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3&4D Geomodeling Applied to Mineral Resources Exploration - A New Tool for

Targeting Deposits.

Conference Paper · January 2013

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3&4D Geomodeling Applied to Mineral Exploration
J.J. Royer, P. Mejia, G. Caumon, and P. Collon-Drouaillet
Université de Lorraine, CNRS-ENSG, Vandoeuvre-Lès-Nancy, France - Email: [email protected]

Abstract. 3 & 4D geomodeling is a computer method

allowing reconstitution of the deformation history of
geological formations. It is common used since more
than a decade as an exploration tool in oil and gas. It
begins to be applied nowadays in mineral exploration.
After summarizing the basic notions, concepts, and
methodology of 3&4D geomodeling, we describe its
application to mineral resources assessment and to the
modeling of ore deposits comparing on limitations and
(a) (b)
recommendations. A 3&4D GeoModels cases studies of Figure 1. Geological (a) and velocity (b) geo-models of the
Kupferschiefers, Foresuedic Belt (Poland, Germany)., Los Angeles basin built using Gocad. This model was used to
achieved during the EU FP7 ProMine research project
build the crust and upper mantle velocity model for predicting
illustrate the methodology. Perspectives and recommend-
seismic risk (After Tape et al, 2009 and Plesch et al, 2009).
dations on applying 3&4 geomodeling in mineral
resources appraisal are given in conclusion.

Keywords. 3 & 4D geomodeling, CAD, Gocad, resto-

ration, mineral resources, ore deposits, Kupferschiefer,
ProMine.

1 Introduction
3 & 4D geomodeling is used as an exploration tool to
better understand mineral resources appraisal, both at Figure 2. Basic elements used to build discrete geo-objects.
the mining exploitation and at the exploration stages. The Topology is the set of connections or links between nodes.
Several packages are available for processing datasets
acquired during mining exploration and exploitation 2 Introducing 3D GeoModeling
such as GIS and geomodelers (Bonham-Carter, 1994;
Mallet, 2002). Among them, the most used are: the 3D Geo-modeling, a term coined in the 90’s to name
Geomodeler (Geomodeler, 2012) from BRGM and computer techniques used to build 3D models (Mallet,
Intrepid, Vulcan (Vulcan, 2012) from Maptek, 2002) have been extensively used in the geosciences
MicroMine (2012), Surfer (2012), Surpac from (Fig. 1). The different basic notions involved in
GemCom (2012), Gocad-Skua from Paradigm (2012), geomodeling will be explained in the following.
Petrel from Schlumberger (2009), and Move3D from
MidlandValley (2012). Only one or few specific 2.1 Geometrical Elements (micro-topology)
modeling applications are treated by the above software;
very few can encompass all tasks required in an The basic simple elements used in geomodeling are:
integrated mining study (i.e. structural geology, geobody • Points: locations defined by coordinates X, Y, Z.
modeling, restoration, geophysical inversion & • Curves: points linked together by segments, may
interpretation, geochemical analysis, resource & content several components (i.e. contours map).
reserves estimation, mine planning, design and risk and • Triangles: three linked points form a triangle; a set of
environmental impact mitigation). Such a general- adjacent triangles form a triangular surface (TSurf)),
purpose modeling framework is nonetheless relevant as which may have several components.
observed by McGaughey (2006), Caumon et al. (2009) • Tetrahedron: four points linked together delineate an
and Caumon (2010). Basic geo-modeling notions and elementary volume called a Tetrahedron; A set of
concepts do not depend on the software package used, tetrahedra form an unstructured grid deliminating a
although some aspects are more or less exposed to the volume. Such tetrahedral meshes are a classical
user depending on the software package and its support in the finite element method.
underlying technology. After a short presentation of geo- • Rectangular prisms (or Voxels): a cube may be
modeling to beginners, we will present examples deformed so as to form an elementary hexahedron
obtained on the Gocad software platform during the EU cell; when the cells are all identical (same sizes) and
FP7 ProMine research project on several European adjacent together, they delimitate a regular Cartesian
belts, including Fennoscandinavia (Finland, Sweden), Grid. Prisms may also be deformed to fit curvilinear
Hellenic (Greece), Iberic (Spain, Portugal) and stratigraphic formations.
Foresuedic (Poland, Germany). • Polyhedral cells: irregular cells whose juxtaposition
forms unstructured grids.
Figure 3. From left to right: Surface models; Regular
rectangular grid model (sugar box or Voxet); regular deformed
cells (SGrid or stratigraphic grids); tetrahedral cells. Figure 4. (i) Various basics restoration kinematic models; (ii)
Simple shear oblique to bedding a) Vertical simple shear; b)
2.2 Notion of Topology Oblique simple shear (after Groshong, 2006).

Topology relates to the connections and relative layout Later, this concept has been expanded to constant
between objects. It refers to object properties that are volumes by Dalstrhom (1969). Several elementary
preserved under continuous transformations (including deformation style models (kinematics models) are
stretching and bending, but not tearing). For insistence usually investigated including: rigid-body displacement,
during a tectonic episode, the topology remains constant flexural slip, simple shear and pure shear (Fig. 4):
if the number and faults connectivity remains constant in • Block rigid deformation, the simplest one, restores
this model (i.e. the number of fault blocks in the horizon the un-deformed shape by translations and rotations
does not change). of elementary blocks until they fit together; this
method is implemented in 3DMove, (Midland Valley,
2.3 Notion of Properties 2012);
• Flexural slip involves slip along bedding planes or
Geomodeling needs to process qualitative (rock types, along foliation surfaces keeping constant the indivi-
alteration types) and quantitative properties (grade, dual strata thickness (unless otherwise specified) and
thickness, etc…). In discrete models, properties or the resultant folds being parallel. It preserves in a
attributes are stored at the node location (Fig. 2) or at the vertical plane the area of the structures to be restored,
center of cells. their lengths and thicknesses (Moretti, 2008).
• Simple shear is produced by slip on closely spaced
2.3 Notion of Regions parallel planes with no parallel or perpendicular to
the slip planes length or thickness changes. Simple
In geosciences, it is important to be able to manipulate shear parallel to bedding is equivalent to flexural
the notion of rock type (or geological facies). More slip. Simple shear that is oblique to bedding causes
generally, the concept of region is very useful to bed length and bed thickness changes. Simple shear
consider object’s subsets for processing and querying method preserves distances in the shear direction, but
tasks. In quantitative geology, regions are often length and thickness are not kept constant,
represented by an indicator formalism, whereby a point consequently the area is not preserved.
or cell belongs to a region if its indicator value is equal • Pure shear is an area-constant shape change for
to 1 and outside the region if the indicator is equal to which the shortening in one direction is exactly
zero. Regions may be defined according to various balanced by orthogonal extension (Groshong, 2006).
criteria which can be geometric (above, nearby a Flexural slip and the simple shear are available in the
surface), or defined using a property (grade greater than restoration module know as KINE3D-2 of the
a cut-off), or using an indicator (rock type). The BGS, geomodeler gOcad® (Moretti, 2008).
British Geological Survey, the Geological Survey of
Denmark and at the Canadian Geological Survey are 3.2 Discussion and Perspectives
using regular grids and regions to represent 3D
geological structures. 4D modeling have been proved to be helpful applied in
many exploration situations in oil and gas exploration. It
3 Introducing the 4D Modeling is still in its early nymphs when applied in mineral
resources exploration. Nevertheless, 3&4D approaches
Structural restoration has developed rapidly these last provide significant improvements in better under-
two decades. It has been used to identify favorable target standing the geological background of the mineralization
mother and host rock formations, to reconstitute fluid zones. There is a growing interest in many parts of the
migration in oil and gas surveys and to predict faults and world, including Europe, regarding the 4D modeling and
fracturing in the rock mass. its importance for the future availability of mineral
resources. There still remain challenges for future
3.1 Restorable and non-restorable models developments in the 3d&4D research geomodeling area:
(i) a geological 3D model is never complete; it is
A restorable model can be unfolded and deformed changing all the times with the acquisition of new data
perfectly to its original pre-deformation geometry. Its and new ideas, and automatic procedures would be
geometry is internally and topologically consistent. A helpful in up-dating geomodels when new data are
non-restorable structure is topologically impossible and acquired; (ii) current 3&4D software enables performing
therefore is geologically not possible (Dahlstrom, 1969). 4D geological structures modeling, although, in case of
Chamberlin (1910) was a pioneer in performing a more than two deformation phases, 4D modeling
restoration of geological cross sections using the surface remains very difficult, especially in igneous complex
conservation principle (keeping areas constant). contexts. New breakthroughs are needed in this field.
4 the Foresuedic belt, Germany, Poland
The Poland Kupferschiefer, a sediment-hosted
polymetallic (Cu, Ag, Au, PGE) deposit, is one of the
most important sources of silver and copper in the
world, and may be a future provider for Europe in some
critical strategic commodities (Re, PGE). The ore
Kupferschiefer combines several geological singularities
like the existence of organic matter, overlaying by thick Figure 5. 3D model of the Kupferschiefer - Forsudetic
evaporitic rocks and the mineralization placed near basin/Poland (After Mejia and Royer, 2012b)
basement/cover unconformity.
Several studies (see Hartsch (2013) for a review)
indicate that the Kupferschiefer deposit in Central
Europe is the result of two or more superimposed
mineralization events at different times.
A 3D geomodel has been built on the Lubin area
(Fig. 5). Then, a sequential geologic restoration-
decompaction from the Upper Permian to Cenozoic was
conducted in the Lubin- Sieroszowice district of Poland
using the 3&4D restoration methodology described in
§3 (Fig. 6a). The restoration of the whole sedimentary
pile provides indication on the pressure history of
trapped fluids. It allows better understanding of the
hydraulic fracturing stage within the base of Zechstein
shales, which occurred during an inversion phase at the
Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene time (Fig. 6b).
A hydro-fracturing index is then calculated from the Figure 6. Reconstitution of the Kupferschiefer - Forsudetic
estimated overpressures during this up-lifting, and basin/Poland evolution through the geological times (After
seems to correlate with the copper content distribution Mejia and Royer, 2012b)
in the ore-series. These results are in agreement with an
Early Paleocene dating in the Germany part of the • Most of 3D models in mining exploration are based
Kupferschiefer ore, and which perhaps represents the on the surface data and very few drill holes. It reflects
last mineralizing stages (Fig. 6). more or less the present subsurface geological know-
This Late Cretaceous up-lifting yields the conditions ledge at the moment when the model is built,
for hydrothermal recirculation of mineralizing brines assuming some hypotheses and containing a lot of
explaining the location of Cu (Cu-Fe) sulfides ores in uncertainty in terms of concepts. Of course, 3D
the area. The restoring-decompacting procedure allows models are never complete as they evolve as soon as
reconstituting the burial, deformation and natural hydro- new data are acquired. It is therefore primordial to
fracturing history of the Foresudetic basin (Mejia and retrieve 3D models including metadata describing
Royer, 2012b). location of available data, quality of data and
assumed hypotheses;
5 Discussions and Conclusions • Models evolve through time, it is therefore important
to benefit of simple procedures and technologies
Various examples has been investigated during the making data model updating as simple as possible.
Promine project, they demonstrate that new Present workflows are more or less linear making up-
geomodeling methods, tools and ore potential mapping dating complicated and time consuming, especially in
are now commonly used in subsurface and structural 4D. More research is needed in this field;
geology interpretations. 3&4D geomodeling techno- • Data quality and uncertainty are important issues of
logies contribute in improving knowledge and geomodeling. Advanced visualization techniques
understanding of the mineralization zones geological must be investigated (colors, textures, sounds,
background. In ore exploration, they provide new ideas animation, see Viard et al. (2011)) to express features
and methods for helping in making new discoveries. related to uncertainty;
Since now half a decade, there is a growing interest • Mineral resource exploration handles data coming
regarding the 4D modeling as a tool for investigating from different sources such as drilling, sampling in
future availability of minerals in Europe. Beside this galleries, chemical analyses, etc… or indirect
ideal picture, it still remains work ahead to explain measurements or modeling such as from geophysics.
stakeholders the benefit of these new technologies, to These data are heterogeneous and specific methods
make them fully accepted by the mining industry and to are needed to integrate them on the same platform.
improve geomodeling technology applied to mineral Secondly, improvements must be made in the European
resources. infrastructures related to deep mineral resource
Firstly, improvements can be made on the exploration in order to benefit from new technologies. A
technological point of view: hand to hand cooperation between mining companies,
 software providers, public research institutes and de Lorraine. This work was performed within the frame
geological surveys was made possible during the of the "Investissements d'avenir" Labex Ressources21
ProMine project. It has been a catalysis place where (ANR-10-LABX-21) and partially financed by the
good talents from different areas and disciplines had ProMine FP7 NMP European Research Project grant
worked closely together as a team with common agreement no 228559.
interests and not as isolated units. However, this move
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Acknowledgements Vulcan (2012) – Maptek vendor of Vulcan. URL:
http://www.maptek.com/products/vulcan/
The authors would like to express their thanks for their
support to the gOcad consortium, the Centre National de
Recherche Scientifique CNRS-CRPG, and the Université

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