10 Class AP Physics Text
10 Class AP Physics Text
10 Class AP Physics Text
CLASS X
Editors
Prof. Kamal Mahendroo,
Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre,
Udaipur, Rajasthan.
Dr.B. Krishnarajulu Naidu, Dr.M. Adinarayana,
Retd., Professor of Physics Retd., Professor of Chemistry
Osmania University, Hyderabad. Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Dr. M. Salagram Dr. K. Venkateswara Rao
Retd., Professor of Physics Retd., Reader in Chemistry
Osmania University, Hyderabad. New Science College, Hyderabad.
Dr. C.V. Sarveswara Sharma Dr. N. Upendar Reddy,
Retd., Reader in Physics Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
Amalapuram. SCERT., Hyderabad.
Academic Support
Miss. Preeti Misra,
Vidya Bhavan Educational Resource Centre,
Udaipur, Rajasthan.
Co-ordinators
Sri M. Ramabrahmam, Lecturer, Dr. TVS Ramesh,
Govt. IASE, Masabtank, Co-ordinator, C&T Dept.,
Hyderabad. SCERT, Hyderabad.
QR Codes Team
Prof. M.S.S.Lakshmi Watts, Dept. of Maths and Science. SCERT - Andhra Pradesh
Nagella Allwyn Joseph, Lecturer, SCERT - Andhra Pradesh
D. Srinivas, IT-Coordinator, CSE - Andhra Pradesh
Pokuri Srinivasa Rao , APeKX Coordinator, CSE - Andhra Pradesh
Gulla Santosh, Consultant, CSE - Andhra Pradesh
Printed in India
at the Andhra Pradesh Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh.
ii
Text Book Development Committee
Writers
Sri S.U. Siva Ram Prasad, SA, Sri R. Ananda Kumar, SA,
GBHS Sultan Bazar, Hyderabad. ZPHS Gavaravaram, Visakhapatnam.
Sri K.V.K. Srikanth, SA,
Sri S. Naushad Ali, SA,
GTWAHS S.L.Puram, Srikakulam.
ZPHS G.D. Nellore, Chittoor.
Sri M. Eswara Rao, SA,
Sri S. Brahmananda Reddy, SA,
GHS Sompeta, Srikakulam
ZPHS Immadicheruvu, Prakasam.
Sri K. Gagan Kumar, SA,
Sri V. Yekambareswararao, SA,
ZPHS Mirzapur, Nizamabad.
ZPHS Lingaraopalem, Guntur.
Sri Madhusudhana Reddy Dandala, SA,
ZPHS Munagala, Nalgonda.
iv
Likewise, science teaching should be in such a way that it would help cultivate a
new generation with scientific thinking.
The key aspect of science teaching is to make the children understand the
thinking process of scientists and their efforts behind each discovery. The State
Curriculum Framework- 2011 stated thatchildren should be able to express their
own ideas and opinions on various aspects. These Science Text Books are prepared
to meet the set standards of the SCF and thus assist children in becoming self-
reliant researchers capable of thinking intensely in scientific terms.
The new textbooks are developed to achieve desired academic standards. So
teachers should develop various teaching learning strategies to make their students
to achieve class specific academic standards. We should avoid rote learning methods
for the successful implementation of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE).
It is very impart to know more about different methods to assess students’
progress by summative and formative evaluation. The new textbooks reflect
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation and teaching method with respect to discussed
concepts. This is very useful to teachers and students.
In the new textbooks, the design of concepts and activities help in achieving
the specified academic standards. Teachers need to plan appropriate teaching
strategies to improve the academic standards among the students by the end of
teaching the lesson. For effective implementation of continuous comprehensive
evaluation the teaching must move away from the methods of rote memorisation
of concepts. There is a need for teachers to have a good understanding of the
methods of evaluation which help them in assessing the progress of children in a
constructive and comprehensive way. The new textbooks are not confined to
simply provide necessary informations about concepts. Instead they focus on the
new teaching strategies and evaluation techniques which are very important for
both teachers and students.
We thank the VidyaBhavan Society, Rajasthan for their cooperation in designing
these new text books,the writers for preparing the lessons, the editors for checking
the textual matters and the DTP group for cutely composing the textbook. We
invite suggestions from educationists, teachers, parents, students and others to
make this book more meaningful.
Teachers play a pivotal role in children’s comprehensive use of the text book.
We hope, teachers will make their best efforts for proper utilization of the text book
so as to inculcate scientific thinking among children and inspire them to be great
scientists.
“ENERGIZING TEXTBOOKS” a novel strategy which is introduced this year
textbooks has been emerged as a brainchild from Department of School Education,
Andhra Pradesh to give useful and additional information to the students and teachers
by bringing digital technology into the textbooks. I hope this will lead to enhance the
achievement levels of students by empowering teachers.
DIRECTOR
SCERT, A.P., Amaravati
vi
• As a part of continuous comprehensive evaluation, observe and record children’s
learning abilities during various activities conducted in classroom, laboratory and field.
We believe, you must have realized that the learning of science and scientific thinking are
not mere drilling of the lessons but, in fact, a valuable exercise in motivating the children to
explore for solutions to the problems systematically and preparing them to meet life’s challenges
properly.
Dear Students...
Learning science does not mean scoring good marks in the subject. Competencies like
thinking logically and working systematically, learned through it,have to be practiced in daily
life. To achieve this, instead of memorizing the scientific theories by rote, one must be able to
study them analytically. That means, in order to understand the concepts of science, you need
to proceed by discussing, describing, conducting experiments to verify, making observations,
confirming with your own ideas and drawing conclusions. This textbook helps you to learn in
that way.
What you need to do to achieve such things:
• In 10th class the range of concepts is wide. So go through each lesson thoroughly
before the teacher actually deals with it.
• Note down the points you came across so that you can grasp the lesson better.
• Think of the principles in the lesson. Identify the concepts you need to know further,
to understand the lesson in depth.
• Do not hesitate to discuss analytically about the questions given under the sub-heading
‘Think and Discuss’ with your friends or teachers.
• You may get some doubts while conducting an experiment or discussing about a lesson.
Express them freely and clearly.
• Plan to implement experiment/lab periods together with teachers, to understand the
concepts clearly. While learning through the experiments you may come to know
many more things.
• Observe how each lesson is helpful to conserve nature. Put what you learnt into practice.
• Analyse how each teaching point has relation with daily life and discuss the things you
learned in your science class with farmers, artisans etc.
• Work as a group during interviews and field trips. Preparing reports and displaying
them is a must. Discuss on the report prepared.
• List out the observations regarding each lesson to be carried through internet, school
library and laboratory.
• Whether in note book or exams, write analytically, expressing your own opinions.
• Read books related to your text book, as many as you can.
• You organize yourself the Science Club programs in your school.
• Observe problems faced by the people in your locality and find out what solutions you
can suggest through your science classroom.
1. Conceptual understanding Children are able to explain, cite examples, give reasons,
and give comparison and differences, explain the process
of given concepts in the textbook. Children are able to
develop their own brain mappings.
4. Information skills and Children are able to collect information (by using
Projects interviews, internet etc.) and analyses systematically.
They are able to conduct their own project works.
6. Appreciation and Children are able to appreciate man power and nature,
aesthetic sense, values and have aesthetic sense towards nature. They are also
able to follow constitutional values.
7. Application to daily life, Children are able to utilize scientific concept to face
concern to bio diversity. their daily life situations. They are able to show concern
towards bio diversity.
viii
INDEX
Periods Month Page No.
- Rabindranath Tagore
PLEDGE
x
1
Chapter
Heat
Recall the experiments you did in Class 7 with the glass tumblers
containing of cold water, lukewarm water and hot water. We understood
that ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ are relative terms and that heat was a form of energy.
We use the terms “Temperature and Heat” to describe these observations.
These words, technically, have special meanings. In order to understand
their meanings let us do some activities.
Activity 1
Take a piece of wood and a piece of metal and keep them in a fridge or
ice box. After 15 minutes, take them out and ask your friend to touch them.
Which is colder? Why?
When we keep materials in a fridge, they become cold i.e., they lose
heat energy. The iron and wooden pieces were kept in the fridge for the
same period of time but we feel that the metal piece is colder than the
wooden piece.
What could be the reason for this difference in coldness?
Does it have any relation to the transfer of heat energy from our body
to the object?
When you touch the metal or wooden piece, you feel that they are
cold. This means that heat energy is being transferred from your finger to
the pieces. When you remove your finger, you don’t get a feeling of
‘coldness’. This means that when heat energy flows out of your body you
get the feeling of ‘coldness’ and when heat energy enters your body you
get a feeling of ‘hotness’. You can test this by bringing your finger near the
flame of the candle.
So, if you feel that the metal piece is ‘colder’ than the wooden piece,
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 1
it must mean that more heat energy flows out of your body when you touch
the metal piece as compared to the wooden piece. In other words, the
‘degree of coldness’ of the metal piece appear to be more than that of the
wooden piece.
The conventional definition of temperature is “the degree of hotness
or coldness”.
We say that the metal piece is at a lower ‘temperature’ as compared to
the wooden piece, when they are taken out of the fridge.
Why does transfer of heat energy take place between objects ?
Does transfer of heat take place in all situations?
What are the conditions for transfer of heat energy?
Let us find out
Do the same activity under sunlight.
Thermal equilibrium-heat and temperature
When two bodies are placed in thermal contact, heat energy will be
transferred from the ‘hotter’ body to the ‘colder’ body. This transfer of
heat energy continues till both bodies attain the same degree of hotness
(or) coldness. At this stage, we say that the bodies have achieved ‘thermal
equilibrium’. Thus, the state of thermal equilibrium denotes a state of a
body where it neither receives nor gives out heat energy.
If you are not feeling either hot or cold in your surroundings, then
your body is said to be in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding
atmosphere. Similarly, the furniture in the room is in thermal equilibrium
with air in the room. So we can say that the furniture and the air in the
room are at the same temperature.
Heat
What is temperature?
How can you differentiate it from heat?
Let us find out
Activity 2
Take two glass tumblers and fill one of them with hot water and
another with cold water. Now take a laboratory thermometer, observe the
mercury level in it and note it in your book. Keep it in hot water. Observe
changes in the mercury level. Note the reading.
What change did you notice in the reading of the thermometer?
(mercury level)?
2 X Class Heat
Did the mercury level increase or decrease?
Now place the thermometer in cold water and observe changes in the
mercury level. Did the level decrease or increase?
We know that bodies in contact achieve thermal equilibrium due to
transfer of heat energy. When you kept the thermometer in hot water you
observe that there is a rise in mercury level. This happens because heat got
transferred from the hotter body (hot water) to the colder body (mercury
in thermometer). Similarly in the second case you will observe that the
mercury level comes down from its initial level because of the transfer of
heat from mercury (hotter body) to water (colder body). Thus we define
heat as follows:
“Heat is a form of energy in transit, that flows from a body at higher
temperature to a body at lower temperature.”
The steadiness of the mercury column of the thermometer indicates
that flow of heat between the thermometer liquid (mercury) and water, has
stopped. Thermal equilibrium has been attained between the water and
thermometer liquid (mercury). The thermometer reading at thermal
equilibrium gives the “temperature”. Thus ‘temperature’ is a measure of
thermal equilibrium.
If two different systems, A and B in thermal contact, are in thermal
equilibrium individually with another system C(thermal contact with A and
B), will the systems A and B be in thermal equilibrium with each other?
We know that if A is in thermal equilibrium with C, they both have the
same temperature. Similarly, B and C have the same temperature. Thus A
and B will have the same temperature and would therefore be in thermal
equilibrium with each other. (A,B and C are in thermal contact).
The SI unit of heat is Joule (J) and CGS unit is calorie (cal).The amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gram of water by 10C is called
calorie.
1cal = 4.186 Joules
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K). It can also be expressed as
degree Celsius (0C).
00C = 273K
How would you convert degree Celsius to Kelvin?
Temperature in Kelvin = 273+Temperature in degree Celsius
Add 273 to the value of temperature in degree Celsius to get the
temperature on the Kelvin scale.
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Note: Temperature measured on Kelvin scale is called absolute
temperature.
Temperature and Kinetic energy
Activity 3
Take two bowls one with hot water and second with
cold water. Gently sprinkle food colour on the surface of
the water in both bowls .Observe the motion of the small
grains of food colour or KMnO4
How do they move?
Why do they move randomly?
Why do the grains in hot water move more rapidly than the grains in
cold water?
You will notice that the grains of food colour or KMnO4 jiggle (move
randomly). This happens because the molecules of water in both bowls
are in random motion. We observe that the jiggling of the grains of food
colour in hot water is more when compared to the jiggling in cold water.
We know that bodies possess kinetic energy when they are in
motion.
As the speed of motion of particles (grain of food colour) in the bowls
of water is different, we can say that they have different kinetic
energies.Thus we conclude that the average kinetic energy of molecules /
particles of a hotter body is greater than that of a colder body. So we can
say that the temperature of a body is an indicator of the average kinetic
energy of molecules of that body.
“The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature”
Thermometer Activity 4
Take water in a container and heat it to 60°C. Take a
cylindrical transparent glass jar and fill half of it with this
hot water. Very gently pour coconut oil over the surface of
Lid the water. (Take care that the water and oil do not mix). Put a
lid with two holes on the top of the glass jar. Take two
thermometers and insert them through the holes of the lid in
Coconut such a way that bulb of the one thermometer lies only inside
the water and other lies only inside the coconut oil as shown
oil
in figure 1.
fig-1 Hot water
4 X Class Heat
Now observe the readings of the two thermometers. The reading of
the thermometer kept in water decreases, while, at the same time, the
reading of the thermometer kept in oil increases.
Why does this happen?
Because the average kinetic energy of the molecules of oil increases,
while the average kinetic energy of the molecules of water decreases. In
other words, the temperature of oil increases while the temperature of
water decreases.
Can you say that the water loses energy?
From the above discussion it is clear that, water loses energy while oil
gains energy; because of the temperature difference between the water
and oil. Thus some heat energy flows from water to oil. This means, the
kinetic energy of the molecules of the water decreases while the kinetic
energy of the molecules of oil increases.
Can you now differentiate between heat and temperature based on the
discussion we made of the above activities?
With activities 2, 3 and 4 we can differentiate heat and temperature as
follows:
Heat is the energy that flows from a hotter body to a colder body.
Temperature is a quantity that denotes which body is hotter and which is
colder. So temperature determines direction of heat (energy) flow, whereas
heat is the energy that flows.
Specific Heat
Activity 5
Take a large jar with water and heat it up to 80oC.Take two identical
boiling test tubes with single-holed corks. One of them is filled with 50g
of water and the other with 50g of oil, both at room temperature. Insert
two thermometers through holes of the
corks, one each into two test tubes. Now
clamp them to a retort stand and place them
in a jar of hot water as shown in figure 2. Oil at
Observe the readings of thermometers room
Water at
room
temperature
every three minutes .Note the readings in
temperature
your notebook.
Hot water
at 80 oC
6 X Class Heat
Q Substance Specific heat
S = ––––
mT In cal/g-oC In J/kg-K
The specific heat of a substance is the Lead 0.031 130
amount of heat required to raise the Mercury 0.033 139
temperature of unit mass of the substance Brass 0.092 380
by one degree centigrade. Zinc 0.093 391
How much heat Copper 0.095 399
energy is required Iron 0.115 483
to raise the Glass(flint) 0.12 504
temperature of unit Aluminum 0.21 882
mass of substance
Kerosene oil 0.50 2100
by 1°C ?
Ice 0.50 2100
CGS unit of specific heat is cal/g-oC
Water 1 4180
and SI unit of it is J / kg - K
Sea water 0.95 3900
Lab Activity
10 X Class Heat
What do you notice?
You will notice that spirit in the dish that is kept under the ceiling fan
disappears, where as you will find some spirit left in the dish that is kept in
the lidded dish.
What could be the reason for this change?
To answer the above questions, you need to understand the process of
evaporation. The molecules of spirit that is kept in petri dish, continuously
move with random speeds in various directions. As a result these molecules
collide with other molecules.
During the collision they transfer energy to other molecules. When
the molecules inside the liquid collide with molecules at the surface, the
molecules at the surface acquire energy and may fly off from the surface.
Some of these escaping molecules may be directed back into liquid
when they collide with the particles of air. If the number of escaping
molecules is greater than the number returned, then the number of
molecules in the liquid decreases. Thus when a liquid is exposed to air, the
molecules at the surface keep on escaping from the surface till the entire
liquid disappears into air. This process is called evaporation.
During the process of evaporation, the energy of the molecules inside
the liquid decreases and they slow down. They transfer this energy to
escaping molecules during the collisions.
“The process of escaping of molecules from the surface of a liquid at
any temperature is called evaporation”
Let us determine the reason for faster evaporation of spirit kept under
the fan. If air is blown over the liquid surface in an open pan or perti dish,
the number of molecules returned is reduced to a large extent. This is
because any molecule escaping from the surface is blown away from the
vicinity of the liquid. This increases the rate of evaporation. This is the
reason why the spirit in petri dish, that is kept under ceiling fan evaporates
quickly when compared to that kept closed. You will notice that clothes
dry faster when a wind is blowing.
It means that the temperature of a system falls during evaporation.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon.
We can also define evaporation as “the change of phase from liquid to
gas that occurs at the surface of the liquid”. It is a cooling process, because
the particles of liquid continuously give up their energy to the particles
that are escaping from the surface.
Activity 9
Place a glass tumbler on the table. Pour cold water up
to half its height.
What do you observe on the outer surface of the
tumbler?
Why do water droplets form on the outer side of the
glass?
We know that the temperature of surrounding air is
higher than the temperature of the cold water.
Air contains water molecules in the form of vapour.
When the molecules of water in air, during their motion, strike the
surface of the glass tumbler which is cool; they lose their kinetic energy
which lowers their temperature and they get converted into droplets.
The energy lost by the water molecules in air is gained by the molecules
of the glass tumbler. Hence the average kinetic energy of the glass
molecules increases. In turn the energy is transferred from glass molecules
to the water molecules in the glass.
In this way, the average kinetic energy of water molecules in the
tumbler rises. Hence we can conclude that the temperature of the water in
glass increases. This process is called ‘condensation’. It is a warming
process.
Condensation can also be defined as “the phase change from gas to
liquid”.
Let us examine a situation:
You feel warm after you finish your bath under the shower on a hot
day. In the bathroom, the number of vapour molecules per unit volume is
12 X Class Heat
greater than the number of vapour molecules per unit volume outside the
bathroom. When you try to dry yourself with a towel, the vapour molecules
surrounding you condense on your skin and this condensation makes you
feel warm.
Humidity
Some vapour is always present in air. This vapour may come from
evaporation of water from the surfaces of rivers, lakes, ponds and from
the drying of wet clothes, sweat and so on. The presence of vapour
molecules in air is said to make the atmosphere humid. The amount of
water vapour present in air is called humidity.
Dew and Fog
In early morning, during winter, you might have
noticed that water droplets form on window panes,
flowers, grass etc.
How are these water droplets formed?
Let us find out.
During winter nights, the atmospheric temperature
goes down. The surfaces of window-panes, flower, grass etc, become still
colder. The air near them becomes saturated with vapour and condensation
begins. The water droplets condensed on such surfaces are known as dew.
If the temperature falls further, the whole atmosphere in that region
contains a large amount of vapour. So the water molecules present in vapour
condense on the dust particles in air and form small droplets of water.
These droplets keep floating in the air and form a thick mist which restricts
visibility. This thick mist is called fog.
Does the temperature of the water rise continuously if heat is supplied
to it continuously?
Boiling
Activity 10
Take a beaker of water, keep it on the burner .Note
the readings of thermometer for every 2 minutes.
Did you see any rise or fall in the level of the surface
of the water, in the beaker? Why?
Does the temperature rise continuously?
When does the rise in temperature of water stop?
You will notice that, the temperature of the water rises continuously,
till it reaches 100°C. Beyond 100°C no further rise of temperature of
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 13
water is seen. At 100 0C, though supply of heat continues, the temperature
does not increase further. We also observe a lot of bubbling at the surface
of water at 1000C. This is what we call boiling of water
Why does this happen?
Water is a solution, there are many impurities dissolved in it including
some gases. When water or any liquid is heated, the solubility of gases it
contains reduces. As a result, bubbles of gas are formed in the liquid (at
the bottom and on walls of the vessel). Evaporation of water molecules
from the surrounding causes these bubbles, to become filled with saturated
vapour, whose pressure increases as we increase the temperature of the
liquid by heating. At a certain temperature, the pressure of the saturated
vapour inside the bubbles becomes equal to the pressure exerted on the
bubbles from the outside (this pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure plus the pressure of the layer of water above the bubble). As a
result, these bubbles rise rapidly to the surface and collapse at the surface
releasing vapour present in bubbles into air at the surface. This process of
converting the liquid into vapour (gas) continues as long as you supply
heat. This appears as boiling of water for us.
“Boiling is a process in which the liquid phase changes to gaseous
phase at a constant temperature at a given pressure.” This temperature is
called boiling point of the liquid.
Are the processes of evaporation and boiling the same?
As you have seen in activity – 8 and 10, the boiling of a liquid differs
essentially from evaporation. Note that evaporation takes place at any
temperature, while boiling occurs at a definite temperature called the
boiling point. Let us recall your observation in activity – 10 that, when
boiling process starts, the temperature of the liquid cannot be raised further,
no matter how long we continue to heat it. The temperature remains constant
at the boiling point until all of the liquid has boiled away.
In activity – 10, you have noticed that, while heating the water in the
beaker, the temperature of water rises continuously till it reaches 100 0C.
But once boiling got started, no further rise of temperature is seen though
supply of heat continues.
Where does the heat energy supplied go?
This heat energy is used to change the state of water from liquid to
vapour (gas). This is called latent heat of vapourization.
The heat energy required to change 1gm of liquid to gas at constant
temperature is called latent heat of vapourization.
Consider a liquid of mass ‘m’ that requires heat energy of ‘Q’ calories
to change from its state from liquid phase to gas phase. Then Latent heat
of vaporization is Q/m. Latent heat of vaporization is denoted by ‘L’.
CGS unit of latent heat of vaporization is cal/gm and SI unit is J/kg.
The boiling point of water at constant atmospheric pressure (1atm) is
14 X Class Heat
100°C or 373K and Latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 cal/gm.
Let us now consider the transformation of ice into water.
Why does an ice cube get converted into water?
Melting
Activity 11
Take small ice cubes in a beaker. Insert the thermometer into ice
cubes in the beaker. Observe the reading of the thermometer. Now start
heating the beaker keeping it on a burner. Observe changes in the
thermometer reading every 1 minute till the ice completely melts and
gets converted into water.
What changes do you notice in the reading of thermometer as time
passes by?
Does the temperature of the ice change during the process of melting?
You will observe that the temperature of ice at the beginning is equal
to or below 0oC. If the temperature of ice is below 0oC, it goes on changing
till it reaches 00C. When ice starts melting, you will notice no change in
temperature though you are supplying heat continuously.
Why does this happen?
The heat energy supplied to the ice increases the internal energy of
the molecules of the ice. This increase in internal energy of molecules
weakens the bonds as well as breaks the bonds between the molecules
(H2O) in the ice. That is why the ice (in solid phase) becomes water (in
liquid phase).This process takes place at a constant temperature 0°C or
273K. This temperature is called melting point. This process of converting
solid into a liquid is called “Melting”.
The temperature of the ice does not change during melting because
the heat energy given to the ice is totally utilized in breaking the bonds
between the water molecules.
The process in which solid phase changes to liquid phase at a constant
temperature is called melting. This constant temperature is called melting
point.
How much heat energy is required to convert 1gm of ice to liquid?
The Heat energy required to convert 1gm of solid completely into
liquid at a constant temperature is called Latent heat of fusion.
Consider a solid of mass m. Let heat energy Q be required to change it
from the solid phase to liquid phase. The heat required to change 1gm of
solid into liquid is Q/m.
Latent heat of fusion L = Q/m. The value of Latent heat of fusion of
ice is 80cal/gm
Example Problem: Calculate required heat energy to change 12g of ice
at -100c into water vapour at 1000 c.
Firstly we calculate for 1g of ice.
Stage-1 : Required heat energy to convert
ice at -100c to ice at 00c => Q1 = MST
= 12x1/2x[0-(-10)]
[Spe.heat of ice = 1/2 cal/g0c] = 12x1/2x10
Activity 12
Take small glass bottle with a tight lid .Fill it with water completely
without any gaps and fix the lid tightly in such a way that water does not
come out of it. Put the bottle into the deep freezer of a refrigerator for a
few hours. Take it out from the fridge and you will observe that the glass
bottle breaks.
Why did the glass bottle break?
16 X Class Heat
We know that the volume of the water poured into the glass bottle is
equal to the volume of the bottle. When the water freezes to ice, the bottle
is broken .This means that the volume of the ice should be greater than the
volume of the water filled in the bottle.
In short, we say that water ‘expands’ (increases in volume) on freezing!
Thus the density of ice is less than that of water and this explains why
ice floats on water.
If two different systems, A and B, (thermal contact) are in thermal equilibrium individually with
another system C, then the systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit
mass of the substance by one unit.
S=Q/mt
The process of escaping of molecules from the surface of a liquid at any temperature is called
evaporation and it is a cooling process.
Condensation is the reverse process of evaporation.
Boiling is the process in which the liquid phase changes to gaseous phase at a constant temperature
and constant pressure.
1. What would be the final temperature of a mixture of 50g of water at 20oC temperature and 50g
of water at 40oC temperature? (AS1)
2. Explain why dogs pant during hot summer days using the concept of evaporation? (AS1)
3. Why do we get dew on the surface of a cold soft drink bottle kept in open air? (AS1)
4. Write the differences between evaporation and boiling? (AS1)
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 17
5. Does the surrounding air become warm or cool when vapour phase of H2O condenses? Explain.
6. Answer these. (AS1)
a) How much energy is transferred when 1gm of boiling water at 100oC condenses to water at 100oC?
b) How much energy is transferred when 1gm of boiling water at 100oC cools to water at 0oC?
c) How much energy is released or obsorbed when 1gm of water at 0oC freezes to ice at 0oC?
d) How much energy is released or obsorbed when 1gm of steam at 100oC turns to ice at 0oC?
7. Explain the procedure of finding specific heat of solid experimentally. (AS1)
8. Covert 20oC into Kelvin scale.(AS1)
9. Your friend is asked to differentiate between evaporation and boiling. What questions could
you ask to make him to know the differences between evaporation and boiling? (AS2)
10. What happens to the water when wet clothes dry? (AS3)
11. Equal amounts of water are kept in a cap and in a dish. Which will evaporate faster? Why? (AS3)
12. Suggest an experiment to prove that the rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on its surface
area and vapour already present in surrounding air. (AS3)
13. Place a Pyrex glass funnel with its mouth-down in a sauce pan full of water, in such a way that
the stem tube of the funnel is above the water or pointing upward into air. Rest the edge of the
bottom portion of the funnel on a nail or on a coin so that water can get under it. Place the pan
on a stove and heat it till it begins to boil. Where do the bubbles form first? Why? Can you
explain how a natural geyser works using this experience. (AS4)
14. How do you appreciate the role of the higher specific heat of water in stabilising atmospheric
temperature during winter and summer seasons? (AS6)
15. What role does specific heat play in keeping a watermelon cool for a long time after removing
it from a fridge on a hot day? (AS7)
16. Ifyouarechillyoutsidetheshowerstall,whydoyoufeel warm afterthebathifyoustayin thebathroom? (AS7)
17. Three objects, A at 30oC, B at 303K and C at 420K are in thermal contact. Then answer the
follwing questions.
(i) Which aare in “Thermal equibrium” among A,B and C.
(ii) From which object to another heat transferred
ks
Fill in the blan
18 X Class Heat
8. The sultryness in summer days is due to _____________.
9. ____________ is used as a coolant.
10. Ice floats on water because _____________.
5. Specific heat S = [ ]
a) Q/t b) Qt c) Q/mt d) mt/Q
6. Boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure is _________ [ ]
a) 0 C
o
b) 100 Co
c) 110 Co
d) -5 C
o
Try These
1. Collect information about working of natural geyser and prepare a report. (AS4)
2. Assume that heat is being supplied continuously to 2kg of ice at -5oC. You know that ice melts
at 0oC and boils at 100oC. Continue the heating till it starts boiling. Note the temperature every
minute. Draw a graph between temperature and time using the values you get. What do you
understand from the graph. Write the conclusions. (AS5)
3. Suppose that 1l of water is heated for a certain time to rise and its temperature by 2oC. If 2l of
water is heated for the same time, by how much will its temperature rise? (AS7)
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 19
2
Chapter
Do you know?
Litmus solution is a dye extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the division
of Thallophyta and is used as indicator. In neutral solution litmus colour is purple.
Coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium are also
used as indicators.
Lab Activity
Delivery tube
Stand One holed rubber stopper
HCl H2
Test tube
Zinc granules
fig-1:Reaction of zinc
granules with dil. HCl
and testing hydrogen gas
Soap water by a burning match stick
Activity 3
Place a few granules of zinc metal in one of the test tubes and add
10 ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and warm the contents of the
test tube.
Repeat the rest of the steps as in activity-2 and record your
observations.
In this activity also you will notice that evolved gas is hydrogen (H2)
and salt formed is sodium zincate.
The reaction is written as follows.
2 NaOH + Zn Na2 ZnO2 + H2
(Sodium zincate)
Na2 CO3 (S) + 2 HCl (aq) 2 NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3 (S) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Activity 5
Acid – base (Neutralization) reaction
Take about 2 ml of dilute NaOH solution in a test tube and add one
drop of phenolphthalein indicator. Observe the colour of the solution.
- Add dilute HCl solution to the above solution drop by drop. Is
there any change of colour of the solution?
Why did the colour of the solution change after adding the HCl
solution?
- Now add one or two drops of NaOH to the above mixture.
Does the Pink colour reappear?
Do you guess the reason for reappearance of pink colour?
In the above activity you observe that the pink colour disappears on
adding HCl because NaOH is completely reacted with HCl. The effect of
base is nullified by an acid. Pink colour reappears on adding a drop of
NaOH because the solution becomes basic once again. The reaction
occuring between acid and base in the above activity can be written as:
The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as
a neutralization reaction. In general, a neutralization reaction can be written
as:
Base + Acid Salt + Water
You are provided with three test tubes containing distilled water, an acid and a
base solution respectively. If you are given only blue litmus paper, how do you
identify the contents of each test tube?
Which gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal? How will you
test for the presence of this gas?
A compound of Calcium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce
effervescence. The gas evolved extinguishes a burning candle; turns lime water
milky. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction if one of the
compounds formed is calcium chloride.
What do acids have in common?
In previous sections you have seen that acids have similar chemical
properties. In lab activity you have observed that acids generate hydrogen
gas on reacting with metals, so hydrogen seems to be common element to
Properties of Bases
What do Bases have in common?
Repeat the Activity-7 using alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide solutions etc., instead of acid solutions.
Does the bulb glow?
What do you conclude from the results of this activity?
NaCl
Note to teachers: If the climate is very humid, pass the gas produced
through a guard tube (drying tube) containing calcium chloride to dry the gas.
Can you write the chemical equation for the reaction taking place at the
mouth of delivery tube?
Laboratory precautions : Observe the following pictures. Did you find
any problems with this? When ever you work with concentrated solutions
it is very important to use test tube holder. It is very dangerous to work
with bare hands in the laboratory.
The HCl gas evolved at delivery tube dissociates in presence of water to
produce hydrogen ions. In the absence of water dissociation of HCl molecules
–––––
H2O
NaOH (s) Na + (aq) + OH – (aq)
–––––
H2O
KOH (s) K + (aq) + OH – (aq)
Why do HCl, HNO3 etc., show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while
solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?
While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to
water and not water to the acid?
Can you decide the strength of an acid or base solutions?
Let us find.
Strength of acid or base:
Activity 10
A test to know whether the Acid is strong or weak.
- Take two beakers A and B.
- Fill the beaker A with dil. CH3 COOH (acetic acid) and beaker B
with dil. HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)
- Arrange the apparatus as used in activity-7, and pass electric current
through the solutions in separate beakers.
What do you observe?
Can you guess the reason for the changes you observed?
You notice that the bulb glows brightly in HCl solution while the
intensity of the bulb is low in acetic acid solution. This indicates that there
are more ions in HCl solution and fewer ions are present in acetic acid
solution. More ions in HCl solution mean more H3O+ions.Therfore it is a
strong acid. Whereas acetic acid has fewer H3O+ions and hence it is weak
acid.
Carry out the above experiment by taking bases like dil. NaOH (sodium
hydroxide) and dil. NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide) instead of acids.
What do you observe? Explain your observations.
The universal indicator can also be used to know the strength of acid
or base. Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators. The universal
indicator shows different colours at different concentrations of hydrogen
ions in a solution.
Activity 11
- Test the pH value of solutions given in table using pH paper.
- Record your observations in column three of Table – 2.
- Write approximate pH values in column 4 using Universal Indicator
solution.
What is the nature of each substance on the basis of your observations?
freshly milk
distilled water
The pH scale is from 0-14. blood
seawater
The pH is an indication of
concentration of H+. For example, baking soda
at a pH of zero the hydronium ion (NaHCO3 solution)
Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral and the pH value is
7. The salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic and the pH value is
less than 7. The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature and
the pH value is more than 7.
What do you say about salts of both weak acid and weak base?
In such cases the pH depends on the relative strengths of acid and
base.
Chemicals from common salt
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced by the
neutralization of acid with base. Salts are electrically neutral. There are
number of salts but sodium chloride is the most common among them.
Sodium chloride is also known as table salt or common salt. Sodium
chloride is used to enhance the taste of food.
Sea water contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride is the
predominant component and it is separated from these salts. Deposits of
solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These deposits of
large crystals are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt.
Beds of rock salt were formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock
salt is mined like coal.
Common salt – A raw material for chemicals
The common salt is an important raw material for various materials of
daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching
powder and many more. Let us see how one substance is used for making
all these different substances.
Sodium hydroxide from common salt
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The
process is called the chlor-alkali process – because of the products formed
chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.
at Cathode at Anode
H2 Cl2
NaOH
Fuels, margarine, Water treatment, swimming pools, PVC, De-greasing metals, soaps and detergents,
ammonia for fertilisers disinfectants, CFC’s, pesticides paper making, artificial fibres
2NaHCO3 –––––
Heat
Na2CO3 + H2O+CO2
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate
i) Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid such
as tartaric acid. When baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the
following reaction takes place.
Note: You might have noticed that only half a water molecule is
shown to be attached as water of crystalisation.
How can you get half a water molecule?
It is written in this form because two formula units of CaSO4 share
one molecule of water.
Plaster of paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and
for making surfaces smooth.
Try to collect the information for calling calcium sulphate hemihydrates
as Plaster of Paris.
Acid – base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes which are used to indicate the presence of
acids and bases.
Acidic nature of a substance is due to the formation of H+ (aq) ions in solution. Formation of
OH- (aq) ions in solution is responsible for the basic nature of a substance.
When a base reacts with a metal with the evolution of hydrogen gas, a salt is formed.
When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or metal hydrogen carbonate gives the corresponding
salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct electricity because they produce hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions respectively.
The strength of an acid or an alkali can be tested by using a scale called the pH scale (0-14)
which gives the measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
A neutral solution has a pH of 7, while an acidic solution has a pH less than 7 and a basic
solution has a pH more than 7.
Living beings carry out their metabolic activities within an optimal pH range.
Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is a highly exothermic process.
Acids and bases neutralize each other to form corresponding salts and water.
Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules chemically attached to each
formula unit of a salt in its crystalline form.
Salts have various uses in everyday life and in industries.
Try These
1. Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not turn blue litmus to red whereas hydrochloric acid does. Why? (AS1)
2. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. Explain why the pH changes as it turns into curd? (AS3)
3. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid is added
to test tube A, while acetic acid is added to test tube B. Amount and concentration of both the
acids is same. In which test tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why? (AS4)
4. How do you prepare your own indicator using beetroot? Explain. (AS5)
Refraction of Light at
Plane Surfaces
We have learnt about the reflection of light in an earlier chapter.
Beauty of the nature is made apparent with light. Light exhibits many
interesting phenomena.
Let us try to explore a few of them.
You might have observed that a coin kept at the bottom of a vessel
filled with water appears to be raised. Similarly, a lemon kept in a glass of
water appears to be bigger than its size. When a thick glass slab is placed
over some printed letters, the letters appear raised when viewed through
the glass slab.
What could be the reasons for the above observations?
Activity 1
Take some water in a glass tumbler. Keep a pencil in it. Look at the
pencil from one side of the glass and also from the top of the glass.
How does it look?
Do you find any difference between the two views?
Activity 2
Go to a long wall (of length about 30 feet) facing the Sun. Go to one
end of a wall and ask your friend to bring a bright metal object near the
other end of the wall. When the object is a few inches from the wall it
appears distorted and you will see a reflected image in the wall as though
the wall were a mirror.
Why is there an image of the object on the wall?
To answer the above questions and to give reasons for the situations
mentioned we need to understand the phenomenon of refraction of light.
Activity 3
Take a shallow vessel with opaque walls such as a mug. (A tin or a pan
is suitable). Place a coin at the bottom of the vessel. Move away
from the vessel until you cannot see the coin. See figure 1(b). Stand
there. Ask your friend to fill the vessel with water. When the vessel
is filled with water the coin comes back into
view. See figure 1(c).
Why are you able to see the coin when the
Eye Light ray vessel is filled with water?
You know that the ray of light originating
Opaque
walls from the coin, doesn’t reach your eye when the
Coin vessel is empty (see figure1b). Hence you
couldn’t see the coin. But the coin becomes
fig-1(a) visible to you after the vessel is filled with
water.
Eye How is it possible?
Light ray Do you think that the ray reaches your eye
when the vessel is filled with water?
If yes, draw a ray diagram from the coin to
Opaque the eye. Keep in mind that the light ray travelling
Coin walls in a medium takes a straight line path.
fig-1(b) What happens to the light ray at the interface
between water and air?
Eye
What could be the reason for this bending of
the light ray in the second instance?
Light ray
The above questions can be answered by
Fermat’s principle, which states that the light
ray always travels between two points in a path
Water
Opaque which needs the shortest possible time to cover.
walls
Let us apply this principle to our activity.
Coin
By observing the path of the ray, it is clear
fig-1(c)
that the light ray changes its direction at the
interface separating the two media i.e, water
and air. This path is chosen by the light ray so as to minimize time of travel
between coin and eye. This is possible only if the speed of the light changes
at interface of two media. Thus we can conclude that the speed of the light
changes when light propagates from one medium to another medium.
fig-3 N
Lab Activity 1
Aim: Obtaining a relation between angle of incidence and angle of
refraction.
Materials required: Pro circle, scale, small black painted plank, a
semi circular glass disc of thickness nearly 2cm,
pencil and laser light.
Preparation of Pro Circle
Take a wooden plank which is covered with white
chart. Draw two perpendicular lines, passing through
the middle of the paper as shown in the figure 4(a).
Let the point of intersection be O. Mark one line as
NN which is normal to the another line marked as
MM. Here MM represents the line drawn along the
interface of two media and NN represents the normal fig-4(a)
drawn to this line at ‘O’.
48 X Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
Take a protractor and place it along NN in such
way that its centre coincides with O as shown in
figure 4(a). Then mark the angles from 00 to 900 on
both sides of the line NN as shown in figure 4(a).
Repeat the same on the other side of the line NN.
The angles should be indicated on the curved line.
Procedure
fig-4(b) Now place a semi-circular glass disc so that its
diameter coincides with the interface line (MM) and
its center coincides with the point O. Point a laser light along NN in such
a way that the light propagates from air to glass through the interface at
point O and observe the path of laser light coming from other side of disc
as shown in figure 4 (b). (If you cannot observe the path of laser light put
a black-coloured plank against the curved line and observe the light point
and imagine the light path).
Is there any deviation?
Send Laser light along a line which makes150 (angle of incidence)
with NN and see that it passes through point O. Measure its corresponding
angle of refraction, by observing laser light coming from the other side
(Circular side) of the glass slab. Note these values in table (2). Do the
same for the angles of incidence such as 200,300,400,500 and 600 and note
the corresponding angles of refraction.
Table 2
i r Sin i Sin r Sin i / Sin r
Find sin i, sin r for every ‘i’ and ‘r’ and evaluate sin i/ sin r for every
incident angle ‘i’.
Note : Take the help of your teacher to find the values of sin i and
sin r for each case.
Finally, we will get the ratio sin i / sin r as a constant.
Is this ratio equal to refractive index of glass? Why?
This ratio gives the value of refractive index of glass. In the above
experiment you might have noticed that ‘r’ is less than ‘i’ in all cases and
the refracted ray bends towards normal in each case.
What do you conclude from these observations?
A
N
i
i
E
Y C X
D
At D and C angle of refraction is r r
taken as r because the points C and F
D are assumed to be close r
N
fig-6(c) B
Table 3
i r
At what angle of incidence do you notice that the refracted ray grazes
the interface separating the two media (air and glass)?
You will observe that at a certain angle of incidence the refracted ray
does not come out but grazes the interface separating air and glass. Measure
the angle of incidence for to this situation. This angle of incidence is known
as critical angle.
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 53
The above results can be explained using Fermat’s principle.
Let us consider the light ray that travels from medium 1 with refractive
index n1 to medium 2 with refractive index n2.See figure (7). It is already
found that the angle of refraction is more than angle of incidence when a
light ray travels from denser(n1) to rarer medium (n2).
For the angle of incidence i, let r be the angle of refraction.
From Snell’s law
n1 sin i = n2 sin r n1/n2 = sin r/ sin i Rarer
N
Activity 6
Take a transparent glass tumbler and coin. Place the coin on a table
and place glass tumbler on the coin. Observe the coin from the side of the
glass.
Can you see the coin?
Now fill the glass tumbler with water and observe the coin from the
side of the glass tumbler.
Can you see the coin?
Explain why the coin disappears from view.
Activity 7
Image of Take a cylindrical transparent vessel (you may use
the coin
on the 1 L beaker). Place a coin at the bottom of the vessel.
water
surface
Now pour water until you get the image of the coin
on the water surface (look at the surface of water
from a side). See figure 8.
Coin at
Can you explain why the image of the coin is
bottom formed?
fig-8 There are many interesting situations around us
which involve the phenomenon of total internal
reflection. One of that is a mirage which we witness while driving or while
walking on a road during a hot summer day.
fig-11
58 X Class Refraction at Plane Surfaces
of the rectangle. This line represents emergent ray of the light.
Draw a perpendicular ON to the line CD where our last line drawn
meets the line CD. Measure the angle between emergent ray and normal.
This is called angle of emergence. (Check your drawing with the figure
11).
Is the line formed a straight line?
Are the angles of incidence and emergence equal?
Are the incident and emergent rays parallel?
You will notice an important result that the incident and emergent rays
are parallel.
Can you find the distance between the parallel rays?
The distance between the parallel rays is called lateral shift. Measure
this shift. Repeat the experiment for different angles of incidence and
tabulate the values of angle of incidence and shift corresponding to each
angle of incidence in table (4).
Can you find any relation
Table 4
between the angle of incidence
Agle of Inciddene Shift and shift?
Can you find the refractive
index of the slab?
Let us find the refractive
index of the slab.
Activity 8
To find the refractive index of glass slab: Measure the thickness of
the slab. Note it in your notebook. Take a white chart and fix it on the
table. Take the slab and place it in the middle of the chart. Draw its boundary.
Remove the slab from its place. The lines form a rectangle. Name the
vertices as A,B,C and D. Draw a perpendicular to the longer
P line AB of the rectangle as shown in figure. Place slab again
in the rectangle ABCD. Take a pin. Place at a point P in such
Glass Q
slab a way that its length is parallel to the AB on the perpendicular
line at a distance of 15cm from the slab. Now take another
pin and by looking at the first pin from the other side of the
slab try to place the pin so that it forms a straight line with
A
B the first pin.
D C Note : While doing this, keep your eye fixed along the edge
fig-12 of the glass slab and first pin is seen through the glass slab,
where as second pin is seen through air i.e. outside of the
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 59
glass slab.
Remove the slab and observe the positions of the pins.
Are they in the same line?
Draw a perpendicular line from the second pin to the line on which
first pin is placed. Call the intersection point Q. Find the distance
between P and Q. We may call it vertical shift.
Is this shift independent of distance of first pin from slab?
To find this, do the same activity for another distance of the pin
from the slab. You will get the same vertical shift. We could use a
formula to find out refractive index of the glass.
R.I = Thickness of the slab / (thickness of slab – vertical shift)
When light travels from one medium to another, its direction changes at the interface. The
phenomenon of changing direction at the interface of the two media is known as refraction.
Refraction is a result of change in speed of light at the interface.
Absolute refractive index = Speed of light in vacuum/ Speed of light in medium n=c/v.
Relative refractive index , n21 = v1/v2 = n2/n1 .
Snell’s law is given by, n1 sin i = n2 sin r .
The angle of incidence, at which the light ray travelling from denser to rarer medium grazes the
interface, is called the critical angle for those media. sin C = n2/ n1 , where n1 is the refractive
index of denser medium and n2 is the refractive index of rarer medium. (n1>n2)
When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected into denser
medium at interface. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
ks
Fill in the blan
1. At critical angle of incidence, the angle of refraction is ................
2. n1 sin i = n2 sin r, is called..................
3. Speed of light in vaccum is ......................
4. Total internal reflection takes place when a light ray propagates from .......... to ............. medium.
5. The refractive index of a transparent material is 3/2. The speed of the light in that medium is
..............
6. Mirage is an example of .....................
d) depends on the angle formed by the light ray and normal to the slab
Try These
1. The absolute refractive index of water is 4/3. What is the critical angle? (AS1) (Ans: 48.50)
2. Take a glass vessel and pour some glycerine into it and then pour water up to the brim. Take a
quartz glass rod. Keep it in the vessel. Observe the glass rod from the sides of the glass vessel.
What changes do you notice? What could be the reasons for these changes?(AS2)
3. Collect the values of refractive index of the following media. (AS4)
Water, coconut oil, flint glass, crown glass, diamond, benzene and hydrogen gas.
4. Take a thin thermocol sheet. Cut it in circular discs of different radii like 2cm, 3cm, 4cm,
4.5cm, 5cm etc and mark centers with sketch pen. Now take needles of length nearly 6cm. Pin
a needle to each disc at its centre vertically. Take water in a
large opaque tray and place the disc with 2cm radius in such a
way that the needle is inside the water as shown in fig-Q15.
Now try to view the free end (head) of the needle from surface
of the water.
Are you able to see the head of the needle? fig-Q15
Now do the same with other discs of different radii. Try to see
the head of the needle, each time.
Note: the position of your eye and the position of the disc on water surface should not be
changed while repeating the activity with other discs.
At what maximum radius of disc, were you not able to see the free end of the needle?
Why were you not able to view the head of the nail for certain radii of the discs?
Does this activity help you to find the critical angle of the medium (water)?
Draw a diagram to show the passage of light ray from the head of the nail in different
situations. (AS4)
5. Place an object on the table. Look at the object through the transparent glass slab. You will
observe that it will appear closer to you. Draw a ray diagram to show the passage of light ray
in this situation. (AS5)
6. A light ray is incident on air-liquid interface at 450and is refracted at 300. What is the refractive
index of the liquid? For what angle of incidence will the angle between reflected ray and refracted
ray be 900? (AS7) (Ans: 1.414, 54.70)
7. Explain why a test tube immersed at a certain angle in a tumbler of water appears to have a
mirror surface for a certain viewing position? (AS7)
8. In what cases does a light ray not deviate at the interface of two media?(AS7)
Refraction of Light at
Curved Surfaces
Normal
Normal
C C
fig-4(c) fig-4(d)
In figure 5,
n
n
1
2
A lens may have two spherical surfaces bulging outwards. Such a lens
is called double convex lens (Biconvex lens, see figure 6(a) ). It is thick at
the middle as compared to edges.
Similarly, a double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces
curved inwards. (Biconcave lens, see figure 6(b) ). It is thin at the middle
and thicker at the edges.
Observe the 6(c), 6(d) and 6(e) to understand structure of Plano-
Convex lens, Plano-Concave lens; Concavo-Convex lens.
70 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
Here we are concerned only with thin lenses i.e. the thickness of the
lens is negligible.
Let us learn the terminology used in the case of lenses.
Each curved surface of a lens is part of a sphere. The
R
centre of the sphere which contains the part of the curved
R2
surface is called centre of curvature. It is denoted by a
1
fig-8(a) fig-8(b)
fig-8(c) fig-8(d)
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 71
How does the lens form an image?
To know the formation of image by lenses, we need to know the
behavior of light rays when they meet a lens.
Though we know that the lens has two surfaces; while drawing ray
diagrams, we can consider the lens as a single surface element because we
assume that the thickness of the lens is very small and show the net
refraction at only one of the surfaces, as shown in the figure 8(c) and 8(d).
Behaviour of certain light rays when they are incident on a lens
The behaviour of a light ray when it passes through a lens can be
understood by observing its behaviour in the following situations:
Situation I: Ray passing along the principal axis
Any ray passing along the principal axis is undeviated.
2F F
(see Figures 9a and 9b)
2 2 F1 2F1
fig-11(a) fig-11(b)
2F1 F1 F2 2F2
2F2 F2 F1 2F1
fig-12(a) fig-12(b)
When parallel rays, making an angle with principal axis, fall on a lens,
as shown in figures 12(a) and 12(b), the rays converge at a point or appear
to diverge from a point lying on the focal plane. Focal plane is the plane
perpendicular to the principal axis at the focus.
Rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses
Let us learn a few basic rules to draw ray diagrams to locate the position
of images.
For drawing a ray diagram to find position and size of the image formed
by lens for any position of object on the principal axis you need to follow
the rules mentioned below:
For locating position and to find the size of image, we need two rays
out of four rays that were mentioned in the situations I to IV.
- Select a point on the object placed at a point on the principal axis.
- Draw two rays that were chosen by you from rays mentioned in
situations I to IV.
- Extend both rays to intersect at a point. This point gives position
of the image.
- Draw a normal from point of intersection to the principal axis.
- Length of this normal represents the size of the image.
Observe the following diagrams (situations 1-6). They represent image
formation by a convex lens for various positions of the object.
1. Object at infinity
What do you mean by an object at infinity?
What type of rays fall on the lens?
You know that the rays falling on the lens from an object at infinity are
parallel to the principal axis.
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 73
They converge to the focal point. So a point sized image is formed at
the focal point. This can be seen in figures 8(a).
Object
F 2F1
inverted and diminished image is formed
1
2F F Image
on the principal axis between the points F1
2 2
fig-14
2F2 F
2 From the ray diagram shown in figure 17, you
fig-17 will notice that the image formed is a virtual, erect
and is formed on the same side of the lens where
the object is placed. The size of the image is larger than that of the object.
It is a magnified image.
In the above situation of image formation, we understand two things:
1. As the image formed is virtual, we can see it with our eyes. In all other
cases the image is real which we can’t see with our eyes but can be
viewed if the image is captured on a screen.
2. A magnified virtual image is formed on the same side of the lens where
the object is placed. Thus the image you are seeing through a lens is
not real, it is a virtual image of the object.
This particular behaviour of convex lens helps to construct a
microscope, which gives a magnified image. You might remember that the
magnification of the virtual image is possible only when the object is at
the distance less than the focal length of the lens.
Till now we have drawn ray diagrams for various positions of object
placed on principal axis using convex lens. Draw ray diagram for an object
placed between 2F1 and F1 for a concave lens.
What do you notice?
Verify your ray diagram with the ray diagram
Object 2F
we have drawn for a convex lens. See figure 18.
F
Try to draw ray diagrams for other positions of
2 2
2F Image
F
an object. You will notice that irrespective of the
1
fig-18
1
F2
F2
F1
F1
fig-E5(c)
_______________ fig-E5(d)
Can we realise in practice the results obtained in the ray diagrams
when we perform experiments with a lens?
Let us see
b Activity
LaActivity 2
Aim: Determination of focal length of bi-convex lens using UV method.
Material Required: V Stand, convex lens, light source, screen, meter scale.
Take a v-stand and place it on a long (nearly 2m) table at the middle.
Place a convex lens on the v-stand. Imagine the principal axis of the lens.
Light a candle and ask your friend to take the candle far away from the lens
along the principal axis. Adjust a screen (a sheet of white paper placed
perpendicular to the axis) which is on other side of the lens until you get
an image on it.
Why are we using a screen to view this image? Why don’t we see it
directly with our eye?
76 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
Measure the distance of the image from the v-stand of lens and also
measure the distance between the candle and stand of lens.
Record the values in a table 1.
Table 1 Now place the candle at a distance
Object Image Focal of 60 cm from the lens, such that the
distance (u) distance (v) length (f) flame of the candle lies on the principal
axis of the lens. Try to get an image of
the candle flame on the other side on a
screen. Adjust the screen till you get a
clear image. Measure the image
distance (v) from lens and record the values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ in table 1. Repeat
this for various object distances like 50 cm, 40 cm, 30 cm, etc. Measure
image distances in all the cases and note them in table 1.
Could you get an image on the screen for every object distance?
Why don’t you get an image for certain object distances?
Can you find the minimum limiting object distance for obtaining a
real image?
What do you call this minimum limiting object distance for real images?
When you do not get an image on the screen, try to see the image with
your eye directly from the place of the screen.
Could you see the image?
What type of image do you see?
You will see a magnified image on the same side where we kept the
object. This is a virtual image of the object which we cannot capture on
the screen.
Can you find the image distance of this virtual image?
In table-1, you got different values of ‘v’ for various position of candle
(u).
Could you find focal length of the lens from the values recorded in
table-1?
Can we establish a relation between ‘u’, ‘v’ and ‘f’?
Len’s Formula
Consider an object OOI placed on the principal axis in front of a convex
lens as shown in figure(19). Let III be the real image formed by the lens on
the other side of it. Observe the figure(19).
How is the image formed?
PO/PI = PF1/(PI-PF1) F1
I
PI/PO = (PI-PF1)/PF1 O 2
F P
II
PI/PO = PI/PF1 – 1 fig-19
On dividing the equation by PI, we get
1/PO = 1/PF1 -1/PI
1/PO + 1/PI = 1/PF1 .................(4)
The above equation is derived for a particular case of the object while
using a convex lens. To convert this into a general equation, we need to
use the sign convention.
According to the sign convention
PO = -u ; PI = v ; PF1 = f
Substituting these values in equation 4, we get
1/v – 1/u = 1/f
The relation between u,v&f is 1/v – 1/u = 1/f
Where u-object distance, v-image distance, f- focal length
78 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
This equation is called lens formula. It can be used for any lens. But
remember to use the sign convention while using this equation.
We have ‘u’ and ‘v’ values in table – 1 that were measured during activity
– 2. Find focal length of the lens from the values of the table for each set
of values of ‘u’ and ‘v’.
Is the focal length same for each set of values?
You might have noticed that irrespective of object distance and image
distance, you will get same focal length. If you do not get the same value
of focal length, there may be some experimental error while doing the
experiment. In such a case, find the average of all the values. This will be
equal to the focal length of the lens.
Let us see an example
Example 6
An electric lamp and a screen are placed on the table, in a line at a
distance of 1m. In what positions of convex lens of focal length of f = 21
cm will the image of lamp be sharp?
Solution
Let ‘d’ be distance between the lamp and screen and ‘x’ be the distance
between lamp and lens. From figure E-6, we have u = -x and v = d-x
By substituting these in lens formula,
We get Screen
1/f = 1/(d-x) + 1/x Lamp
After solving this equation, we x d-x
get d
fig-E(6)
x2 – dx + fd = 0
It is a quadratic equation. Hence we get two solutions. The solutions
of the above equation are
_______
x = [d +(d2-4fd)] / 2 .................(1)
Given that f = 21cm and d= 1m =100cm.
Substituting these values in equation 1, we get
x1 =70 cm and x2 = 30cm.
NOTE: Image of the lamp can be sharp only when f is less than or
equal to 25cm.
Discuss the reason for this using equation (1). Take the help of your
teacher.
_______________
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 79
On what factors does the focal length of the lens depend?
Let us find out.
Activity 2
Take the same lens that was used in activity 2. Note the average
focal length of the lens that was calculated in the activity. Take a
cylindrical vessel such as glass tumbler. Its height must be much
greater than the focal length of the lens. (We require the vessel
which has a length (depth) nearly equal to four times of the focal
Lens Circular
length of lens). Keep a black stone inside the vessel at its bottom. lens
holder
Now pour water into the vessel up to a height such that the height
of the water level from the top of the stone is greater than focal
length of lens. Now dip the lens horizontally using a circular lens
holder as shown in the figure (20) above the stone. Set the distance
Stone
between stone and lens that is equal to or less than focal length fig-20
of lens measured in activity 2. Now look at the stone through the
lens. (Do this in open ground)
Can you see the image of the stone?
If Yes / Not, why? Give your reasons.
You can see the image of the stone if the distance between lens
and stone is less than the focal length of the lens (in air). Now
increase the distance between lens and stone until you cannot see the image
of the stone.
What do you conclude from this activity?
Does the focal length of the lens depend on surrounding medium?
You have dipped the lens to a certain height which is greater than the
focal length of lens in air. But you can see the image (when lens is raised
further, you could not see the image). This shows that the focal length of
lens has increased in water. Thus we conclude that the focal length of lens
depends upon the surrounding medium in which it is kept.
Note : For convenience, use 5 or 10 cm focal length convex lens.
Lens maker’s formula
Imagine a point object ‘O’ placed na na
on the principal axis of the thin lens A
nb
B
fig-E(7)
Solving this, we get
f = -40cm
Here minus indicates that the lens is divergent.
Key words
Lens, Focal length, Focus, Optic centre, Principal axis,
Radius of curvature, Centre of curvature, Focal plane.
1. A man wants to get a picture of a zebra. He photographed a white donkey after fitting a glass,
with black stripes on to the lens of his camera. What photo will he get? Explain. (AS1)
2. The focal length of a converging lens is 20cm. An object is 60cm from the lens. Where will the
image be formed and what kind of image is it? (AS1)
3. A double convex lens has two surfaces of equal radii ‘R’ and refractive index n = 15. Find the
focal length ‘f’. (AS1)
4. Write the lens maker’s formula and explain the terms in it. (AS1)
5. How do you find the focal length of a lens experimentally? (AS1)
6. Harsha tells Siddhu that the double convex lens behaves like a convergent lens. But Siddhu
knows that Harsha’s assertion is wrong and corrected Harsha by asking some questions. What
are the questions asked by Siddhu? (AS2)
7. A convex lens is made up of three different materials as shown in the figure Q-10. How
many of images does it form? (AS2)
8. Collect the information about the lenses available in an optical shop. Find out how the focal
length of a lens may be determined by the given ‘power’ of the lens. (AS4)
9. Collect the information about lenses used by Galileo in his telescope. (AS4)
A B
S
F/ N1 N2
F N1 N2
S/
fig-Q(17) fig- Q(18) fig-Q(19)
10. Figure Q-17 shows ray AB that has passed through a divergent lens. Construct the path of the
ray up to the lens if the position of its foci is known. (AS5)
ks
Fill in the blan
1. The rays from the distant object, falling on the convex lens pass through ......................
2. The ray passing through the ........................... of the lens is not deviated.
3. Lens formula is given by ..........................
4. The focal length of the plano convex lens is 2R where R is the radius of curvature of the surface.
Then the refractive index of the material of the lens is.....................
5. The lens which can form real and virtual images is .........................
Try These
1. Two converging lenses are to be placed in the path of parallel rays so that the rays remain parallel
after passing through both lenses. How should the lenses be arranged? Explain with a neat ray
diagram. (AS1)
2. How do you verify experimentally that the focal length of a convex lens is increased when it is kept
in water? (AS1)
3. Assertion (A): A person standing on the land appears taller than his actual height to a fish inside
a pond. (AS2)
Reason (R): Light bends away from the normal as it enters air from water.
Which of the following is correct? Explain.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) Both A and R are false.
e) A is false but R is true.
4. Can a virtual image be photographed by a camera?(AS2)
5. You have a lens. Suggest an experiment to find out the focal length of the lens. (AS3)
6. Let us assume a system that consists of two lenses with focal length f1 and f2 respectively. How do
you find the focal length of the system experimentally, when
i) two lenses are touching each other
ii) they are separated by a distance ‘d’ with common principal axis. (AS3)
7. Use the data obtained by activity-2 in table-1 of this lesson and draw the graphs of u vs v and 1/
u vs 1/v. (AS5)
8. A parallel beam of rays is incident on a convergent lens with a focal length of 40cm. Where should
a divergent lens with a focal length of 15 cm be placed for the beam of rays to remain parallel after
passing through the two lenses? Draw a ray diagram. (AS5)
9. How do you appreciate the coincidence of the experimental facts with the results obtained by a
ray diagram in terms of behaviour of images formed by lenses? (AS6)
10. Find the radii of curvature of a convexo –concave convergent lens made of glass with refractive
index n=1.5 having focal length of 24cm. One of the radii of curvature is double the other.
(Ans:R1=6cm,R2=12cm) (AS7)
11. Suppose you are inside the water in a swimming pool near an edge. A friend is standing on the
edge. Do you find your friend taller or shorter than his usual height? Why?(AS7)
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 85
5
Chapter
D
fig-2
we can see only the part of the object.
This maximum angle, at which we are able to see the whole object is
called angle of vision. The angle of vision for a healthy human being is
about 600. It varies from person to person and with age.
You have learnt that the value of least distance of distinct vision is
about 25 cm and the value of angle of vision of human beings is about 600.
You also learnt that these values change from person to person and with
age of person.
Why do the values of least distance of distinct vision and angle of
vision change with person and age?
To answer the above question, we need to understand the structure of
eye and its functioning.
figure 5(c)).
If the object is at M or in
O L
between M and point of least
M
distance of distinct vision fig-5(d)
(L),the eye lens can form an
image on the retina (see
figure 5(c) and 5(d)). This point M is called ‘far point’.
The point of maximum distance at which the eye lens can form an
image on the retina is called ‘far point’.
The defect, in which people cannot see objects beyond far point is
called ‘Myopia’.
What can we do to correct myopia?
The eye lens can form clear image on the retina, when an object is
placed between far point and point of least distance of distinct vision. If
we are able to bring the image of the object kept beyond far point , between
the far point and the point
of least distance of distinct L
vision using a lens, this
image acts as an object for M
the eye lens. fig-5(e)
Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also
known as “far sightedness”. A
H L
person with hypermetropia
fig-6(a) can see distant objects clearly
but cannot see objects at near
distances, because the
L minimum focal length of eye
H
lens for the person of
fig-6(b) hypermetropia is greater than
2.27 cm. In such cases, the
rays coming from a nearby
H L
object, after refraction at eye
lens, forms an image beyond
fig-6(c)
the retina as shown in figure
6 (a).
Lab Activity
Angle of incidence i 1
where the tangent touches the graph. This line meets fig-9
x-axis at a point showing the angle of incidence
corresponding to the minimum deviation. If you do the experiment with
this angle of incidence you will get an angle of emergence equal to the
angle of incidence. Look at your table (1).
Is there any relation between the angle of incidence, angle of
emergence and angle of deviation?
Can you find refractive index of a prism? If yes, how?
r1 r
From (1) and (2), we have
2
d = (i1+i2) – A
Q
fig-10(a)
R A+d = i1+i2 ––——(3)
This is the relation between angle of
incidence, angle of emergence, angle of deviation and angle of prism.
From Snell’s law, we know that n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Let n be the refractive index of the prism.
Using Snell’s law at M, with refractive index of air
n1 =1; i = i1 ; n2 = n ; r = r1 , gives
sin i1 = n sin r1 ———(4)
similarly, at N with n1 = n ; i = r2 ; n2 = 1 ; r = i2 , gives
n Sin r2 = Sin i2 ———(5)
We know that at the angle of minimum deviation (D), the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of emergence i.e., i1 = i2. Observe figure
10(b). You will note that MN is parallel to the side QR, actually ray MN is
parallel to the base of the prism. (See figure 10(b)).
When i1 = i2, angle of deviation (d) becomes angle of minimum
deviation (D).
Then equation (3) becomes
P
A+D = 2i1
A or i1 = (A+D)/2
When i1 = i2 then, it is clear that r1 = r2
D
O
i1 i
M N So from equation (2) we get,
1
2r1 = A
r r
1
1
or r1 = A/2
Substituting i1 and r1 in (4) we get
Q
fig-10(b)
R Sin{(A+D)/2)} = n. Sin(A/2)
Therefore, n = Sin((A+D)/2)/Sin(A/2) —(6)
This is the formula for the refractive index of the prism.
Can we derive n = Sin((A+D)/2)/Sin(A/2) from equation 5?
The formula finding refractive index is n = Sin((A+D)/2)/Sin(A/2)
Where A-angle of prism, D-angle of minimum deviation, n-refractive
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 99
index of the prism.
By using this formula find the refractive index of the prism with the
results of lab activity - 1
Let us see an example.
Example 2
A prism with an angle A = 600 produces an angle of minimum deviation
of 300. Find the refractive index of material of the prism.
Solution: Given that A = 600 and D = 300.
Using n = Sin[(A+D)/2]/Sin(A/2) = Sin(900/2)/Sin(300)
= Sin 450/ Sin300 = (1/2)/(1/2) = 2
n = 2
thus, the refractive index of the given prism = 2
Let us take up a simple activity with prism.
Activity 3
Do this experiment in the dark room. Take a prism and place it on the
table near a vertical white wall. Take a thin wooden plank. Make a small
hole in it and fix it vertically on the table. Place the prism between the
wooden plank and wall. Place a white light source behind the hole of the
wooden plank. Switch on the light. The rays coming out of the hole of
plank become a narrow beam of light. Adjust the height of the prism such
that the light falls on one of the lateral surfaces. Observe the changes in
emerged rays of the prism. Adjust the prism by slightly rotating it till you
get an image on the wall.
What do you observe on the wall?
Could you get a coloured image on the wall?
Why does white light split into colours?
What colours do you see?
Can you notice any change in the angle of deviation of each colour?
Which colour has the minimum deviation?
Let us do another experiment.
Activity 4
Dispersed light
White
light
Take a metal tray and fill it with water. Place a
mirror in the water such that it makes an angle to the
water surface. Now focus white light on the mirror
through the water as shown in figure 11. Try to obtain Water
colours on a white card board sheet kept above the Mirror
water surface. Note the names of the colours you could Metal
tray fig-11
see in your book.
100 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
In activity (3) and (4), we observe that white light is splitting into
certain different colours.
Is this splitting of white light into colours explained by using ray
theory?
It is not possible to explain the splitting of white light into different
colours using ray theory.
Why is this so?
Let us see
Dispersion of Light
In activity 3, we observe that the angle of deviation is minimum for
red as compared to the angles of deviation of other colours and maximum
for violet.
The splitting of white light into different colours (VIBGYOR) is called
dispersion.
In our previous discussion, we learnt that for a particular
refractive index of prism there must be only one angle of minimum
deviation and according to Fermat’s principle, light ray always chooses
the path of least time. But in activity-3,we noticed that light has chosen
different paths.
Does this mean that the refractive index of the prism varies from
colour to colour?
Is the speed of light of each colour different?
The situation we witnessed in activities (3) and (4) rule out ray theory
of light. We can consider that white light is a collection of waves with
different wavelengths. Violet colour is known to have the shortest
wavelength while red is of the longest wavelength.
According to wave theory, light can be thought of a wave propagating
in all directions. Light is an electromagnetic wave. Here no particle
physically oscillates back and forth. Instead, the magnitude of electric and
magnetic fields, associated with the electromagnetic wave, vary
periodically at every point. These oscillating electric and magnetic fields
propagate in all directions with the speed of light.
Can you guess now, why light splits into different colours when it
passes through a prism?
drops
Can you imagine the shape of rainbow when observed during travel in an airplane?
Discuss with your friends and collect information.
Do you know?
Our beloved scientist and Noble prize
winner, Sir C.V. Raman explained the
phenomenon of light scattering in gases and
liquids. He found experimentally that the
frequency of scattered light by the liquids
is greater than the frequency of incident
light. This is called Raman Effect. By using
Sir CV Raman
this effect scientists determine the shapes of the molecules.
So far, we have learned some ideas of the light such as refraction,
dispersion and scattering. These are wonderful phenomena occuring in
our surroundings. When you observe any phenomena, try to resolve the
problem and appreciate the wonderful world based on the behaviour of
light.
from the face AC are given in figure Q-13. Complete the ray
diagram. (AS 5) A C
10. How do you appreciate the role of molecules in the atmosphere fig-Q-13
for the blue colour of the sky? (AS 6)
11. How do you appreciate the working of Ciliary muscles in the eye? (AS 6)
12. Why does the sky sometimes appear white? (AS 7)
13. If a white sheet of paper is stained with oil, the paper turns transparent. Why? (AS 7)
108 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
14. The focal length of a lens suggested to a person with Hypermetropia is 100cm. Find the distance
of near point and power of the lens. (Ans: 33.33cm, 1D ) (AS 7)
15. A person is viewing an extended object. If a converging lens is placed in front of his eye, will he
feel that the size of object has increased? Why? (AS7)
ks
Fill in the blan
b) QR is horizontal P S
c) RS is horizontal
d) either PQ or RS is horizontal fig-MCQ-4
Try These
Structure of Atom
You have studied in the previous class about sub-atomic particles like
negatively charged electrons, positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons.
How do these sub-atomic particles coexist in an electrically neutral
atom?
You have acquired some fundamental ideas about atomic models
suggested by J J Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr which have
been presented in Class 9.
Activity 1
On the basis of your previous knowledge can you prepare a model of
an atom?
Can you arrange the sub-atomic particles in any other way in an atom?
(Take the help of your friends, your teacher and the Internet). Observe
your atomic model and the models of your friends carefully and try to
answer the questions.
Do all atoms have the same sub-atomic particles?
Why is an atom of one element different from the atoms of other
elements?
How are the electrons distributed in the space of an atom?
To answer the above questions, we need to understand the nature of
light, coloured flames and their characteristics.
Electric field
Direction of
propagation of
wave
fig-1: An electromagnetic wave Magnetic field
Electromagnetic energy travelling through a vacuum behaves in
some way like ocean waves travelling through water. Like ocean waves,
electromagnetic energy is characterized by wavelength (), and frequency
().
112 X Class Structure of Atom
The wavelength () of the wave is the distance from one wave peak to
the next. The frequency () of a wave is simply the number of wave peaks
that pass by a given point per unit time, expressed in units of reciprocal
seconds (1/s or s–1). The relation between these quantities is given by
1/ or c =
Can we apply this equation to a sound wave?
Yes. It is a universal relationship and applies to all waves. As the
frequency increases, the wavelength becomes smaller.
Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of frequencies. The
entire range of electromagnetic wave frequencies is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The familiar example of the visible spectrum in nature is the formation
of a rainbow.
Each colour in a rainbow is characterized by a specified wavelength
from red (higher wavelength) to violet (shorter wavelength). These colours
(wavelengths), that the human naked eye is sensitive to, are called visible
light. The range of wavelengths covering red colour to violet colour is
called the visible spectrum.
Are there any other wavelengths of light other than visible spectrum?
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of wavelengths. The
entire range of wavelengths is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a continuous range of
wavelengths of gamma rays at the shorter wavelength to radio waves at the
longer wavelength. But our eyes are sensitive only to visible light.
10-12 m 10 -9 m 10 -6 m 10 -3 m 10 0 m 10 3 m
1 nm 1000 nm 1 mm 1m 1 km
l=3
l=1 l=2
fig-4: The allowed electronic orbits for the main Quantum numbers by Bohr - Sommerfeld model
1s2
Aufbau Principle
As we pass from one element to another one of next higher atomic
number, one electron is added every time to the atom.
The maximum number of electrons in any shell is ‘2n2’, where ‘n’ is
the principal quantum number.
The maximum number of electrons in a sub-shell (s, p, d or f) is equal
to 2(2l+1) where l = 0, 1, 2, 3… Thus these sub-shells can have a maximum
of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons respectively.
In the ground state the electronic configuration can be built up by
placing electrons in the lowest available orbitals until the total number of
electrons added is equal to the atomic number. This is called the Aufbau
principle (The German word “Aufbau” means “building up.”).Thus orbitals
are filled in the order of increasing energy.
Two general rules help us to predict electronic configurations.
1. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n+l).
2. For sub-shells with the same value of (n+l), electrons are assigned
first to the sub-shell with lower ‘n’.
122 X Class Structure of Atom
The following diagram shows the increasing
value of (n+l). Ascending order of energies of
various atomic orbitals is given below.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s <
4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p <
8s …
The electronic configuration of some elements
in the increasing atomic number (Z) value is given
below.
H(Z=1) 1s1
He(Z=2) 1s2
fig-6: The filling order of
atomic orbitals
(Moeller Chart) Li(Z=3) 1s22s1
Be(Z=4) 1s22s2
B(Z=5) 1s22s22p1
For carbon (C) atom (Z=6), where does the 6th electron go?
Whether the electron pairs up in the same p-orbital or will it go to the
next p-orbital?
Hund’s Rule
According to this rule electron pairing in orbitals starts only when all
available empty orbitals of the same energy (degenerate orbitals) are singly
occupied.
The configuration of Carbon (C) atom (Z=6) is 1s22s22p2. The first four
electrons go into the 1s and 2s orbitals. The next two electrons go into separate
2p orbitals, with both electrons having the same spin
Note that the unpaired electrons in the 2p orbitals are shown with parallel
spins.
Wave, spectrum, intensity, discrete energy, line spectrum, orbital, quantum numbers,
shell, sub-shell, shapes of orbitals electron spin, electronic configuration, the Pauli’s
exclusion principle, Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule.
Light can be characterized by its wavelength and frequency , and these quantities are
related to the speed of light (c) as: c = .
Spectrum is a group of wavelengths.
Electromagnetic energy (Light) can have only certain discrete energy values which is given by
the equation E=h
Electrons in an atom can gain energy by absorbing a particular frequency of light and can lose
energy by emitting a particular frequency.
N (Z = 7)
1s 2
2s 2
2p3
11. Which rule is violated in the electronic configuration 1s0 2s2 2p4 ?
12. Writ e the four quantum numbers for the differentiating electron of sodium (Na) atom? (AS1)
13. Why there are exemptions in writing the electronic configurations of Chromium and Copper ?
14. What is emisssion spectrum?
15. i. An electron in an atom has the following set of four quantum numbers to which orbital it belong
to: (AS2)
n l ml ms
2 0 0 +½
ii. Write the four quantum numbers for 1s1 electron. (AS1)
16. Which electronic shell is at a higher energy level K or L? (AS2)
17. Collect the information regarding wave lengths and corresponding frequencies of three primary
colours red, blue and green. (AS4)
18. The wave length of a radio wave is 1.0m. Find its frequency. (AS7)
Fill in the blanks
1. If n = 1 then angular momentum quantum number (l) = ....................
2. If a sub-shell is denoted as 2p then its magnetic quantum number values are ......., ......, ........
3. Maximum number of electrons that an M-shell contain is/are .....................
4. For ‘n’, the minimum value is …………… and the maximum value is ……………..
5. For ‘l’, the minimum value is …………..and the maximum value is ………….
6. For ‘ml’ the minimum value is ………… and the maximum value is ………….
7. The value of ‘ms’ for an electron spinning in clock-wise direction is ……………… and for
anti-clockwise direction is ……….
Multiple choice questions
1. An emission spectrum consists of bright spectral lines on a dark back ground. Which one of the
following does not correspond to the bright spectral lines? [ ]
a) Frequency of emitted radiation b) Wave length of emitted radiation
c) Energy of emitted radiations d) Velocity of light
2. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the L – shell of an atom is :
a) 2 b) 4 c) 8 d) 16 [ ]
3. If l = 1 for an atom then the number of orbitals in its sub-shell is [ ]
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 0
4. The quantum number which explains about size and energy of the orbit or shell is: [ ]
a) n b) l c) ml d) ms
Required Materials for activities in the lesson
Watch glass, Platinum wire, Cupric chloride, Hydrochloric acid, Strontium Chloride.
Classification of Elements-
The Periodic Table
H 1 F 8 Cl 15 Co&Ni 22 Br 29 Pd 36 I 42 Pt&Ir 50
Li 2 Na 9 K 16 Cu 23 Rb 30 Ag 37 Cs 44 Os 51
G 3 Mg 10 Ca 17 Zn 24 Sr 31 Cd 38 Ba&V 45 Hg 52
Bo 4 Al 11 Cr 19 Y 25 Ce&La 33 U 40 Ta 46 Tl 53
C 5 Si 12 Ti 18 In 26 Zr 32 Sn 39 W 47 Pb 54
N 6 P 13 Mn 20 As 27 Di&Mo 34 Sb 41 Nb 48 Bi 55
O 7 S 14 Fe 21 Se 28 Ro&Ru 35 Te 43 Au 49 Th 56
Do you know why Newlands proposed the law of octaves? Explain your
answer in terms of the modern structure of the atom.
Do you think that Newlands’ law of octaves is correct? Justify
Gruppe I. Gruppe II. Gruppe III. Gruppe IV. Gruppe V. Gruppe VI. Gruppe VII. Gruppe VIII.
Re i h e n
1 H=1
2 Li=7 Be=9.4 B=11 C=12 N=14 O=16 F=19
3 Na=23 Mg=24 Al=27.3 Si=28 P=31 S=32 Cl=35.5
4 K=39 Ca=40 –=44 Ti=48 V=51 Cr=52 Mn=55 Fo=56, Co=59
Ni=59, Cu=63
5 (Cu=63) Zn=65 –=68 –=72 As=75 So=78 Br=80
6 Rb=85 Sr=87 ?Yt=88 Zr=90 Nb=94 Mo=96 –=100 Ru=104, Rh=104
Pd=106, Ag=108
7 (Ag=108) Cd=112 In=113 Sn=118 Sb=122 Te=125 I=127
8 Cs=133 Ba=137 ?Di=138 ?Ce=140 – – – – – – –
9 (–) – – – – – –
10 – – ?Ek=178 ?La=180 Ta=182 W=184 – Os=195, Ir=197,
Pt=198, Au=199
11 (Au=198) Hg=200 Tl=204 Pb=207 Bi=208 – –
12 – – – Th=231 – U=240 – – – – –
Do you know?
Do you know what Mendeleev said about the melting point of eka Al?
‘If I hold it in my hand, it will melt’. The melting point of Ga is 30.2oC and our
body temprature 37oC.
Do you know?
At the time when Mendeleeff introduced his periodic table even electrons were
not discovered. Even then the periodic table was able to provide a scientific base
for the study of chemistry of elements. In his honour the 101th element was named
Mendelevium.
Why Mendeleeff had to leave certain blank spaces in his periodic table?
What is your explanation for this?
What is your understanding about Ea2O3, EsO2?
All alkali metals are solids but hydrogen is a gas with diatomic
molecules. Do you justify the inclusion of hydrogen in first group with
alkali metals?
11
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
13
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
21
Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
58
Ce 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4f2
Activity 3
Find out the valencies of first 20 elements.
How does the valency vary in a period on going from left to right?
How does the valency vary on going down a group?
Atomic radius
Atomic radius of an element may be difined as the distance from the
centre of the nucleus of the atom to its outermost shell.
Atomic radius of an element is not possible to measure in its isolated
state. This is because it is not possible to determine the location of the
electron that surrounds the nucleus. However, we can measure the distance
between the nuclei of adjacent atoms in a solid. From this we can estimate
the size of the atom by assigning half of this distance to the radius of each
atom. This method is best suited to elements such as the metals that exist
in the solid state. More than 75 percent of the elements are metals and
142 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
atomic radii of metals are called metallic radii. Another way of estimating
the size of an atom is to measure the distance between the two atoms in
covalent molecules. The size of a chlorine atom is estimated by measuring
the length of the covalent bond between two chlorine atoms in a Cl2
molecule. Half of this distance is taken as atomic radius which is called
as the covalent radius of chlorine atom.
Atomic radius is measured in ‘pm’ (pico meter) units.
1 pm = 10-12m
Variation of atomic radii in group
Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group (column) of the
periodic table. As we go down in a group, the atomic number of the element
increases. Therefore to accommodate more number of electrons, more
shells are required. As a result the number of shells in a group top to bottom
increases. The distance between the nucleus and the outer shell of the
atom increases. Hence the atomic size increases with atomic number when
we go down the group.
Table-6
Group Element (atomic radius in pm)
The calculated electron gain enthalpy values for alkaline earth metals and
noble gases are positive. How can you explain this?
The second period element for example ‘F’ has less electron gain enthalpy
than the third period element of the same group for example ‘Cl’. Why?
3rd period: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
1. What are the limitations of Mendeleeff’s periodic table? How could the modern periodic table
overcome the limitations of Mendeleeff’s table? (AS1)
2. Define the modern periodic Law. Discuss the construction of the long form of the periodic table.
(AS1)
3. Explain how the elements are classified into s, p, d and f- block elements in the periodic table
and give the advantage of this kind of classification. (AS1)
4. Given below is the electronic configuration of elements A, B, C, D. (AS1)
A.1s 2s
2 2
1. Which are the elements coming with in the same period
B.1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 2
2. Which are the elements coming with in the same group?
C.1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 3. Which are the noble gas elements?
D.1s 2s 2p
2 2 6
4. To which group and period does the elements ‘C ‘belong
5. Write down the characteristics of the elements having atomic number 17. (AS1)
Electronic configuration ____________________________________
Period number ____________________________________
Group number ____________________________________
Element family ____________________________________
No. of valence electrons ____________________________________
Valency ____________________________________
Metal or non-metal ____________________________________
6. Elements in a group generally possess similar properties, but elements along a period have
different properties. How do you explain this statement? (AS1)
7. Complete the following table using the periodic table. (AS1)
1
2
3
4 4s, 3d, 4p 18 18
5
6
7 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 32 incomplete
ks
Fill in the blan
5. In period 2, element X is to the right of element Y. Then, find which of the elements have:
(i) Low nuclear charge (ii) Low atomic size (iii) High ionization energy
(iv)High electronegativity (v) More metallic character (AS1)
6. On the basis of atomic numbers predict to which block the elements with atomic number 9, 37,
46 and 64 belongs to? (AS2)
7. Aluminium does not react with water at room temperature but reacts with both dil. HCl and
NaOH solutions. Verify these statements experimentally. Write your observations with chemical
equations. From these observations, can we conclude that Al is a metalloid? (AS3)
8. Collect the information about reactivity of VIII A group elements (noble gases) from internet or
from your school library and prepare a report on their special character when compared to other
elements of periodic table. (AS4)
9. How do you appreciate the role of electronic configuration of the atoms of elements in periodic
classification? (AS6)
10. How the positions of elements in the periodic table help you to predict its chemical properties?
Explain with an example. (AS7)
Chemical Bonding
You have learnt about electron configuration of elements and periodic
table in previous lessons. It was learnt that there are over 115 elements.
How do they usually exist?
Do they exist as a single atom or as a group of atoms?
In Class IX, we saw that several elements like oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen exist as diatomic molecules. What is the force that is holding
these constituent atoms together in molecules?
Are there elements which exist as atoms?
Why do some elements exist as molecules and some as atoms?
In lower classes you have also learnt about the different laws of
chemical combinations. Since the formation of chemical compounds takes
place as a result of combination of atoms of various elements in different
ways, it raises many questions.
Why do some elements and compounds react vigorously while others
are inert?
Why is the chemical formula for water H2O and for sodium chloride
NaCl, why not HO2 and NaCl2?
Why do some atoms combine while others do not?
We will try to answer such questions in this chapter.
Are elements and compounds simply made up of separate atoms
individually arranged?
Is there any attraction between atoms?
Let us take the example of common salt, NaCl. When you shake salt
from a shaker does it separate into sodium and chlorine? No! This shows
that the sodium and chlorine atoms are being held together.
What is that holding them together?
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 153
By the late 19th century and early twentieth century, scientists knew
about three types of forces – gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic.
They also knew about the existence of electrons and protons. So it was
believed that electrostatic forces were the cause of attraction between
atoms in a molecule. When two atoms come sufficiently close together,
the electrons of each atom experience the attractive force of the nucleus
of the other atom. But the electrons which are negatively charged and repel
each other, and the positively charged nuclei also repel each other. The
strength of attraction or repulsion will decide bond formation. If attraction
is more than the repulsion then atoms combine. If repulsion is more than
attraction then the atoms do not combine. The nucleus and the electrons
in the inner shell remain unaffected when atoms come close together. But
the electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) of atoms get affected.
Do you know?
Davy’s experiment –
Humphry Davy (1778-1819),
a professor of chemistry at the
Royal Institution in London,
constructed a battery of over 250
metallic plates. In 1807, using
electricity from this battery, he
was able to extract highly reactive
metals like potassium and sodium
by electrolysis of fused salts.
A Votaic pile
It was seen that the metal part of the compound
migrated towards the negative electrode and the
non-metal part towards the positive electrode. So
it was proposed that metals are responsible for
positively charged particles and non-metals are
responsible for negatively charged particles. The Experimental set up by Davy
oppositely charged particles are held together by
electrostatic forces in a compound. Do you agree with this explanation? Why?
While this explanation could explain bonding in NaCl, KCl etc. it could not explain
bonding in carbon compounds or diatomic molecules of elements.
Look at the second column and third column. It is clear that all the
noble gases have eight electrons in the outermost shell, except
Helium (He).
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 155
The arrangement of electrons in different shells of atoms (electronic
configuration) of 18th group elements is shown in the table-1. The valence
electrons in the atom of an element is depicted in a short form by Lewis
symbol or electron dot structure. We represent the nucleus and inner shell
electrons of the atom by the symbol of the element and electrons in the
outer shell by dots or cross marks.
Let us see how? Lewis dot structure of argon and sodium atoms are
written.
Let us start with argon. Its atom has eight valence electrons.
First write the symbol of element argon. Ar
Place the valence electrons around the symbol. Put two dots at a time
on each of the four sides of the symbol of the element till all are used up.
: Ar :
So, we get,
: :
He : Ne : : Ar :
: : : :
: : : :
:
: Kr : : Xe : : Rn :
: :
Activity 1
Write the Lewis structures of the given elements in the table. Also
consult the periodic table and fill in the group number of the element.
Table – 2:
Group 1
number
.
Valence 1
electron
Lewis dot H
structure
156 X Class Chemical Bonding
Look at the periodic table. Do you see any relation between the number
of valence electrons and group numbers? We find that for groups 1-2 and
13 –18, we can use the periodic table to find the number of valence
electrons. Group1 has one outer electron, group 2 has two, and group 13
has three, group 14 has four and so on.
What did you notice in Lewis dot structure of noble gases and
electronic configurations of the atoms of these elements shown in
table - 2.
It was found that the elements which participate in chemical reactions
get octet or ns2 np6 configuration similar to that of noble gas elements. It
is to be noted that octet rule is still a rule not the law, because there are
considerable exceptions for this rule.
Electronic theory of valence by Lewis and Kossel
There were number of attempts to explain the chemical bond formation
between atoms in terms of electrons but a satisfactory explanation for
this concept was given by Kossel and Lewis in 1916. They gave this concept
independently. The basis for their theory was valence in terms of electrons.
They provided logical explanation of valence on the basis of the lack of
chemical activity of noble gases which led to the proposal of octet rule.
Observe the practical behaviour of atoms of main group elements
(Group IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and zero or VIIIA group elements).
When they are allowed to undergo chemical changes, they try to get octet
electronic configuration in the outer shells.
Let us understand this with the following illustrations.
Group IA elements (Li to Cs) try to lose one valence shell electron
from their atoms to form corresponding uni-positive ions which get octet
in their outer shells.
Example: 11Na 2, 8, 1 ; 11Na+ 2, 8
Group IIA elements (Mg to Ba) try to lose two valence electrons
from their atoms during chemical changes and form di– positive ions
with the octet in the outer shells.
Example: 12Mg 2, 8, 2 ; 12Mg2+ 2, 8
Group IIIA elements try to lose three valence electrons from their
atoms and form corresponding tri positive ions with octates in the outer
shells.
What have you observed from the above conclusions about the main
groups?
Why do atoms of elements try to combine and form molecules?
Noble gases of VIII A possess eight electrons in the valence shells of
their atoms. Helium is an exception. Its atom has only two electrons, but
its only shell is completely filled. Noble gases with eight electrons in the
valence shell in their atoms are highly stable and rarely participate in
chemical changes. Therefore it is concluded that any species (atom or
ion) with eight electrons in the valence shell is stable.
12
Mg 2, 8, 2 ; Mg2+ 2, 8
13
Al 2, 8, 3 ; Al3+ 2, 8
Do you know?
The number of electrons lost from a metal atom is the valence of its element
which is equal to its group number.
Ex. Na and Mg have valence 1 and 2 respectively.
. . .... . ......
Na + Cl Na+ [ Cl ]-
Can you say what type of bond exists between atoms of nitrogen
molecule?
Let us see
Nitrogen (N2) molecule
The electronic configuration of ‘N’ atom is 2,5 and to have octet in the
valence shell it requires three more electrons. When two nitrogen atoms
approach each other, each atom contributes 3 electrons for bonding. There
are six electrons shared between two nitrogen atoms in the form of three
pairs. Therefore, there is a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms in N2
molecule.
4.ii) If three bond pairs are there in three covalent bonds around the
nucleus of the central atom, without any lone pairs they get separated by
1200 along three corners of a triangle. Therefore, the shape of the molecule
is trigonal-planar.
Example:
NOTE: Did you notice that in BeCl2 and BF3 the central atoms Be and
B did not possess 8 electrons around them in the valence shell. They have
only 4 and 6 electrons respectively. These molecules are known as electron
deficient molecules.
4.iii) If there are four bond pairs in the valence shell of the central
atom, the four bond pairs will orient along the four corners of a tetrahedron
(three dimensional arrangement) and the bond angle expected is 109028/
.Example: Methane.
* In methane molecule (CH4), HCH is 109028/ because of four electron
pairs (bonding) around carbon, as shown below:
2. The greater the overlapping of the orbitals that form the bond,
the stronger will be the bond. This gives a directional character to
the bond when other than ‘s’ orbitals are involved.
3. Each bonded atom maintains its own atomic orbitals but the electron
pair in the overlapping orbitals is shared by both the atoms involved in the
overlapping.
4. If two atoms form multiple bonds between them the first bond is
due to the overlap of orbitals along the inter-nuclear axis giving a stronger
sigma() bond. After formation of () bond the other bonds are formed
due to the overlap of orbitals side wise or laterally giving weaker bonds.
The ‘’ bond is stronger because the electron pair shared is concentrated
more between the two nuclei due to end-end or head on overlap and
attracted to both the nuclei. The bond overlap gives a weaker bond due to
the lateral overlap of ‘p’ orbitals which is not to greater extent.
Consider Cl-Cl molecule
17
Cl - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1
In the formation of Cl2 molecule, the 3pz orbital of one chlorine
atom containing an unpaired electron overlaps the 3pz orbital of other
chlorine atom that contains unpaired electron of opposite spin.
orbital of one ‘N’ atom overlaps the ‘px’ orbital of the other ‘N’ atom giving
px - px bond along the inter-nuclear axis. The py and pz orbitals of one ‘N’
atom overlap the py and pz orbital of other ‘N’ atom laterally, respectively
perpendicular to inter-nuclear axis giving py-py and pz-pz bonds.
Therefore, N2 molecule has a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms.
Formation of O2 molecule
O has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1. If the ‘py‘ orbital
8
of one ‘O’ atom overlaps the ‘py’ orbital of other ‘O’ atom along the inter-
nuclear axis, a sigma py- py bond (py- py) is formed. pz orbital of one ‘O’
atom overlaps the pz orbital of other ‘O’ atom laterally, perpendicular to
the inter-nuclear axis giving a pz- pz bond. O2 molecule has a double
bond between two oxygen atoms.
Valence bond theory-Hybridisation
Formation of BeCl2 (Beryllium chloride) molecule
Be has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2. It has no unpaired electrons.
4
It is expected not to form covalent bonds, but it forms two covalent bonds
one each with two chlorine atoms. To explain this, an excited state is
172 X Class Chemical Bonding
suggested for Beryllium in which an electron from ‘2s’ shifts to 2px level.
Electronic configuration of 4Be 1s2 2s1 2px1 and 17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3px2 3py2 3pz1
If Be forms two covalent bonds with two chlorine atoms, one bond
should be 2s-3p due to the overlap of ‘2s’ orbital of Be, the ‘3pz’ orbital
of one chlorine atom and the other bond should be 2p-3p due to the overlap
of ‘2px’ orbital of Be atom the 3p orbital of the other chlorine atom. As the
orbitals overlapping are different, the bond strengths of two Be-Cl must
be different. But, both bonds are of same strength and ClBeCl is 1800. To
explain the discrepancies like this a phenomenon called ‘hybridisation of
atomic orbitals’ was proposed by Linus Pauling (1931).
Hybridisation is a phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals of
almost equal energy which are present in the outer shells of the atom and
their reshuffling or redistribution into the same number of orbitals but
with equal properties like energy and shape.
Be atom in its excited state allows its 2s orbital and 2px orbital which
contain unpaired electrons to intermix and redistribute to two identical
orbitals. As per Hund’s rule each orbital gets one electron. The
new orbitals
based on the types of orbitals that have undergone hybridisation are called
sp orbitals. The two sp orbitals of Be get separated by 1800. Now, each
chlorine atom comes with its 3pz1 orbital and overlaps it the sp orbitals of
Be forming two identical Be-Cl bonds (sp-p bonds) . ClBeCl = 1800.
Both the bonds are of same strength.
Beryllium Chloride
Formation of BF3 molecule
B has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px1.
5
As it has one unpaired electron (2px1) it should form only one covalent
bond to give B-F molecule. But we get practically BF3 molecule.
To explain this, it is suggested that,
i. Boron (B) first undergoes excitation to get electronic configuration
1s 2s1 2px1 2py1.
2
Ammonia
electrons and theother three sp3 orbitals get one electron each.
Now hydrogen atoms overlap their 1s orbitals containing unpaired electrons
the sp3 orbitals of ‘N’ atom containing unpaired electrons to give three
s-sp3 bonds. HNH should be 1090 28/ for sp3 hybridisation. As there is
a lone pair in one of the sp3 orbitals, there is a greater lone pair – bond pair
repulsion which decreases
the bond angle HNH to 107048/.
Shape of water molecule
It is found that HOH is 104031/ .
The electronic configuration of 8O is 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
and 1H is 1s1.
Therefore,
there should be two s-p bonds due to the overlap Water
of ‘s’ orbitals of two hydrogen atoms, the ‘p’ orbitals of oxygen
atom which contain unpaired electrons. HOH should be 900.
But HOH observed is 104 031 / . To explain this, sp 3
hybridisation is suggested for the valence orbitals of ‘O’ atom.
One s-orbital (2s) and three ‘p’ orbitals (2px, 2py, 2pz) intermix
and redistribute into four identical sp3 orbitals. As there are six
174 X Class Chemical Bonding
electrons and two sp3 orbitals get pairs and two sp3 orbitals get one
electron each. Now, the two sp3 orbitals of ‘O’ atom overlap the ‘s’
orbitals of two hydrogen atoms to give sp3-s bonds. Due to the lone
pair – lone pair repulsions and lone pair – bond pair repulsions HOH
decreases from 109028/ (expected for sp3 – tetrahedral hybridisation)
to 104031/.
CH4, C2H4 and C2H2 molecules and their structures will be
explained in carbon and its compounds chapter later in this class.
Properties of ionic and covalent compounds
Table -4
S.No Property NaCl (ionic) HCl (polar covalent) C2H6 (covalent)
1. Formula mass 58.5 36.5 30.0
2. Physical appearance White crystalline solid Colourless gas Colourless gas
3. Type of bond Ionic Polar covalent Covalent
4. Melting point 801 0C -115 0C -183 0C
5. Boiling point 1413 0C -84.9 0C -88.63 0C
6. Solubility Soluble in polar Soluble in polar solvents Soluble in non-polar
solvents like water like water and to some solvents but insoluble
and insoluble in non extent in non-polar in polar solvents like
-polar solvents solvents water
7. Chemical activity Highly reactive in polar Moderately Slow or very slow at
solvents and reactions reactive room temperature
are instantaneous
From the above table we understand that ionic compounds like NaCl
are solids at room temperature.
Polar compounds like HCl possess properties like melting point,
boiling point, reactivity, solubility etc, between those of ionic compounds
and covalent compounds. If the covalent bond is between atoms of two
different elements, the shared electron pair shift more towards the atom
of more electronegative element. Thus within the molecule the more
electronegative atom bears a partial negative charge and the less
electronegative atom bears a partial positive charge. A molecule of this
type which is neutral but possesses partial charges on the atoms within the
molecule is called a polar molecule and the bond is called a polar
covalent bond or partial ionic and partial covalent bond.
Eg: H+Cl H - Cl
+δ -δ
Electrons, noble gases, Lewis dot structures, Octet rule, chemical bond, Ionic
bond, covalent bond, cation, anion, electrostatic force, electrovalent, polar solvent,
non-polar solvent, formation of molecules, ionic compounds, covalent compounds,
electro positive character, electro negative character, polar bonds, bonded pair
of electrons, lone pairs, bond length, bond energy, shape of the molecule, linear,
tetrahedral, properties of ionic and covalent compounds.
ks
Fill in the blan
1. Electrons in the outermost orbit are called .............
2. Except ............. gas all other noble gases have octet in their valence shell.
3. Covalency of elements explains about member of ................ formed by the atom.
4. Valence bond theory was proposed by .........................
5. In …………………bonding the valence electrons are shared among all the atoms of the metallic
elements.
ion formed by X is [ ]
a) +1 b) +2 c) -1 d) -2
3) An element ‘A’ forms a chloride ACl4. The number electrons in the valence shell of ‘A’
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 [ ]
Required Materials for activities in the lesson
Charts and Flash cards showing Chemical compounds, Ball & Stick models
178 X Class Chemical Bonding
9
Chapter
Electric Current
Direction of electric field Let the electric force made the charges move
A Fe B through a distance ‘l’ from A to B as shown in
figure 5. We know that, the work is the product of
l force and distance along the direction of force.
fig-5
Hence, work done by the electric force on a
free charge q is given by
W = Fe l
What is the work done by the electric force on unit charge?
Work done by the electric force on unit charge = W/q = Fe l/q
Work done by the electric force on unit positive charge to move it
through a distance ‘l’ from A to B is called potential difference between
those points. Potential difference is denoted by a symbol V. The potential
difference between two points separated by a distance l in a conducting
wire is given by,
V = W/q = Fe l/q
(in ampere)
(assuming the temperature of the manganin wire is constant
I
during the flow of current through it).
Draw a graph between V and I taking the potential difference
(V) along x-axis and current (I) along y-axis with appropriate
scale. You will get a straight line graph passing through the
origin as shown in figure 11. V
(in volt)
fig-11
II. Aim: To show V/I is not constant in LED type conductors.
Procedure: Perform the above experiment with 3V LED in the
place of manganin wire.
- The long terminal of LED is attached to positive terminal of the
battery, short one to negative terminal of the battery.
- With the help of Rheostat change the potential difference (up to
3V) and note down current (I) and potential difference (V) in each instance
in the Table - I
Calculate the V/I value.
What do you observe?
Do you know?
A multi meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit.
Digital multi meter displays the measured value in
numerals.
A multi meter has three parts
Display: The display usually has four
digits and the ability to display a negative sign.
Selection knob: The selection knob
allows the user to set the multi meter to read
different functions such as milliamps (mA)
of current, voltage (V) and resistance ().
Ports: Multi meters generally have two
ports. One is usually labelled as ‘COM’
(common or ground port). This is where black test lead is
connected. The other is labelled as mAV port where the
red lead is conventionally plugged in.
WARNING: Most multi meters can measure AC quantities also, but AC circuits
can be dangerous. So measure DC quantities only.
Activity 2
Complete the circuit as shown in the figure -13
Adjust the knob to keep the potential difference at 1.5V in the battery
eliminator. Now run the circuit and note down the Ammeter reading in the
table. Now touch the bulb and sense the heat.
Activity 4
Collect different copper, nichrome, manganin wires of the same length
(at least 2m length) and same cross sectional area.
different metal rods are connected
Make a circuit as shown in figure 14. P and Q are between P and Q
the free ends of the conducting wires. Connect one P Q
Note: The value of overload current varies from the household currents fig-25
to factories.
Key words
Electric potential difference between points in an electric circuit is the work done to move a unit
positive charge from one point to another.
Electric current is expressed as the amount of charge flowing through a particular cross section
0area in unit time.
A multi-meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measuring functions
(electric potential difference, electric current and electric resistance) in one unit.
Ohms law: The current through a conductor element is proportional to the potential difference
applied between its ends, provided the temperature remains constant. Mathematically V=IR.
Ohm’s law is valid for metal conductors at constant temperature. It is not applicable for gaseous
conductors and semiconductors.
Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the motion of electrons.
Resistance of a wire depends on the material of the wire, its length and its area of cross section
R l/A.
The resistivity of a material is the resistance per unit length of a unit cross section of the material.
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the same current flows through them.
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel if the same potential difference exist
across them.
The junction law: At any junction point in a circuit where the current can divide, the sum of the
currents into the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
The loop law: The algebraic sum of the increases and decreases in potential difference across
various components of a closed circuit loop must be zero.
Electric power is the product of potential difference and the current. SI unit of power is watt
(W).
Electrical energy is the product of power and time. Units of electrical energy W-s and KWH.
1. Explain how electronflow causes electric current with Lorentz – Drude theory of electrons.(AS1)
2. How does a battery work? Explain. (AS1)
3. Write the difference between potential difference and emf. (AS1)
4. What do you mean by electric shock? Explain how it takes place. (AS1)
1. A uniform wire of resistance 50 is cut into five equal parts. These parts are now connected
in parallel. Then the equivalent resistance of the combination is [ ]
a) 2 b) 12
c) 250 d) 6250
2. A charge is moved from a point A to a point B. The work done to move unit charge during this
process is called. [ ]
1. How can you verify that the resistance of a conductor is temperature dependent? (AS1)
2. Why do we use fuses in household circuits? (AS1)
3. Suppose that you have three resistors each of value 30 . How many resistors can you obtain by
various combinations of these three resistors? Draw diagrams in support of your predictions. (AS2)
4. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit in which two resistors A and B are connected in series with a
battery and a voltmeter is connected to measure the potential difference across the resistorA. (AS5)
5. In the figure Q-26 the potential at A is ——————— when the potential at B is zero. (AS7)
1A V= 0
A 5 2V B
6. If the resistance of your body is 100000 what would be the current that flows in your body
when you touch the terminals of a 12V battery? (AS7)
7. A uniform wire of resistance 100 is melted and recast into wire of length double that of the
original. What would be the resistance of the new wire formed?(AS7)
Electromagnetism
In the previous chapter on ‘Electricity’ you have learnt about the
heating effects of electric current. We use many electric appliances in
our daily life such as electric motor, electric generators, electric calling
bells, electric cranes etc.,
How do they work?
How do electromagnets work?
Is there any relation between electricity and magnetism?
Can we produce magnetism from electricity?
In this chapter we will study electromagnetic effects. We also study
electric motors which involve magnetic effects of electric current and
electric generator which involves electric effects of moving magnets.
Activity 1
Oersted experiment
Take a thermocole sheet and fix two thin wooden sticks of height 1cm
which have small slit at the top of their ends. Arrange a copper wire of 24
gauge so that it passes through these slits and make a circuit. The circuit
consists of a 3 (or 9) volt battery, key and copper wire which are connected
in series as shown in figure 1. Now, keep a magnetic compass below the
wire. Bring a bar magnet close to the compass.
Does the needle get deflected by the bar
magnet?
Why does the needle get deflected by the
magnet?
Take the bar magnet far away from the circuit
and switch on the circuit. Look for changes in
fig-1
the position of the needle.
What do you notice?
Is there any change in the position of the compass needle?
Which force is responsible for the deflection of the compass
needle?
Does the current-carrying wire apply a force on the needle?
What do we call this force? (Recall the idea of field forces in class 8,
chapter “Force”).
In order to understand the reasons for the deflection of the compass
needle with no bar magnet near it we need to understand the idea of
‘magnetic field’ and the influence of electric field on magnetic field.
Let us learn about it.
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 211
Magnetic Field
We use the term field when a force gets applied on an object by another
object without there being any physical contact between them. You have
observed this already in activity 1. Let us call this field which is responsible
for deflection of the compass needle as ‘magnetic field’.
How was this field produced?
Can we observe the field of a bar magnet?
Let us try.
Activity 2
Take a sheet of white paper and place it on the horizontal table. Place a
bar magnet in the middle of the sheet. Place a magnetic compass near the
magnet. It settles to a certain direction. Use a pencil and put dots on the
sheet on either side of the needle. Remove the compass. Draw a small line
segment connecting the two dots. Draw an arrow on it from South Pole of
the needle to North Pole of the needle. Repeat the same by placing the
compass needle at various positions on the paper. The compass needle
settles in different directions at different positions.
Why does this happen?
Remove the bar magnet and place the magnetic compass on the paper.
It comes to rest along the north-south direction. Now place the bar magnet
in its previous place.
Is there any change in the direction of the needle of the magnetic
compass? Why?
The needle of the magnetic compass is affected by the bar magnet
without any physical contact. A force causes the needle to deflect and makes
it to come to rest in a certain direction.
What is the nature of force that acts on the needle?
The force which acts on the needle from a distance is due to the
magnetic field of the bar magnet.
In activity 2, you have already seen that the orientation of needle is
different at different places on paper. This gives us an idea that the magnetic
field has direction and it varies from one point to another.
When you changes the place of the compass near the bar magnet you
can observe that its orientation changes from point to point. Now take the
needle to places far away on the sheet and observe the orientation of the
compass needle in each case.
What do you observe?
212 X Class Electromagnetism
The compass needle shows almost the same direction along north and
south at places far from the magnet.
What does it mean?
From these observations we conclude that the strength of the field
varies with distance from the bar magnet. Now hold the compass a little
above the table and at the top of the bar magnet. You can observe that field
exists in all directions around the bar magnet. Hence we can say that the
magnetic field is three dimensional i.e., magnetic field surrounds its source
such as bar magnet. From the above discussion we can generalize that:
A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a bar magnet and is
characterized by strength and direction.
Lines of magnetic field
How can we find the strength of the field and direction of the
field?
You know that the direction of the field can be determined by
using a compass. Let us find out how to determine the strength of
the field.
Activity 3
Place a white sheet of paper on a horizontal table. Place a compass in
the middle of it. Put two dots on either side of the compass needle. Take it
out. Draw a line connecting the dots which shows the North and South of
the earth. Now place the bar magnet on the line drawn in such a way that its
north pole points towards geographic north. Now place the compass at the
north pole of the bar magnet. Put a dot at the north pole of the compass
needle. Now remove the compass and place it at the dot. It will point in
other direction. Again put a dot at the north pole of the compass needle.
Repeat the process till you reach the south pole of the bar magnet. Connect
the dots from ‘N’ of the bar magnet to ‘S’ of the bar magnet. You will get a
curved line. Now select another point from the north pole of the bar
magnet. Repeat the process for many
points taken near the north pole. You will
get different curves as shown in figure
2.
What are these curves?
Technically these curves are called
“magnetic field lines”. Field lines are
imaginary lines. These lines help us to
understand the nature of the field. So
these curved lines represent the field fig-2: Magnetic field lines
fig-4(d)
216 X Class Electromagnetism
(ii) Magnetic field due to circular coil
Activity 5
Take a thin wooden plank covered with white paper
and make two holes on its surface as shown in figure
5(a). Pass insulated copper wire (24 gauge) through the
holes and wind the wire 4 to 5 times through holes such To current
that it looks like a coil (figure 5(a)). The ends of the supply
wire are connected to terminals of the battery through a circuit
switch. Now switch on the circuit. Place a compass fig-5(a)
needle on the plank at the centre of the coil. Put dots on
either side of the compass. Again place compass at one of the dots, put
other dot further. Do the same till you reach the edge of the plank. Now
repeat this for the other side of the coil from the
centre. Then draw a line joining the dots, you will
get a field line of the circular coil. Do the same for
the other points taken in between the holes. Draw
corresponding lines. You will get field lines of the Area A Area A cos
circular coil.
Can you tell the direction of the magnetic field
B
of the coil? fig-3(b)
This could be answered from the orientation of the compass needle.
You can observe this when the compass needle is kept at the centre of the
coil. The direction in which the compass needle comes to rest indicates
the direction of the field due to the coil. Thus the direction of the field is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
Why does the compass needle point in the direction of field?
Place the compass in front of one of the faces of the coil and observe
the orientation of the compass needle. Note the pole of the needle that
±x
faces the coil. We know that south pole is attracted to
the north pole. The needle is oriented in such a way that B B
its south pole points towards the north pole of the coil. I I
r
So we can say that the direction of magnetic field, due I N
r
to coil, points towards you when the current in the coil
is in anticlockwise direction. Verify this in your
experiment (do not touch the wires of the coil). When S
the current in the coil is in clock-wise direction, the fig-5(b)
direction of magnetic field due to the coil points away from you. The
direction of the field due to coil or solenoid is determined by using right
hand rule, which states that,
“When you curl your right hand fingers in the direction of current,
thumb gives the direction of magnetic field.”
Observe the direction of magnetic field in figure 5(b).
I=Q/t
Substituting ‘I’ in the equation 3, we get I=0 I
F = ILB .................(4)
fig-9
Note: This equation holds well only when direction of
electric current is perpendicular to magnetic field.
In figure 9, you can observe the bending in the wire due to the force
applied on it.
What is the force on the wire if its length makes an angle ‘’ with the
magnetic field?
The field in between north and south pole of horse shoe magnet is
shown in the figure 11 (a). Let us imagine a wire passing perpendicular to
the paper. Let the current pass through it (into the page). It produces a
magnetic field as shown in figure 11(b). Now let us try to sketch the resultant
field by observing the field lines. We can see that the direction of the field
lines due to the wire in upper part (of circular lines) coincides with the
direction of the field lines of horse shoe magnet. The direction of field
lines by wire in lower part (of circular lines) is opposite to the direction
of the field lines of horse shoe magnet. So that the net field in upper part
is strong and in lower part it is weak. Hence a non-uniform field is created
around the wire. This non uniform field is shown in figure 11 (c). Therefore
the wire tries to move to the weaker field region.
Does this deflection fit with the direction of magnetic force found by
right hand rule?
What happens when a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform
magnetic field?
Can we use this knowledge to construct an electric motor?
Let us try to answer.
Electric Motor
To understand the working of an electric motor we need
to understand the behaviour of a current carrying coil kept in a
uniform magnetic field.
Consider a rectangular coil kept in a uniform magnetic B
field as shown in figure 12(a). Switch on the circuit so that the C
current flows through the rectangular coil. The direction of
current in the coil is shown in figure 12(a). A
You will notice that they are always at right angles to the Magnetic field (B)
magnetic field. fig-12(a)
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 223
Can you draw the direction of magnetic force on sides AB and CD?
Apply right hand rule to get the direction of magnetic force. At AB, the
magnetic force acts inward perpendicular to field of the magnet and on
CD, it acts outward.
See the figure 12(b). This figure is drawn showing top
F(on AB) view. The force on the sides BC and DA varies because they
make different angles at different positions of the coil in
B
B
the field.
What are the directions of forces on BC and DA?
C At BC, magnetic force pulls the coil up and at DA
F(on CD) magnetic force pulls it down.
fig-12(b)
What is the net force on the rectangular coil?
The force on AB is equal and opposite to the force on CD due to external
magnetic field because they carry equal currents in the opposite direction.
Sum of these forces is zero; similarly the sum of the forces on sides BC
and DA is also zero for the same reason. So, net force on the coil is zero.
But there is rotation of the coil. How is it possible?
F Why does the coil rotate?
Let us consider opening a cap of the bottle as an example
where two equal and opposite forces act on the cap. Two forces
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction must act on the
either side of cap of the bottle as shown in figure 12 (c). These
F forces bring the cap into rotation. Similarly the rectangular coil
fig-12(c) comes into rotation in clockwise direction because of equal
and opposite pair of forces acting on the two sides of the coil.
What happens to the rotation of the coil if the direction of current in
the coil remains unchanged?
If the direction of current in the coil is unchanged, it rotates up to a
vertical position then due to its inertia it rotates further in clockwise
direction. But now the sides of the coil experience forces which are in the
opposite direction to the previous case. Hence these forces try to rotate it
in anti clockwise direction. As a result, this coil comes to halt and rotates
in anti clock wise direction, this will go on if the direction of current
remains unchanged.
How could you make the coil rotate continuously?
If the direction of current in the coil, after the first half rotation, is
reversed, the coil will continue to rotate in the same direction. Thus if the
direction of current through the coil is reversed every half rotation, the
coil will rotate continuously in one and the same direction.
224 X Class Electromagnetism
How can we achieve this?
Anticlockwise
To achieve this, brushes B1 and B2 are used, rotation
Activity 9
Take a wooden base as shown in figure 13(a). Fix a soft iron cylinder
on the wooden base vertically. Wind copper wire around the soft iron as
shown in figure 13(a). Now take a metal ring which is slightly greater in
radius than the radius of the soft iron cylinder and insert it through
the soft iron cylinder on the wooden base. Connect the ends of the
coil to an AC source and switch on the current.
What do you notice?
You notice that the metal ring is levitated on the coil.
Switch off the current, the ring will jump into the air very
dramatically. Remove the AC supply and connect a DC supply. Observe
what happens.
Why is there a difference in behaviour in these two cases?
What force supports the ring against gravity when it is being fig-13(a)
fig-17(c):
R
DC Generator
When the coil is in the vertical position
the induced current generated during the first
half rotation, rises from zero to maximum and then falls to zero again. As
the coil moves further from this position, the ends of the coil go to other
slit rings. Hence during the second half rotation, the current is reversed in
the coil itself, the current generated in the second half rotation of the coil
is identical with that during the first half of direct current (DC) as shown
i n figure
17(d)for
emf generated coil
one
No. of revolution.
revolutions
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 11/4
Position of
coil and
commutator
with
respect to
direction
of
Zero emf Maximum Zero Maximum Zero magnetic
emf emf emf emf flux
fig-17(d)
fig- Q3 fig- Q4
fig- Q2
ks
Fill in the blan
1. The SI unit of magnetic field induction is ........................
2. Magnetic flux is the product of magnetic field induction and .................
3. The charge is moving along the direction of magnetic field. Then force acting on it is ...............
4. A current carrying wire of length L is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B. Then
the force acting on the wire with current I is .....................
5. Faraday’s law of induction is the consequence of .....................
Try These
1. Symbol ‘X’ indicates the direction of a magnetic field into the page. A straight long wire carrying
current along its length is kept perpendicular to the magnetic field. What is the magnitude of
force experienced by the wire? In what direction does it act? (AS1)
2. Derive Faraday’s law of induction from law of conservation of energy. (AS1)
3. Explain with the help of two activities that current carrying wire produces magnetic field. (AS1)
4. As shown in figure Q-4 both coil and bar magnet moves in the same direction. Your friend is
arguing that there is no change in flux. Do you agree with his statement? If not what doubts do
you have? Frame questions about the doubts you have regarding change in flux. (AS2)
5. What experiment do you suggest to understand Faraday’s law? What items are required?
What suggestions do you give to get good results of the experiment? Give precautions also.
(AS3)
6. Collect information about generation of current by using Faraday’s law. (AS4)
7. Collect information about material required and procedure of making a simple electric motor
from internet and make a simple motor on your own. (AS4)
8. Collect information of experiments done by Faraday. (AS4)
9. How do you appreciate the relation between magnetic field and electricity that changed the life
style of mankind? (AS6)
10. A coil is kept perpendicular to the page. At P, current flows into the page and at Q it comes out
of the page as shown in figure Q-10. What is the direction of magnetic field due to the coil?
(AS1)
i Q
V
B
L N
fig- Q4 P x
fig- Q10
fig- Q1
C
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 237
11
Chapter
Principles of Metallurgy
In class 8 you have studied about certain properties of metals like,
malleability, ductility, sonarity etc. Metals play an important role in our
daily life. We use various metals for various purposes like gold and
silver as jewellary, copper, iron, alluminium for making conducting wires
and for making utensils etc. We use many house hold articles made up
of metals and their alloys at our home.
Can you mention some articles that are made up of metals?
Do metals exist in nature in the form same as that we use in our daily
life?
Have you ever heard the words like ore, mineral and metallurgy?
Do you know how these metals are obtained?
To understand these questions you need to know about metallurgy. In
this chapter we discuss various concepts related to metallurgy and the
process by which we are able to obtain the pure form of metal that we use
in our daily life.
“Metallurgy is the process of extraction of metals from their ores”.
Human history in terms of materials had the Bronze Age and Iron Age
pertaining to the metals they started to use the bronze (an alloy of copper
and tin) and iron. Now we have more than 75% metals among the elements
available.
Occurrence of the metals in nature
How the metals are present in nature?
The earth’s crust is the major source of metals. Sea water also contains
some soluble salts such as sodium chloride and magnesium chloride etc.
Activity 1
Look at the following ores.
Identify the metal present in each ore.
Table - 1
What metals can we get from the ores mentioned in the Table – 1?
Can you arrange these metals in the order of their reactivity?
What do you notice in Table – 2?
You will notice that the ores of many metals are oxides and sulphides.
This is why oxygen - sulphur (16th group) group is called chalcogen family
(chalco = ore; genus = produce)
The metals like K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al are so reactive that they are
never found in nature in free state.
The metals like Zn, Fe, Pb etc., are moderately reactive. They are found
in the earth crust mainly as oxides, sulphides and carbonates.
Metals like Au, Ag are least reactive and they are found even in free
state in nature.
Based on reactivity we can arrange metal in descending order of their
reactivity as shown below:
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––
High reactivity Moderate reactivity Low reactivity
Can you think how do we get these metals from their ores?
Does the reactivity of a metal and form of its ore (oxides, sulphides,
chlorides, carbonates sulphates) has any relation with process of
extraction?
How are metals extracted from mineral ores?
What methods are to be used?
Let us find.
Extraction of metals from the ores:
The extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages.
They are:
I) Concentration or Dressing
II) Extraction of crude metal
III)Refining or purification of the metal.
240 X Class Principles of Metallurgy
Reactivity of Metals Table-3
Metals Action of Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with dilute Reaction with
Oxygen cold water steam strong Acids chlorine on heating
241
Au
Flow Chart on stages of extraction of metals
Ore Hand picking
by Washing
Concentration of ore
Froth flotation
Magnetic Separation
Extraction of crude
metal from the ore
Sulphide ore
Oxides
Electrolysis of Calcination Roasting
molten ore
Reduction
Metal Oxide ofmetal Metal
(eg: Na, Mg, Al, etc.,)
Hand picking If the ore particles and the impurities are different in
one of the properties like colour, size etc., Using that
property the ore particles are handpicked separating
them from other impurities.
Washing Ore particles are crushed and kept on a slopy surface.
They are washed with controlled flow of water. Less
densive impurities are carried away by water flow,
leaving the more densive ore particles behind.
Froth floatation This method is mainly useful for sulphide ores which
have no wetting property whereas the impurities get
wetted. The ore with impurities is finely powdered and
kept in water taken in a flotation cell. To get more foam
add few millilitres of pine oil to the mixture. Air under
pressure is blown to produce froth in water. Froth so
produced, takes the ore particles to the surface whereas
impurities settle at the bottom. Froth is separated and
washed to get ore particles.(see fig.1)
Magnetic separation If the ore or impurity, one of them is magnetic substance
and the other non-magnetic substance they are separated
using electromagnets. (see Fig.2)
Froth bubbles
carrying sulphide Powdered ore
ore particles Compressed
Air
Magnetic
wheel
Sulphide ore Non
particles Magnetic
wheel
Water Moving belt
containing
pine oil
Gangue Non Magnetic ore Magnetic ore
fig-2: Magnetic separation
fig-1: Froth floatation process for the
concentration of sulphide ores
There are some other methods also for dressing which you will learn at higher classes.
The metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metal by using
suitable reducing agent such as carbon
i) Reduction of metal oxides with carbon: The oxides are reduced
by coke in a closed furnace which gives the metal and carbon monoxide
(CO).
at 1400 oC
Eg: PbO + C ––––––––––> Pb + CO
in blast furnace
Eg: Fe2O3 + 3CO ––––––––––––>2Fe + 3CO2
850 oC
Eg: TiCl4 + 2Mg ––––––––––––>Ti + 2MgCl2
850 oC
TiCl4 + 4Na ––––––––––––> Ti + 4NaCl
Do you know?
2000 oC Combustion
zone reverberatory furnace is used for roasting.
Molten
slag
Molten iron 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) ––––> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
zinc blende
Heat air
Fire
Hearth fig-7: Reverberatory box
furnace
250 X Class Principles of Metallurgy
Calcination: Calcination is a pyrochemical process in which the
ore is heated in the absence of air. The ore gets generally decomposed in
the process.
Eg: MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Flux: Flux is a substance added to the ore to remove the gangue from
it by reacting with the gangue. If the impurity (gangue) is acidic substance
like SiO2, basic substance like CaO is used as flux and if the impurity is of
basic nature like FeO acidic flux like SiO2 is added to the gangue.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) ––––> CaSiO3(l)
flux silica(gangue) calcium silicate(slag)
ks
Fill in the blan
1. The ……………………method suitable to enrich the sulphide ores.
2. Arranging metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called ………………
3. The ……………………method suitable for purification of low boiling metals.
4. Corrosion of iron occurs in the presence of ………….. and ……………..
5. The chemical process in which the ore is heated in the absence of air is called …..................
The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the cosmetics you use, the
fuels you use to run automobiles are all the compounds of carbon.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and it was known to the ancients.
They used to manufacture charcoal by burning organic material.
Carbon is a non-metal. It belongs to the fourteenth group or IV A
group in the modern periodical table. The elements of this group have four
electrons in the valence shell.
Let us write the electronic configuration of Carbon (6C).
Atomic number of carbon is 6.
Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state) 6C: 1s2 2s2 2p2. To
get the octet in its outer shell it has to gain four more electrons to form
C4-. The electronegativity of carbon is only 2.5 and its nucleus has only
six protons. Therefore it would be difficult for a nucleus with six protons
to hold ten electrons. Hence, carbon cannot form C4- ions so easily.
Can carbon get helium configuration by losing four electrons from
the outer shell?
If carbon loses four electrons from the outer shell, it has to form C4+
ions. This requires huge amount of energy which is not available normally.
Therefore C4+ formation also is a remote possibility. Carbon has to satisfy
its tetravalency by sharing electrons with other atoms. It has to form four
covalent bonds either with its own atoms or atoms of other elements.
H
|
Eg: H – C – Cl
|
Br
b) Carbon atoms may form one double bond and two single bonds
H H H O
Eg: C C ; H C C
H H
H H
c) Carbon atom may form one single bond and a triple bond
Eg: H–C C–H or CH3 –C N or carbon atoms may also
form two double bonds as in CH2 = C = CH2.
How do carbon atoms form bonds in so many different ways as
mentioned above?
Explain the four unpaired electrons in carbon atom through excited
state.
As per valence bond theory (see chapter, chemical bonding), the four
unpaired electrons in a carbon atom are shown by suggesting excited state
to carbon atom.
Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state):
1s2 2s2 2p2 (or) 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py12pz0
1s 2s 2p
Carbon (ground state)
Energy
electrons. 2s
We have got four unpaired electrons From ground state to
ready for bonding, but these electrons are excited state
in two different kinds of orbitals and their
energies are different. We are not going to
get four identical bonds unless these
2px 2py 2pz
Energy
2s
unpaired electrons are in four identical
orbitals.
How to explain the four orbitals of carbon containing unpaired
electrons as energetically equal?
We can explain it by the phenomenon called hybridisation.
Hybridisation
The concept of hybridisation was introduced by Linus Pauling (1931).
The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms
to give equal number of new orbitals with identical properties like energy
and shape is called “hybridisation”. The newly formed orbitals are called
as ‘hybrid orbitals.’
In the excited carbon atom its one s-orbital (2s) and three p-orbitals
(2px, 2py, 2pz) intermix and reshuffle into four identical orbitals known as
sp3 orbitals. Thus, carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation.
The four electrons enter into the new four identical hybrid orbitals
known as sp3 hybrid orbitals one each as per Hund’s rule. (because they
are made from one ‘s-orbital’ and three ‘p-orbitals’ they are called sp3
orbitals).
NOTE: Read “ sp3 “ as “ s p three”. or “yes pee three”
2px 2py 2pz
Energy
2s sp3 hybrids
The hybridisation enables the carbon to have four identical sp3 hybrid
orbitals and these have one electron each. Since carbon has four unpaired
overlap
overlap
This leads to form four sp3 – s sigma bonds between carbon atom and
four hydrogen atoms. All these bonds are of equal energy.
sp2 hybridisation
How do you explain the ability of C – atom to form two single covalent
bonds and one double bond?
Consider ethene / ethylene (CH2 = CH2) molecule as the example.
2px 2py 2pz
2pz
Energy
2s sp2 hybrids
In the formation of CH2=CH2 each carbon atom in its excited state
undergoes sp2 hybridisation by intermixing one s-orbital (2s) and two
p-orbitals (say 2px, 2py) and reshuffling to form three sp2 orbitals. Now
each carbon atom is left with one ‘p’ orbital (say pz) unhybridised. The
three sp2 orbitals having one electron each get separated around the nucleus
of carbon atoms at an angle of 120o. When carbon is ready to form bonds
one sp2 orbital of one carbon atom overlaps the sp2 orbital of the other
carbon atom to form sp2 – sp2 sigma () bond. The remaining two sp2
orbitals of each carbon atom get overlapped by‘s’ orbitals of two hydrogen
atoms containing unpaired electrons. The unhybridised pz orbitals on the
two carbon atoms overlap laterally as shown in figure to form a bond.
258 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
That means there exists a sigma () bond and a pi () bond between two
carbon atoms in ethene molecule. Hence, the molecule ethene (C2H4) is
H H
C C
H H
sp2-s sp2-s
figure of
C 2H 4
sp2-sp2
p z-p z
sp -s
2
sp2-s
p y-p y
sp-sp
s-sp p z-p z s-sp
figure of C2H2
Free distribution by Govt. of A.P. 259
In acetylene molecule there exists a triple bond between two carbon
atoms and the fourth valency of each carbon atom is satisfied by hydrogen
atoms (H–C C–H ).
In C2H2 molecule there are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms.
In excited state each carbon atom undergoes sp- hybridisation by mixing
its one ‘s’ orbital (2s) and one ‘p’ orbital (2px) and reshuffling to form two
identical orbitals known as sp-orbitals. Each carbon atom has two
unhybridised p-orbitals (say 2py, 2pz).
2px 2py 2pz 2py 2pz
Energy
2s sp hybrids
C C and
H H
H H
H C C H Explain it.
H H
What are bond angles HCH in CH4, C2H4 and C2H2 molecules?
Allotropes of Carbon
The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms
having more or less similar chemical properties but different physical
properties is called allotropy. The different forms of the element are called
allotropes. Allotropes form due to the difference in the arrangement of
atoms in the molecules.
The allotropes of carbon are classified into two types. They are
Amorphous forms
Crystalline forms
Do you know?
The buckminsterfullerene, or usually just fullerene for short, was discovered
in 1985 by a team of scientists, Robert F. Curl, Harold W. Kroto and Richard E.
Smalley from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were
awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named so for the resemblance
of their structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and architect
Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller.
H C H
NH4CNO N N
heat H H
Ammonium Urea
cyanate
It inspired many other chemists and they were successful to prepare
the so called organic compounds, methane, acetic acid etc., in the laboratory.
This gave a death blow to the idea that organic compounds are derived
from living organism. Chemists thought about a new definition for organic
264 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
Wöhler Friedrich (1800 – 1882)
German chemist who was a student
of Berzelius. In attempting to prepare
ammonium cyanate from silver cyanide and
ammonium chloride, he accidentally
synthesized urea in 1828. This was the first
organic synthesis, and shattered the vitalism theory.
Wöhler pursued the matter further and discovered that urea
and ammonium cyanate had the same chemical formula, but
very different chemical properties. This was an early discovery of isomerism, since
urea has the formula CO(NH2)2 and ammonium cyanate has the formula NH4CNO.
The general formula of this homologous series Alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n = 1,2,3...
Table-2:Homologous series of Alkenes
Alkane No. of Carbons Structure Formula
Ethene 2 CH2 =CH2 C2H4
Propene 3 CH3-CH=CH2 C3H6
Butene 4 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 C4H8
Pentene 5 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2 C5H10
O
Esters R-COO-R R-C-OR CH3-COO-C2H5 oxycarbonyl- -oate
=
Ethyl Acetate
Amines R-NH2 R-NH2 CH3-NH2 amino- - amine
Methyl amine
Halogen derivatives R-X R-X CH3-CH2Cl halo- halide
Ethyl Chloride
Note : Word Root of C1 to C4 are taken from trivial names of the respective
hydrocarbon and the remaining are taken from Greek or Latin numarals.
In order to derive the IUPAC names a primary suffix is added to the word
root to indicate a saturation or unsaturation in the molecules.
The primary suffixes are given in the table.
Table 2 : primary suffixes
Ex : CH 3 CH CH CH C CH
Hex-4-en-1 -yne
Write the structural formula of Pent-1-en-3-yne.
6. If there are multiple bonds and also a functional group, the name of the functional
group is mentioned as the secondary suffix and while writting its name the last
letter ‘e’ of the hydrocarbon is dropped. .
Ex : CH C CH C CH COOH
Hex -2,3-dien-5-yn- 1- oic acid
Write the structural formula of Hex-1 -en-3-yne.
Activity 1
Observe the structural formula of the following hydro carbons and write
their names in your notebook.
1. CH 3 CH 2 CH CH 2
2. CH 3 CH 2 CH CH 3
|
CH 3
3. CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
4. CH 2 CH CH CH 3
|
CH 3
_
5. CH 3 C CH
Activity 2
Read the names of the following hydro carbons and draw their
structures in your notebook.
1. 2,2-Dimethyl hexane
2. But-1-yne
3. 3-Methyl Pent-2-ene
4. But-1,2-diene
5. Hept-2 en, 4-yne
You will learn more about the nomenclature of hetero, cyclic and
arrowmatic hydro carbon in your higher classes
Chemical properties of carbon compounds
Though we have millions of organic compounds, the reactions they undergo
are limited. Some important reactions among them are discussed here.
They are:
1) Combustion 2) Oxidation reactions
3) Addition reactions 4) Substitution reactions
1. Combustion reactions
Carbon, and its compounds burn in presence of oxygen or air to give
CO2, heat and light.
Fats and oils are both of fatty acids. Oils are generally liquids at room
temperature due to unsaturated fatty acids but fats are solids due to saturated
fatty acids.
4. Substitution reactions
A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a given compound
is replaced by other atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction.
Alkanes, the saturated hydrocarbons are chemically least reactive.
Therefore they are also called paraffins (parum = little; affins = affinity,
i.e., no affinity towards chemical changes). However they undergo some
chemical changes under suitable conditions which are substitution
reactions.
For example, methane (CH4) reacts with chlorine in the presence of
sunlight. Hydrogen atoms of CH4 are replaced by chlorine atoms.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
sunlight
The police officer asks the suspect to blow air into a plastic
bag through a mouth piece of the detecting instrument which
contains crystals of potassium-di-chromate (K2Cr 2O7). As
K2Cr2O7 is a good oxidizing agent, it oxidizes any ethanol in the
driver’s breath to ethanal and ethanoic acid.
Chemical properties
As ethanol is similar to water molecule (H2O) with C2H5 group in
place of hydrogen, it reacts with metallic sodium to liberate hydrogen
and form sodium ethoxide.
2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2
Ethanol sodium ethoxide
Conc.H2SO4
2) Ethanoic acid reacts with NaOH to form sodium acetate and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH 2CH3COONa + H2O
sodium hydroxide
Activity 3
Take 1 ml of ethanol (absolute alcohol) Test
and 1ml of glacial acetic acid along with a tube
containing
few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid in reaction
a test tube. mixture
O conc.H2SO4 O
CH3–C + CH3CH2OH CH3–C + H2O
O–H O–CH2CH3
Ethanoic acid Ethanol ethyl acetate
(acetic acid) (ethyl alcohol)
Activity 4
Formation of micelle
Take about 10 ml of water each in two test
tubes.
Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
end A soap molecule end
test tubes and label them as A and B.
Add a few drops of soap solution to test tube B.
Now shake both the test tubes vigorously for the
same period of time.
What is that you find in them? Soap
molecules
Can you see the oil and water layers separately in Soap
both the test tubes immediately after cloth solution
Soap has one polar end (the end with carboxy) and one non-polar end
(the end with hydrocarbon chain) as shown in the figure.
The polar end is hydrophilic in nature and this end is attracted towards
water.
The non-polar end is hydrophobic, in nature and it is attracted towards
grease or oil on the cloth, but not attracted towards water.
When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves
to dirt and remove it from the cloth, as shown sequentially in the figure
that follows.
The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move towards the dirt or
grease particle.
The hydrophobic ends attached to the dirt particle and try to pull out.
The molecules of soap surround the dirt particle at the centre of the
cluster and form a spherical structure called micelle.
These micelles remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal
solution.
The various micelles present in water do not come together to form a
precipitate as each micelle repels the other because of the ion-ion
repulsion.
Thus, the dust particles remain trapped in micelles (which remain
suspended) and are easily rinsed away with water. Hence, soap micelles
remove dirt by dissolving it in water.
Carbon forms a large variety of compounds. Its tetravalency and the property of catenation and
ability to form four single bonds, a double bond and two single bonds, a triple bond and a single
bond or two double bonds makes carbon versatile and brings one special branch in chemistry
for carbon compunds.
Hydrocarbons are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbons are of two types – saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) and unsaturated
hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes).
Carbon forms covalent bonds with its own atoms and atoms of other elements such as hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.
The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids bestow
characteristic properties to the carbon compounds that contain them. Even C = C,C C , give
characteristic properties.
A group / series of hydrocarbons having same general formula, with two successive compounds
possessing difference of - CH2 and with similar structures and similar properties (i.e., same
functional group) are called a homologous series.
Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.
Carbon compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural
isomers.
Saturated hydrocarbons on combustion give carbon dioxide and water with the liberation of
heat.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions while saturated hydrocarbons undergo
substitution reactions.
ks
Fill in the blan
1. Carbon compounds containing double and triple bonds are called ________.
2. A compound which is basic constituent of many cough syrups __________ .
3. Very dilute solution of ethanoic acid ____________.
4. A sweet odour substance formed by the reaction of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid is ___.
5. When sodium metal is dropped in ethanol _________ gas will be released.
6. The functional group present in methanol is _____________.
7. IUPAC name of alkene containing 3 carbon atoms is _______________.
8. The first member of homologous series among alkynes is ___________.
9.The product that is formed by dehydration of ethanol in conc. sulphuric acid is ______.
10. Number of single covalent bonds in ammonia are __________.
11. Type of reactions shown by alkanes is ______________.
1. Which of the four test tubes containing the following chemicals shows the brisk effervescence
when dilute acetic acid was added to them? [ ]
i) KOH ii) NaHCO3
iii) K2CO3 iv) NaCl
a) i & ii b) ii & iii c) i & iv d) ii & iii
2. Which of the following solution of acetic acid in water can be used as preservative? [ ]