
15. Dilek 2003, p. 1
16. Seibold, Eugen; Seibold, Ilse (2010), "Gustav Steinmann (1856–1929): Ein deutscher Ordinarius der Kaiserzeit",
International Journal of Earth Sciences(in German), 99 (Supplement 1): 3–15
17. Şengör & Natal'in (2004), p. 682
18. Şengör & Natal'in (2004), p. 681
19. Şengör (1982), p. 44
20. Dilek 2003, p. 4
21. Dilek 2003, p. 6
22. "Macquarie Island World Heritage values" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120417225654/http://www .environment.go
v.au/heritage/places/world/macquarie/values.html). World heritage places. Australian Government Department of the
Environment. 24 April 2008. Archived fromthe original (http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/macqu
arie/values.html) on 17 April 2012.
23. Johnston, M. R. (2007)."Nineteenth-century observations of the Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, Nelson, New Zealand
and trans-Tasman correlations," (http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/287/1/375.abstract)
. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications. 287: 375–387. Bibcode:2007GSLSP.287..375J (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GSLSP .28
7..375J). doi:10.1144/sp287.27 (https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fsp287.27).
24. Rossman, D.L.; Castañada, G.C.; Bacuta, G.C. (1989)."Geology of the Zambales ophiolite, Luzon, Philippines"(htt
p://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195189903661). Tectonophysics. 168: 1–22.
Bibcode:1989Tectp.168....1R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989T ectp.168....1R). doi:10.1016/0040-
1951(89)90366-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-1951%2889%2990366-1) .
25. Encarnación, John P.; Mukasa, Samuel B.; Obille, Eligio C. (1993-11-10)."Zircon U-Pb geochronology of the
Zambales and Angat Ophiolites, Luzon, Philippines: Evidence for an Eocene arc-back arc pair" (http://onlinelibrary.wi
ley.com/doi/10.1029/93JB02167/abstract). Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth . 98 (B11): 19991–20004.
Bibcode:1993JGR....9819991E (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993JGR....9819991E) . doi:10.1029/93JB02167 (http
s://doi.org/10.1029%2F93JB02167). ISSN 2156-2202 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202).
26. Encarnación, John (2004-11-08)."Multiple ophiolite generation preserved in the northern Philippines and the growth
of an island arc complex"(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195104001404). Tectonophysics.
Continental Margins of the Pacific Rim.392 (1–4): 103–130. Bibcode:2004Tectp.392..103E (http://adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2004Tectp.392..103E). doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.04.010(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tecto.2004.04.010) .
27. Acharyya, S.K.; Ray, K.K.; Sengupta, Subhasis (1991). "The Naga Hills and Andaman ophiolite belt, their setting,
nature and collisional emplacement history"(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0079194691900062).
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. 18: 293–315. Bibcode:1991PCE....18..293A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/199
1PCE....18..293A). doi:10.1016/0079-1946(91)90006-2(https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0079-1946%2891%2990006-2) .

References
Ben-Avraham, Z. et al. (1982) "The emplacement of ophiolites by collision," Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid
Earth (1978–2012) 87, no. B5, 3861–3867.
Brongniart, A. (1813) Essai de classification minéralogique des roches mélangées,Journal des Mines, v. XXXIV,
190–199.
Cawood, P. A. and G. Suhr (1992) "Generation and obduction of ophiolites: constraints from the Bay of Islands
Complex, western Newfoundland," T ectonics 11, no. 4, 884–897.
Church, W. R. and R. K. Stevens (1970)Early Paleozoic ophiolite complexes of the Newfoundland Appalachians as
mantle-oceanic crust sequences,Journal of Geophysical Research, 76, 1460–1466
Coleman, R. G. (1977)Ophiolites: Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere?, Springer Verlag, 229 pp
Dilek, Y. (2003). "Ophiolite concept and its evolution"(PDF). In Dilek, Y.; Newcomb, S. Ophiolite concept and the
evolution of geological thought. Special Paper 373. Geological Society of America. pp. 1–16.ISBN 0813723736.
Retrieved December 2014. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
El Bahariya, G. A., 2018. Classification of the Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt based on field
geological characteristics and mode of occurrence. Arabian Journal of Geosciences,1
1:313.

Encarnacion, J. (2004)Multiple ophiolite generation preserved in the northern Philippines and the growth of an island
arc complex, Tectonophysics, 392, 103–130
Gass, I. G. (1968) Is the Troodos massif of Cyprus a fragment of Mesozoic ocean floor?, Nature, 220, 39–42
Kearey, P. et al. (2009) "Global Tectonics," New Delhi: John Wiley & Sons.
Mason, R. (1985) "Ophiolites," Geology T oday 1, no. 5, 136–140.
 Metcalf, R. V., and J. W. Shervais, (2008) Supra-Subduction Zone (SSZ) Ophiolites: Is There Really An "Ophiolite
Conundrum"?, in James E. Wright and John W. Shervais, editors, Ophiolites, Arcs, and Batholiths: A Tribute to Cliff
Hopson, Geological Society of America Special Paper 438, p. 191–222,doi:10.1130/2008.2438(07)
Moores, E. M.; Vine, F. J. (1971). "The Troodos massif, Cyprus, and other ophiolites as oceanic crust: Evaluation
and implications". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 268A: 443–466.
Bibcode:1971RSPTA.268..443M. doi:10.1098/rsta.1971.0006.
Moores, E. M. (1982). "Origin and emplacement of ophiolites".Reviews of Geophysics. 20 (4): 735–760.
Bibcode:1982RvGSP..20..735M. doi:10.1029/rg020i004p00735.
Moores, E. M. (2003) A personal history of the ophiolite concept, in Dilek and Newcomb, editors,Ophiolite Concept
and the Evolution of Geologic Thought, Geological Society of America Special Publication 373, 17–29
Shervais, J. W. (2001). "Birth, Death, and Resurrection: The Life Cycle of Suprasubduction Zone Ophiolites".
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Salisbury, M. H.; Christensen, N. I. (1978). "The seismic velocity structure of a traverse through the Bay of Islands
ophiolite complex, Newfoundland, an exposure of oceanic crust and upper mantle". Journal of Geophysical
Research: Solid Earth. 83: 805–817. Bibcode:1978JGR....83..805S. doi:10.1029/jb083ib02p00805.
Şengör, Celâl (1982). "Classical theories of orogenesis".In Miyashiro, Akiho; Aki, Keiiti; Şengör, Celâl. Orogeny.
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T.M. Precambrian Ophiolites and Related Rocks. Developments in Precambrian Geology . 13. ISBN 0-444-50923-2.
Steinmann, G. (1927) Die ophiolitischen Zonen in den mediterranen Kettengebirgen , translated and reprinted by
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External links
Ishiwatari, A. (2001). "Introduction to opholites". Kanazawa University. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Shervais, J. W. (2001). "Birth, death, and resurrection: The life cycle of suprasubduction zone ophiolites"
(PDF).
Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 2. Bibcode:2001GGG.....2.1010S. doi:10.1029/2000gc000080. Retrieved
26 July 2016.
Ofioliti, an international journal on ophiolites and modern oceanic lithosphere
Gallery of ophiolitic rockspublished on Flickr byOhio State University

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