8 EM Maths

MATHEMATICS
CLASS - VIII
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT & PUBLISHING COMMITTEE
Chief Production Officer : Sri. A. Satyanarayana Reddy,

Director, SCERT, A.P., Hyderabad.
Executive Chief Organiser : Sri.B. Sudhakar,

Director, A.P. Govt. Text Book Press, Hyderabad.
Organising Incharge : Dr.N. Upender Reddy,

Prof. & Head, Curriculum & Text Book Department,
SCERT, A.P., Hyderabad.
Chairperson for Position Paper and Mathematics Curriculum and Textbook Development
Prof. V.Kannan,
Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Hyderabad Central University, Hyderabad
Chief Advisors
Sri Chukka Ramaiah Dr. H.K.Dewan
Eminent Scholar in Mathematics Educational Advisor, Vidya Bhavan Society
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad. Udaipur, Rajasthan
Published by
The Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad
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(ii)
Text Book Development Committee
Writers
Sri. Tata Venkata Rama Kumar Sri. Gottumukkala V.B.S.N. Raju
H.M., ZPPHS, Mulumudi, Nellore Dt. SA, Mpl. High School, Kaspa, Vizianagaram.
Sri. Soma Prasad Babu Sri. K.Varada Sunder Reddy

PGT. APTWRS, Chandrashekarapuram, Nellore SA, ZPHS,Thakkasila, Alampur Mandal Mahabubnagar Dt.
Sri. Komanduri Murali Srinivas Sri. Abbaraju Kishore

PGT.APTWR School of Excellence, Srisailam. SGT, MPUPS,Chamallamudi, Guntur Dt.
Sri. Padala Suresh Kumar Sri. G. Anantha Reddy

SA,GHS, Vijayanagar Colony, Hyderabad. Retd. Headmaster, Ranga Reddy Dt.
Sri. P.D.L. Ganapati Sharma Sri. M. Ramanjaneyulu

SA,GHS, Zamisthanpur, Manikeshwar Nagar, Hyd. Lecturer, Govt D.I.E.T., Vikarabad, R.R. Dt.
Sri. Duggaraju Venu Sri. M. Rama Chary

SA,UPS, Allawada, Chevella Mandal, R.R. Dt. Lecturer,Govt D.I.E.T., Vikarabad, R.R. Dt.
Sri. P. Anthony Reddy Dr. A. Rambabu

H.M.,St. Peter’s High School, R.N.Peta, Nellore. Lecturer, Government CTE, Warangal
Sri D. Manohar Dr. Poondla Ramesh

SA, ZPHS, Brahmanpally, Tadwai (Mandal) Nizamabad Dt. Lecturer, Government lASE, Nellore
Editors
Prof. N.Ch.Pattabhi Ramacharyulu (Retd.) Dr. S Suresh Babu Dr. G.S.N. Murthy (Retd.)
National Institute of Technology, Professor, Dept. of Statistics, Reader in Mathematics
Warangal. SCERT A.P., Hyderabad Rajah R.S.R.K.R.R College, Bobbili
Prof. V. Shiva Ramaprasad Sri A. Padmanabham Sri. K Brahmaiah

(Retd.) (Retd.) (Retd.)
Dept. of Mathematics, H.O.D of Mathematics Prof., SCERT A.P.,
Osmania University, Hyderabad Maharani College, Peddapuram Hyderabad
Co-ordinators
Sri Kakulavaram Rajender Reddy Sri K.K.V Rayalu
Resource Person, SCERT, A.P., Hyderabad Lecturer, IASE, Masab Tank, Hyderabad
Academic Support Group Members

Sri Inder Mohan Sri Yashwanth Kumar Dave Sri Hanif Paliwal Sri Asish Chordia
Vidyabhawan Society Resource Centre, Udaipur
Sri Sharan Gopal Kum M. Archana Sri P. Chiranjeevi Smt. Neeraja

Department of mathematics and Statistics, University of Hyderabad G.P.S., CPL, Amberpet, Hyd.
Illustrations and Design Team

Sri Prasanth Soni Sri Sk. Shakeer Ahmad Sri S. M. Ikram
Vidyabhawan Society Resource Centre, Udaipur
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Foreword
Education is a process of human enlightenment and empowerment. Recognizing the

enormous potential of education, all progressive societies have committed to the
Universalization of Elementary Education with an explicit aim of providing quality education
to all. As the next step, universalization of Secondary Education has gained momentum.
The secondary stage marks the beginning of the transition from functional mathematics
studied upto the upper primary stage to the study of mathematics as a discipline. The logical
proofs of propositions, theorems etc. are introduced at this stage. Apart from being a specific
subject, it is to be treated as a concommitant to every subject involving analysis as reasoning.
I am confident that the children in our state of Andhra Pradesh learn to enjoy mathematics,
make mathematics a part of their life experience, pose and solve meaningful problems,
understand the basic structure of mathematics by reading this text book.
For teachers, to understand and absorb critical issues on curricular and pedagogic
perspectives duly focusing on learning rather than of marks, is the need of the hour. Also
coping with a mixed class room environment is essentially required for effective transaction of
curriculum in teaching learning process. Nurturing class room culture to inculcate positive
interest among children with difference in opinions and presumptions of life style, to infuse life
in to knowledge is a thrust in the teaching job.
The afore said vision of mathematics teaching presented in Andhra Pradesh State
Curriculum Frame work (APSCF -2011) has been elaborated in its mathematics position
paper which also clearly lays down the academic standards of mathematics teaching in the
state. The text books make an attempt to concretize all the sentiments.
The State Council for Education Research and Training Andhra Pradesh appreciates
the hard work of the text book development committee and several teachers from all over the
state who have contributed to the development of this text book at different levels. I am
thankful to the District Educational Officers, Mandal Educational Officers and head teachers
for making this mission possible. I also thank the institutions and organizations which have
given their time in the development of this text book. I am grateful to the office of the
Commissioner and Director of School Education, (A.P) and Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur,
Rajasthan for extending co-operation in developing this text book. In the endeavor to
continuously improve the quality of our work, we welcome your comments and suggestions in
this regard.
Place : Hyderabad Director

Date : 03 December 2012 SCERT, A.P., Hyderabad
(iv)
Preface
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has decided to revise the curriculum of all the
subjects based on Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum Frame work (APSCF - 2011) which
recommends that childrens life at schools must be linked to their life outside the school. Right
to Education (RTE - 2009) perceives that every child who enters the school should acquire
the necessary skills prescribed at each level upto the age of 14 years. The introduction of
syllabus based on National Curriculum Frame Work - 2005 is every much necessary especially
in Mathematics and Sciences at secondary level with a national perspective to prepare our
students with a strong base of Mathematics and Science.
The strength of a nation lies in its commitment and capacity to prepare its people to
meet the needs, aspirations and requirements of a progressive technological society.
The syllabus in Mathematics for three stages i.e. primary, upper primary and secondary
is based on structural and spiral approaches. The teachers of secondary school Mathematics
have to study the syllabus of classes 8 to 10 with this background to widen and deepen the
understanding and application of concepts learnt by pupils in primary and upper primary
stages.
The syllabus is based on the structural approach, laying emphasis on the discovery and
understanding of basic mathematical concepts and generalisations. The approach is to encourage
the pupils to participate, discuss and take an active part in the classroom processes.
The present text book has been written on the basis of curriculum and Academic
standards emerged after a thorough review of the curriculum prepared by the APSCERT.
● The syllabus has been divided broadly into six areas namely, (1) Number System,
(2) Algebra, (3) Arithmetic, (4) Geometry, (5) Mensuration and (6) Data Handling.
Teaching of the topics related to these areas will develop the skills prescribed in academic
standards such as problem solving, logical thinking, mathematical communication,
representing data in various forms, using mathematics as one of the disciplines of study
and also in daily life situations.
The text book attempts to enhance this endeavor by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplations. There is a scope for discussion in small groups and
activities required for hands on experience in the form of ‘Do this’ and ‘Try this’. Teacher’s
support is needed in setting the situations in the classroom.
Some special features of this text book are as follows
● The chapters are arranged in a different way so that the children can pay interest to all
curricular areas in each term in the course of study.
Free Distribution by A.P. Government (v)

● Teaching of geometry in upper primary classes was purely an intuition and to discover
properties through measurements and paper foldings. Now, we have stepped into an
axiomatic approach. Several attempts are made through illustrations to understand,
defined, undefined terms and axioms and to find new relations called theorems as a
logical consequence of the accepted axioms.
Care has been taken to see that every theorem is provided initially with an activity for
easy understanding of the proof of those theorems.
● Continuous Comprehension Evaluation Process has been covered under the tags of
‘Try this’ and ‘Think, Discuss and Write’. Exercises are given at the end of each sub
item of the chapter so that the teacher can assess the performance of the pupils
throughout the chapter.
● Entire syllabus is divided into 15 chapters, so that a child can go through the content
well in bit wise to consolidate the logic and enjoy the learning of mathematics.
● Colourful pictures, diagrams, readable font size will certainly help the children to
adopt the contents and care this book as theirs.
Chapter (1) : Rational numbers under the area of number system deal with how a rational
number is different from a fraction. Properties of rational numbers are discussed through
illustrative examples. Children has been given an opportunity to see the rational number on
a numberline, the representation of rational numbers on a numberline in decimals and vice
versa. In chapter (6) Squares and Square roots, we try to make the child, to understand the
perfect squares, properties of square numbers and finding square root of a number by
factorisation and long division methods. Cubes and Cube roots are also discussed with
various illustrative examples.
Chapters (2) (4) (11) and (12) deal with Algebra. In the chapter Linear Equation in one
variable, the child is given an opportunity to identify a variable in a verbal problem and
finding its value through transposition method. In the chapter Exponents and Powers, some
algorithms were given to write bigger numbers in exponential notation. The laws of exponents
were discussed with a variety of illustrative examples. In the chapters Algebraic Expression
and Factorisation we mostly deal with algebraic expression monomials and binomials.
Algebraic identities such as (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2, (a + b) (a − b) ≡ a2 − b2 and
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab with geometrical verification are discussed with various
values. Factorisation of algebraic expression of these forms are given, along with number of
problems to make child to practice.
(vi)
Chapter (5) Comparing Quantities discussed about ratio, proportion, compound ratio,
percentage discount, profit and loss, sales tax/VAT simple interest and compound interest
compounded annually, half yearly and quarterly and also application of compound interest
formula. Chapter (10) Direct and Inverse Proportion deals with direct proportion, inverse
proportion and mixed proportion problems with a variety of daily life situations.
Chapter (15) Playing with Numbers, provides an opportunity to the children to develop
algorithms and to find a rule through some patterns of numbers. The divisibility rules are
discussed to explore new methods. Ample number of examples and puzzles are given to
create interest.
Geometry is discussed with an aim to appreciate the figures the child has seen around him
through visualisation and drawing and construction. In the Chapter (3) Constructions of
Quadrilaterals, the focus is given for the construction of a unique quadrilateral by revisiting
its properties. All models of constructions were given with illustrative examples. In Chapter
(8) Exploring Geometrical Figures and Chapter (13) Visualising 3D in 2D, the child has
been given enough opportunities to explore various plane figures through 3D.
Data Handling is a key area in which the child will be able to perceive the knowledge of his
surroundings through tables diagrams and graphs. Chapter (7) Frequency Tables and Graphs
deals with how to classify the data using tables and to present the data in frequency graphs
such as histograms, polygons and O’give curves. Some examples are also given to revise
mean, median and mode of an ungrouped data. Alternative methods of finding the values of
central tendency and complex problems are discussed.
Finally in chapter (9), the Surface Areas of Plane Figures, we have discussed about finding
the area of Trapezium, Quadrilateral, Circle, Circular ring and Sector and also the surface
area and volume of cubes and cuboid in Chapter (14).
Mere the production of good text books does not ensure the quality of education, unless
the teachers transact the curriculum the way it is discussed in the text book. The involvement
and participation of learner in doing the activities and problems with an understanding is
ensured.
Therefore it is expected that the teachers will bring a paradigm shift in the classroom process
from mere solving the problems in the exercises routinely to the conceptual understanding,
solving of problems with ingenity.
- Text Book Development Committee
Free Distribution by A.P. Government (vii)

Highlight from History
George Polya (1887 - 1985)

Over the years, many have thought about the question whether the art of
problem solving can be taught or is it a talent possessed by only a few?
An effective and definite answer was given by the late George Polya.
He maintained that the skill of problem solving can be taught.
Polya was born in Hungary in 1887 and received his Ph.D. in mathematics
from the University of Budapest. He taught for many years at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich.
Among the numerous books that he wrote he seemed most proud of
‘How to Solve It’ (1945) which has sold nearly one million copies and George Polya
has been translated into 17 languages. (1887-1985)
Polya’s Four principles of Problem solving
I. Understand the problem
This principle seems so obvious that it need not be mentioned. However students are often
stymied in their efforts to solve a problem because they don’t understand it fully or even in part.
Teachers should ask students such questions as
● Do you understand all the words used in stating the problems? If not, look them up in the index,
in a dictionary or wherever they can be found. ● What are you asked to find or show can you
restate the problem in your own words. ● Is there yet another way to state the problem ● What
does (key word) really mean? ● Could you workout some numerical examples that would help
make the problem clear? ● Could you think of a picture or diagram that might help you to
understand the problem. ● Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution. ● Is there
extraneous information? ● What do you really need to know to find a solution.
II. Devise a plan
Devising a plan for solving a problem once it is fully understood may still required substantial
effort. But don’t be afraid to make start you may be on the right track. There are often many
reasonable ways to try to solve a problem and the successful idea may emerge only gradually
after several unsuccessful trials. A partial list of strategies include.
● guess and check ● look for a pattern ● make an orderly list ● draw a picture
● thick of the problem as particularly solved ● think of a similar problem already solved
● eliminate possibilities ● solve simpler problem ● solve an equivalent problem
● solve an analogous problem ● use symmetry ● use a model ● consider special cases
● work backward ● use direct reasoning ● use a formula ● solve an equation ● be ingenious
III. Carryout the plan

Carrying out the plan is usually easier than devising the plan. In general all you need is care and
patience, given that you have the necessary skills. If a plan does not work immediately be
persistent. If it still does n’t work, discard it and try a new strategy. Don’t be misled this is the
way mathematics is done, even by professionals.
IV. Look back
Much can be gained by looking back a completed solution to analyze your thinking and ascertain
just what was the key to solving the problem. This is how we gain “Mathematical power”, the
ability to come up with good ideas for solving problems never encountered before.
(viii)
Mathematics
VIII Class
Contents
Chapter Contents Syllabus to be Page No.
No. Covered during
1 Rational Numbers June 1-33
2 Linear Equations in One Variable July 34-58
3 Construction of Quadrilaterals July, August 59-80
4 Exponents and Powers August 81-95
5 Comparing Quantities using August 96-121

Proportion
6 Square Roots and Cube Roots September 122-147
7 Frequency Distribution Tables September/ 148-180

and Graphs October
8 Exploring Geometrical Figures October 181-198
9 Area of Plane Figures November 199-230
10 Direct and Inverse Proportions November/ 231-247

December
11 Algebraic Expressions December 248-266
12 Factorisation January 267-281
13 Visualizing 3-D in 2-D Febrauary 282-296
14 Surface Areas and Volumes February/ 297-310

(Cube-Cuboid) March
15 Playing with Numbers March 311-336
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OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM
- Rabindranath Tagore
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga.
Tava shubha name jage,
Tava shubha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha,
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!
PLEDGE
“India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”
(x)
Rational Numbers 1
Chapter
1
Rational Numbers
1.0 Introduction
Salma wants to buy three pens at five rupees each. Her friend
Satheesh wants to buy two similar pens. So they went to a
wholesale shop. Shopkeeper said that a packet of five pens
costs ` 22. How much does each pen cost? We can easily
22
calculate the cost of each pen ` . Is there any natural number
5
to represent this cost? Is there any whole number or integer to
represent this?
Consider one more example.
Observe the following various readings of temperature
recorded on a particular day in Simla.
Timings 10.00 a.m. 12.00 Noon 3.00 p.m. 7.00 p.m. 10.00 p.m.
Temperature 11 oC 14 oC 17 oC 10 oC 5 oC
In each case what is the change in temperature per hour?

14 o C − 11 o C 3 o
Case I Morning hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
2 2
(10.00 A.M. - 12.00 Noon)
17 o C − 14 o C
Case II Afternoon hours : change in temperature per hour = 1 oC/hr.
3
(12.00 Noon - 3.00 P.M.)
10 o C − 17 o C −7 o
Case III Evening hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
4 4
(3.00 P.M. - 7.00 P.M.)
5 o C − 10 o C −5 o
Case IV Night hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
3 3
(7.00 P.M. - 10.00 P.M.)
3 o −7 o −5 o
In the above cases we come across numbers like C, 1 oC, C, C.
2 4 3
Free Distribution by A.P. Government

Rational Numbers 1
Chapter
1
Rational Numbers
1.0 Introduction
Salma wants to buy three pens at five rupees each. Her friend
Satheesh wants to buy two similar pens. So they went to a
wholesale shop. Shopkeeper said that a packet of five pens
costs ` 22. How much does each pen cost? We can easily
22
calculate the cost of each pen ` . Is there any natural number
5
to represent this cost? Is there any whole number or integer to
represent this?
Consider one more example.
Observe the following various readings of temperature
recorded on a particular day in Simla.
Timings 10.00 a.m. 12.00 Noon 3.00 p.m. 7.00 p.m. 10.00 p.m.
Temperature 11 oC 14 oC 17 oC 10 oC 5 oC
In each case what is the change in temperature per hour?

14 o C − 11 o C 3 o
Case I Morning hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
2 2
(10.00 A.M. - 12.00 Noon)
17 o C − 14 o C
Case II Afternoon hours : change in temperature per hour = 1 oC/hr.
3
(12.00 Noon - 3.00 P.M.)
10 o C − 17 o C −7 o
Case III Evening hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
4 4
(3.00 P.M. - 7.00 P.M.)
5 o C − 10 o C −5 o
Case IV Night hours : change in temperature per hour = C/hr.
3 3
(7.00 P.M. - 10.00 P.M.)
3 o −7 o −5 o
In the above cases we come across numbers like C, 1 oC, C, C.
2 4 3

2 Mathematics VIII
3 −7 −5
The numbers used in these temperature are ,1, , . What do you call these
2 3 3
numbers?
Here we find the need of different types of numbers to represent these quantities.
Let us discuss such types of numbers.
3 7 −10 3 2013
, , , , , .................
4 9 17 −2 2014
p
The numbers which are expressed in the form of , where p and q are integers and q ≠ o, are
q
called ‘Rational Numbers’ and rational numbers are represented by ‘Q’. These are also called
Quotient numbers.
Observe
5 10
We can express any natural number, ex. 5 as or ................
1 2
0 0
Similarly we can express any whole number, ex. 0 as or , .........
1 2
−3 −6
We can express any integer ex. –3 as or , ........ From the above observation we can
1 2
conclude that all natural numbers, all whole numbers and all integers are also rational numbers.
Do This
1 1 −33 4
Consider the following collection of numbers 1, , −2, 0.5, 4 , , 0, ,
2 2 7 7
2
0.3 , 22, −5, 19 , 0.125. Write these numbers under the appropriate category.
[A number can be written in more than one group]
(i) Natural numbers ___________________________________
(ii) Whole numbers ___________________________________
(iii) Integers ___________________________________
(iv) Rational numbers ___________________________________
Would you leave out any of the given numbers from rational numbers?
Is every natural number, whole number and integer is a rational number ?
Rational Numbers 3
Try These
5
1. Hamid says is a rational number and 5 is only a natural number.
3
Shikha says both are rational numbers. With whom do you agree?
2. Give an example to satisfy the following sentences.
(i) All natural numbers are whole numbers but all whole numbers need
not be natural numbers.
(ii) All whole numbers are integers but all integers are not whole numbers.
(iii) All integers are rational numbers but all rational numbers need not be
integers.
We have already learnt basic operations on rational numbers in earlier classes. We now explore
some properties of operations on rational numbers.
1.2 Properties of Rational numbers

1.2.1 Closure property
(i) Whole numbers and Integers
If the sum of two whole numbers is also a whole
Let us recall the operations under
number, then, we say that the set of whole numbers
which the whole numbers and integers are satisfy closure property under addition.
closed.
Complete the following table with necessary arguements and relevant examples.
Numbers Operations
Addition Subtraction Multiplications Division
Whole numbers Closed since Not closed Closed Not closed
a + b is a whole since 5 7 = 2 since since 5 ! 8 =
5
number for any which is not which
8
two whole a whole number is not a whole
numbers a and b number.
example
Integers Closed Not closed
Since a-b is an since
integer for any
two integers a
and b example.

4 Mathematics VIII
(ii) Rational numbers - closure law

(a) Addition
2 5
Consider two rational numbers ,
7 8
2 5 16 " 35 51
" = #
7 8 56 56
51
The result is again a rational number
56
$ 19 %
8"& ' = ______ Is it a rational number? + belongs to, * for all
( 2 )
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
2 2
" = ______ Do you get a rational number?
7 7 The element 3 is in A is denoted by
Check this for few more in the following pairs. 3 +A and we read it as 3 belongs
5 1 7 2 to A.
3" , 0" , "
7 2 2 7 * is symbol for all or for every.
We can observe sum of two rational numbers is again a If we write * a, b +Q, it means
rational number. Thus rational numbers are closed under for every element a, b of Q
addition. (a + b) is a rational number for any two rational
numbers a and b, i.e. *a, b +,Q ; (a + b) +,Q.
(b) Subtraction:
5 3
Consider two rational numbers and
9 4
5 3 5- 4 3- 9 20 27 7
Then # = #
9 4 36 36 36
7
Again we got a rational number (since –7, 36 are integers and 36 is not a zero, hence
36
7
is a rational number).
36
Check this in the following rational numbers also.
2 3 14 9
(i) # = _______________ Is it a rational number ?
3 7 21
$ 48 % 11
(ii) & ' # _______________ Is it a rational number?
(9) 18
We find that the difference is also a rational number for any two rational numbers.
Thus rational numbers are closed under subtraction.
a–b is a rational numbers for any two rational number ‘a’ and ‘b’, i.e., * a, b +,Q, (a–b) +Q
Rational Numbers 5
(c) Multiplication
Observe the following
1 3
3× =
2 2
6 −11 −66 −33
× = =
5 2 10 5
3 5 2 19
× = _________ ; × = ___________
7 2 1 13
We can notice that in all the cases the product of two rational numbers is a rational number.
Try for some more pairs of rational numbers and check whether their product is a rational number
or not . Can you find any two rational numbers whose product is not a rational number?
We find that rational numbers are closed under multiplication
For any two rational numbers a and b, a×b is also rational number. i.e., ∀ a, b ∈ Q, a × b ∈Q
(d) Division
Consider two rational numbers.
2 7
,
3 8
2 7 2 8 16
Then ÷ = × = which is a rational number?
3 8 3 7 21
Check this for two more example.
5 5 2 5 1 5
÷ 2 = ÷ = × =
7 7 1 7 2 14
2 6
− ÷ = __________ = _________ = __________
3 11
17 3 17
3÷ = ÷ = ________ = ________ = ________
13 1 13
From all the above, we observe that when we divide two 5
rational numbers,we get a rational number.Now can we say Why is not defined ?
0
that the closure property holds good for rational numbers ? Do the division 5 ÷ 0 0) 5 (?
5 Can you complete the division?
Let us check the following: 0, 5 are rational numbers and
0 What is the quotient? You may
is not defined. Thus the collection of Rational numbers Q is observe multiplying any number
not closed with respect to division. with ‘0’ the product is ‘0’.
Thus we can say, if we exclude zero from Q then the Thus division is not possible, with
collection is closed under division. ‘0’ as divisor.

6 Mathematics VIII
Try These
If we exclude zero from the set of integers is it closed under division?

Check the same for natural numbers
Do This
Fill the blanks in the table
Closure property under
Numbers
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
Natural numbers Yes — — —
Whole numbers — — — No
Integers — Yes — —
Rational numbers — — Yes —
The commutative property states

1.2.2. Commutative Property: that the change in the order of two
numbers on binary operation does
Let us recall the commutative property with different not change the result.
operations for both whole numbers and then Integers. a+b= b+a
a×b = b×a
here binary operation could be any
Complete the following table. one of the four foundamental
(i) Whole numbers operations i.e., +, −, × , ÷
Operation Example Remark

Addition 2, 3 are whole numbers Addition is commutative
2+3 = 5 and 3 + 2 = 5 in W.
∴2+3= 3+2
Subtraction Is 3 – 2 equal to 2 –3? Subtraction is not commutative
Multiplication ------ ------
Division 4÷2=? 2÷4=? -------
Is 4 ÷ 2 = 2 ÷ 4 ?
Rational Numbers 7
(ii) Integers
Operation Example Remark
Addition --- Addition is commutative
in Integers.
Subtraction 2, 3 are integers .......
2 − (3) = ? (3) − 2 = ?
Is 2 − (3) = (3) − 2 = ?
Multiplication ... ... ... ... ... ...
Division ... ... ... Division is not
Commutative in Integers
(iii) Rational Numbers

(a) Addition
5 −3
Take two rational numbers , and add them
2 4
5
+
( −3) = 2 × 5 + 1× ( −3) = 10 − 3 = 7
2 4 4 4 4
( −3) + 5
=
1× ( −3) + 2 × 5
=
−3 + 10
=
7
and
4 2 4 4 4
5  −3  −3 5
so +  = +
2  4  4 2
Now check this rule for some more pairs of rational numbers.
1 5 5 1 1 5 5 1
Consider + and + . Is + = + ?
2 7 7 2 2 7 7 2
−2  −4 
+   =
( −4 ) +  −2 
Is   ?
3  5  5  3 
Did you find any pair of rational number whose sum changes, if we reverse the order of
numbers ? So, we can say that a + b = b + a for any two rational numbers a and b.
Thus addition is commutative in the set of rational numbers.
∴ ∀ a, b ∈ Q, a + b = b + a

8 Mathematics VIII
2 7
(b) Subtraction: Take two rational numbers and
3 8
2 7 16 − 21 −5 7 2 21 − 16 5
− = = and − = =
3 8 24 24 8 3 24 24
So 2 − 7 ≠ 7 − 2
3 8 8 3
Check the following.
5 5
Is 2 − = −2?
4 4
1 3 3 1
Is − = − ?
2 5 5 2
Thus we can say that subtraction is not commutative in the set of rational numbers .
a – b ≠ b – a for any two rational numbers a and b.
5
(c) Multiplication: Take two rational numbers 2, −
7
−5 −10 −5 −10 −5 −5
2× = ; ×2 = therefore 2 × = ×2
7 7 7 7 7 7
−1  −3   −3   −1 
Is ×  =   ×   ?
2  4   4   2 
Check for some more rational numbers .
We can conclude that multiplication is commutative in the set of rational numbers.
It means a × b = b × a for any two rational numbers a and b.
i.e. ∀ a, b ∈ Q, a × b = b × a
(d) Division
7 14 14 7
Is ÷ = ÷ ?
3 9 9 3
1 3 2 1
7 14 7/ 9/ 3 14 7 14 3/ 2
÷ = × = and ÷ = × =
3 9 3/ 14 2 9 3 9/ 7 3
1 2 3 1
7 14 14 7
÷ ≠ ÷
3 9 9 3
Thus we say that division of rational numbers is not commutative in the set of rational
numbers .
Rational Numbers 9
Do This
Complete the following table.

commutative with respect to
Numbers
Natural numbers Yes No Yes ———
Whole numbers ——— ——— ——— No
Integers ——— ——— ——— ———
Rational numbers ——— ——— ——— No
1.2.3 Associative Property

The associative property states that
Recall the associative property of in addition if, you have to add three
numbers, you can add first two
whole numbers with respect to four numbers and then third or you can
operations.i.e addition, subtraction, add second and third numbers first
multiplication & division. and then the first number. The result
will be the same i.e. (3 + 2) + 5 or
3 + (2 + 5).
(i) Whole numbers
Complete the table with necessary illustrations and remarks.
Operation Examples with whole numbers Remark
Addition Is 2 + (3 + 0) = (2 + 3) + 0 ?
2 + (3 + 0) = 2 + 3 = 5
(2 + 3) + 0 = 5 + 0 = 5 — — —
⇒ 2 + (3 + 0) = (2 + 3) + 0 — — —
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
for any three whole numbers a, b, c
Subtraction (2−3) – 2 = ? 2−(3−2) = ? Subtraction is not
Is (2−3) −2 = 2−(3−2) ? associative
Multiplication — — — — — — Multiplication is
— — — — — — associative
Division Is 2 ÷ (3 ÷ 5) = (2 ÷ 3) ÷ 5?
3 5 10
2 ÷ (3 ÷ 5 ) = 2 ÷ = 2 × = Division is not associative
5 3 3
2 2 1 2
( 2 ÷ 3) ÷ 5 = ÷ 5 = × =
3 3 5 15
2 ÷ (3 ÷ 5 ) ≠ ( 2 ÷ 3) ÷ 5

10 Mathematics VIII
(ii) Integers
Recall associativity for integers under four operations.
Complete the following table with necessary remarks.
Operation Integers with example Remark
Addition Is 2 + [(−3) + 5)] = [(2 + (−3)] + 5 ?
2 + ( −3) + 5 = 2 + [ −3 + 5] = 2 + 2 = 4 — — —— —
 2 + ( −3) + 5 = [2 − 3] + 5 = − 1 + 5 = 4
For any three integers a, b and c
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Subtraction Is 6 − (9 − 5) = (6 − 9) − 5 ? — — —— —
Multiplication Is 2 × [7 × ( −3)] = (2 × 7) × (−3) ? — — —— —
Division 10 ÷  2 ÷ ( −5) = [10 ÷ 2] ÷ ( −5) ??
−2 −5
10 ÷  2 ÷ ( −5 ) = 10 ÷ = 10 × = − 25 — — — — —
5 2
Now
10 5
(10 ÷ 2 ) ÷ ( −5 ) = ÷ 5 = 5 ÷ 5 = = 1
2 5
Thus 10 ÷  2 ÷ ( −5 ) ≠ [10 ÷ 2] ÷ ( −5 )
(iii) Rational numbers - Associativity

(a) Addition
2 1
Let us consider three rational numbers , 5, and verify whether
7 2
2   1    2   1 
+ 5 +  2   =  7 + 5   +  2 
7        
2   1   2  1  2 10 + 1  4 + 77 81
+ 5 +    = + 5 +  = +  = =
 2   7  2  7  2 
L.H.S. =
7  14 14
 2    1   2 + 35   1 37 1 74 + 7 81
R.H.S. =  + 5   +   =   + = + = =
 7    2   7   2 7 2 14 14
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Rational Numbers 11
1  3  4  1 3  4 
Find +  +    and  +  +  
2  7  3  2 7  3 
Are the two sums equal?
Take some more rational numbers and verify the associativity.
We find rational numbers satisfy associative property under addition.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for any three rational numbers a, b and c.
i.e., ∀ a, b, c ∈ Q, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
(b) Subtraction
1 3 −5
Let us take any three rational numbers , and
2 4 4
1  3  −5    1 3   −5 
Verify whether −  −   =  −  −  
2  4  4   2 4  4 
1  3  −5   1 3 5 1 8
L.H.S. = −  −   = −  +  = − 
2  4  4  2 4 4 2 4
1 1 − 4 −3
= −2 = =
2 2 2
 1 3   −5   1 × 2 − 3  5  −1  5
R.H.S. =  −  −   =  + = +
2 4  4   4  4  4  4
−1 + 5 4
= = =1
4 4
1  3  −5    1 3   −5 
∴ − −  ≠  −  − 
2  4  4    2 4   4 
L.H.S. ≠ R.H.S.
We find subtraction is not associative in the set of rational numbers. That is a-(b-c) ≠ (a-b) – c
for any three rational numbers a, b, c.
(c) Multiplication
2 4 −5
Take three rational numbers , ,
3 7 7
2 4  −5   2 4   −5 
× ×   =  ×  ×   ?
3  7
Is
 7   3 7   7 
2  4  −5   2  −20  −40
×  ×   = =
3  49  147
LHS =
3  7  7 

12 Mathematics VIII
 2 4   −5   8   −5  −40
RHS =  ×  ×   =   ×   =
 3 7   7   21   7  147
LHS = RHS
Check the following.
1   1
Find 2 ×  × 3 and  2 ×  × 3
2   2
1   1
Is 2 ×  × 3 =  2 ×  × 3 ?
2   2
5 3 7 5 3  7
Find ×  ×  and  ×  ×
3 7 5 3 7  5
5 3 7
Is ×  ×  = 5 × 3  ×7 ?
3 7 5  
3 7  5
We can find in all the above cases LHS = RHS
Thus multiplication is associative in rational numbers
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c for any three rational numbers a, b, c.
i.e., ∀ a, b, c ∈ Q, a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
(d) Division
2 3 1
Take any three rational numbers , and
3 4 7
2 3 1 2 3 1
Is ÷ ÷ = ÷  ÷ ?
3 4 7 3 4 7
2 3 1 2  3 7 2 21 2 4 8
L.H.S. = ÷ ÷  = ÷ ×  = ÷ = × =
3 4 7 3  4 1 3 4 3 21 63
 2 3  1  2 4  1  8  1 8 7 56
R.H.S. =  ÷  ÷ =  ×  ÷ =   ÷ = × =
3 4 7 3 3 7  9 7 9 1 9
2 3 1 2 3 1
÷  ÷  ≠ ÷  ÷
3 4 7 3 4 7
L.H.S. ≠ R.H.S.
Thus a ÷ (b ÷ c ) ≠ ( a ÷ b ) ÷ c for any three rational numbers a, b, c.
So, division is not associative in rational numbers.
Rational Numbers 13
Do This
Complete the following table
Associative under
Numbers
Natural numbers Yes No ..... .....
Whole numbers ..... ..... ..... No
Integers ..... No Yes .....
Rational numbers ..... ..... ..... .....
1.2.4 The Role of Zero

1 1
Can you find a number, which when added to a number gives the same number ?
2 2
When the number ‘0’ is added to any rational number, the rational number remains the same.
For example
1 + 0 = 1 and 0 + 1 = 1
−2 + 0 = −2 and 0 + (−2) = −2
1 1 1 1
+ 0 = and 0 + =
2 2 2 2
For this reason we call ‘0’ as an identity element of addition or “additive identity”.
If a represents any rational number then a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a
Does the set of natural numbers have additive identity ?
1.2.5 The Role of 1
Fill in the following blanks :
3× = 3 and × 3 = 3
-2 × = −2 and × −2 = −2
7 7 7 7
× = and × =
8 8 8 8
What observations have you made in the above multiplications?

14 Mathematics VIII
You will find that when you multiply any rational number with ‘1’, you will get the same rational
number as the product.
We say that ‘1’ is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers
What is the multiplicative identity for integers and whole numbers?
We often use the identity properties without realizing that we are using them.
15
For example when we write in the simplest form we may do the following.
50
15 3×5 3 5 3 3
= = × = ×1=
50 10 × 5 10 5 10 10
3 3
When we write that ×1 = . We used the identity property of multiplication.
10 10
1.2.6 Existence of Inverse
(i) Additive inverse:

3 + (−3) = 0 and −3 + 3 = 0
−5 + 5 = 0 and 5 + (−5) = ______
2 2
+? = 0 and ____ + = ______?
3 3
 1  1
 −  + ? = 0 and ? +  −  =______
2 2
Here −3 and 3 are called the additive inverses of each other because on adding them we get
the sum ‘0’. Any two numbers whose sum is ‘0’ are called the additive inverses of each other. In
−a) = 0 and (−
general if a represents any rational number then a + (− −a) + a = 0.
−a’ are additive inverse of each other.

Then ‘a’, ‘−
The additive inverse of 0 is only 0 as 0 + 0 = 0.
(ii) Multiplicative inverse:

2
By which rational number is multiplied to get the product 1 ?
7
2 7 7 2
We can see × = 1 and × =1
7 2 2 7
Rational Numbers 15
Fill the boxes below-
2 × = 1 and ×2 = 1
−5 × = 1 and ×5 = 1
−17 −17
× = 1 and × = 1
19 19
1 × ? = 1
−1 × ? = 1
Any two numbers whose product is ‘1’ are called the multiplicative inverses of each other.
1 1 1
For example, 4 × = 1 and × 4=1, therefore the numbers 4 and are the multiplicative
4 4 4
inverses (or the reciprocals ) of each other.
c
We say that a rational number is called the reciprocal or the multiplicative inverse of
d
a a c
another rational number if × =1
b b d
Think, discuss and write
1. If a property holds good with respect to addition for rational numbers, whether it holds
good for integers? And for whole numbers? Which one holds good and which doesn’t
hold good?
2. Write the numbers whose multiplicative inverses are the numbers themselves
3. Can you find the reciprocal of ‘0’ (zero)? Is there any rational number such that when it is
multiplied by ‘0’ gives ‘1’?
× 0= 1 and 0 × =1
1.3 Distributivity of multiplication over addition
2 1 3
Take three rational numbers , ,
5 2 4
2  1 3  2  1  2  3
Let us verify whether × +  =  ×   +   ×  
5  2 4  5  2  5  4

16 Mathematics VIII
2  1 3 2  2 + 3  2 5 10 1
L.H.S = × +  = ×  = × = =
5  2 4 5  4  5 4 20 2
2  1 2  3 2 6 4 + 6 10 1
R.H.S = ×  + ×   = + = = =
5  2  5  4  10 20 20 20 2
L.H.S = R.H.S
2 1 3 2 1 2 3

Thus × +  =  +  
5 2 4 5 2 5 4
This property is called the distributive law of multiplication over addition.
Now verify the following Try these: find using distributivity
2  1 3 2  1  2  3  7  −3    7 9 
Is ×  −  = ×  − ×   (1)  ×    +  × 
5  2 4 5  2 5  4  5  10    5 10 
What do you observe? Is LHS = RHS? 9  9 
(2)  × 3 +  × − 19 
This property is called the distributive law over subtraction. 16  16 
Take some more rational number and verify the distributive
property
For all rational numbers a, b and c
We can say-
a (b + c) = ab + ac
a (b − c) = ab – ac
Do These
Complete the following table.

Additive properties
Numbers
Closure Commutative Associative Existence Existence
of Identity of Inverse
Rational Numbers Yes —— —— —— ——
Integers Yes —— —— —— ——
Whole Numbers —— —— —— Yes No
Natural Numbers Yes —— —— —— ——

Rational Numbers 17
Complete the following table
Multiplicative properties
Numbers
Closure Commutative Associative Existence Existence
of Identity of Inverse
Rational Numbers Yes —— —— —— ——
Integers —— Yes —— —— ——
Whole Numbers —— —— Yes —— ——
Natural Numbers —— —— —— Yes ——
2 3  −6   −13 
Example 1. Simplify + +  + 
5 7  5  7 
Solution: Rearrange the given fractions keeping similar fractions together.
2 3  −6   −13  2 3 6 13
+ +  +  = + − −
5 7  5  7  5 7 5 7
 2 6   3 13 
=  −  +  −  (by commutative law of addition)
5 5 7 7
2 − 6 3 − 13
= +
5 7
−4 −10 −4 10
= + = −
5 7 5 7
−4 × 7 − 10 × 5 −28 − 50 −78
= = =
35 35 35
Example 2: Write the additive inverses of each of the following rational numbers.
2 −11 7 −2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
7 5 −13 −3
2 −2
Solution : (i) The additive inverse of is
7 7
2  −2  2 − 2
because +  = =0
7  7  7

18 Mathematics VIII
−11  −11  11
(ii) The additive inverse of is −  =
5  5  5
7 −7
is − 
7  7
(iii) The additive inverse of  = =
−13  −13  −13 13
−2  −/ 2  2
(iv) The additive inverse of is −   = −
−3  −/3  3
2 −1 23 1 3
Example 3 : Find × + − ×
5 9 180 9 4
2 −1 23 1 3 2 −1 1 3 23
Solution : × + − × = × − × +
5 9 180 9 4 5 9 9 4 180
(by the commutative law of addition)
2  −1  −1  3 23
= ×   +  × +
5  9   9  4 180
−1  2 3  23
=  + +
9  5 4  180
1  8 + 15  23
= −  + (by the distributive law)
9  20  180
1  23  23 −23 23
= −   + = + = 0 (by the additive inverse law)
9 20 180 180 180
−9 5  −4 
Example 4: Multiply the reciprocals of , and add the additive inverse of   to
2 18  5 
the product. What is the result?
−9 −2
Solution : The reciprocal of is
2 9
5 18
The reciprocal of is
18 5
2
−2 18 −4
Product of reciprocals = × =
9/ 5 5
1
Rational Numbers 19
 −4  4
The additive inverse of   is
 5  5
−4 4
Thus product + the additive inverse = + = 0 (the Inverse property)
5 5
Exercise - 1.1
1. Name the property involved in the following examples
8 8 8 3 1  3 1
(i) +0 = = 0+ (ii) 2  +  = 2   +2  
5 5 5 5 2 5 2
3 3 3  −2  −2  −2 
(iii) ×1 = =1× (iv)   × 1 = =1×  
7 7 7  5  5  5 
2 1 1 2 5 3 15
(v) + = + (vi) × =
5 3 3 5 2 7 14
1
(vii) 7a + (−7a) = 0 (viii) x × =1 (x ≠ 0)
x
(ix) (2 ×.x) + (2 × 6) = 2 × (x + 6)
2. Write the additive and the multiplicative inverses of the following.
−3 7
(i) (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv) (v) −1
5 9
3. Fill in the blanks
 −1   −12   −1  −2 2
(i)   + ( _____ ) =  +  (ii) + ____ =
 17   5   17  3 3
9 5 6  5
(iii) 1 × _____ = (iv) −12 +  +  =  −12 +  + ( ____ )
11 6 7  6
1 1  3 1 3 
(v) ( _____ ) ×  +  =  ×  +  × ____ 
 2 3  4 2 4 
−16 −16
(vi) + ____ =
7 7

20 Mathematics VIII
2 −5
4. Multiply by the reciprocal of
11 14
2  7 1  4
5. Which properties can be used in computing ×  5×  + ×  3× 
5  6  3  11 
6. Verify the following
 5 − 1  − 3 5  − 1 −3 
 + + = + + 
4 2  2 4  2 2 
3 7  −2   −2 
7. Evaluate + +   +   after rearrangement.
5 3  5   3 
8. Subtract
3 1 −32 −4
(i) from (ii) from 2 (iii) −7 from
4 3 13 7
−5 −3
9. What numbers should be added to so as to get ?
8 2
−5
10. The sum of two rational numbers is 8 If one of the numbers is find the other.
6
11. Is subtraction associative in rational numbers? Explain with an example.
12. Verify that – (–x) = x for
=
2 −13
(i) x (ii) x =
15 17
13. Write-
(i) The set of numbers which do not have any additive identity
(ii) The rational number that does not have any reciprocal
(iii) The reciprocal of a negative rational number.
1.4 Representation of Rational numbers on Number line.
Gayathri drew a number line and labelled some numbers on it.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Which set of numbers are marked on the line?
Rational Numbers 21
Sujatha said “They are Natural numbers”. Paramesh said “They are rational numbers” Whom
do you agree with?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Which set of numbers are marked on the above line?

Are they whole numbers or rational numbers?
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Which set of numbers are marked on the above line?

Can you find any number between −5 and 3 on the above line?
Can you see any integers between 0 and 1 or −1 and 0 in the above line?
1
Numbers in the middle of 0 and 1 is ;
2
1 3 1
1 and 2 is 1 = , 0 and −1 is − ,
2 2 2
1 3
− 1and −2 is −1 =−
2 2
These rational numbers can be represented on number line as follows:
-2 −3 -1 −1 0 1 1 3 2
2 2 2 2
Example 5: Identify the rational number shown A and B marked

Any rational number can be
on the following number line.
A B represented on the number line.
Notice that in a rational number
0 1 1 the denominator tells the
 7
 =  number of equal parts in which
7
the each unit has been divided.
Solution: Here a unit, 0 to 1 is divided into 7 equal parts. A The numerator tells ‘how many’
is representing 3 out of 7 parts. So, A represents of these parts are considered.
3 5
. and B represents .
7 7

22 Mathematics VIII
5
Example 6: Represent on the number line.
8
Solution:
0 5 1
8  8
5 = 
lies between 0 and 1.  8
8
So divide the number line between 0 and 1 into 8 equal parts.
5
Then mark 5th part (numerator) counting from 0 is the required rational
8
5
number .
8
29
Example 7: Represent on the number line.
6
29
Solution:
6
4 5
29 5 5
= 4 = 4 + . This lies between 4 and 5 on the number line
6 6 6
Divide the number line between 4 and 5 into 6 (denominator) equal parts.
Mark 5th part (numerator of rational part) counting from 4.
5 5 29
This is the place of the required rational number 4 + =4 = .
6 6 6
Try These
Write the rational number for the points labelled with letters, on the
number line
A B C D E F
(i) 0
?
2 3
? ?
6
? ?
9
?
5 5 5 5 5
S R Q P
(ii) −7 −2
? ? -1 ? ? 0
4 4
Do This
13
(i) Represent − on the number line.
5
Rational Numbers 23
1.5 Rational Number between Two Rational Numbers

The natural numbers between 5 and 1 are 4, 3, 2.
Are there any natural numbers between 1 and 2?
The integers between −4 and 3 are −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2. Write the integers between −2 and
–1.Did you find any? We can not find integers between any two successive integers.
But we can write rational numbers between any two successive integers.
Let us write the rational numbers between 2 and 3.
a +b
We know if a and b are any two rational numbers then (and it is also called the mean
2
2+3 5
of a and b) is a rational number between them. So = is a rational number which lies
2 2
exactly between 2 and 3.
5
Thus 2< < 3.
2 2 5 3
2
5 9
5 2+
Now the rational number between 2 and is 2 = 2 = 9 × 1 = 9.
2 2 2 2 2 4
Thus
2 9 5 3
4 2
9 5
2< < <3
4 2
9 17
9 2+
Again the mean of 2, is 4 = 4 = 17
4 2 2 8
2 17 9 5 3
8 4 2
17 9 5
So 2 < < < <3
8 4 2
In this way we can go on inserting between any two numbers. Infact, there are infinite rational
numbers between any two rational numbers.

24 Mathematics VIII
Another Method :
5 9
Can you write hundred rational numbers between and in mean method?
10 10
You may feel difficult because of the lengthy process.
Here is another method for you.
5 6 7 8 9
We know that < < < <
10 10 10 10 10
5 6 7 8 9
10 10 10 10 10
5 9
Here we wrote only three rational numbers between and .
10 10
5 50 9 90
But if we consider = and =
10 100 10 100
50 90
Now the rational numbers between and are
100 100
5 50 51 52 53 89 90 9
= < < < < ....... < < =
10 100 100 100 100 100 100 10
5 50 5 1 5 2 5 3 88 89 9 90
= =
1 0 10 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 10 0 1 0 0 10 0 10 100
Similarly, when we consider

5 500 9 900
= and =
10 1000 10 1000
5 500 501 502 503 899 900 9
So = < < < <............. < < =
10 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 10
5 5 0 0 50 1 50 2 5 0 3 8 9 7 8 9 8 8 9 9 9 00 9
=
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 00 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 00 0 1 0
In this way we can go on inserting required number of rational numbers.

Rational Numbers 25
Example 8: Write any five rational numbers between −3 and 0.
30 0
Solution: −3 = − and 0 = so
10 10
29 28 27 2 1
− , − , − ,........., − , − lies between -3 and 0.
10 10 10 10 10
We can take any five of these.
Exercise - 1.2
1. Represent these numbers on the number line.
9 7
(i) (ii) −
7 5
2. Represent − 2 , 5 , −9 on the number line.

13 13 13
5
3. Write five rational numbers which are smaller than .
6
4. Find 12 rational numbers between -1 and 2.
2 3
5. Find a rational number between and .
3 4
[Hint : First write the rational numbers with equal denominators.]
3 5
6. Find ten rational numbers between − and
4 6
1.6 Decimal representation of Rational numbers
p
We know every rational number is in the form of where q ≠ 0 and p, q are integers. Let us
q
see how to express a rational number in decimal form.

To convert a rational number into decimal by division method.
25
Consider a rational number .
16

26 Mathematics VIII
Step1: Divide the numerator by the denominator 16 25 (1

Step2: Continue the division till the remainder left is less than the divisor. 16
9
Step3: Put a decimal point in the dividend and at the end of the quotient.
Step4: Put a zero on the right of decimal point in the dividend as well as right of
16 25.0 (1.
the remainder.
16
Divide again just as whole numbers.
90
Step 5: Repeat step 4 till either the remainder is zero or requisite number
16 25.0000 (1.5625
of decimal places have been obtained
16
90
25
Therefore = 1.5625 80
16
100
17
Consider 96
5
40
5 17.0 (3.4 32
15 80
20 80
20 0
0
17
Therefore = 3.4
5
1 13 8 1974
Try to express , , , in decimal form and write the values.
2 25 125 10
We observe that there are only finite number of digits in the decimal part of these decimal numbers.
Such decimals are known as terminating decimals.
Non terminating recurring decimals:
5
Consider the rational number
3
Rational Numbers 27
By long division method we have 3 5.000 (1.666

3
20
5
Therefore = 1.666... 18
3
20
5 18
We write this as = 1.6 the bar on ‘6’ in the decimal part indicates it is
3 20
recurring. 18
We observe that in the above division the same remainder is repeating itself 2
and the digit-6 in the quotient is repeated.
1
Consider the rational number
7 7 10.00000000(0.14285714
7
By long division method
30
28
20
14
60
56
40
35
50
49
10
7
1 30
= 0.142857142857....
7 28
2
1
= 0.142857 . The bar on decimal part 142857 indicates that these digits are repeating
7
in the same order.
The above examples are illustrating the representation of rational numbers in the form of non-
terminating recurring decimals or we call them as non-terminating repeating decimals.
1 17 11 20
Try to express , , and and in decimal form
3 6 9 19
1 17 11 20
= = = =
3 6 9 19

28 Mathematics VIII
When we try to express some rational numbers in decimal form by division method, we find that
the division never comes to an end.This is due to the reason that in the division process the
remainder starts repeating after a certain number of steps.In these cases in the quotient a digit or
set of digits repeats in the same order.
For example 0.33333------.= 0.3
0.12757575---------= 0.12 75
123.121121121121----------= 123.121
5.678888-----------= 5 .6 7 8 etc.
Such decimals are called non-terminating and repeating decimal or non-terminating recurring
decimals.
The set of digits which repeats in non-terminating recurring decimal is called period.
For example
In 0.3333 ...... = 0. 3 the period is 3
In 0.12757575 .... = 0.12 75 the period is 75

The number of digits in a period of non-terminating recurring decimal is called periodicity.
For example
In 0.3333 ...... = 0. 3 the periodicity is 1
In 0.12757575 .... = 0.12 75 the periodicity is 2

The period of 0.23143143143....... = _______ periodicity = _______
The period of 125.6788989 ......... = _______ periodicity = _______
Think and Discuss:
1. Express the following in decimal form.
7 3 23 5 17 22
(i) , , , , ,
5 4 10 3 6 7
(ii) Which of the above are terminating and which are non-terminating decimals.
(iii) Write the denominators of above rational numbers as the product of primes.
(iv) If the denominators of the above simplest rational numbers has no prime divisors
other than 2 and 5 what do you observe?
Rational Numbers 29
1.7 Conversion of decimal form into rational form

1.7.1 Converting terminating decimal to rational form
Consider a decimal 15.75

Step 1: Find the number of decimals in the given number. In 15.75 there are 2 decimals places.
Step 2: Take 1 annexed with as many zeros as the number of decimal places in the given
decimal.
Step 3: Multiply and divide the given decimal with this number. (Number arrived in step 2)
100 1575
15.75 × =
100 100
Step 4: Reduce the above rational number to the simplest form.
1575 1575 ÷ 5 315 ÷ 5 63
= = =
100 100 ÷ 5 20 ÷ 5 4
p
Example 9: Express each of the following decimals in the form
q
(i) 0.35 (ii) −8.005 (iii) 2.104

35 35 ÷ 5 7
Solution: (i) 0.35 = = =
100 100 ÷ 5 20
−8005 −8005 ÷ 5 −1601
(ii) −8.005 = = =
1000 1000 ÷ 5 200
2104 2104 ÷ 4 526 ÷ 2 263
(iii) 2.104 = = = =
1000 1000 ÷ 4 250 ÷ 2 125
1.7.2 Converting a non-terminating recurring decimal into rational form

Let us discuss the method of conversion by following example.
Example 10: Express each of the following decimals in the rational form.
(i) 0.4 (ii) 0.54 (iii) 4.7
Solution (i): 0.4

let x = 0.4
⇒ x = 0.444 ... ----------------(i)
here the periodicity of the decimal is one.

30 Mathematics VIII
So we multiply both sides of (i) by 10 and we get

10x = 4.44 .... ----------------(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii)
10 x = 4.444......
x = 0.444......
9x = 4.000......
4
x =
9
4
Hence 0.4 =
9
Solution (ii): 0.54
let = 0.54
x
⇒ x = 0.545454.... ------------------ (i)

here the periodicity of the decimal is two.
So we multiply both sides of (i) by 100, we get
100x = 54.5454.... ------------------- (ii)
On subtracting (ii) − (i)
100x = 54.5454 ......
x = 0.5454 ..... Observe
99x = 54.0000...... 4
0.4 =
54 9
54
x = . Hence 0.54 = . 5
99 99 0.5 =
9
Solution (iii) : 4.7
54
let x = 4.7 0.54 =
99
x = 4.777.... ---------------- (i)
745
here the periodicity of the decimal is one. 0.745 =
999
So multiply both sides of (i) by 10, we get
10x = 47.777.... ---------------- (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) we get
10x = 47.777 .....
x = 4.777 .....
9x = 43.0
Rational Numbers 31
43 43
x = Hence 4.7 = .
9 9
Alternative Method : 4.7 = 4 + 0.7
7
= 4+
9
9× 4 + 7
=
9
43
4.7 = 9
p
Example 11: Express the mixed recurring decimal 15.732 in form.
q
Solution : Let x = 15.732

x =15.7323232.... ---------------(i)
Since two digits 32 are repeating therefore
the periodicity of the above decimal is two.
So multiply (i) both sides by 100, we get
100 x = 1573.2323.... -------------(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
100 x = 1573.232323....
x = 15.732323....
99 x = 1557.50
1557.5 15575
x = =
99 990
15575
= 15.7 32 =
990
Think Discuss and Write
Convert the decimals 0.9, 14.5 and 1.24 to rational form. Can you find any easy method
other than formal method?

32 Mathematics VIII
Exercise - 1.3
p
1. Express each of the following decimal in the form.
q
(i) 0.57 (ii) 0.176 (iii) 1.00001 (iv) 25.125
p
2. Express each of the following decimals in the rational form ( ).
q
(i) 0.9 (ii) 0.57 (iii) 0.729 (iv) 12.28
3. Find (x + y) ÷ (x − y) if
5 3 1 3
(i) x = , y =− (ii) x = , y =
2 4 4 2
13 12 13 1
4. Divide the sum of − and by the product of − and − .
5 7 7 2
2
5. If of a number exceeds 1 of the same number by 36. Find the number.
5 7
3 3
6. Two pieces of lengths 2 m and 3 m are cut off from a rope 11 m long. What is the
5 10
length of the remaining rope?
2 3
7. The cost of 7 meters of cloth is ` 12 . Find the cost per metre.
3 4
3 2
8. Find the area of a rectangular park which is 18 m long and 8 m broad.
5 3
33 11
9. What number should − be divided by to get − ?
16 4
10. If 36 trousers of equal sizes can be stitched with 64 meters of cloth. What is the length
of the cloth required for each trouser?
p
11. When the repeating decimal 0.363636 .... is written in simplest fractional form , find the
q
sum p + q.
Rational Numbers 33
What we have discussed
1. Rational numbers are closed under the operations of addition, subtraction

and multiplication.
2. The operations addition and multiplications are
(i) Commutative for rational numbers
(ii) Associative for rational numbers
3. ‘0’ is the additive identity for rational number.
4. ‘1’ is the multiplicative identity for rational number
5. A rational number and its additive inverse are opposite in their sign.
6. The multiplicative inverse of a rational number is its reciprocal.
7. Distributivity of rational numbers a,b and c,
a ( b + c ) = ab + ac and a ( b – c ) = ab – ac
8. Rational numbers can be represented on a number line
9. There are infinite rational numbers between any two given rational numbers.
The concept of mean help us to find rational numbers between any two
rational numbers.
10. The decimal representation of rational numbers is either in the form of
terminating decimal or non-terminating recurring decimals.
Can you find?
Guess a formula for an. Use the subdivided unit square below to give a visual justification of
your conjecture.
1
4
1
1 2 1
1 16
8
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hint : a1 , a2 ! , a3 ! ! ......... an ! ! .... ! n
2 2 4 2 4 8 2 4 2
1 1 1
a1 1 " , a2 1 " , a3 1 " ......... then an = ?
2 4 8

34 Mathematics VIII
Chapter
2
Linear Equations in One Variable
2.0 Introduction
Sagar and Latha are playing with numbers. Sagar tells Latha “I think
of a number. If I double it and take 7 away I get 35. Can you tell the
number that I thought of ” ?
Latha thinks for a while and tells the answer. Can you too tell the
answer?
Let us see how Latha told the answer.
Let the number be ‘x’. By doubling it we get ‘2x’
Next 7 was taken away i.e., 7 was subtracted from ‘2x’. After subtraction
the resulting number is 2x − 7 Trick
But according to Sagar it is equal to 35 Take the final result. Add 7 to
2x − 7 = 35 it and then halve the result.
⇒
∴ 2x = 35 + 7 (Transposing 7 to RHS) Note
2x = 42 When we transpose terms
‘+’ quantity becomes ‘−’ quantity
42
∴ x = (Transposing 2 to RHS) ‘−’ quantity becomes ‘+’ quantity
2
‘×’ quantity becomes ‘÷’ quantity
∴ x = 21
‘÷’ quantity becomes ‘×’ quantity
∴ The number that Sagar thought of is 21.
We learnt in earlier classes that 2x − 7 = 35 is an example of an equation. By solving this

equation in the above method, Latha was able to find the number that Sagar thought of.
In this chapter we will discuss about linear equations in one variable or simple equations, technique
of solving such equations and its application in daily life problems.
Let us briefly revise what we know about equations:

2x − 7 = 35
(i) An algebraic equation is equality of algebraic expressions
involving variables and constants
L.H.S R.H.S
Linear Equations in One Variable 35
(ii) It has an equality sign 2x − 7 = 35 is true

(iii) The expression on the left of the equality sign for x = 21 only
i.e., if x = 21
is called the L.H.S (Left Hand Side) of the equation
LHS = 2x − 7
(iv) The expression on the right of the equality sign = 2 × 21 − 7
is called R.H.S (Right Hand Side) of the equation = 35
(v) In an equation, the values of LHS and RHS are equal. = RHS
This happens to be true only for certain value of the ∴ Solution is x = 21

Variable. This value is called the solution of the equation.
2.1 Linear Equations
Consider the following equations:

(1) 2x − 7 = 35 (2) 2x + 2y = 48 (3) 4x − 1= 2x + 5 (4) x2 + y = z
Degree of each equation (1), (2) and (3) is one. So they are called linear equations. While
degree of equation (4) is not one. So it is not a linear equation.
So equations (1), (2) and (3) are examples of linear equations. Since the degree of the fourth
equation is not one, it is not a linear equation.
Do This:
Which of the following are linear equations:

(i) 4x + 6 = 8 (ii) 4x − 5y = 9 (iii) 5x2 + 6xy − 4y2 = 16
(iv) xy + yz + zx = 11 (v) 3x + 2y − 6 = 0 (vi) 3 = 2x + y
(vii) 7p + 6q + 13s = 11
2.2 Simple equations or Linear equations in one variable:
Consider the following equations:

(i) 2x – 7 = 35 (ii) 4x – 1 = 2x + 5 (iii) 2x + 2y = 48
We have just learnt that these are examples of linear equations. Observe the number of variable
in each equation.

36 Mathematics VIII
(i) and (ii) are examples of linear equations in one variable. But the (iii) equation has two variables
‘x’ and ‘y’. So this is called linear equation in two variables.
Thus an equation of the form ax + b = 0 or ax = b where a, b are constants and a ≠ 0 is called
linear equation in one variable or simple equation.
Do This:
Which of the following are simple equations?

(i) 3x + 5 = 14 (ii) 3x − 6 = x + 2 (iii) 3 = 2x + y
x
(iv) +5=0 (v) x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 (vi) 5m − 6n = 0
3
(vii) 7p + 6q +13s = 11 (viii) 13t − 26 = 39
2.3 Solving Simple equation having the variable on one side
Let us recall the technique of solving simple equations (having the variable on one side). Using
the same technique Latha was able to solve the puzzle and tell the number that Sagar thought of.
Example 1: Solve the equation 3y + 39 =8 Say True or false? Justify
Solution: Given equation : 3y + 39= 8 your answer?
While solving an equation
3y = 8 – 39 (Transposing 39 to RHS)
Kavya does the following:
3y = –31 3x + x + 5x = 72
−31 9x = 72 x = 72 × 9 = 648
y= (Transposing 3 to RHS)
3
Where has she gone wrong?
−31
∴ The solution of 3y + 39 = 8 is y = Find the correct answer?
3
−31
Do you notice that the solution ( ) is a rational number?
3
−31
Check: LHS = 3y + 39 = 3 ( ) + 39 = –31 + 39 = 8 RHS
3
7
Example 2: Solve − p = 11
4
7
Solution: − p = 11
4
7 7
− p = 11 − (Transposing to RHS)
4 4
44 − 7 Transpose p from LHS to RHS and find

−p =
4 the value of p.
Is there any change in the value of p?
37
−p =
4
37
∴p = − (Multiplying both sides by −1)
4
7 7 37 7 37 7 + 37 44
Check: LHS = − p = − (− ) = + = = = 11 = RHS
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Exercise - 2.1
Solve the following Simple Equations:

(i) 6m = 12 (ii) 14p = – 42
(iii) – 5y = 30 (iv) – 2x = – 12
n
(v) 34x = – 51 (vi) = –3
7
2x
(vii) = 18 (viii) 3x + 1 = 16
3
(ix) 3p – 7 = 0 (x) 13 – 6n = 7
(xi) 200y – 51 = 49 (xii) 11n + 1 = 1
5
(xiii) 7x – 9 = 16 (xiv) 8x + = 13
2
5 4 1
(xv) 4x − = 9 (xvi) x+ =3
3 3 2

38 Mathematics VIII
2.3.1 Some Applications:
Consider the following examples:
Example 3: If l P m, find the value of ‘x’?

p
l
(3 x + 20 )
o
(5 x - 8 )
o
Solution: Here l P m and p is transversal.

Therefore (3x + 20)o + (5x – 8)o = 180o (sum of the interior angles on the
same side of a transversal)
3x + 20o + 5x – 8o = 180o
8x + 12o = 180o
8x = 180o – 12o
8x = 168o
168o
x= = 21o
8
Example 4: Sum of two numbers is 29 and one number exceeds another by 5. Find the
numbers.
Solution: We have a puzzle here. We don’t know the numbers. We have to find them.
Let the smaller number be ‘x’, then the bigger number will be ‘x + 5’.
But it is given that sum of these two numbers is 29
⇒ x + x + 5 = 29
⇒ 2x + 5 = 29
∴ 2x = 29 − 5
∴ 2x = 24
24
x = (Transposing ‘2’ to RHS)
2
x = 12.
Therefore smaller number = x = 12 and

Bigger number = x + 5 = 12 + 5 = 17.
Check: 17 exceeds 12 by 5 and their sum = 12 + 17 = 29.
Example 5: Four times a number reduced by 5 equals 19. Find the number.
Solutions: If the number is taken to be ‘x’
Then four times of the number is ‘4x’
When it is reduced by 5 it equals to 19
⇒ 4x – 5 = 19
4x = 19 + 5 (Transposing -5 to RHS)
4x = 24
24
∴ x= (Transposing 4 to RHS)
4
⇒ x=6
Hence the required number is 6
Check: 4 times of 6 is 24 and 24 – 5 = 19.
Example 6: The length of a rectangle shaped park exceeds its breadth by 17 meters. If the
perimeter of the park is 178 meters find the dimensions of the park?
Solution: Let the breadth of the park be = x meters
Then the length of the park = x + 17 meters
∴ perimeter of the park = 2 (length + breadth)
= 2 (x + 17 + x) meters
= 2 (2x + 17) meters
But it is given that the perimeter of the rectangle is 178 meters
∴ 2 (2x +17) = 178
4x + 34 = 178
4x = 178 – 34
4x = 144
144
x = = 36
4

40 Mathematics VIII
Therefore, breadth of the park = 36 meters

length of the park = 36 + 17 = 53 meters.
Try and Check it on your own.
Example 7: Two supplementary angles differ by 34. Find the angles?
Solution: Let the smaller angle be xo
Since the two angles differ by 34o, the bigger angle = x + 34o
Since the sum of the supplementary angles is 180o
We have x + (x + 34) = 180o
2x + 34 = 180o
2x = 180 – 34 = 146o
146o
x = = 73o
2
Therefore smaller angle = x = 73o
Bigger angle = x + 34 = 73 + 34 = 107o
Example 8: The present age of Vijaya’s mother is four times the present age of Vijaya. After
6 years the sum of their ages will be 62 years. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let Vijaya’s present age be ‘x’ years
Then we can make the following table
Vijaya Vijaya’s mother
Present age x 4x
Age after 6 years x+6 4x + 6
∴ Sum of their ages after 6 years = (x + 6) + (4x + 6)

= x + 6 + 4x + 6
= 5x + 12
But it is given that sum of their ages after 6 years is 62
⇒ 5x + 12 = 62
5x = 62 – 12
5x = 50
50
x = = 10
5
Therefore, Present age of Vijaya = x = 10 years

Present age of Vijaya’s mother = 4x = 4 × 10 = 40 years
Example 9 : There are 90 multiple choice questions in a test. Two marks are awarded for
every correct answer and one mark is deducted for every wrong answer . If
Sahana got 60 marks in the test while she answered all the questions, then how
many questions did she answer correctly?
Solution: Suppose the number of correctly answered questions be ‘x’, then number of
wrongly answer questions = 90 – x .
It is given that for every correct answer 2 marks are awarded.
∴ Number of marks scored for correct answers = 2x
And it is given that for every wrongly answered questions ‘1’ mark is deducted
∴ Number of marks to be deducted from the score
= (90 – x) × 1 = 90 – x
Total score = 2x – ( 90 – x) = 2x – 90 + x = 3x – 90
But it is given that total score is 60
⇒ 3x – 90 = 60
3x = 60 + 90
3x = 150
150
x = = 50
3
Number of questions answered correctly = x = 50
Example 10: Ravi works as a cashier in a bank. He has currency of
denominations ` 100, ` 50, ` 10 respectively. The ratio
of number of these notes is 2 : 3 : 5. The total cash with
Ravi is ` 4,00,000.
How many notes of cash of each denomination does he
have?
Solution: Let the number of ` 100 notes = 2x
Number of ` 50 notes = 3x
and Number of ` 10 notes = 5x
Note that 2x : 3x : 5x
∴ Total Money = (2x × 100) + (3x × 50) + (5x × 10)
is same as 2 : 3 : 5
200x + 150x + 50x = 400x

42 Mathematics VIII
But according to the problem the total money is Rs.4, 00,000.

⇒ 400x = 4, 00,000
400000
x = = 1000
400
Therefore number of `100 notes = 2x = 2 × 1000= 2000
Number of ` 50 notes = 3x = 3 × 1000 = 3000
Number of `10 notes = 5x = 5 × 1000 = 5000
Exercise - 2.2
1. Find ‘x’ in the following figures?

P
(i) A (ii)
45o
56o
o
xo 123
B C D (3 x + 16 )
o o
68
Q R
(iii) A (iv) X
o
25
2x + 7 o 45
o
Y Z
xo o
30
B C
(v) B A
3 x + 10
o
2x
o
C D
2. The difference between two numbers is 8. If 2 is added to the bigger number the result
will be three times the smaller number . Find the numbers.
3. What are those two numbers whose sum is 58 and difference is 28?
4. The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 56. Find the numbers.
5. The sum of three consecutive multiples of 7 is 777. Find these multiples.
(Hint: Three consecutive multiples of 7 are ‘x’, ‘x + 7’, ‘x + 14’)
6. A man walks 10 km, then travels a certain distance by train and then by bus as far as twice
by the train. If the whole journey is of 70km, how far did he travel by train?
7. Vinay bought a pizza and cut it into three pieces. When
he weighed the first piece he found that it was 7g lighter
than the second piece and 4g.heavier than the third piece.
If the whole pizza weighed 300g. How much did each of
the three pieces weigh?
(Hint: weight of normal piece be ‘x ’ then weight of largest
piece is ‘x + 7’, weight of the smallest piece is ‘x - 4’)
8. The distance around a rectangular field is 400 meters.The length of the field is 26 meters
more than the breadth. Calculate the length and breadth of the field?
9. The length of a rectangular field is 8 meters less than twice its breadth. If the perimeter of
the rectangular field is 56 meters, find its length and breadth?
10. Two equal sides of a triangle are each 5 meters less than twice the third side. If the
perimeter of the triangle is 55 meters, find the length of its sides?
11. Two complementary angles differ by 12o, find the angles?
12. The ages of Rahul and Laxmi are in the ratio 5:7. Four years later, the sum of their ages will
be 56 years. What are their present ages?
13. There are 180 multiple choice questions in a test. A candidate gets 4 marks for every
correct answer, and for every un-attempted or wrongly answered questions one mark is
deducted from the total score of correct answers. If a candidate scored 450 marks in the
test how many questions did he answer correctly?
14. A sum of ` 500 is in the form of denominations of ` 5 and ` 10. If the total number of
notes is 90 find the number of notes of each denomination.
(Hint: let the number of 5 rupee notes be ‘x ’, then number of 10 rupee notes = 90–x)

44 Mathematics VIII
15. A person spent ` 564 in buying geese and ducks,if each

goose cost ` 7 and each duck ` 3 and if the total number
of birds bought was 108, how many of each type did
he buy?
16. The perimeter of a school volleyball court is

177 ft and the length is twice the width. What are the
dimensions of the volleyball court?
17. The sum of the page numbers on the facing pages of a x

x+1
book is 373. What are the page numbers?
(Hint :Let the page numbers of open pages are
x and x + 1)
2.4 Solving equation that has variables on both the sides:
We know that an equation is the equality of the values of two expressions. In the equation
2x –7 = 35, the two expressions are 2x-7 and 35. In most examples that we have come across
so far the RHS is just a number. But it need not be always. So, both sides could have expressions
with variables. Let us see how this happens.
Consider the following example
Example 11: The present ages of Rafi and Fathima are in the ratio 7 : 5. Ten years later the
ratio of their ages will be 9 : 7. Find their present ages?
Solution: Since the presen ratios of ages of Rafi and Fathima is 7:5,
We may take, Rafi’s age to be 7x and the Fathima’s age to be 5x
(Note that ratio of 7x and 5x is 7x : 5x and which is same as 7:5)
After 10 years Rafi’s age = 7x + 10
and Fathima’s age = 5x + 10
After 10 years, the ratio of Rafi’s age and Fathima’s age is 7x + 10 : 5x + 10
But according to the given data this ratio is equal to 9 : 7
7x + 10 : 5x + 10 = 9 : 7
i.e., 7 (7x + 10) = 9 (5x + 10)
⇒ 49 x + 70 = 45 x + 90.
Did you notice that in the above equation we have algebraic expressions on both
sides.
Now let us learn how to solve such equations.
The above equation is 49 x + 70 = 45x + 90
⇒ 49x – 45x = 90 – 70 (Transposing 70 to RHS and 45x to LHS)
∴ 4x = 20
20
∴ x= =5
4
Therefore Rafi’s age = 7x = 7 × 5 = 35 years
And Fathima’s age = 5x = 5 × 5 = 25 years
Example 12: Solve 5 (x + 2) − 2 (3 − 4x) = 3 (x + 5) − 4 (4 − x)
Solution : 5x + 10 − 6 + 8x = 3x +15 − 16 + 4x (removing brackets)
13x + 4 = 7x − 1 (adding like terms)
13x − 7x = −1 − 4 (transposing 4 to RHS, 7x to LHS)
6x = −5
−5
x= (transposing 6 to RHS)
6
Exercise - 2.3
Solve the following equations:

1. 7x – 5 = 2x
2. 5x – 12 = 2x – 6
3. 7p - 3 = 3p + 8
4. 8m + 9 = 7m +8
5. 7z + 13 = 2z + 4
6. 9y + 5 = 15y – 1
7. 3x + 4 = 5 (x–2)
8. 3 (t – 3) = 5 (2t – 1)

46 Mathematics VIII
9. 5 (p – 3) = 3 (p – 2)
10. 5 (z + 3) = 4 (2z + 1)
11. 15 (x – 1) + 4 (x + 3) = 2 (7 + x)
12. 3 (5z – 7) +2 (9z – 11) = 4 (8z – 7) – 111
13. 8 (x – 3) – (6 – 2x) = 2 (x + 2) – 5 (5 – x)
14. 3 (n – 4) + 2 (4n – 5) = 5 (n + 2) + 16
2.4.1 Some more applications
Example 13: In the figure l P m, and p a transversal find the value of ‘x’?
p
E
5x B
o
A F
l
(2 x + 24 )
o
m
C G D
H
Solution: It is given that l P m and p is a transversal.

Therefore ∠EFB = ∠FGD (corresponding angles)
Therefore 5xo = (2x + 24)o
5x – 2x = 24
3x = 24
24
x= = 8o
3
Example 14: Hema is 24 years older than her daughter Dhamini. 6 years ago, Hema was
thrice as old as Dhamini. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let the Present age of Dhamini be ‘x’ years, then we can make the following
table.
Dhamini Hema
Present age x x + 24
6 years ago x–6 (x + 24) – 6 = x + 24 – 6 = x + 18
But as given that 6 years ago Hema was thrice as old as Dhamini
∴ x + 18 = 3 (x – 6)
x + 18 = 3x – 18
x – 3x = –18 – 18
–2x = –36
x = 18.
Therefore present age of Dhamini = x = 18 years
Present age of Hema = x + 24 = 18 + 24 = 42 years
Example 15: In a two digit number the sum of the two digits is 8. If 18 is added to the number
its digits are reversed. Find the number.
Solution: Let the digit at ones place be ‘x’
Then the digit at tens place = 8 – x (sum of the two digits is 8)
Therefore number 10 (8 – x) + x = 80 – 10x + x = 80 – 9x —— (1)
Now, number obtained by reversing the digits = 10 × (x) + (8 – x)
= 10x + 8 – x = 9x + 8
It is given that if 18 is added to the number its digits are reversed
∴ number + 18 = Number obtained by reversing the digits
⇒ (80 – 9x) + 18 = 9x + 8
98 – 9x = 9x + 8
98 – 8 = 9x + 9x
90 = 18x
90
x = =5
18
By substituting the value of x in equation (1) we get the number
∴ Number = 80 – 9 × 5 = 80 – 45 = 35.
Example 16: A motorboat goes down stream in a river
and covers the distance between two
coastal towns in five hours. It covers
this distance upstream in six hours. If
the speed of the stream is 2 km/hour
find the speed of the boat in still water.
48 Mathematics VIII
Solution: Since we have to find the speed of the boat in

still water, let us suppose that it is A B oat B
x km/h. R iver
This means that while going downstream the
speed of the boat will be (x + 2) kmph
because the water current is pushing the boat A B oat B
at 2 kmph in addition to its own speed
R iver
‘x’kmph.
Now the speed of the boat down stream = (x + 2) kmph
⇒ distance covered in 1 hour =x + 2 km.
∴ distance covered in 5 hours = 5 (x + 2) km
Hence the distance between A and B is 5 (x + 2) km
But while going upstream the boat has to work against the water current.
Therefore its speed upstream will be (x – 2) kmph.
⇒ Distance covered in 1 hour = (x – 2) km
Distance covered in 6 hours = 6 (x – 2) km
∴ distance between A and B is 6 (x – 2) km
But the distance between A and B is fixed
∴ 5 (x + 2) = 6 (x – 2)
⇒ 5x + 10 = 6x – 12
⇒ 5x – 6x = –12 – 10
∴ –x = –22
x = 22.
Therefore speed of the boat in still water is 22 kmph.
Exercise- 2.4
1. Find the value of ‘x’ so that l P m.

l m
3x - 10
o
2x + 15
o
2. Eight times of a number reduced by 10 is equal to the sum of six times the number and 4.
Find the number.
3. A number consists of two digits whose sum is 9. If 27 is subtracted from the number its
digits are reversed. Find the number.
4. A number is divided into two parts such that one part is 10 more than the other. If the two
parts are in the ratio 5:3, find the number and the two parts.
5. When I triple a certain number and add 2, I get the same answer as I do when I subtract
the number from 50. Find the number.
6. Mary is twice older than her sister. In 5 years time, she will be 2 years older than her
sister. Find how old are they both now.
7. In 5 years time, Reshma will be three times old as she was 9 years ago. How old is she
now?
8. A town’s population increased by 1200 people, and then this new population decreased
11%. The town now had 32 less people than it did before the 1200 increase. Find the
original population.
9. A man on his way to dinner shortly after 6.00 p.m. observes that the hands of his watch
form an angle of 1100. Returning before 7.00 p.m. he notices that again the hands of his
watch form an angle of 1100. Find the number of minutes that he has been away.
2.5 Reducing Equations to Simpler Form - Equations Reducible

to Linear Form:
x 1 x 1
Example 17: Solve − = +
2 4 3 2
x 1 x 1
Solution: − = +
2 4 3 2
x x 1 1 x 1
−= + (Transposing to L.H.S. and to R.H.S.)
2 3 2 4 3 4
3x − 2 x 2 + 1
= (LCM of 2 and 3 is 6 ; 2 and 4 is 4)
6 4
x 3
=
6 4
3
∴ x = ×6 (Transposing 6 to R.H.S.)
4
9
∴ x=
2
9
∴x = is the solution of the given equation.
2
50 Mathematics VIII
x−4 x+4 x+3

Example 18: Solve − =
7 5 7
x−4 x+4 x+3

Solution : − =
7 5 7
5( x − 4) − 7( x + 4) x + 3
=
35 7
5 x − 20 − 7 x − 28 x+3
=
35 7
−2 x − 48 x+3
=
35 7
( x + 3)
−2 x − 48 = × 35
7
⇒ –2x – 48 = (x + 3) × 5
⇒ –2x – 48 = 5x + 15
⇒ –2x – 5x = 15 + 48
–7x = 63
63
x= = –9.
−7
5 x + 2 12
Example 19: Solve the equation = ————(1)
2x + 3 7
Solution: Let us multiply both sides of the given equation by 2x + 3. This gives
5x + 2 12
× (2 x + 3) = × (2 x + 3)
2x + 3 7
12
5x + 2 = × (2 x + 3)
7
Again multiply both sides of the equation by 7. This gives
12
7 × (5 x + 2) = 7 × × (2 x + 3)
7
⇒ 7 × (5 x + 2) = 12 × (2 x + 3) ————(2)
35 x + 14 = 24 x + 36
35 x − 24 x = 36 − 14
11x = 22
22
∴x = =2
11
Now look at the given equation i.e., (1) and equation (2) carefully.
Given equation Simplified form of the given equation
5 x + 2 12
= 7 × (5 x + 2) = 12 × (2 x + 3)
2x + 3 7
What did you notice? All we have done is :

1. Multiply the numerator of the LHS by the 5x + 3 12
=
denominator of the RHS 2x + 3 7
2. Multiply the numerator of the RHS by the
denominator of the LHS. 5x + 3 12
=
2x + 3 7
3. Equate the expressions obtained in (1) and (2)

7 × (5 x + 2) = 12 × (2 x + 3)
For obvious reasons, we call this method of solution as the “method of cross
multiplication”. Let us now illustrate the method of cross multiplication by examples
x+7 4
Example 20: Solve the equation =
3 x + 16 7
Solution: By cross multiplication, we get
x+7 4
7 × (x + 7) = 4 × (3x + 16) =
3 x + 16 7
7x + 49 = 12x + 64
7x – 12x = 64 – 49
–5x = 15
x = –3

52 Mathematics VIII
Example 21: Rehana got 24% discount on her frock. She paid ` 380 after discount. Find the
marked price of the frock.
Solution: Let the marked price of the frock be ` x
Then the discount is 24% of x x
She paid x – 24% of x i.e. 380
x – 24% of x = 380
24
⇒ x− × x = 380
100
100 x − 24 x
⇒ = 380
100
76 x
⇒ = 380
100
380 × 100
x=
76
∴ x = 500
∴ Marked price = ` 500
Example 22: Four fifths of a number is greater than three fourths of the number by 4. Find the
number.
Solution: Let the required number be ‘x’,
4
then four fifths of the number = x
5
3
And three fourths of the number = x
4
4 3
It is given that x is greater than x by 4
5 4
4 3
⇒ x− x=4
5 4
16 x − 15 x
=4
20
x
⇒ = 4 ⇒ x = 80
20
Hence the required number is 80.
Example 23: John sold his watch for ` 301 and lost 14% on it. Find the cost price of the
watch.
Solution: Let the cost price of the watch = ` x 11 12 1
10 2
14 14 x 9 3
The loss on it = 14% of ‘x’ = ×x = 8 4
100 100 7 6 5
Selling price of the watch = Cost price – Loss
14 x
⇒ 301 = x −
100
100 x − 14 x
301 =
100
86 x
301 =
100
301 × 100
= x
86
350 = x
Therefore the cost price of the watch = ` 350.
Example 24: A man had to walk a certain distance. He covered two thirds of
it at 4kmph and the remaining at 5 kmph. If the total time taken is
42 minutes, find the total distance.
Solution: Let the distance be ‘x’ km.
First part Second part
2 2x 2x x
Distance covered of ‘x’= Remaining distance = x − =
3 3 3 3
Speed 4 kmph 5 kmph
2 x
x
Time taken 3 = 2 x hr. 3 = x hr.
4 12 5 15
2x x
Therefore total time taken = + hr.
12 15

54 Mathematics VIII
2x x
⇒ ( + ) hr = 42 min .
12 15
2x x 42
⇒ ( + ) hr = hr.
12 15 60
2 x x 42
+ =
12 15 60
10 x + 4 x 42
=
60 60
⇒ 14x = 42
⇒ x = 3
Total distance x = 3 km.
Example 25: The numerator of a fraction is 6 less than the denominator. If 3 is added to the
2
numerator ,the fraction is equal to , find the original fraction
3
Solution: Let the denominator of the fraction be ‘x’ then
Numerator of the fraction = x – 6
x −6
Therefore the fraction =
x
2
If 3 is added to the numerator , it becomes
3
x −6+3 2
⇒ =
x 3
x −3 2
=
x 3
⇒ 3x − 9 = 2 x
x = 9
x −6 9−6 3
∴ Fraction = = =
x 9 9
3
Therefore original fraction is .
9
Example 26: Sirisha has ` 9 in fifty-paisa and twenty five paise

coins. She has twice as many twenty five paise
coins as she has fifty paise coins. How many
coins of each kind does she have?
Solution: Let the number of fifty paise coins = x
Therefore the number of twenty five paise coins = 2x
50 x x
Value of fifty paise coins = x × 50 paisa = ` = `
100 2
25
Value of twenty five paise coins = 2x × 25 paisa = 2 x ×
100
1 x
= 2x × = `
4 2
 x x
Total value of all coins = `  + 
2 2
But the total value of money is ` 9
x x
⇒ + =9
2 2
2x
=9
2
∴ x =9
Therefore number of fifty paise coins = x = 9
Number of twenty paise coins = 2x = 2 × 9 = 18.
Example 27: A man driving his moped at 24 kmph reaches his destination 5 minutes late to an
appointment. If he had driven at 30 kmph he would have reached his destination
4 minutes before time. How far is his destination?
Solution: Let the distance be ‘x’ km.
x
Therefore time taken to cover ‘x’ km. at 24 kmph = hr.
24
x
Time taken to cover ‘x’ km. at 30 kmph = hr.
30

56 Mathematics VIII
9
But it is given that the difference between two timings = 9 min = hr.
60
x x 9
∴ − =
24 30 60
5x − 4 x 9
∴ =
120 60
x 9
⇒ =
120 60
9
⇒ x = × 120 = 18
60
Therefore the distance is 18 km.
Exercise - 2.5
1. Solve the following equations.
n 5 2 x x
(i) − = (ii) − = 14
5 7 3 3 4
z z z 2p p 2
(ii) + − =8 (iv) − = 11
2 3 6 3 5 3
1 1 x 4 x 3x 1
(v) 9 = y − 1 (vi) − + + =
4 3 2 5 5 10 5
x 1 x 1 2 x − 3 −2
(vii) − = + (viii) =
2 4 3 2 3x + 2 3
8 p − 5 −2 7y + 2 6y − 5
(ix) = (x) =
7p +1 4 5 11
x + 5 x +1 x +3 3t + 1 2t − 3 t + 3 3t − 1
(xi) − = (xii) − = +
6 9 4 16 7 8 14
2. What number is that of which the third part exceeds the fifth part by 4?
3. The difference between two positive integers is 36. The quotient when one integer is
divided by other is 4. Find the integers.
(Hint: If one number is ‘x’, then the other number is ‘x – 36’)
4. The numerator of a fraction is 4 less than the denominator. If 1 is added to both its
1
numerator and denominator , it becomes . Find the fraction.
2
5. Find three consecutive numbers such that if they are divided by 10, 17, and 26 respectively,
the sum of their quotients will be 10.
x x+1 x + 2
(Hint: Let the consecutive numbers = x , x + 1, x + 2 , then + + = 10 )
10 17 26
6. In class of 40 pupils the number of girls is three-fifths of the number of boys. Find the
number of boys in the class.
7. After 15 years , Mary’s age will be four times of her present age. Find her present age.
8. Aravind has a kiddy bank. It is full of one-rupee and fifty paise coins. It contains 3 times
as many fifty paise coins as one rupee coins. The total amount of the money in the bank is
` 35. How many coins of each kind are there in the bank?
9. A and B together can finish a piece of work in 12 days. If ‘A’ alone can finish the same
work in 20days , in how many days B alone can finish it?
10. If a train runs at 40 kmph it reaches its destination late by 11 minutes . But if it runs at
50 kmph it is late by 5 minutes only. Find the distance to be covered by the train.
11. One fourth of a herd of deer has gone to the forest. One third of the total number is
grazing in a field and remaining 15 are drinking water on the bank of a river. Find the total
number of deer.
12. By selling a radio for `903, a shop keeper gains 5%. Find the cost price of the radio.
13. Sekhar gives a quarter of his sweets to Renu and then gives 5 sweets to Raji. He has
7 sweets left. How many did he have to start with?

58 Mathematics VIII
1. If the degree of an equation is one then it is called a linear equation.

2. If a linear equation has only one variable then it is called a linear equation in
one variable or simple equation.
3. The value which when subsitututed for the variable in the given equation
makes L.H.S. = R.H.S. is called a solution or root of the given equation.
4. Just as numbers, variables can also be transposed from one side of the
equation to the other side.
A magic Diamond
Find numbers to put in the circles so
that the total along each line of the
15 9
dimond is the same.
17
12 6
15 9
Hint : The number will be of the form

b 17 d a = x, b = 5 + x, c = 3 + x, d = 11 + x
12 6
where x is any number and the total along each line will be 20 + 2x
for example if x = 1, then a = 1, b = 6, c = 4, d = 12 and each line total will be 22.
Construction of Quadrilaterals 59
Chapter
3
Construction of Quadrilaterals
3.0 Introduction
We see fields, houses, bridges, railway tracks, school

buildings, play grounds etc, around us. We also see kites,
ludos, carrom boards, windows, blackboards and other
things around. When we draw these things what do the
figures look like? What is the basic geometrical shape in
all these? Most of these are quadrilateral figures with
four sides.
Kamal and Joseph are drawing a figure to make a frame of measurement with length 8 cm and
breadth 6cm. They drew the their figures individually without looking at each other’s figure.
Kamal Joseph
8 cm 8 cm
6 cm 6 cm 6 cm 6 cm
8 cm 8 cm
Are both the figures same?

You can see that both of these figures are quadrilaterals with the same measurements but the
figures are not same. In class VII we have discussed about uniqueness of triangles. For a unique
triangle you need any three measurements. They may be three sides or two sides and one
included angle, two angles and a side etc. How many measurements do we need to make a
unique quadrilateral? By a unique quadrilateral we mean that quadrilaterals made by different
persons with the same measurements will be congruent.

60 Mathematics VIII
Do This:
8 cm
Take a pair of sticks of equal length, say 8 cm. Take A D
another pair of sticks of equal length, say, 6 cm. Arrange
6 cm 6 cm
them suitably to get a rectangle of length 8 cm and breadth
6 cm. This rectangle is created with the 4 available B C
8 cm
measurements. Now just push along the breadth of the (i)
rectangle. Does it still look alike? You will get a new
shape of a rectangle Fig (ii), observe that the rectangle A 8 cm D
has now become a parallelogram. Have you altered the
lengths of the sticks? No! The measurements of sides 6 cm 6 cm
remain the same. Give another push to the newly

B C
8 cm
obtained shape in the opposite direction; what do you
(ii)
get? You again get a parallelogram again, which is
altogether different Fig (iii). Yet the four measurements A 8 cm D
remain the same. This shows that 4 measurements of a
quadrilateral cannot determine its uniqueness. So, how 6 cm 6 cm
many measurements determine a unique quadrilateral?

B C
Let us go back to the activity! 8 cm
(iii)
You have constructed a rectangle with two sticks each
8 cm D
A
of length 8 cm and other two sticks each of length 6 cm.
Now introduce another stick of length equal to BD and 6 cm 6 cm
put it along BD (Fig iv). If you push the breadth now,
does the shape change? No! It cannot, without making B
8 cm
C
the figure open. The introduction of the fifth stick has (iv)
fixed the rectangle uniquely, i.e., there is no other quadrilateral (with the given lengths
of sides) possible now. Thus, we observe that five measurements can determine a
quadrilateral uniquely. But will any five measurements (of sides and angles) be sufficient
to draw a unique quadrilateral?
3.1 Quadrilaterals and their Properties

C
In the Figure, ABCD is a quadrilateral. with vertices A, B, C, D and D
sides ; AB , BC , CD , DA . The angles of ABCD are ABC,
BCD, CDA and DAB and the diagonals are AC , BD .
A B
Do This
Equipment
You need: a ruler, a set square, a protractor.
Remember:
To check if the lines are parallel,
Slide set square from the first line to the second line
as shown in adjacent figures.
Now let us investigate the following using proper instruments.

For each quadrilateral.
(a) Check to see if opposite sides are parallel.
(b) Measure each angle.
(c) Measure the length of each side.
1 2
4
5
3
6 7
9
10

62 Mathematics VIII
Record your observations and complete the table below.

2 pairs of 2 pairs of 2 pairs
2 pairs of 1 pair of 4 right opposite opposite of
Quadrilateral parallel parallel sides angles sides angles adjacent 4 sides
sides equal equal sides equal
equal
1 !
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with 2 pairs of parallel sides.

(a) Which shapes are parallelograms?
(b) What other properties does a parallelogram have?
Rectangles are parallelograms with four right angles.
(a) Which shapes are rectangles?
(b) What properties does a rectangle have?
A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides .
(a) Which could be called a rhombus?
(b) What properties does a rhombus have?
A square is a rhombus with four right angles .
(a) Which shapes are squares?
(b) What properties does a square have?
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides.
(a) Which of the shapes could be called a trapezium and nothing else?
(b) What are the properties of a trapezium ?
Quadrilaterals 1 and 8 are kites. Write down some properties of kites.
Quadrilateral
One pair of opposite sides

are parallel
Trepezium
Two pair of opposite sides Kite
are equal and parallel
o
Each vertex angle is 90
Parellogram Rectangle
Adjacent sides Adjacent sides
are equal are equal
Each vertex angle is 90o
Square
Rhombus
Think - Discuss and write :
1. Is every rectangle a paralellogram? Is every paralellogram a rectangle?

2. Uma has made a sweet chikki. She wanted it to be rectangular. In how many different
ways can she verify that it is rectangular?
Do This
Can you draw the angle of 60o

Allowed Not allowed
Compass A straight edge Protractor

64 Mathematics VIII
Observe the illustrations and write steps of construction for each.

(i)
C
o
60
A B
(a) (b) (c) C

(d) (e)
B
Q Q
(ii) R
R
30
o 120o
o
30 O P A
O P A
AOR = 30o AOC = 120o
(iii)
P S Q
PSR = 90o
(iv)
P S Q
P S Q
! QST = 45o
3.2 Constructing a Quadrilateral
We would draw quadrilaterals when the following measurements are given.
1. When four sides and one angle are given (S.S.S.S.A)
2. When four sides and one diagonal are given (S.S.S.S.D)
3. When three sides and two diagonals are given (S.S.S.D.D)
4. When two adjacent sides and three angles are given (S.A.S.A.A)
5. When three sides and two included angles are given (S.A.S.A.S)
3.2.1 Construction : When the lengths of four sides and one angle are given (S.S.S.S.A)
Example 1 : Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PQ = 4.5 cm, QR = 5.2 cm,

RS = 5.5 cm, PS = 4 cm and PQR = 120o.
Solution :
S 5.5cm
Step 1 : Draw a rough sketch of the required quadrilateral and mark R
the given measurements. Are they enough ? 4cm 5.2cm

120o
P Q
4.5cm
Step 2 : Draw ! "PQR using S.A.S

R
Property of construction, by
taking PQ = 4.5 cm,
PQR = 120o and QR = 5.2 cm.
5.2cm
o
120
P Q
4.5cm

66 Mathematics VIII
Step 3 : To locate the fourth vertex

‘S’, draw an arc, with centre P R
and radius 4cm (PS = 4 cm) S

Draw another arc with centre R
and radius 5.5 cm (RS = 5.5 cm)
which cuts the previous arc at S. 5.2cm
o
120
P Q
4.5cm
R
Step 4 : Join PS and RS to complete the 5.5cm
required quadrilateral PQRS. S
4cm 5.2cm
o
120
P Q
4.5cm
Example 2 : Construct parallelogram ABCD given that AB = 5 cm, BC = 3.5 cm and

A = 60o.
D ?
Solution : C
Step 1 : Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram (a special

3.5cm 3.5cm
type of quadrilateral) and mark the given
o
measurements. 60
A B
Here we are given only 3 measurements. But as the 5cm
ABCD is a parallelogram we can also x

write that CD = AB = 5 cm and AD =
D
BC = 3.5 cm. (How?)
(Now we got 5 measurements in total).
3.5cm
Steps 2: Draw "BAD using the measures
AB = 5cm, A = 60 o and
60o
AD = 3.5 cm. A 5cm B
Steps 3: Locate the fourth vertex x

‘C’ using other two D
C
measurements BC=3.5cm
and DC = 5 cm.
3.5cm
60o
A 5cm B
Step 4 : Join B, C and C, D to D 5cm

C
complete the required
parallelogram ABCD.
3.5cm
3.5cm
60o
A 5cm B
(Verify the property of the parallelogram using scale and protractor)
Let us generalize the steps of construction of quadrilateral.
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch of the figure .
Step 2 : If the given measurements are not enough, analyse the figure. Try to use special properties
of the figure to obtain the required measurements
Step 3 : Draw a triangle with three of the five measurements and use the other measurements to
locate the fourth vertex.
Step 4: Describe the steps of construction in detail.
Exercise - 3.1
Construct the quadrilaterals with the measurements given below :

(a) Quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 5.5 cm, BC = 3.5 cm, CD = 4 cm, AD = 5 cm
and A = 45o.
(b) Quadrilateral BEST with BE = 2.9 cm, ES = 3.2 cm, ST = 2.7 cm, BT = 3.4 cm
and B = 75o.
(c) Parallelogram PQRS with PQ = 4.5 cm, QR = 3 cm and PQR = 60o.

68 Mathematics VIII
(d) Rhombus MATH with AT = 4 cm, MAT = 120o.
(e) Rectangle FLAT with FL = 5 cm, LA = 3 cm.
(f) Square LUDO with LU = 4.5 cm.
3.2.2 Construction : When the lengths of four sides and a diagonal is given (S.S.S.S.D)
Example 3 : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD where AB = 4 cm, BC = 3.6 cm,

CD = 4.2 cm, AD = 4.8 cm and AC = 5 cm.
Solution :
D 4.2cm
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD with the given C
data. 4.8cm 5cm 3.6cm
(Analyse if the given data is sufficient to draw the
quadrilateral or not . A B
4cm
If sufficient then proceed further, if not conclude the that the data is not enough to draw
the given figure).
Step 2: Construct "ABC with AB = 4 cm, BC = 3.6 cm C
and AC = 5 cm
5cm 3.6cm
A B
4cm
Step 3: We have to locate the fourth vertex ‘D’. It would D

be on the other side of AC. So with centre A
and radius 4.8 cm (AD = 4.8 cm) draw an arc
C
and with centre C and radius 4.2 cm (CD = 4.2
cm) draw another arc to cut the previous arc
at D.
5cm 3.6cm
A B
4cm
Step 4: Join A, D and C, D to complete the quadrilateral D

ABCD.
4.2cm
C
4.8cm
5cm 3.6cm
A B
4cm
Example 4: Construct a rhombus BEST with BE = 4.5 cm and ET = 5 cm
Solution : T S
Step 1 : Draw a rough sketch of the rhombus (a special type of
5c
quadrilateral). Hence all the sides are equal. So
m
BE = ES = ST = BT = 4.5 cm and mark the given
measurements.
B 4.5cm E
Now, with these measurements, we can construct
the figure. T
Step 2 : Draw "BET using SSS property of construction

with measures BE = 4.5 cm, ET = 5 cm and
m
BT = 4.5 cm
5c
4.5c
B E
4.5cm
Step 3 : By drawing the arcs locate the
fourth vertex ‘S’,with the remaining T S
two measures ES = 4.5 cm and
ST = 4.5 cm.
m
5c
4.5c
B E
4.5cm

70 Mathematics VIII
Step 4 : Join E, S and S, T to complete the

required rhombus BEST. 4.5cm
T S
5c
4.5c
m
4.5c
B E
4.5cm
Try These
1. Can you draw a parallelogram BATS where BA = 5 cm, AT = 6cm and

AS = 6.5 cm ? explain?
2. A student attempted to draw a quadrilateral PLAY given that
PL = 3 cm, LA = 4 cm, AY = 4.5 cm, PY = 2 cm and LY = 6 cm.
But he was not able to draw it why ?
Try to draw the quadrilateral yourself and give reason.
Exercise - 3.2
Construct quadrilateral with the measurements given below :

(a) Quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 4.5 cm, BC = 5.5 cm, CD = 4 cm, AD = 6 cm
and AC = 7 cm
(b) Quadrilateral PQRS with PQ = 3.5 cm, QR = 4 cm, RS = 5 cm, PS = 4.5 cm

and QS = 6.5 cm
(c) Parallelogram ABCD with AB = 6cm, CD = 4.5 cm and BD = 7.5 cm
(d) Rhombus NICE with NI = 4 cm and IE = 5.6 cm
3.2.3 Construction: When the lengths of three sides and two diagonals are given
(S.S.S.D.D)
Example 5 : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, given that AB = 4.5 cm, BC = 5.2 cm,
CD = 4.8 cm and diagonals AC = 5 cm and BD = 5.4 cm.
C
Solution :
m
Step 1: We first draw a rough sketch of the quadrilateral ABCD. 8c
4.
5c m
5 .2
Mark the given measurements.
cm
D
(It is possible to draw "ABC with the available 5.4cm

A B
measurements) 4.5cm
Step 2: Draw "ABC using SSS Property of construction C

with measures AB = 4.5 cm, BC = 5.2 cm and
AC = 5 cm
5.2
cm
5cm
5.4cm
A 4.5cm B
Step 3: With centre B and radius 5.4 cm and with C

centre C and radius 4.8 cm draw two arcs
opposite to vertex B to locate D.
5.2
cm
5cm
D
5.4cm
A 4.5cm B
C
Step 4: Join C,D, B,D and A,D to complete the
quadrilateral ABCD.
5.2
cm
cm
5cm
4.8
D
5.4cm
A 4.5cm B

72 Mathematics VIII
Think, Discuss and Write :
1. Can you draw the quadrilateral ABCD (given above) by constructing "ABD first and
then fourth vertex ‘C’ ? Give reason .
2. Construct a quadrilateral PQRS with PQ = 3 cm, RS = 3 cm, PS = 7.5 cm, PR = 8cm
and SQ = 4 cm. Justify your result.
Exercise - 3.3
Construct the quadrilateral with the measurements given below :

(a) Quadrilateral GOLD OL = 7.5 cm, GL = 6 cm, LD = 5 cm, DG = 5.5 cm and
OD = 10 cm
(b) Quadrilateral PQRS PQ = 4.2 cm, QR = 3 cm, PS = 2.8 cm, PR = 4.5 cm and
QS = 5 cm.
3.2.4 Construction : When the lengths of two adjacent sides and three angles are known
(S.A.S.A.A)
We construct the quadrilateral required as before but as many angles are involved in the
construction use a ruler and a compass for standard angles and a protactor for others.
Example 6 : Construct a quadrilateral
PQRS, given that The angles such as 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o,
PQ = 4 cm, QR = 4.8 cm, 120o and 180o are called standard angles.
P = 75o Q = 100o and
R = 120o. S
Solution : X
R
o
120
Step 1 : We draw a rough sketch of the

quadrilateral and mark the given
4.8cm
R
measurements. Select the proper
instruments to construct angles.
75
o
100o
P Q
Step 2: Construct "PQR using SAS 4cm
4.8cm
property of construction with measures

PQ = 4 cm, Q = 100o and QR = 4.8 cm
(Why a dotted line is used to join PR ? This

100o
can be avoided in the next step).
P 4cm Q
!
Step 3: Construct P = 75o and draw PY Y
[Do you understand how 75o is

constructed? X
(a) An arc is drawn from P. Let it

intersect PQ at P# . With center P#
and with the same radius draw two
arcs to cut at two points A, B which R
give 60o and 120o respectively.
(b) From A,B construct an angular
bisector. Which cuts the arc at C,
4.8cm
making 90o.
C
B A
(c) From A, C construct angular
bisector (median of 60o and 90o)
o
which is 75o.] 75
o 100
P#
P Q
4cm
Y
Z
X
Step 4: Construct R = 120o and draw S
! !
RZ to meet PY at S.
PQRS is the required quadrilateral.
R
o
120
4.8cm
C
B A
o
75
o 100
P Q
4cm

74 Mathematics VIII
1. Can you construct the above quadrilateral PQRS, if we have an angle of 100o at P instead
of 75o Give reason.
2. Can you construct the quadrilateral PLAN if PL = 6 cm, LA = 9.5 cm, P = 75o,
L = 15o and A = 140o.
(Draw a rough sketch in each case and analyse the figure) State the reasons for your
conclusion.
Example 7 : Construct a parallelogram BELT, given that BE = 4.2 cm, EL = 5 cm,

T = 45o.
Solution :
T L
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch of the parallelogram BELT 5c

m
and mark the given measurements. (Are they enough
for construction ?) 135o
45o
B 4.2cm E
Analysis :
Since the given measures are not sufficient for construction, we shall find the required
measurements using the properties of a parallelogram.
As “Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal” so E= T = 45o and
“The consecutive angles are supplementary” so L = 180o $ 45o = 135o.
Thus B= L = 135o X
Step 2 : Construct "BEL using SAS property of

L
construction model with BE = 4.2 cm,
E = 45o and EL = 5 cm 5c
m
o
45
B 4.2cm E
!
Step 3 : Construct B = 135o and draw BY
X
Y
L
5c
m
o
135 o
45
B 4.2cm E
! !
Step 4 : Construct L = 135o and draw LN to meet BY at T.
BELT is the required quadrilateral (i.e. parallelogram)
X
Y
T L
N
135 o
5c
m
135o
45o
B 4.2cm E
Do This
Construct the above parallelogram BELT by using other properties of parallelogram?
Exercise - 3.4
Construct quadrilaterals with the measurements given below :

(a) Quadrilateral HELP with HE = 6cm, EL = 4.5 cm, H=60o, E =105o and P= 120o.
(b) Parallelogram GRAM with GR = AM = 5 cm, RA = MG = 6.2 cm and R = 85o .
(c) Rectangle FLAG with sides FL = 6cm and LA = 4.2 cm.

76 Mathematics VIII
3.2.5 Construction :When the lengths of three sides and two included angles are
given (S.A.S.A.S)
We construct this type of quadrilateral by constructing a triangle with SAS property. Note
particularly the included angles.
Example 8 : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 5cm, BC = 4.5 cm, CD = 6 cm,
B = 100o and C = 75o.
6cm C
Solution : D 75
o
Step 1 : Draw a rough sketch, as usual and mark the measurements
4.5cm
given (Find whether these measures are sufficient to construct
100o
a quadrilateral or not? If yes, proceed)
A 5cm B
Step 2 : Draw "ABC with measures AB= 5cm, X
B = 100o and BC = 4.5 cm using
SAS rule.
C
4.5cm
100o
A B
5cm
X
o
Step 3 : Construct C = 75 and
!
Draw CY
C
6cm
Y
75o
4.5cm
100o
A B
5cm
Step 4 : With centre ‘C’ and radius X
6 cm draw an arc to
intersect CY at D. Join
A, D. ABCD is the required
quadrilateral.
C
6cm
Y D
75o
4.5cm
o
100
A B
5cm
Do you construct the above quadrilateral ABCD by taking BC as base instead of AB ? If So,
draw a rough sketch and explain the various steps involved in the construction.
Exercise - 3.5
Construct following quadrilaterals-

(a) Quadrilateral PQRS with PQ = 3.6cm, QR = 4.5 cm, RS = 5.6 cm, PQR = 135o and
QRS = 60o.
(b) Quadrilateral LAMP with AM = MP = PL = 5cm, M = 90o and P = 60o.
(c) Trapezium ABCD in which AB || CD, AB = 8 cm, BC = 6cm, CD = 4cm and B = 60o.
3.2.6 Construction of Special types Quadrilaterals :
(a) Construction of a Rhombus :
Example 9 : Draw a rhombus ABCD in which diagonals
AC = 4.5 cm and BD = 6 cm.
Solution :
Step 1 : Draw a rough sketch of rhombus ABCD and mark the given
measurements. Are these measurements enough to construct
the required figure ?
To examine this, we use one or other properties of rhombus to
construct it.
78 Mathematics VIII
Analysis: The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other perpendicularly,

AC and BD are diagonals of the rhombus ABCD. Which
bisect each other at ‘O’. i.e. AOB = 90o and
BD 6
OB = OD = = = 3 cm
2 2
Now proceed to step 2 for construction.
Step 2: Draw AC = 4.5 cm (one diagonal of the rhombus

ABCD) and draw a perpendicular bisector XY of
it and mark the point of intersection as ‘O’.
A C
O
4.5cm
Step 3: As the other diagonal BD is Perpendicular to AC , B

BD is a part of XY . So with centre ‘O’ and
radius 3 cm (OB = OD = 3cm) draw two arcs on
either sides of AC to cut XY at B and D. 3cm
A C
O
4.5cm
3cm
D
Y
Step 4: Join A, B ; B, C ; C, D and D, A to complete the X
rhombus. B
3cm
A C
O
4.5cm
3cm
D
Y
1. Can you construct the above quadrilateral (rhombus) taking BD as a base instead of AC?
If not give reason.
2. Suppose the two diagonals of this rhombus are equal in length, what figure do you obtain?
Draw a rough sketch for it. State reasons.
Exercise - 3.6
Construct quadrilaterals for measurements given below :
(a) A rhombus CART with CR = 6 cm, AT = 4.8 cm
(b) A rhombus SOAP with SA = 4.3 cm, OP = 5 cm
(c) A square JUMP with diagonal 4.2 cm.

80 Mathematics VIII
1. Five independent measurements are required to draw a unique quadrilateral

2. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely, if
(a) The lengths of four sides and one angle are given
(b) The lengths of four sides and one diagonal are given
(c) The lengths of three sides and two diagonals are given
(d) The lengths of two adjacent sides and three angles are given
(e) The lengths of three sides and two included angles are given
3. The two special quadrilaterals, namely rhombus and square can be
constructed when two diagonals are given.
Teachers Note:
Angles constructed by using compasses are accurate and can be proved logically, where as the
protractor can be used for measurement and verification. So let our students learn to construct all
possible angles with the help of compass.
Fun with Paper Cutting

Tile and Smile
Cut a quadrilateral from a paper as shown in the figure. Locate
the mid points of its sides, and then cut along the segments joining T2 T3
successive mid points to give four triangles T1, T2, T3, T4 and a
P
parallelogram P.
Can you show that the four triangles tiles the parallelogram. T1 T4
How does the area of the parallelogram compare to the area of
the original quadrilateral.
Just for fun :
Qudrilateral + Quadrilateral = Parallelogram?
Fold a sheet of paper in half, and then use scissors to cut a pair of congruent convex
quadrilaterals. Cut one of the quadrilateral along one of the diagonals, and the cut the second
quadrilateral along the other diagonal. Show that four triangles can be arranged to form a
parallelogram.
Exponents and Powers 81
Chapter
4
Exponents and Powers
4.0 Introduction
We know 36 = 3 × 3 × 3 ×3 × 3 × 3 and
3m = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × .................... (m times)
Do you know?
The estimated diameter of the sun is 1,40,00,00,000 m and
Mass of the sun is 1, 989, 100, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 kg
The distance from the Sun to Earth is 149, 600, 000, 000 m. The universe is estimated to be
about 12,000,000,000 years old. The earth has approximately 1,353,000,000 cubic km of sea
water.
Each square of a chess board is filled with grain. First box is filled with one grain and remaining
boxes are filled in such a way that number of grains in a box is double of the previous box. Do
you know how many number of grains required to fill all 64 boxes? It is
18,446,744,073,709,551,615.
Do we not find it difficult to read, write and understand such large numbers? Try to recall how
we have written these kinds of numbers using exponents
E x p o n en t
1,40,00,00,000 m = 1.4×109 m.
We read 109 as 10 raised to the power of 9 B ase 10 9
Do This
1. Simplify the following-
(i) 37 × 33 (ii) 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 (iii) 34× 43
2. The distance between Hyderabad and Delhi is 1674.9 km by rail. How
would you express this in centimeters? Also express this in the scientific
form.

82 Mathematics VIII
4.1 Powers with Negative Exponents
Usually we write
Diameter of the sun = 1400000000 m = 1.4 × 109 m
Avagadro number = 6.23 × 1023
These numbers are large numbers and conveniently represented in short form.
But what if we need to represent very small numbers even less than unit, for example
Thickness of hair = 0.000005 m
Thickness of micro film = 0.000015 m
Let us find how we can represent these numbers that are less than a unit.
Let us recall the following patterns from earlier class

103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000
As the exponent decreases by 1, the value becomes
2
10 = 10 × 10 = 100 = 1000/10 one-tenth of the previous value.
101 = 10 = 100/10
100 = 1 = 10/10
10-1 = ?
1
Continuing the above pattern we say that 10−1 =
10
1 1 1 1 1
Similarly 10−2 = ÷ 10 = × = = 2
10 10 10 100 10
1 1 1 1 1
10−3 = ÷ 10 = × = = 3
100 100 10 1000 10
1 1
From the above illustrations we can write n = 10
−n
or −n
= 10n
10 10
Observe the following table:
1 kilometre 1 hectometre 1 decametre 1 metre 1 decimeter 1centimetre 1 millimetre
1 1 1
1000m 100m 10m 1m m m m
10 100 1000
103 m 102 m 101m 100m 10-1m 10-2m 10-3m
Do This
What is 10-10 equal to?

Observe the pattern-
(i) 8 = 2×2×2 = 23
8
(ii) = 4=2×2 = 22
2
4
(iii) = 2 = 21
2
2
(iv) = 1 =20
2
1
(v) = 2–1
2
1
(vi) = 2–2
22
1
In general we could say that for any non zero integer ‘a’ , a−m = , which is multiplicative
am
inverse of am . (How ?)
That is am × a−m = am+(−m) = a0 = 1
Do This
Find the multiplicative inverse of the following

(i) 3−5 (ii) 4−3 (iii) 7−4 (iv) 7−3
1 1
(v) x−n (vi) (vii)
43 103
Look at this!
distance
We know that speed =
time
Writing this symbolically , s = d . When distance is expressed in meters (m) and time in
t
seconds(s), the unit for speed is written as . m × s−1 . Similarly the unit for acceleration is
m . This is also expressed as m × s−2
s2

84 Mathematics VIII
We can express the numbers like 3456 in the expanded form as follows :
3456 = (3 × 1000) + (4 × 100 ) + (5 × 10 ) + (6 × 1)
3456 = (3 × 103) + (4 × 102 ) + (5 × 10 ) + (6 × 100 )
Similarly 7405 = (7 × 103) + (4 × 102 ) + (0 × 10 ) + (5 × 100 )
Let us now see how we can express the decimal numbers like 326.57 in the expanded form by
using exponentials.
(We have
5! 7 !
326.57 = (3 × 102 ) + (2 × 10 ) + (6 × 100 ) + # $ " # 2 $ 1 1
( 10'1 & 2 ( 10'2 )
% 10 & % 10 & 10 10
2 0 -1 -2
= (3 × 10 ) + (2 × 10 ) + (6 × 10 ) + (5 × 10 ) + (7 × 10 )
6! 8 ! 4 !
Also 734.684 = (7 × 102 ) + (3 × 10 ) + (4 × 100 ) + # $ " # 2 $ " # 3 $
% 10 & % 10 & % 10 &
= (7 × 102 ) + (3 × 10 ) + (4 × 100 ) + (6 × 10'1) + (8 × 10'2) + (4 × 10'3)
Do This
Expand the following numbers using exponents

(i) 543.67 (ii) 7054.243 (iii) 6540.305 (iv) 6523.450
4.2 Laws of Exponents

We have learnt that for any non-zero integer ‘a’, am × an = a m+n ; where ‘m’ and, ‘n’ are
natural numbers.
Does this law also hold good for negative exponents?
Let us verify
1
(i) Consider 32 × 3-4 a'm = for any non zero integer ‘a’,
am
1
We know that 3-4 =
34
am
1 3 2 ( We know n
( a m'n )
Therefore 32 × 3-4 = 32 × 4
( 4 a
3 3
= 32'4 = 3'2
i.e., 32 × 3'4 = 3'2
(ii) Take ('2)'3 × (' 2)'4
1 1 1
('2) '3× (' 2)'4 = ) = ( am × an = a m+n)
* '2 +
3" 4
('2) ('2) 4
3
1 1
= = (− 2)−7 (Q = a−m)
(−2)7 a m
Therefore (−2)−3 × (−2)−4 = (−2)−7

(iii) Let us take (−5) 2× (−5)−5
1
(−5)2× (−5)−5 = (−5) 2 ×
(−5)5
1  am 1 
Q n = n−m 
=
( −5)
5− 2 a a 
= (–5)–3
1
=
(−5)5− 2
1
= = ( −5) −3
( −5) 3
Therefore (−5) 2× (−5)−5 = (−5)−3 (We know 2+(−5) = −3)

In general we could infer that for any non-zero integer ‘a’, am × an = a m+n ; where ‘m’ and a
‘n’ are integers.
Do This
Simplify and express the following as single exponent-

(i) 2–3 × 2–2 (ii) 7–2 × 75 (iii) 34 × 3−5 (iv) 75 × 7−4 × 7−6
(v) m5 × m−10 (vi) (−5)−3 × (− 5)−4
Similarly, we can also verify the following laws of exponents where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are non zero
integers and ‘m’ and ‘n’ are any integers.
am m−n
1. n =a
a
2. ( am)n = amn You have studied these laws in
3. (am×bm) = (ab)m lower classes only for positive
exponents

86 Mathematics VIII
a m  a m
=
b m  b 
4.
5. a0 = 1
Do you find any relation between ‘m’ and ‘n’ if am= an where ‘a’ is a non zero integer and
a ≠ 1, a ≠ −1. Let us see: Why a ≠ 1?
m
a If a = 1, m = 7 and n= 6
Let am = an then n = 1 ( Dividing both sides by an) then 17 = 16
a
⇒7 = 6
That is am-n = 1. a m − n = a 0 is it true ?
∴m − n = 0 so a ≠ 1
∴ m=n if a = −1 what happens.
Thus we can conclude that if am = an then m = n.
1
Example 1: Find the value of (i) 5−2 (ii) ( iii) (−5)2
2 −5
1 1 1
(i) 5−2 = 5 2 = 5 × 5 = 25
1
Solution : (Q a − m = )
( ) am
1 1
(ii) = 25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 (Q = am )
2 −5 a− m
25 = 32
(iii) (–5)2 = (–5) (–5) = 25
Example 2 : Simplify the following
5
−6 47  35 
4
(i) (−5) × (−5) (ii) 4 (iii)  3  × 3−6
4 3 
Solution: (i) (−5)4 × (−5)−6 (Q a m × a n = a m+n )
= (−5)4 + (−6) = (−5)−2
1 1 1 1
= = = (Q a−m = )
(−5) 2
(−5) × (−5) 25 am
47 am m−n )
(ii) (Q n = a
44 a
= 47−4 = 43 = 64
5
 35 
(iii)   × 3−6
3
3 
am m−n )
= (35−3)5 × 3−6 (Q n = a
a
= (32)5 × 3−6 (Q (am)n = amn)
= 310 × 3−6 = 34 = 81
Example 3: Express each of the following with positive exponents.

−3
−7
1 4 7 −4
(i) 4 (ii) (iii)   (iv)
(5) −4 7 7 −6
1
Solution : (i) 4−7 (We know a − m = )
am
1
=
(4)7
1 1
(ii)
(5) −4
(Q −m
= am )
a
4
=5
−3
4 4 −3  −m 1
and a m =
1 
=  a = m
(iii)  
7 7 −3 a a − m 
3
73 7 −m m
= 3 =   a  b
4 4 Q   = 
b  a
7 −4
(iv) −6
7
= 7−4 −(−6)
= 7−4+6 = 72
Example 4 : Express 27−4 as a power with base 3
Solution : 27 can be written as 3 × 3 × 3 = 33
Therefore 27−4 = (33)−4
= 3−12 (Q (am)n = amn)

88 Mathematics VIII
Example 5 : Simplify
 1 
(i)   × 2 −3 (ii) 44 × 16−2 × 40
 27 
 1  −3
Solution : (i)  × 2
 27 
27 can be expressed as 3 × 3 × 3 = 33
 1  −3 1 −3
So,   × 2 = 3 × 2
 
27 3
1 1 1
= × (Q m = a−m )
33 23 a
1
=
(3 × 2)3 (Q am × b m = (ab)m)
1 1
= 3
=
6 216
(ii) 44 × 16−2 × 40
= 44 × (42)−2 × 40 (Q (am)n = amn)
= 44 × 4−4 × 40 (Q am × an = am + n)
= 44-4+0 = 40 (Q a0 = 1)
=1
Example 6: Can you guess the value of ‘x’ when
2 x =1
Solution: as we discussed before a0 = 1
Obviously 2x = 1
2x = 20
⇒ x=0
Example 7 : Find the value of ‘x’ such that
1
(i) 25 × 5x = 58 (ii) × 72x = 78
49
(iii) (36)4 = 3 12 x (iv) (−2)x +1 × ( −2)7 = (−2 )12
Solution : 25 × 5x = 58 as 25 = 5 × 5 = 52
52 × 5x = 58 But am × an = am + n
52 + x = 58 If am = an ⇒ m=n
2+x =8
∴x =6
1
(ii) × 7 2 x = 78
49
1
× 7 2 x = 78 (Q
1
= a−m )
am
2
7
7-2 × 72x = 78
7 2x − 2 = 78
As bases are equal, Hence
2x − 2 = 8
2x = 8 + 10
2x = 10
10
x= =5
2
∴ x=5
(iii) (3 ) = 312x
6 4
[∴ (am)n = amn ]
324 = 312x
24 = 12x
24
∴ x= =2
12
(iv) (−2) x +1 × (−2)7 = (−2)12
(−2) x +1+7 = (−2)12
(−2)x+8 = (−2)12
x + 8 = 12
∴ x = 12 – 8 = 4

90 Mathematics VIII
−3 −2
2  25 
Example 8 : Simplify   ×  
5  4
25 5 × 5 52
= =
4 2 × 2 22
−3 −2 −3 −2
 2  25   2  52 
  ×   =   ×  2 (Q (am)n = amn )
5  4 5 2 
53 24 1 1
= × 4 = 53− 4 × 24 −3 As m = a–m and = am
2 3
5 a a−m
2
= 5−1 × 21 =
5
  1 −3  1 −3  1 −2 

Example 9 : Simplify   3  −  2  ÷  5  
       
 1 −3  1 −3  1 −2   a

m
am
Solution:   −   ÷    (Q   = )
 3   2  5    b bm
 1−3 1−3  1−2  1 1
=  −3 − −3  ÷ −2  (Q a−m = and am = − m )
 3 2  5  a m a
 33 23  52   27 8 
=  3 − 3  ÷ 2  =  −  ÷ 25
 1 1  1   1 1 
19
= (27 – 8 ) ÷ 25 =
25
2 −4
3 2
Example 10 : If x =   ×   find the value of x−2
2 3
2 −4
3 2
Solution: x =   × 
2 3
m m
 a a
2−4
3 2
x =   × −4 (Q   = m )
 b
2 3 b
2 4 2+ 4 6 6
x = 32 × 34 = 32+ 4 = 36 =  3 
2 2 2 2 2
6
3
x = 
2
−2
−12
 3  6  3 3−12 212  2 
12
x −2 =    =   = −12 = 12 =  
 2   2 2 3 3
Exercise - 4.1
1. Simplify and give reasons

−3
−3 3
(i) 4 (ii) (−2) 7
(iii)   (iv) (−3)−4
4
2. Simplify the following :
4 5 6
1 1 1
(i)   ×   ×   (ii) (−2)7 × (−2)3 × (−2)4
2 2 2
5
4
 5−4  3
4
(iii) 4 ×   (iv)  −6  × 5 (v) (−3)4 × 74
4 5 
32
3. Simplify (i) 2 × −2 × 3−1 2
(ii) (4−1 × 3−1 ) ÷ 6−1
2
4. Simplify and give reasons
−3 −3 −3
−1 1 1 1 1
0
(i) (4 + 5 )×5 × 2
(ii)   ×   ×  
3 2 4 5
3 3−2
(iii) (2−1 + 3−1 + 4−1) × (iv) × (30 − 3−1)
4 3
2
 3  −2 
(v) 1 + 2−1 + 3−1 + 40 (vi)   
 2  

92 Mathematics VIII
2
 2 2 1
5. Simplify and give reasons (i) (3 − 2 ) ÷  (ii) ((52)3 × 54 ) ÷ 56
 5
6. Find the value of ‘n’ in each of the following :

3 5 n −2
2 2 2
(i)   ×   =  
3 3 3
(ii) (−3)n+1 × (−3)5 = (−3)−4
(iii) 72n+1 ÷ 49 = 73
−3 1
7. Find ‘x’ if 2 =
2x
 3 −2  4 −3   3 −2

8. Simplify  4  ÷  5   ×  5 
      
9. If m = 3 and n = 2 find the value of

(i) 9m2 – 10n3 (ii) 2m2 n2 (iii) 2m3 + 3n2 – 5m2n (iv) mn – nm
−5 −7
4 7
10. Simplify and give reasons   ×  
7 4
4.3 Application of Exponents to Express numbers in Standard Form
In previous class we have learnt how to express very large numbers in standard form.
For example 300,000,000 = 3 × 108

Now let us try to express very small number in standard form.
Consider, diameter of a wire in a computer chip is 0.000003m
3
0.000003 m = m
1000000
3
= m
106
= 3 × 10−6 m
Therefore 0.000003 = 3 × 10-6 m
Similarly consider the size of plant cell which is 0.00001275m
1275
0.00001275m =
100000000
103
= 1.275 ×
108
= 1.275 × 10−5 m
Do This
1. Change the numbers into standard form and rewrite the statements.
(i) The distance from the Sun to earth is 149,600,000,000m
(ii) The average radius of Sun is 695000 km
(iii) The thickness of human hair is in the range of 0.005 to 0.001 cm
(iv) The height of Mount Everest is 8848 m
2. Write the following numbers in the standard form

(i) 0.0000456 (ii) 0.000000529 (iii) 0.0000000085
(iv) 6020000000 (v) 35400000000 (vi) 0.000437 × 104
4.4 Comparing very large and very small numbers
We know that the diameter of the Sun is 1400000000 m. and earth is 12750000 m. If we want
to know how bigger the Sun than the Earth, we have to divide the diameter of Sun by the
diameter of the Earth.
1400000000
i.e.
12750000
Do you not find it difficult. If we write these diameters in standard form then it is easy to find how
bigger the Sun. Let us see
Diameter of the Sun = 1400000000 m = 1.4 × 109 m
Diameter of the Earth = 12750000 = 1.275 × 107 m
Diameter of the sun 1.4 ×102 ×107
Therefore we have =
Diameter of the earth 1.275 ×107
1.4 × 102
=
1.275
2
; 10 = 100 (Approximately)

94 Mathematics VIII
Thus the diameter of the Sun is approximately 100 times the diameter of the Earth.
i.e. Sun is 100 times bigger than the Earth.
Let us consider one more illustration
The mass of the earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg and the mass of the moon is 7.35 × 1022 kg.
What is their total mass?
The mass of the earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg
The mass of the moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
Total Mass = 5.97 × 1024 Kg + 7.35 × 1022 kg
= (5.97 × 102 × 1022 Kg) + 7.35 × 1022 kg
= (5.97 × 102 + 7.35) × 1022 kg When we have to add numbers
= (597 + 7.35) × 1022 kg in the standard form we convert
them in numbers with same
= 604.35 × 1022 kg exponents
= 6.0435 × 1024 kg
Example 11 : Express the following in the standard form.
(i) 4.67 × 104 (ii) 1.0001 × 109 (iii) 3.02 × 10−6
Solution: (i) 4.67 × 104 = 4.67 × 10000 = 46700
(ii) 1.0001 × 109 = 1.0001 × 1000000000 = 1000100000
(iii) 3.02 × 10−6 = 3.02/106 = 3.02/1000000 = 0.00000302
Exercise - 4.2
1. Express the following numbers in the standard form.

(i) 0.000000000947 (ii) 543000000000
(iii) 48300000 (iv) 0.00009298 (v) 0.0000529
2. Express the following numbers in the usual form.
(i) 4.37 × 105 (ii) 5.8 × 107 (iii) 32.5 × 10−4 (iv) 3.71529 × 107
(v) 3789 × 10−5 (vi) 24.36 × 10−3
3. Express the following information in the standard form
(i) Size of the bacteria is 0.0000004 m
(ii) The size of red blood cells is 0.000007mm
(iii) The speed of light is 300000000 m/sec

(iv) The distance between the moon and the earth is 384467000 m(app)
(v) The charge of an electron is 0.0000000000000000016 coulombs
(vi) Thickness of a piece of paper is 0.0016 cm
(vii) The diameter of a wire on a computer chip is 0.000005 cm
4. In a stack, there are 5 books, each of thickness 20 mm and 5 paper sheets each of
thickness 0.016mm. What is the total thickness of the stack.
5. Rakesh solved some problems of exponents in the following way. Do you agree with the
solutions? If not why ? Justify your argument.
x3 4
(i) x ×x =x
–3 –2 –6
(ii) 2 = x (iii) (x2)3 = x2 = x
3 8
x
1
(iv) x–2 = x (v) 3x–1 =
3x
Project :
Refer science text books of 6th to 10th classes in your school and collect some scientific facts
involving very small numbers and large numbers and write them in standared form using exponents.
1. Numbers with negative exponents holds the following laws of exponents

am m–n= 1
(a) am × an = am+n (b) n =a (c) (am)n = amn
a a n−m
am  a m
(c) am × bm = (ab)m (d) a = 1
0
(e) m =  
b b
2. Very small numbers can be expressed in standard form using negative

exponents.
3. Comparison of smaller and larger numbers.
4. Identification of common errors.

5
96 Mathematics VIII
Chapter
Comparing quantities
using Proportion
5.1 Introduction
In our day-to-day activities, some times we need to compare

quantities. We learnt that ratio and percentages are used to
compare quantities. Let us consider the following example.
Voting was conducted for class mentor, in a class of 40 students.
Snigdha became first mentor by getting 24 votes and Siri became
second mentor by getting 16 votes. So the ratio of votes polled
to Snigdha and Siri is 24 : 16. After simplification, what is its
ratio? It is 3:2.
Inversely the ratio of votes polled to Siri and Snigdha is 2:3. Can
you say what a ratio is?
A Ratio is an ordered comparison of two quantities.
Try These
1. Find the ratio of gear your bicycle.

Count the number of teeth on the chain wheel and the
number of teeth for the sprocket wheel .
number of teeth on : number of teeth
the chain wheel of Sprocket wheel .
This is called gear ratio. Write how many times Sprocket
wheel turns for every time the chain wheel rotates once. Golden Ratio in the Human body
Human beings are no exception to
Chain wheel the golden ratio. In fact, our body
el architecture is one of the most
ocket whe perfect examples of this ‘Divine
Spr proportion’.
Consider the following:
● Height : length between naval
point and foot
● Length between shoulder line:
length of the head.
● Length between finger tip to
elbow: length between wrist
2. Collect News Paper cuttings related to percentages of any and elbow
● Length between naval point to
five different situations. knee:length between knee and
foot. 1.615:1 is Golden ratio.
Comparing Quantities using Proportion 97
Compound Ratio
Some times we have to express two ratios as a single ratio. Why? Let us consider the following
example to understand this.
Ramayya and Gopalam started a business with an investment of ` 2000 and ` 3000. At the end
of the year in what ratio would they have to divide the annual profit obtained?
Ratio of investments = 2000: 3000
= 2: 3
Investments throughout the year are given below.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
shares
Ramayya’s 24
shares
Gopalam.s 36
shares
Ratio of their shares = 24: 36

= 2: 3 and ratio of time period = 1:1
What do you observe? Ratio of investments is equal to ratio of shares when time period is the
same. So they will divide the profit in the ratio of their shares. So annual profit is to be divided in
the ratio of 2:3
In the above example,
Case 1 : Suppose they both started the business with the same amount of ` 5000, but Ramayya
did business for a period of 12months and Gopalam for a period of 9 months. How do they
share the same profit? Do you say that because they started the business with the same amount,
they have to divide the profit in the same ratio at the year ending?

98 Mathematics VIII
Ratio of their investments = 5000: 5000 = 1:1

shares
Ramayya’s 12
shares
Gopalam.s - - - 9
shares
Ratio of shares = 12: 9 = 4:3 and Ratio of time periods = 12: 9 = 4: 3

Their investment is the same, so they share the profit in the ratio of their shares i.e. ratio of their
time period.
Case 2 : Further suppose Ramayya invested an amount of ` 2000 for 12 months and Gopalam
invested an amount of ` 3000 for 9 months. In what ratio they have to divide the annual profit?
Is it the ratio of investments or ratio of time period? Ramayya invested less amount but for more
period. Gopalam invested more amount but for less period. Here we have to give importance for
their investments as well as their investment periods. How to do that?
Ratio of investments = 2000: 3000 = 2:3
Ratio of time periods = 12: 9 = 4:3
shares
Ramayya’s 24
shares
Gopalam’s - - - 27
shares
Ratio of shares = 24 : 27 = 8 : 9
= (2 × 12) : (3 × 9) = 8 : 9 (observe above table)
Here the ratio of investments is 2:3 and the ratio of time period is 4 : 3. So the ratio of shares is
(2 × 12): (3 × 9) = 8 : 9. Hence they have to divide the annual profit in the ratio of 8 : 9. Do
you find any relation between ratio of investment and time period and ratio of shares?
The ratio of shares can be written as 8 : 9 = 2:3 : : 4 : 3 of ratios 2 : 3 and 4 : 3.

Product of Product of
antecedents consequents
Two simple ratios are expressed like a single ratio as the ratio of product of antecedents to
product of consequents and we call it Compound ratio of the given two simple ratios i.e. ratios
are compounded by multiplying together the fractions which denote them.
a c ac i.e. ac: bd.
a : b and c : d are any two ratios, then their compound ratio is × =
b d bd
Try These
1. Find the compound ratios of the following.

(a) 3 : 4 and 2 : 3 (b) 4 : 5 and 4 : 5 (c) 5 : 7 and 2 : 9
2. Give examples for compound ratio from daily life.
Percentage:
Consider the following example.
M. K. Nagar high school students decided to sell tickets to a charity show. Class VIII students
have 300 tickets to sell and class VII students have 250 tickets to sell. One hour before the
show, eighth class students sold 225 tickets and seventh class students sold 200 tickets.
Which class students were closer to the goal of selling all their tickets?
To figure out which class students were closer their goal, you may try to compare the ratios
225:300 and 200:250. For eighth class students the ratio is 3:4 and for seventh class students the
ratio is 4:5. Do you compare and say? It is difficult to have a meaningful comparison, hence we
can’t say directly, we need to have equivalent ratios of both which can be compared.
One way to compare quantities is to change them into percentages.
A percentage (%) compares a number to 100. The word percent means “per every hundred”
100
or “out of every hundred”. 100% = . It is also a fraction with denominator 100.
100
3 100 75
Percentage of tickets sold by eighth class students is = × = = 75%
4 100 100
4 100 80
Percentage of tickets sold by seventh class students = × = = 80%
5 100 100
From this we understand that seventh class students were closer to the goal of selling all their
tickets.
Percentage is number of parts out of 100. So the denominator is to be made 100 for which we
are multiplying both numerator and denominator with 100.

100 Mathematics VIII
We can use percentage as a common scale.

In the introductory part, we compared the number of votes polled to Snigdha and Siri by ratio.
We can compare the same by percentages also.
The votes polled to Snigdha are By other method

24 out of 40 or 3 out of 5 in the Out of 40 votes, number of votes for Snigdha are 24.
simplified form. So out of 100 votes, number of votes polled to Snigdha
So percentage of votes are 24
3 = × 100 = 60
× 100% = 60% 40
5 Out of 100 votes 60 are for her, so percentage of her
votes = 60%
Since all the students voted,

Percentage of votes for Snigdha + percentage of votes for Siri = 100%
60% + percentage of votes for Siri = 100%
Thus percentage of votes for Siri = 100% – 60% = 40%
5.2 Finding the increase or decrease percent

Consider the following situation.
● Class sizes have increased by 10%.
● House prices have dropped by 12%.
● CO2 emissions need to fall by 25% by the year 2020.
Changes in quantities are often expressed as a percentage of the original quantity.
There are two different methods which can be used to solve increase or decrease in percentage
problems. Let us see the following examples to understand this.
(1) A sales manager asked his team to increase the sales by 35% over previous
month’s sales which was ` 98,700. What is the target sales ?
Sales in the previous month = ` 98,700. Unitary method.
35 35% increase means,
35% of ` 98,700 = × 98,700
100 ` 100 increased to ` 135.
= ` 34545
Target sales for the month How much ` 98,700 will increase to?
= ` 98,700 + 34,545 135
Increased sales = ` × 98, 700
= ` 1, 33, 245. 100
= ` 1,33,245.
Decrease percentage in price would imply the actual decrease followed by its subtraction
from the original price. Let us consider one example to understand this.
The original price of shoes is ` 550. They are for sale with a reduction of 10%. What is the new
sale price of the shoes?
Price of shoes = ` 550.
Reduction = 10% of ` 550
10
= × 550 = ` 55.
100
New price = original price – reduction
= ` 550 – ` 55 = ` 495.
Think, Discuss and Write
1. Two times a number is 100% increase in the number. If we take half the number what
would be the decrease in percent?
2. By what percent is ` 2000 less than ` 2400? Is it the same as the percent by which ` 2400
is more than ` 2000?
Exercise - 5.1
1. Find the ratio of the following

(i) Smita works in office for 6 hours and Kajal works for 8 hours in her office. Find the
ratio of their working hours.
(ii) One pot contains 8 litre of milk while other contains 750 milliliter.
(iii) speed of a cycle is 15km/h and speed of the scooter is 30km/h.
2. If the compound ratio of 5:8 and 3:7 is 45:x. Find the value of x.
3. If the compound ratio of 7:5 and 8:x is 84:60. Find x.
4. The compound ratio of 3:4 and the inverse ratio of 4:5 is 45:x. Find x.
5. In a primary school there shall be 3 teachers to 60 students. If there are 400 students
enrolled in the school, how many teachers should be there in the school in the same ratio?
6. In the given figure, ABC is a triangle. Write all possible ratios by A
taking measures of sides pair wise.
8cm 10cm
(Hint : Ratio of AB : BC = 8 : 6)
B 6cm C

7. If 9 out of 24 students scored below 75% marks in a test. Find the ratio of student scored
below 75% marks to the student scored 75% and above marks.
8. Find the ratio of number of vowels in the word’ MISSISSIPPI’ to the number of consonants
in the simplest form.
9. Rajendra and Rehana own a business. Rehana receives 25% of the profit in each month. If
Rehana received ` 2080 in particular month , what is the total profit in that month ?
10. In triangle ABC, AB = 2.2 cm, BC = 1.5 cm and AC = 2.3 cm. In triangle XYZ,
XY = 4.4 cm, YZ = 3 cm and XZ = 4.6 cm. Find the ratio AB : XY, BC : YZ, AC : XZ.
Are the lengths of corresponding sides of ∆ABC and ∆XYZ are in proportion?
[Hint : Any two triangles are said to be in proportion, if their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio]
11. Madhuri went to a super market. The price changes are as follows. The price of rice
reduced by 5% jam and fruits reduced by 8% and oil and dal increased by 10%. Help
Madhuri to find the changed prices in the given table.
Item Original price/kg Changed price
Rice ` 30
Jam ` 100
Apples ` 280
Oil ` 120
Dal ` 80
12. There were 2075 members enrolled in the club during last year. This year enrolment is
decreased by 4% .
(a) Find the decrease in enrolment.
(b) How many members are enrolled during this year?
13. A farmer obtained a yielding of 1720 bags of cotton last year. This year she expects her
crop to be 20% more. How many bags of cotton does she expect this year?
14. Points P and Q are both in the line segment AB and on the same side of its midpoint. P
divides AB in the ratio 2 : 3, and Q divides AB in the ratio 3 : 4. If PQ = 2, then find the
length of the line segment AB.
5.3 Finding discounts

In big shops and super markets we see price tags of the articles. Do you know what do we call
them? This is called marked price (M.P.) of the article. Prices of the items are marked according
to the price list quoted by the factory which is called List price or catalogue price. or marked
price
Ravi went to shop to buy a book. Printed price of the book is ` 80. But shop owner gave him a
discount of 15%. How much amount Ravi has paid to buy the book?
In our daily life we come across so many a situations where we are given a price discount on the
articles.
Price discount is also called Rebate. It is given on marked price or List Price.
Now in the above example Ravi was given 15% discount. Printed price is ` 80. Then the discount
15
will be × 80 = ` 12. So the amount he has to pay is ` 80 – ` 12 = ` 68.
100
Let us see few more examples.
Example:1 A cycle is marked at ` 3600 and sold for ` 3312. What is the discount and
discount percentage ?
Solution: Discount = marked price – sale price
= ` 3600 – ` 3312 = ` 288
Since discount is calculated on marked price. For
calculating the discount percentage we use M.P.
as the base.
On marked price of ` 3600, the discount is ` 288
On marked price of ` 100, how much will the discount be?
288
Discount percent = × 100 = 8%
3600
We can also find discount when discount percent is given.
Example:2 The marked price of a ceiling fan is ` 1600 and the shop keeper allows a
discount of 6% on it. Find its selling price.
Solution:
Raju solved it like this. Latha solved it in a different way.
Discount = 6% of ` 1600 6% decrease means
6
= × 1600 = ` 96 ` 100 decreased to ` 94
100
So ` 1600 decreased to?
Selling Price = Marked price – discount
= ` 1600 – ` 96 94
Selling price = × 1600 = ` 1504
= ` 1504. 100

Try These
1. Fill the selling price for each.

Item Marked price in ` Discount % Selling price in `
450 7%
560 9%
250 5%
15000 15%
Example: 3 Neelima went to shop to buy a dress. Marked price of the dress is ` 1000.
Shop owner gave a discount of 20% and then 5%. Find the single discount
equivalent to these two successive discounts.
Solution: Marked price of the article = ` 1000.
20% discount means ` 100 is
Percentage of first discount = 20% decreased to ` 80.
First Discount = 20% of 1000 5% discount means ` 100 is
20 decreased to ` 95.
= × 1000 = ` 200
100
∴ Net selling price
Price after first discount = ` 1000 – ` 200
80 95
= ` 800. = 1000 × ×
100 100
Percentage of second discount = 5%
= ` 760
Second discount = 5% of ` 800
5
= × 800 = ` 40
100
Price after second discount = ` 800 – ` 40 = ` 760.
Net selling price = ` 760.
Single discount equivalent to given discounts = ` 1000 – ` 760 = ` 240.

For ` 1000 the discount amount is ` 240
24 0
Percentage of discount given at a time = ` 240 × × 100 = 24%
1 0 00
What do you observe? Is the given single discount percentage is equivalent to
the percentage of two given successive discounts.
Preeti went to a shop to buy a dress. Its marked price is ` 2500. Shop owner gave 5% discount
on it. On further insistence, he gave 3% more discount. What will be the final discount she
obtained? Will it be equal to a single discount of 8%? Think, discuss with your friends and write
it in your note book.
5.4 Estimation in percentages
Your bill in a shop is ` 477.80 and the shop keeper gives a discount of 15%. How would you
estimate the amount to be paid?
Round off the bill to the nearest tens.` 477.80 are rounded off to ` 480. Then find 10% of
this amount. It is ` 48. Take half of this. It is ` 24. So discount amount is ` 48 + ` 24 = ` 72.
Amount to be paid approximately around ` 410.
Try These
(i) Estimate 20% of ` 357.30 (ii) Estimate 15% of ` 375.50
5.5 Profit and Loss
Prices related to buying and selling (Profit and Loss)

Observe the following situations.
• Sita bought a chair for ` 750 and sold it for ` 900.
• Mary bought 10g of gold for ` 25000 in last year and sold it for ` 30,000 in this
year.
• Rahim bought a bicycle for ` 1600 and next year he sold it for ` 1400.
• Anitha purchased a car for ` 4.8 lakh and sold it for ` 4.1 lakh after 2 years.
• Hari purchased a house for ` 9 lakh and incurred an expenditure of ` 1 lakh for its
repairs. He sold it for ` 10.7 lakh.

In the first four examples profit or loss is known by finding the difference between cost price and
selling price.
But in the last example, what is the profit obtained by Hari? Is it ` 1.7 lakh? Obviously not. He
incurred some additional expenditure on it before selling. What do we call such expenditures?
Some times the shop keeper has to spend on additional expenses like transportation, maintenance,
labour, repair, commission, rent of godown etc. in addition to the price paid to buy an article.
Such additional expenses are called overhead expenses and are to be added to the Cost
price. Profit or loss is always calculated on this resultant cost price.
What happens if cost price = selling price. Do we get any such situations in our daily life?
It is easy to find profit % or loss % in the above situations. But it will be more meaningful if we
express them in percentages. Profit % is an example of increase percent of cost price and
loss % is an example of decrease percent of cost price.
Let us see some examples.

Example:4 Radhika deals with second-hand goods. She bought a second hand refrigerator
for ` 5000. She spends ` 100 on transportation and ` 500 on its repair. She
sells the refrigerator for ` 7000.
Find (i) the total cost price of the refrigerator (ii) profit or loss percent.
Solution: (i) Total cost price = purchasing price+ transportation charges+ repair charges
= ` (5000 + 100 + 500) = ` 5600
So the total cost price is ` 5600.
(ii) Selling price is ` 7000. Here Selling price > cost price, so there is a
profit.
Profit = selling price – cost price = ` 7000 – ` 5600 = ` 1400.
On cost price of ` 5600 profit is ` 1400
If cost price is ` 100, profit will be?
1400
Profit percent = × 100 = 25%
5600
Example:5 Vinay bought a flat for ` 4,50,000. He spent ` 10,000 on its paintings and
repair. Then he sold it for ` 4,25,500. Find his gain or loss and also its percent.
Solution: Total cost price = purchasing price+ repair charges.
= ` (4,50,000 + 10,000) = ` 4,60,000.
Selling price is ` 4,25,500. Here we can observe Selling price < cost price. So
there is a loss.
Loss = cost price – selling price
= ` 4,60,000 – ` 4,25,500 = ` 34,500.
For cost price of ` 4, 60, 000 loss is ` 34,500 if its cost price is ` 100 what will
the loss percentage be?
34,500
Loss percent = × 100 = 7.5%
4,60,000
Example:6 Venkanna purchased 50 dozen bananas for ` 1250. He incurred transportation
charges of ` 250. He could not sell five dozen bananas as they were spoiled. He
sold the remaining bananas at ` 35 for each dozen. Will he get a profit or a loss?
Find profit or loss percent.
Solution: Total cost price = Cost price of bananas + Transportation charges
= ` 1250 + ` 250 = ` 1500.
Number of dozens of bananas sold = Number of dozens purchased – number of
dozens rotten
= 50 – 5 = 45
Selling price = ` 35 × 45 = ` 1575
Clearly selling price > cost price so it is a profit.
Profit = selling price – cost price = ` 1575 – ` 1500 = ` 75
On cost price of ` 1500 profit is ` 75
On cost price of ` 100 profit will be?
75
Profit percent = × 100 = 5%
1500
Example:7 Malik sells two tables for ` 3000 each. He gains 20% on one table and on the
other he loses 20%. Find his gain or loss percent on the whole transaction.

Solution:
For first table For second table
Selling Price = ` 3000 Selling price = ` 3000
Profit percent = 20% Loss percent = 20%
profit percent means increased percent on Loss percent means decreased percent on cost
cost price price
Selling price is ` 120 when Cost price is Selling price is ` 80 when cost price is
` 100 ` 100
When selling price is ` 3000 what will be the When selling price is ` 3000 what will be the
cost price? cost price?
3000 3000
Cost price = ` 100 × = ` 2500 Cost price = ` 100 × = ` 3750
120 80
Total cost price on two tables = ` 2500 + ` 3750 = ` 6250

Total selling price on two tables = ` 3000 + ` 3000 = ` 6000.
Since cost price > selling price. So there is a loss
Loss = cost price – selling price = ` 6250 – ` 6000 = ` 250
On cost price of ` 6250 loss is ` 250
On cost price of ` 100 what will be the loss?
100
Loss percent = 250 × = 4%
6250
So there is a loss of 4% on the whole transaction.
A shop keeper sold two TV sets at ` 9, 900 each. He sold one at a profit of 10% and the other
at a loss of 10%. On the whole whether he gets profit or loss. If so what is its percentage?
5.6 Sales Tax / Value Added Tax (VAT)
Government collects taxes on every sale. This is called VAT. Shop keepers collect this from the
customers and pay it to the Government. Why does the government charge taxes like this? Do
you know? With the taxes collected, government does several welfare activities.
Sales tax is levied on the sale of movable goods. VAT is imposed on goods only and not services
and it has replaced sales tax. The percent of VAT is different for different items. In general, on the
essential commodities, there is an exemption from VAT, 1% on bullion and precious stones,
5% on industrial inputs and capital goods and items of mass consumption for all other items
it is 14.5%. ( Rates in 2012 fixed by Government of India).
VAT is charged on the Selling Price of an item and will be included in the bill. VAT is an increase
percent of selling price. Observe the following VAT added bill.
Ganapati went to a medical shop to buy medicines for his mother. The shop keeper gave the
bill which appears like this. Bill amount was ` 372.18. It contains 5% VAT.
(i) Find the bill amount before VAT was added.
Tax Invoice No. : 2012?301549007214 Date : 15-09-2012 20:48:31
Name : Ganpathi Age : 35 Gender : Doc:dr Do.Reg. No. :
Cus.ID:20121301549000617 Add: Sainathpura)
S. Product Mfgr Sch Batch Exp. MRP. Rate Qty Amount
1 BETATROP TAB SUN H BSK4198 12-14 5.9 5.9 60 318.60
2. ECOSPRIN 150 MG TAB USV H 04004652 05-14 0.4242857 0.38 42 16.04
3. LASIX 40 MG TAB AVENTIS H 0212016 03-16 0.44733334 0.40 15 6.04
4. ELDERVIT PLUS CAD ELDER C SE0022008 08-13 2.3333333 2.10 15 31.5

Amount saved : 41.35 VAT ON ` 354.45 @ 5% = 17.72 Total : 372.18
Rounded Total : 372.00
From the bill copy it is clear that the actual bill amount = ` 354.45 ,Vat @ 5% = `17.72
Example:8 The cost of a pair of shoes is ` 450. The sales tax charged was 6%. Find the bill
amount.
Solution: On ` 100 the sales tax paid is ` 6.
On ` 450 the tax to be paid is?
6
Sales tax paid = ` × 450 = ` 27.
100
Bill amount = Cost of item + sales tax = ` 450 + ` 27 = ` 477.
Exercise - 5.2
1. In the year 2012, it was estimated that there were 36.4 crore Internet users worldwide. In
the next ten years, that number will be increased by 125%. Estimate the number of Internet
users worldwide in 2022.

2. A owner increases the rent of his house by 5% at the end of each year. If currently its rent
is ` 2500 per month, how much will be the rent after 2 years?
3. On Monday, the value of a company’s shares was ` 7.50. The price increased by 6% on
Tuesday, decreased by 1.5% on Wednesday, and decreased by 2% on Thursday. Find
the value of each share when trade opened on Friday.
4. With most of the Xerox machines, you can reduce or enlarge your original by entering a
percentage for the copy. Reshma wanted to enlarge a 2 cm by 4 cm drawing. She set the
Xerox machine for 150% and copied her drawing. What will be the dimensions of the
copy of the drawing be?
5. The printed price of a book is ` 150. And discount is 15%. Find the actual amount to be
paid.
6. The marked price of an gift item is ` 176 and sold it for ` 165. Find the discount percent.
7. A shop keeper purchased 200 bulbs for ` 10 each. However 5 bulbs were fused and put
them into scrap. The remaining were sold at ` 12 each. Find the gain or loss percent.
8. Complete the following table with appropriate entries (Wherever possible)
S. No. Cost Price Expenses Selling Profit Loss Profit Loss
(C.P.) Price(S.P.) Percentage Percentage
123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345
123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
123456789012345 123456789012345678
1 ` 750 ` 50 ` 80 123456789012345
123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
123456789012345123456789012345678123456789012345678
123456789012
123456789012 123456789012345678
123456789012
123456789012 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
2 ` 4500 ` 500 123456789012
123456789012 ` 1,000 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
123456789012 123456789012345678
3 ` 46,000 ` 4000 ` 60,000

123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345
123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
123456789012345
123456789012345 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
4 ` 300 ` 50 123456789012345
123456789012
123456789012345
12% 123456789012345678
123456789012345678
123456789012
123456789012
123456789012
5 ` 330 ` 20 123456789012 10%
123456789012
123456789012
123456789012
9. A table was sold for ` 2,142 at a gain of 5%. At what price should it be sold to gain
10%.
10. Gopi sold a watch to Ibrahim at 12% gain and Ibrahim sold it to John at a loss of 5%. If
John paid ` 1,330, then find how much did Gopi sold it?
11. Madhu and Kavitha purchased a new house for ` 3,20,000. Due to some economic
problems they sold the house for ` 2, 80,000.
Find (a) The loss incurred (b) the loss percentage.
12. A pre-owned car show-room owner bought a second hand car for ` 1,50,000. He spent
` 20,000 on repairs and painting, then sold it for ` 2,00,000. Find whether he gets profit
or loss. If so, what percent?
13. Lalitha took a parcel from a hotel to celebrate her birthday with her friends. It was billed
with ` 1,450 including 5% VAT. Lalitha asked for some discount, the hotel owner gave
8% discount on the bill amount. Now find the actual amount that lalitha has to pay to the
hotel owner
14. If VAT is included in the price, find the original price of each of the following.
S. No. Item VAT % Bill amount(in `) Original Price( in `)
(i) Diamond 1% ` 10,100
(ii) Pressure cooker 5% ` 2,940
(iii) Face powder 14.5% ` 229
15. Find the buying price of each of the following items when a sales tax of 5% is added on
them.
(i) a towel of ` 50 (ii) Two bars of soap at ` 35 each.
16. A Super-Bazar prices an item in rupees and paise so that when 4% sales tax is added, no
rounding is necessary because the result is exactly in ‘n’ rupees, where ‘n’ is a positive
integer. Find the smallest value of ‘n’.
5.7 Compound interest

Interest is the money paid by bank or post office when money is deposited with them. Also it is
paid by the borrower to the person or organisation that lent money. Interest is the extra amount
paid on principal amount with a year marked percent.
But how do we calculate this interest? When the interest is calculated uniformly on the original
principal throughout the loan period, what do you call such interest calculation? Yes! It is called
simple interest. It is also an increase percent on the Principal. Let us see an example to understand
this.
Example:9 A sum of ` 2500 is borrowed at a rate of 12% per annum for 3 years. Find the
simple interest on this sum and also the amount to be paid at the end of 3 years.
Solution: Here P = ` 2500, T = 3 years, R = 12%
PTR
As I=
100
2500 × 3 × 12
=
100
Interest for 3 years = ` 900.

Amount to be paid at the end of 3 years = Principal + Interest

= ` 2500 + ` 900 = ` 3400.
P×T×R  T × R
We see that Amount = Principal + Interest = P + = P 1 + 
100  100 
 R 
When T = 1year, Amount A = P  1 +
 100 
Try These :
Complete the table

P×T×R
S. No. Principal (P) Time (T) Rate of interest Interest (I) =
100
in ` in years p.a. (R) in % in `
1 3000 3 6
2 2 5 50
3 1875 12 675
4 1080 2.5 90
Ramesh borrowed an amount of `100 at the rate of 10% p.a. (per annum) from Sreenu as a
hand loan. After 2 years he went to Sreenu to repay his debt. Ramesh gave an amount of ` 120
and Sreenu said he has to pay ` 1 more. To find out the difference in their calculations, both of
them did their calculations on a paper as shown below.
Ramesh’s method Sreenu’s method
1st year Principal amount ` 100 1st year Principal amount ` 100
Interest @ 10% ` 10 Interest @ 10% ` 10
Total amount ` 110 Total amount ` 110
2nd year Principal ` 100 2nd year Principal ` 110
Interest @ 10% ` 10 Interest @ 10% ` 11
Amount to be paid = Principal + Amount to be paid ` 121
at the end of 2nd Interest on at the end of 2nd year
year 1st year +
Interest on
2nd year
= 100+10+10
= `120
The difference in the two methods is `1. Why is there a difference in both the methods? You can
easily observe that while doing the calculation of interest for 2nd year Ramesh took principal
amount as ` 100 whereas for doing the same Sreenu took ` 110. We call the interest calculated
by Ramesh as Simple interest. Do you know what we call the interest calculated by Sreenu? In
case of Sreenu, the interest is calculated on amount accumulated till then. It is called compound
interest.. So Compound interest allows you to earn interest on interest. Which type of interest
would you prefer and why ?
5.8 Deducing a formula for Compound interest
In the above example we discussed earlier, we observed that Sreenu calculated compound
interest. If it is a year or two, it is easy to do the calculations like that. But if we have more than
two of years, should we calculate in the same way? Is there a shorter way for finding compound
interest? Let us consider an example and try to find it out.
 R 
When t = 1year Amount (A) = P  1 +  with simple interest
 100 
Let P1= ` 10,000 and R = 12% per annum
Sreenu’s method Generalisation of same method.
1st year Principal P1 ` 10,000 Principal P1
 12   R 
AmountA1 10000  1 +  1st year Amount A1 A1= P1  1 + 
 100   100 
 112 
= 10000 
 100 
= ` 11,200
 R 
2nd year PrincipalP2 ` 11,200 2nd year Principal P2 = P1  1 + 
 100 
 12   R 
Amount A2 11200  1 +  AmountA2 A2 = P2  1 + 
 100   100 
 112   R  R 
= 11200  = P1  1 +   1 + 
 100  100 100 
2
 R 
= ` 12,544 = P1  1 +
 100 
n
 R 
Proceeding in this way the amount at the end of ‘n’ years will be A n = P1  1 +
 100 

Thus the amount on compound interest

n
 R 
Simply we can say that A = P  1 +
 100 
But by using this we get only the amount to be paid at the end of ‘n’ years. How do we get
compound interest? Yes it is so simple. From the final amount subtract principal to get compound
interest.
n
 R 
∴ C.I = P  1 + −P
 100 
So what is the difference between simple interest and compound interest? Simple interest remains
the same every year . But compound interest increases over time.
Example:10 What will be the amount and compound interest, if ` 5000 is invested at 8% per
annum 2 years?
Solution: P = ` 5000; R = 8% and n = 2 years
n
 R 
A = P 1 +
 100 
2
 8 
= 5000  1 +
 100 
108 108
= 5000 × × = ` 5832.
100 100
Interest earned = Amount – Principal
= ` 5832 – ` 5000
= ` 832
Do These
1. How much compound interest is earned by investing ` 20 000 for 6 years at

5% per annum compounded annually. ?
2. Find compound interest on ` 12600 for 2 years at 10% per annum
compounded annually.
5.9 Interest compounded annually or Half yearly (Semi Annually)
You may observe that in the previous problems we are using the word compounded annually.
Does it have any significance? Yes, it has. Because we can also have interest rates compounded
half yearly or quarterly.
When interest is not compounded annually what do we call the time period after which interest is
added to principal? It is called Conversion period. When interest is compounded half yearly,
there are two conversion periods in a year each after 6 months. In such a case, the interest will
be half of the annual rate and the number of times that interest is compounded is twice the number
of years.
Example:11 Calculate Compound interest on ` 1000 over a period of 1 year at 10% per
annum if interest is compounded half yearly.
Solution: As interest is compounded half yearly, so there will be 2 conversion periods in a
year.
So n=2
1
Rate of interest for 6 months rate = × 10% = 5%
2
n
 R 
A = P 1 +
 100 
2
 5 
A = 1000  1 +
 100 
2
 105 
= 1000 
 100 
= ` 1102.50
Compound interest = A – P = 1102.50 – 1000 = ` 102.50
Do These
Find the number of conversion times the interest is compounded and rate for each
1
1. A sum taken for 1 years at 8% per annum is compounded half yearly.
2
2. A sum taken for 2 years at 4% per annum compounded half yearly.
What will happen if interest is compounded quarterly? How many conversion periods will be
there? What about the quarter year rate- how much will it be of the annual rate? Discuss with
your friends.

1
Example:12 What amount is to be repaid on a loan of ` 12000 for 1 year at 10% per
2
annum if interest is compounded half yearly.
Solution: As interest is compounded half yearly, so number of conversion periods in
1
1 years is 3, So n = 3
2
1
rate for half year = × 10% = 5%
2
n
 R 
A = P 1 +
 100 
3
 5 
A = 12000  1 +
 100 
3
 105 
= 12000 
 100 
= ` 13891.50
Compound interest = A–P
= 13891.50 – 12000
= ` 1891.50
1
Example:13 Yadaiah for his family needs borrowed ` 5120 at 12 % per annum compounded
2
annually. How much amount he has to pay to clear the debt at the end of two
year nine months? Also find total how much interest he has paid?
Solution: Reshma tried to solve this problem like this
9 3
She first converted the time in years. 2 year 9 months = 2 year = 2 years
12 4
3
2
 25  4
She tried to substitute this in the known formula A = 5120  1 +
 200 
Now she was stuck. She asked her teacher, how would she find a power which
is fractional?
The teacher gave her a hint. First find the amount for the whole part. Then use
3
this as principal to get simple interest for year
4
n
 R 
So A = P 1 +
 100 
2
 25 
A = 5120  1 +
 200 
2
 225 
= 5120 
 200 
= ` 6480
25 3 1
Interest for remaining 9 months = 6480 × × × = ` 607.50.
2 4 100
So Yadaiah has to pay at the end of 2 year 9 months

= 6480 + 607.50 = ` 7087.50
So total compound interest = 7087.50 – 5120 = ` 1967.50
5.10 Application of Compound Interest formula
Where do we use this compound interest formula? Not only for calculating interest, but it can
also be used in different cases . For example,
• Increase (or decrease) in population
• The growth of bacteria if the rate of growth is known
• The value of an item, if its price increases (or decreases) in the intermediate years.
Example:14 The population of a village is 6250. It is found that the rate of increase in population
is 8% per annum. Find the population after 2 years.
Solution: Here P = 6250 R = 8% T = 2 years
n
 R 
Population after 2 years A = P  1 +
 100 
2
 8 
A = 6250  1 +
 100 
2
 108 
= 6250 
 100 
= 7290

Example:15 A rubber ball is dropped from a certain height. It is found to rebounce only
90% of its previous height. If it is dropped from the top of a 25m tall building, to
what height would it raise after bouncing on the ground two times.
Solution: The ball rises to a height of 90% at the first bounce. So at each bounce the loss
in height is 10%
So taking R = -10% the problem can be solved.
P = 25 m and n = 2
The height to which it raises after bouncing two times on the ground
n
 R 
A = P 1 +
 100 
2
 10 
A = 25  1 −
 100 
2
 90 
= 25 
 100 
= 20.25 m
Exercise - 5.3
1. Sudhakar borrows ` 15000 from a bank to renovate his house. He borrows the money at
9% p.a. simple interest over 8 years. What are his monthly repayments?
2. A TV was bought at a price of ` 21000. After 1 year the value of the TV was depreciated
by 5% (Depreciation means reduction of the value due to use and age of the item). Find
the value of the TV after 1 year.
3. Find the amount and the compound interest on ` 8000 at 5% per annum, for 2 years
compounded annually.
4. Find the amount and the compound interest on ` 6500 for 2 years, compounded annually,
the rate of interest being 5% per annum during the first year and 6% per annum during the
second year.
5. Prathibha borrows ` 47000 from a finance company to buy her first car. The rate of simple
interest is 17% and she borrows the money over a 5 year period. Find: (a) How much
amount Prathibha should repay the finance company at the end of five years. (b) her equal
monthly repayments.
6. The population of Hyderabad was 68,09,000 in the year 2011. If it increases at the rate of
4.7% per annum. What will be the population at the end of the year 2015.
7. Find Compound interest paid when a sum of ` 10000 is invested for 1 year and 3 months
1
at 8 % per annum compounded annually.
2
8. Arif took a loan of ` 80,000 from a bank. If the rate of interest is 10% per annum, find the
1
difference in amounts he would be paying after 1 years, if the interest is (i) compounded
2
annually (ii) compounded half yearly.
9. I borrowed ` 12000 from Prasad at 6% per annum simple interest for 2 years. Had
I borrowed this sum at 6% per annum compounded annually, what extra amount would
I have to pay?
10. In a laboratory the count of bacteria in a certain experiment was increasing at the rate of
2.5% per hour. Find the bacteria at the end of 2 hours if the count was initially 5, 06,000
11. Kamala borrowed ` 26400 from a bank to buy a scooter at a rate of 15% per annum
compounded yearly. What amount will she pay at the end of 2 years and 4 months to clear
the loan?
12. Bharathi borrows an amount of ` 12500 at 12% per annum for 3 years at a simple interest
and Madhuri borrows the same amount for the same time period at 10% per annum,
compounded annually. Who pays more interest and by how much?
13. Machinery worth ` 10000 depreciated by 5%. Find its value after 1 year.
14.. Find the population of a city after 2 years which is at present 12 lakh, if the rate of increase
is 4%.
15. Calculate compound interest on ` 1000 over a period of 1 year at 10% per annum, if
interest is compounded quarterly?

1. Two simple ratios are expressed like a single ratio as the ratio of product of
antecedents to product of consequents and we call it Compund ratio of the
given two simple ratios. a:b and c:d are any two ratios, then their compound
a c ac
ratio is × = i.e. ac:bd.
b d bd
2. A percentage (%) compares a number to 100. The word percent means
100
“per every hundred” or “out of every hundred”. 100% = it is also a
100
fraction with denominator 100.
3. Discount is a decrease percent of marked price.
Price reduction is called Rebate or discount. It is calculated on marked
price or List Price.
4. Profit or loss is always calculated on cost price. Profit is an example of
increase percent of cost price and loss is an example of decrease percent
of cost price.
5. VAT will be charged on the Selling Price of an item and will be included in
the bill.
VAT is an increase percent on Selling Price.
6. Simple interest is an increase percent on the Principal
P×T×R
7. Simple interest (1) = where P = principal T = Time in years
100
R = Rate of interest.
P×T×R  T×R 
8. Amount = Principal + Interest = P + =P 1 + 
100  100 
9. Compount interest allows you to earn interest on interest.
n
 R 
10. Amount at the end of ‘n’ years using compound interest is A = P  1 + 
 100 
11. The time period after which interest is added to principal is called conversion
period. When interest is compounded half yearly, there are two conversion
periods in a year, each after 6 months. In such a case, half year rate will be
half of the annual rate.
Do you Know?
In ancient Greece, artists and architects believed there

was a particular rectangular shape that looked very
pleasing to the eye. For rectangles of this shape, the
ratio of long side to the short side is roughly 1.615:1.
This ratio is very close to what is known as Golden
ratio. The famous Greek temple the Parthenon, made
entirely of white marble in the 5th century B.C. was
built according to the Golden Ratio. The Taj Mahal in
India is also an example of architecure for Golden
ratio.
Addition of Equal Ratios

3 100
1. What is the sum of 1 , 2 , , 4 ,....., ?
2 4 6 8 200
can we add like this?
1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = ..... = 100 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ..... + 100
2 4 6 8 200 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ..... + 200
= 5050 = 1
2 × 5050 2
p1 p2 p3 p p1 + p2 + p3 + .... + pn p1
If = = = ..... = n then q + q + q + ..... + q = q
q1 q2 q3 qn 1 2 3 n 1
2. a = c iff a + b = c + d (b, d > 0)

b d b d
1 = 3 iff 1 + 2 = 3 + 6
2 6 2 6
3 = 9 again this can be written as 5 = 15 ......

2 6 2 6

Chapter
6
Square Roots and Cube Roots
6.0 Introduction
Let us make square shapes using unit squares.

A unit square is a square whose side is 1 unit
Observe the number of unit squares used.
S.No. Figure Length of the side in units No.of unit squares used
1 1 1
2 2 4
3 3 9
Similarly make next two squares.

Can you guess how many total unit squares are required for making a square whose side is 6
units?
From the above observations we could make square shapes with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 … unit squares.
The numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … can be expressed as
1 = 1 × 1 = 12
4 = 2 × 2 = 22
9 = 3 × 3 = 32
Observe the pattern of
16 = 4 × 4 = 42 factors in each case
25 = …… × …… = ……..
36 = ……. × …… = ……..
………………………………..
………………………………...
m = n × n = n2 where m, n are integers.
Square roots and Cube Roots 123
You might have observed in the given pattern that the numbers are expressed as the product of
two equal factors. Such numbers are called perfect squares.
Observe the following perfect square numbers
Ex: (i) 9 = 3 3 (ii) 49 = 7 7 (iii) 1.44 = 1.2 1.2
9 3 3 4 2 2
(iv) 2.25 = 1.5 1.5 (v) ! (vi) !
16 4 4 12.25 3.5 3.5
In case (i) and (ii) we have noticed the perfect square numbers 9 and 49 are integers. The
general form of such perfect square numbers is m = n n (where m and n are integers).
In case (iii), (iv) and (v), (vi) the perfect square numbers are not integers. Hence, they are not
square numbers.
If an integer ‘m’ is expressed as n2 where n is an integer then ‘m’ is a square number or ‘m’ is a
square of ‘n’.
Perfect square : A rational number that is equal to the square of another rational number.
Square number : An integer that is a square of another integer. Thus
“All square numbers are perfect squares” but all perfect squares may not be square numbers.
Ex: 2.25 is a perfect square number because it can be expressed as 2.25 = (1.5)2 = 1.5 1.5, it
is not square of an integer. Therefore, it is not a square number.
Is 42 a square number?
We know that 62 = 36 and 72 = 49, if 42 is a square number it must be the square of an integer.
Which should be between 6 and 7. But there is no such integer between 6 and 7.
Therefore 42 is not a square number.
Observe the perfect squares in the given table
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Are there any other square numbers that exist other than the numbers shown in the table.

Do This:
1. Find the perfect squares between (i) 100 and 150 (ii) 150 and 200
2. Is 56 a perfect square? Give reasons?
6.1 Properties of square numbers :

Observe and fill the following table.
Number Square Number Square Number Square
1 1 11 121 21 441
2 4 12 144 22 .........
3 9 13 ......... 23 529
4 16 14 196 ........ 576
5 25 15 225 25 625
6 ......... 16 .......... .......... ..........
7 49 17 289 .......... ..........
8 64 18 324 .......... ..........
........ 81 19 361 .......... ..........
10 100 20 400 .......... ..........
Observe the digits in the units place of the square numbers in the above table. Do you observe all
these numbers end with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 at units place, none of these end with 2, 3, 7 or 8 at
units place. “That is the numbers that have 2, 3, 7 or 8 in the units place are not perfect squares.”
Can we say that all numbers end with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9, at unit place are square numbers? Think
about it.
Try These:
1. Guess and give reason which of the following numbers are perfect
squares. Verify from the above table.
(i) 84 (ii) 108 (iii) 271 (iv) 240 (v) 529
Write the squares of 1, 9, 11, 19, 21

Have you noticed any relationship between the units digit of numbers and their squares?
It is observed that if a number has 1 or 9 in the units place, then the units digit in its square number
is only 1.
If a number has 4 or 6 in the units place, then the units digit in its square is always 6
Similarly, explore the units digit of squares of numbers ending with 0,2,3, 5, 7 and 8.
Try These:
1. Which of the following have one in its units place?

(i) 1262 (ii) 1792 (iii) 2812 (iv) 3632
2. Which of the following have 6 in the units place?
(i) 1162 (ii) 2282 (iii) 3242 (iv) 3632
Think, Discuss and Write:
Vaishnavi claims that the square of even numbers are even and that of odd are odd. Do you agree
with her? Justify.
Observe and complete the table:
Numbers No.of digits in its square
(Minimum) (Maximum)
1-9 1 2
10-99 ……. 4
100-999 5 .......
1009-9999 7 8
n digit ....... .......
Try These:
1. Guess, How many digits are there in the squares of

(i) 72 (ii) 103 (iii) 1000
2. 0 10 20 30
Number
Corresponding squares
0 100 400 900
27 lies between 20 and 30

272 lies between 202 and 302
Now find what would be 272 from the following perfect squares.
(i) 329 (ii) 525 (iii) 529 (iv) 729

6.2. Interesting patterns in square:
1. Observe the following pattern and complete. 12345

1234567
123451234567
1234567
1234567
12345
1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567
12345 12345
1234567
12345
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567
123456712345 1234567
12345671234567
12345
1234567 1234567
1234567
12345
1234567 12345
12345671234567 1234567
12345
1234567
1234567
12345
1234567
1234567
1234567 12345
1234567
12345671234567
123456 12345 12345
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567
123456712345
12345 123456 12345 12345
12345671234567
12345612345
1234567
123451234567
1234567 12345671234567 1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567 12345
12345671234567
12345
1234567 123456
12345612345
12345 12345 1234567
123451234567
1234567
12345671234567 1234567
12345 1234567
123456 12345 123456 12345 12345 1234567
12345671234567 12345671234567
12345671234567
12345671234567 12345
12345612345
12345
123456
12345671234567
12345671234567
12345612345
12345671234567 12345671234567
12345671234567
1234567
12345671234567
1234567 12345 12345 1234567
12345671234567
1234567
12345671234567
1234567 1234567
12345671234567 12345
12345612345 12345671234567
12345671234567
1 = 12 1+3 =4 =22 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32 1+3+5+7 =16= 42
1 = 1 = 12
1 + 3 = 4 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 = 52
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = ………. = ( ) 2
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = ………. = ( ) 2
From this, we can generalize that the sum of first ‘n’ odd natural numbers is equal to ‘n2’.
2. Observe the following pattern and supply the missing numbers
(11)2 = 121
(101)2 = 10201
(1001)2 = 1002001
(10001)2 = …………..
(1000001)2 = ……………
3. Observe the pattern and complete it
12 = 1
A palindrome is a word; phrase, a
112 = 121 sentence or a numerical that reads the same
1112 = 12321 forward or backward.
11112 = 1234321 Ex. NOON, MALAYALAM, MADAM
Rats live on no evil star.
111112 = …………………..
15651
1111112 = ……………………
These numbers are called palindromic numbers or numerical palindrome
4. From the following pattern find the missing numbers

12 + 22 + 22 = 32
22 + 32 + 62 = 72 Observe the sum of the squares:
Do you find any relation between the bases of squares ?
32 + 42 + 122 = 132
How the base of the third number is related to the base of first
42 + 52 + ( )2 = 212 and second square numbers?
52 + ( )2 + 302 = ( )2 How the base of the resultant square number is related to the
62 + 72 + ( )2 = ( )2 base of the third square number?
5. Find the missing numbers using the given pattern
" 32 $ 1 32 % 1 #
2
3 =9=4+5 & % '
( 2 2 )
" 52 $ 1 52 % 1 #
2
5 = 25 = 12 + 13 & % '
( 2 2 )
72 = 49 = 24 + 25 ( + )
" 112 $ 1 112 % 1 #
2
11 = 121 = ….. + ….. & % '
( 2 2 )
152 = 225 = ….. + ….. ( + )
From this, we can conclude that the square of any odd number say n can be expressed as the
" n 2 $ 1 n 2 % 1#
sum of two consecutive numbers as & %
( 2 2 ')
6. Numbers between successive square numbers:
Observe and complete the following table
Successive squares Numbers between the successive Relation
square numbers
12 = 1; 22 = 4 2, 3 (2 numbers lies between 1 and 4) 2×Base of first number 1, (2×1=2)
22 = 4; 32 = 9 5, 6, 7, 8 (4 numbers lies between 2×Base of first number 2, (2×2=4)
. 4 and 9)
32 = 9; 42 = 16 10,11,12,13,14,15 (6 numbers lies) 2×Base of first number 3 (2×3=6)
between 9 and 16)
42 = 16; 52 = 25 ................................................ 2×Base of first number 4, (2×4=8)
52 = 25; 62 = 36 ................................................ ..................................................
............................. ................................................ ..................................................

From the above table have you observed any relation between the successive square numbers
and numbers between them?
With the help of the above table, try to find the number of non square numbers between n2 and
(n + 1)2. There are ‘2n’ non square numbers between n2 and (n + 1)2.
Do This:
1. How many non perfect square numbers are there between 92 and 102 ?
2. How many non perfect square numbers are there between 152 and 162?
Try These:
Rehan says there are 37 non square numbers between 92 and 112. Is he right?
Give your reason.
Exercise - 6.1
1. What will be the units digit of the square of the following numbers?
(i) 39 (ii) 297 (iii) 5125 (iv) 7286 (v) 8742
2. Which of the following numbers are perfect squares?

(i) 121 (ii) 136 (iii) 256 (iv) 321 (v) 600
3. The following numbers are not perfect squares. Give reasons?

(i) 257 (ii) 4592 (iii) 2433 (iv) 5050 (v) 6098
4. Find whether the square of the following numbers are even or odd ?
(i) 431 (ii) 2826 (iii) 8204 (iv) 17779 (v) 99998
5. How many numbers lie between the square of the following numbers
(i) 25; 26 (ii) 56; 57 (iii) 107;108
6. Without adding, find the sum of the following numbers

(i) 1+3+5+7+9=
(ii) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 =
(iii) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 + 23 + 25 =
6.3 Pythagorean triplets:
Consider the following

(i) 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 52
(ii) 52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169 = 132
The numbers (3, 4, 5) and (5, 12, 13) are some examples for Pythagorean triplets.
Generally a, b, c are the positive integers. If a2 + b2 = c2 then (a, b, c) are said to be
pythagorean triplet.
If there are no common factors other than ‘1’ among a,b,c then the triplet (a,b,c) is called
primitive triplet.
Do This
1. Check whether the following numbers form Pythagorean triplet
(i) 2, 3, 4 (ii) 6, 8, 10 (iii) 9, 10, 11 (iv) 8, 15, 17
2. Take a Pythagorean triplet. Write their multiples. Check whether these multiples
form a Pythagorean triplet.
6.4 Square Roots
Observe the following squares and complete the table.

12345612345123451234512345
123456
12345612345
1234512345
12345 1234512345
12345 12345
123451234561234512345 12345612345
1234512345 12345
123451234512345
12345612345
12345
1234512345612345
123456 1234512345
12345 12345612345
1234561234512345
12345 1234512345
1234512345
123451234512345 12345
123456
12345
123456 1234512345
1234512345 12345612345
12345612345
12345
1234512345
12345 12345
12345
123451234512345 123451234561234512345 12345612345123451234512345
12345
1234512345
1234512345
12345 12345
123456
12345612345
12345 1234512345
12345 123456
12345612345
12345
12345
1234512345
1234512345
12345
1234512345 12345
123451234512345
1234512345 12345
123456
123451234561234512345
1234512345 12345612345
1234512345
1234561234512345 12345
1234512345
1234512345 123451234512345 123451234561234512345 12345612345123451234512345
12345
1234512345
12345 12345
1234512345
1234512345
12345 12345
123456
12345 12345
12345612345
1234512345
12345 12345612345
12345
12345612345
12345
1234512345 12345
1234512345
12345
1234512345 123451234512345 12345
123456 12345 123456 1234512345
1234512345 123451234512345 123451234561234512345 12345612345123451234512345
12345
1234512345
12345 12345
123451234512345 12345
123456 1234512345 12345612345
123451234512345
1234512345 1234512345
1234512345
12345 12345
123456
12345 1234512345
1234561234512345 123456
12345612345
12345
1234512345
12345 1234512345
12345
A=4 A=9 A = 16 A = 25
Area of the square (in cm2) Side of the square (in cm)
(A) (S)
4=2×2 2 The number of unit squares
9=3×3 3 in a row / column represents

the side of a square.
16 = 4 × 4 _____
25 = 5 × 5 _____

Do you find any relation between the area of the square and its side?
We know that the area of the square = side × side = side2
If the area of a square is 169 cm2. What could be the side of the square?
Let us assume that the length of the side be ‘x’ cm.
2
* 169 = x
To find the length of the side, it is necessary to find a number whose square is 169.
We know that 169 = 132. Then the length of the side = 13 cm.
Therefore, if a square number is expressed, as the product of two equal factors, then one the
factors is called the square root of that square number. Thus, the square root of 169 is 13. It can
be expressed as 169 = 13 (symbol used for square root is ). Thus it is the inverse operation
of squaring.
25 is the square of both 5
Example 1: 32 = 9 therefore square root of 9 is 3( 9 = 3)
and $5.
42 = 16 therefore square root of 16 is 4( 16 = 4) Therefore, the square root of
52 = 25 therefore square root of 25 is 5( 25 = 5) 25 is 5 or $5.
If y2 = x then square root of x is y + x!y , But in this chapter we are

confined to the positive
Example 2: 1. 4 = 2 because 22 = 4
square root which is also
2. 16 = 4 because 42 = 16
called principal square root.
2
3. 225 = 15 because 15 = 225 etc. It is written as
Complete the following table: -. 25 = 5.
Square Square roots
12 = 1 1 =1
2
2 =4 4 =2
32 = 9 9 =3
42 = 16 16 = 4
52 = 25 25 = ……..
62 = 36 36 = ……..
72 = …...... = ……...
82 = …….. = ………
92 = …….. = ………
102 = …….. = ………

6.5 Finding the Square root through subtraction of successive odd numbers:
We know that, every square number can be expressed as a sum of successive odd natural
numbers starting from 1.
Consider, 1+3 = 4 = 22
1+3+5 = 9 = 32
1+3+5+7 = 16 = 42
1+3+5+7+9 = 25 = 52
Finding square root is the reverse order of this pattern.
For example, find 49

Step 1: 49 – 1 = 48 (Subtracting of first odd number) Observe we know
2
Step 2: 48 – 3 = 45 (Subtracting of 2nd odd number) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = 7 = 49
49 – [1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13] = 0
Step 3: 45 – 5 = 40 (Subtracting of 3rd odd number)
Hence 49 is a perfect square.
Step 4: 40 – 7 = 33
Step 5: 33 – 9 = 24
Step 6: 24 – 11 = 13
Step 7: 13 – 13 = 0
From 49, we have subtracted seven successive odd numbers starting from 1 and obtained zero
(0) at 7th step.
- 49 ! 7
Note: If the result of this process is not zero then the given number is not a perfect square.
Do This:
(i) By repeated subtraction, find whether the following numbers are perfect squares
or not?
(i) 55 (ii) 90 (iii) 121
It is easy to find the square roots of any square numbers by the above repeated subtraction
process. But in case of bigger numbers such as 625, 729.......... it is time taking process. So, Let
us try to find simple ways to obtain the square roots.

There are two methods of finding the square root of the given numbers. They are
(i) Prime factorization method
(ii) Division method
6.6 Finding the Square Root Through Prime Factorisation Method: 2 484
Let us find the square root of 484 by prime factorization method. 2 242
Step 1: Resolve the given number 484 into prime factors, we get 11 121
484 = 2 × 2 × 11 × 11 11 11
Step 2: Make pairs of equal factors, we get 1
484 = (2 × 2) × (11 × 11) 484 = (2 × 11) × (2 × 11) = (2 × 11)2
Step 3: Choosing one factor out of every pair 484 = (2 11) 2

= 2 × 11
By doing so, we get = 22
484 = 2 × 11 = 22
Therefore, the square root of 484 is 22.
Now we will see some more examples
2 1296
2 648
Example 3 : Find the square root of 1296 by Prime Factorization
2 324
Solution : Resolving 1296 into Prime factors, we get
2 162
1296 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) 3 81
3 27
1296 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
3 9
- 1296 = 36 3 3
1
Example 4 : Find the square root of 2025
5 2025
5 405
2025 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × (5 × 5) 3 81
3 27
2025 = 3 × 3 × 5
3 9
-. 2025 = 45 3 3
1
Example 5: Find the smallest number by which 720 should be multiplied to get a perfect
square.
2 720
2 360
720 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (3 × 3) × 5 2 180
We see that 2, 2, 3 exist in pairs, while 5 is alone 2 90
So, we should multiply the given number by 5 to 3 45
3 15
get a perfect square.
5 5
Therefore, the perfect square so obtained is 1
720 × 5 = 3600
Example 6: Find the smallest number by which 6000 should be divided to get a perfect
square and also find the square root of the resulting number.
2 6000
Solution : Resolving 6000 into Prime factors, we get 2 3000
6000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 2 1500
We can see that, 2, 2, and 5 exists in pairs while 3 and 5 2 750

3 375
do not exists in pairs
5 125
So, we must divide the given number by 3 × 5 = 15 5 25
Therefore perfect square obtained = 6000 ÷ 15 = 400 5 5
400 = 2×2×2×2×5×5 1
The square root of 400 is 2 400

2 200
400 = (2 2) (2 2) (5 5)
2 100
= 2×2×5
2 50
= 20
5 25
5 5
1
Exercise - 6.2
1. Find the square roots of the following numbers by Prime factorization method.
(i) 441 (ii) 784 (iii) 4096 (iv) 7056

2. Find the smallest number by which 3645 must be multiplied to get a perfect square.
3. Find the smallest number by which 2400 is to be multiplied to get a perfect square and also
find the square root of the resulting number.
4. Find the smallest number by which 7776 is to be divided to get a perfect square.
5. 1521 trees are planted in a garden in such a way that there are as many trees in each
row as there are rows in the garden. Find the number of rows and number of trees in each
row.
6. A school collected ` 2601 as fees from its students. If fee paid by each student and
number students in the school were equal, how many students were there in the school?
7. The product of two numbers is 1296. If one number is 16 times the other, find the two
numbers?
8. 7921 soldiers sat in an auditorium in such a way that there are as many soldiers in a row as
there are rows in the auditorium. How many rows are there in the auditorium?
9. The area of a square field is 5184 m2. Find the area of a rectangular field, whose perimeter
is equal to the perimeter of the square field and whose length is twice of its breadth.
6.7 Finding square root by division method :
We have already discussed the method of finding square root by prime factorisation method. For
large numbers, it becomes lengthy and difficult. So, to overcome this problem we use division
method.
Let us find the square root of 784 by division method.
784 Step 1 : Pair the digits of the given number, starting from units place to the left.
Place a bar on each pair.
2 784 2 Step 2 : Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the first
pair or single digit from left (i.e. 2). Take this number as the divisor
and the quotient.
2 784 2
4 Step 3 : Subtract the product of the divisor and quotient (2 × 2 = 4) from first
3 pair or single digit (i.e. 7 – 4 = 3)
2 784 2
$4 Step 4 : Bring down the second pair (i.e. 84) to the right of the Remainder
384 (i.e. 3). This becomes the new dividend (i.e. 384).
2 784 2
Step 5 : From the next possible divisor double the quotient (i.e 2 × 2 = 4)
$4
and write a box on its right.
4 384
Step 6 : Guess the largest possible digit to fill the box in such a way that
2 784 28
the product of the new divisor and this digit is equal to or less
$4
4 8 384 than the new dividend (i.e. 48 × 8 = 384).
384
0
Step 7 : By subtracting, we get the remainder zero. The final quotient 28,
2 784 28
is the square root
$4
4/ 384 - 784 = 28
$ 384
0
Observe the following divisions, give reasons why 8 in the divisor 48 is considered in the above
example?
4 384 +9 4 384 +8 4 384 +7
36 32 28
24 64 104
81 ! 92 64 ! 82 49 ! 7 2
Now, we will see some more examples.
Example 7: Find the square root of 1296
Solution: Step 1
1296
Step 2
3 12 96 3
9
Step 3
3 12 96 3
-9
Step 4 3 1296 3
Observe
-9
6 396 6 396 +6
Step 5 36
3 12 96 36 36
-9 36 ! 62
66 396 0
- 396
0
- 1296 ! 36

Example 8: Find the square root of 8281 Observe

Solution: 9 82 81 91 18 181 +1
-81 18
181 181 1
-181 1 ! 12
0 Therefore 8281 ! 91 0
Example 9: Find the greatest four digit number which is a perfect square
99 99 99
9
Solution: Greatest four digit number is 9999 -81
189 18 99
We find square root of 9999 by division method.
-17 01
The remainder 198 shows that it is less than 9999 by 198 1 98
This means if we subtract 198 from 9999, we get a perfect square.
- 9999 – 198 = 9801 is the required perfect square.
Example 10: Find the least number which must be subtracted from 4215 6 42 15 64
to make it a perfect square? -36
Solution: We find by division method that 1 6 15
124 -4 96
The remainder is 119 1 19
This means, if we subtract 119 from 4215. We get a perfect square.
Hence, the required least number is 119.
6.8 Square roots of decimals using division method :
Let us begin with the example 17.64

Step 1: Place the bars on the integral part of the number i.e. 17 in the
usual manner. Place the bars on every pair of decimal part from 17.64
left to right
Step 2: Find the largest number (i.e. 4) whose square is less than or
4 17 . 64 4
equal to the first pair of integral part (i.e. 17). Take this number
-16
4 as a divisor and the first pair 17 as the dividend. Get the
1
remainder as 1.
Divide and get the remainder i.e. 1
4 17.64 4
Step 3: Write the next pair (i.e. 64) to the right of the remainder to get -16
164, which becomes the new dividend. 1.64
Step 4: Double the quotient (2 4 = 8) and write it as 8 in the box on its 4 17.64 4
right. Since 64 is the decimal part so, put a decimal point in the
-16
quotient (i.e. 4)
8 - 164
Step 5: Guess the digit to fill the box in such a way that the product of the 4 17.64 4.2
new divisor and the digit is equal to or less than the new dividend -16
164. In this case the digit is 2. Divide and get the remainder. 82 164
-164
Step 6: Since the remainder is zero and no pairs left. 0
17.64 ! 4.2
Now, let us see some more examples.
Example 11: Find the square root of 42.25 using division method.
Solution: Step 1 : 42 . 25
6 42.25 6
Step 2 : -36
6
6 42.25 6.5
Step 3 : 6 -36
125 625
-625
0
- 42.25 ! 6.5 .
Example 12: Find 96.04

Solution: 9 96.04 9.8
9 -81
188 1504
-1504
0
Therefore 96.04 = 9.8

6.9 Estimating square roots of non perfect square numbers :
So far we have learnt the method for finding the square roots of perfect squares. If the numbers
are not perfect squares, then we will not be able to find the exact square roots. In all such cases
we atleast need to estimate the square root.
Let us estimate the value of 300 to the nearest whole number.
300 lies between two perfect square numbers 100 and 400
....- 100 < 300 < 400
102 < 300 < 202
i.e. 10 < 300 < 20
But still we are not very close to the square number. we know that 172 = 289, 182 = 324
Therefore 289 < 300 < 324
17 < 300 < 18
As 289 is more closer to 300 than 324.
The approximate value of 300 is 17.
Exercise - 6.3
1. Find the square roots of the following numbers by division method.

(i) 1089 (ii) 2304 (iii) 7744 (iv) 6084 (v) 9025
2. Find the square roots of the following decimal numbers.

(i) 2.56 (ii) 18.49 (iii) 68.89 (iv) 84.64
3. Find the least number that is to be subtracted from 4000 to make it perfect square
4. Find the length of the side of a square whose area is 4489 sq.cm.
5. A gardener wishes to plant 8289 plants in the form of a square and found that there were
8 plants left. How many plants were planted in each row?
6. Find the least perfect square with four digits.
7. Find the least number which must be added to 6412 to make it a perfect square?
8. Estimate the value of the following numbers to the nearest whole number
(i) 97 (ii) 250 (iii) 780

Cubes and Cube Roots
6.10 Cubic Numbers
We know that a cube is a solid figure with six identical squares.
Now let us make cubic shapes using these unit cubes

S.No. Figure Length of the side No.of unit cubes used
1 1 1 1
1
1
2 2 8
2
2
2
3 3 27
3
Can you make next cube? Guess how many unit cubes are required to make a cube whose side
is 5 units?
So, we require 1, 8, 27, 64 …….. unit cubes to make cubic shapes.
These numbers 1, 8, 27, 64 …… are called cubic numbers or perfect cubes.

As 1 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 13
8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
27 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 33
64 = …….. × …… × …… =
So, a cube number is obtained when a number is multiplied by itself for three times.
That is, cube of a number ‘x’ is x × x × x = x3
Is 49 a cube number ? No, as 49 = 7 × 7 and there is no natural number which when multiplied
by itself three times gives 49. We can also see that 3 × 3 × 3 = 27 and 4 × 4 × 4 = 64. This
shows that 49 is not a perfect cube.
Try These
1. Is 81 a perfect cube?
2. Is 125 a perfect cube?
Observe and complete the following table.
Number Cube
1 13 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1
2 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
3 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
4 43 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
5 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
6 63 = 6 × 6 × 6 = ………
7 73 = ……………… = …………..
8 83 = ……………… = …………..
9 93 = ……………… = …………..
10 103 = ……………… = …………..
(i) How many perfect cube numbers are present between 1 and 100, 1 and 500, 1 and 1000?
(ii) How many perfect cubes are there between 500 and 1000 ?
Following are the cubes of numbers from 11 to 20

Number Cube
11 1331
12 1728
13 2197
14 2744
15 3375 Do you find anything interesting
16 4096 in the sum of the digits in the
17 4913 cubes of 17 and 18 ?
18 5832
19 6859
20 8000
From the table, we can see that cube of an even number is always an even number. Do you think
the same is true for odd numbers also?
We can also observe that, if a number has 1 in the units place, then its cube ends with 1.
Similarly, what can you say about the units digit of the cube of a number having 0, 4, 5, 6 or 9 as
the units digit?
Try These:
1. Find the digit in units place of each of the following numbers.
(i) 753 (ii) 1233 (iii) 1573 (iv) 1983 (v) 2063
6.11 Some interesting patterns:

1. Adding consecutive odd numbers
Observe the following patterns.
1 = 1 = 13
3+5 = 8 = 23
7 + 9 + 11 = 27 = 33
13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = …… = …….
Can you guess how many next consecutive odd numbers will be needed to obtain the sum as 53?

2. Consider the following pattern

23 $ 13 = 1+2×1×3 = 7
33 $ 23 = 1+3×2×3 = 19
43 $ 33 = 1+4×3×3 = 37
53 $ 43 = …………….. = ..............
Using the above pattern find the values of the following
(i) 103 $ 93 (ii) 153 $ 143 (iii) 263 $ 253
3. Observe the following pattern and complete it
13 = 12
1 3 + 23 = (1 + 2)2 = (3)2
13 + 23 + 33 = (1 + 2 + 3)2 = ( )2
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 = ( _____)2
…………………. = (1 + 2 + 3 + .... + 10)2
Hence we can generalize that,
The sum of the cubes of first ‘n’ natural numbers is equal to the square of their sum.
i.e. 13 + 23 + 33 + ……… + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 +.... + n)2.
6.12 Cubes and their Prime Factors:
Consider the numbers 64 and 216

Resolving 64 and 216 into prime factors
64 = 2×2×2×2×2×2
216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
In both these cases each factor appears three times. That is the prime factors can be grouped in
triples.
Thus, if a number can be expressed as a product of three equal factors then it is said to be a
perfect cube or cubic number.
Is 540 a perfect cube? 2 540

2 270
Resolving 540 into prime factors, we get
3 135
540 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 3 45
3 15
Here, 2 and 5 do not appear in groups of three.
5 5
Hence 540 is not a perfect cube. 1
Do These
1. Which of the following are perfect cubes?
(i) 243 (ii) 400 (iii) 500 (iv) 512 (v) 729
Example 13: What is a smallest number by which 2560 is to be multiplied so that the product
is a perfect cube?
2 2560
Solution : Resolving 2560 into prime factors, we get 2 1280
2560 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 2 640
2 320
The Prime factor 5 does not appear in a group of three.
2 160
So, 2560 is not a perfect cube. 2 80
Hence, the smallest number by which it is to be multiplied 2 40
to make it a perfect cube is 5 × 5 = 25 2 20
2 10
5
Example 14: What is the smallest number by which 1600 is to be divided. so that the quotient
is a perfect cube?
2 1600
Solution : Resolving 1600 into prime factors, we get 2 800
1600 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 2 400
2 200
The prime factor 5 does not appear in a group of three
2 100
factors. So, 1600 is not a perfect cube.
2 50
Hence, the smallest number which is to be divided 5 25
to make it a perfect cube is 5 × 5 = 25 5

Exercise - 6.4
1. Find the cubes of the following numbers

(i) 8 (ii) 16 (iii) 21 (iv) 30
2. Test whether the given numbers are perfect cubes or not.
(i) 243 (ii) 516 (iii) 729 (iv) 8000 (v) 2700
3. Find the smallest number by which 8788 must be multiplied to obtain a perfect cube?
4. What smallest number should 7803 be multiplied with so that the product becomes a
perfect cube?
5. Find the smallest number by which 8640 must be divided so that the quotient is a perfect
cube?
6. Ravi made a cuboid of plasticine of dimensions 12cm, 8cm and 3cm. How many minimum
number of such cuboids will be needed to form a cube?
7. Find the smallest prime number dividing the sum 311 + 513.
6.13 Cube roots

We know that, we require 8 unit cubes to form a cube of side 2 units (23 = 8) similarly, we need
27 unit cubes to form a cube of side 3 units (33= 27)
Suppose, a cube is formed with 64 unit cubes. Then what could be the side of the cube?
Let us assume, the length of the side to be ‘x’
- 64 = x3
To find the side of a cube, it is necessary to find a number whose cube is 64.
Therefore, finding the number whose cube is known is called finding the cube root. It is the
inverse operation of cubing.
As, 43 = 64 then 4 is called cube root of 64
We write 3
64 ! 4 . The symbol 3 denotes cube root. Hence, a number ‘x’ is the cube root
of another number y, if y = x3 then x = 3 y.
(1 unit cube) (2 unit cube) (3 unit cube) (4 unit cube)

Complete the following table:

Cubes Cube roots
13 = 1 3
1 = 1
3
2 = 8 3
8 = 2
3
3 = 27 3
27 = 3
43 = 64 3
64 = 4
53 = 125 3
125 = 5
3
6 = …... 3 = 6
3
7 = ……. 3 = 7
83 = …… 3 = 8
…… = ........... ........ = ...........
…… = ........... ............ = .........
6.14 Finding cube root through Prime Factorization method:

2 1728
Let us find the cube root of 1728 by prime factorization method.
2 864
Step1 : Resolve the given number 1728 into prime factors.
2 432
1728 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
2 216
Step2 : Make groups of three equal factors:
1728 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (3 × 3 × 3) 2 108
Step 3: Choose one factor from each group and multiply by doing so, we get 2 54
3 27
3
1728 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
3 9
- 1728 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
3
3
Let us see some more examples
2 4096
Example 15: Find the cube root of 4096 ?
2 2048
Solution : Resolving 4096 into Prime Factors, we get 2 1024
4096 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) 2 512
2 256
3
4096 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
2 128
- 3
4096 = 16 2 64
2 32
2 16
2 8
2 4
2

6.15 Estimating the cube root of a number
If we know that, the given number is a cube number then to find its cube root the following
method can be used.
Let us find the cube root of 9261 through estimation.
Step1: Start making groups of three digits starting from the unit place.
i.e. 9 261
second first
group group
Step 2: First group i.e. 261 will give us the units digit of the cube root. As 261 ends with 1, its
cube root also ends with 1. So, the units place of the cube root will be 1.
Step 3: Now, take second group i.e. 9.
We know that 23 < 9 < 33.
As the smallest number is 2, it becomes the tens place of the required cube root
- 3
9261 ! 21
Exercise - 6.5
1. Find the cube root of the following numbers by prime factorization method.
(i) 343 (ii) 729 (iii) 1331 (iv) 2744
2. Find the cube root of the following numbers through estimation?
(i) 1512 (ii) 2197 (iii) 3375 (iv) 5832
3. State true or false?
(i) Cube of an even number is an odd number
(ii.) A perfect cube may end with two zeros
(iii) If a number ends with 5, then its cube ends with 5
(iv) Cube of a number ending with zero has three zeros at its right
(v) The cube of a single digit number may be a single digit number.
(vi) There is no perfect cube which ends with 8
(vii) The cube of a two digit number may be a three digit number.
4. Find the two digit number which is a square number and also a cubic number.
• Estimating number of digits in square of a number.

• Square numbers written in different patterns.
• a, b, c are positive integers and if a2 + b2 = c2 then (a, b, c) are said to be
Pythagorean triplets.
• Finding the square roots by prime factorisation and division method.
• Square root is the inverse operation of squaring.
• Estimating square roots of non perfect square numbers.
• If a number is multiplied three times by itself is called cube number.
• Finding cube root by prime factorisation method.
• Estimating cube roots of a number.
• The square of integer is a integer and a square number, where as square of
rational number is a perfect square.
Eternal triangle
The formulae that will give integral sides of a right - angled triangle have been known
since the time of Diophantus and the early Greeks. They are
one leg X = m2 $ n2
second leg Y = 2mn Z=
m2
Y = 2mn
2 2 +n2
Hypotenuse Z = m + n
The numbers m and n are integers which may
be arbitarily selectus.
X = m 2 $ n2
Example
m n X = m2 $ n2 Y = 2mn Z = m 2 + n2
2 1 3 4 5
3 2 5 12 13
5 2 21 20 29
4 3 7 24 25
4 1 15 8 27

Chapter 7
Frequency Distribution Tables and Graphs
7.0 Introduction
Jagadeesh is watching sports news. A visual appeared on the T.V. screen giving details of the
medals won by different countries in Olympics 2012.
Olympics 2012 - Medals Tally
Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total

1 United States 46 29 29 104
2 China 38 27 23 88
3 Great Britain 29 17 19 65
4 Russia 24 26 32 82
5 Korea 13 8 7 28
The above table provides data about the top five countries that got the highest number of medals
in the olympics 2012 as well as the number of medals they won.
Information, available in the numerical form or verbal form or graphical form that helps in taking
decisions or drawing conclusions is called Data.
● Which country has got the highest number of medals ?
● Which country has got the highest number of bronze medals ?
● Write three more questions based on data provided in the table .
Try This
Give any three examples of data which are in situations or in numbers.

Frequency Distribution Tables and Graphs 149
7.1 Basic measures of central tendency
Usually we collect data and draw certain conclusions based on the nature of a data. Understanding
its nature, we do certain computations like mean, median and mode which are referred as measures
of central tendency. Let us recall.
7.1.1 Arithmetic Mean
It is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. For a set of numbers, the mean is
simply the average, i.e., sum of all observations divided by the number of observations.
Arithmetic mean of x1, x2, x3, x4, . . . . . . . xn is
x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ……… . + x n
Arithmetic mean = ∑ xi represents the sum of
N
all xi s where i takes the
x = ∑xi (short representation) values from 1 to n
N
Example 1: Ashok got the following marks in different subjects in a unit test. 20, 11, 21, 25,
23 and 14. What is arithmetic mean of his marks?
Solution: Observations = 20, 11, 21, 25, 23 and 14
Arithmetic mean x =
∑x i
N
20 + 11 + 21 + 25 + 23 + 14 114
= =
6 6
x = 19
Example 2: Arithmetic mean of 7 observations was found to be 32. If one more observation
48 was to be added to the data what would be the new mean of the data?
Solution: Mean of 7 observations x = 32
Sum of 7 observations is ∑ xi = 32 × 7 = 224
Added observation = 48
Sum of 8 observations ∑ xi = 224 + 48 = 272
x= ∑
xi 272
∴ Mean of 8 observations = = 34
N 8
Example 3: Mean age of 25 members of a club was 38 years. If 5 members with mean age
of 42 years have left the club, what is the present mean age of the club members?
Solution: Mean age of 25 members of the club = 38 years

Total age of all the 25 members = 38 × 25 = 950

Mean age of 5 members = 42 years
Total age of 5 members = 42 × 5 = 210
Total age of remaining 20 members = 950 – 210 = 740
∴ Present mean age of club members x =

∑x i =
740
= 37 years
N 20
Example 4: Arithmetic mean of 9 observations was calculated as 45. In doing so an observation
was wrongly taken as 42 for 24. What would then be the correct mean?
Solution: Mean of 9 observations = 45
Sum of 9 observations = 45 × 9 = 405
When computing mean 42 was taken instead of 24
∴ Correct sum of 9 observations = 405 – 42 + 24 = 387
Actual mean of 9 observations =

∑x i =
387
= 43
N 9
We observe,
● From the above examples we can see that Arithmetic Mean is a representative value of the
entire data.
● Arithmetic mean depends on both number of observations and value of each observation
in a data.
● It is unique value of the data.
● When all the observations of the data are increased or decreased by a certain number, the
mean also increases or decreases by the same number.
● When all the observations of the data are multiplied or divided by a certain number, the
mean also multiplied or divided by the same number.
7.1.2 Arithmetic Mean by Deviation Method
There are five observations in a data, 7, 10, 15, 21, 27.When the teacher asked to estimate the
Arithmetic Mean of the data without actual calculation, three students Kamal, Neelima and Lekhya
estimated as follows:
Kamal estimated that it lies exactly between minimum and maximum values: 17,
Neelima estimated that it is the middle value of the ordered (ascending or descending) data; 15,
Lekhya added all the observations and divided by their number; 16.
We call each of these estimations as ‘estimated mean’ or ‘assumed mean’ is represented
with ‘A’.
Let us verify which of the estimations coincides with the actual mean.
Case 1: Consider Kamal’s estimated arithmetic mean A = 17
Their actual arithmetic mean is x =

∑xi =
7 + 10 + 15 + 21 + 27
N 5
If each observation is written in terms of deviation from assumed mean A, we have
Score A in Terms of
x =
(17 − 10 ) + (17 − 7) + (17 − 2) + (17 + 4) + (17 + 10)
Deviations
5
7 17 7 = 17 − 10
10 = 17 − 7
5 × 17 −10 − 7 − 2 + 4 + 10
10 17 = +
15 17 15 = 17 − 2 5 5
21 17 21 = 17 + 4 −5
27 17 27 = 17 + 10 = 17 + = 17 – 1 = 16
5
∴ Arithmetic mean = Estimated mean + Average of deviations
Case 2: Consider Neelima’s estimated arithmetic mean A = 15
Their arithmetic mean is x =

∑x i =
7 + 10 + 15 + 21 + 27
N 5
⇒ x in terms of deviations =
(15 − 8) + (15 − 5) + (15 − 0 ) + (15 + 6) + (15 + 12)
5
(5 × 15) ( −8 − 5 − 0 + 6 + 12)
= +
5 5
5
= 15 + = 15 + 1 = 16
5
Case 3: Consider Lekhya’s estimated arithmetic mean A = 16
Their arithmetic mean is x =

∑xi =
7 + 10 + 15 + 21 + 27
N 5
⇒ x in terms of deviations =
(16 − 9 ) + (16 − 6 ) + (16 − 1) + (16 + 5 ) + (16 + 11)
5
(5 × 16) ( −9 − 6 − 1 + 5 + 11)
= +
5 5
0
= 16 + = 16
5
Try These
Prepare a table of estimated mean, deviations of the above cases. Observe
the average of deviations with the difference of estimated mean and actual
mean. What do you infer?
[Hint : Compare with average deviations]

It is clear that the estimated mean becomes the actual arithmetic mean if the sum (or average) of
deviations of all observations from the estimated mean is ‘zero’.
We may use this verification process as a means to find the Arithmetic Mean of the data.
From the above cases, it is evident that the arithmetic mean may be found through the estimated
mean and deviation of all observations from it. The difference between any score of
data and assumed mean is called
Arithmetic mean = Estimated mean + Average of deviations deviations.
−10 +7
Sum of deviations Eg. +4
= Estimated mean + −7
Number of observations −2
x =A+ ∑( xi − A) 0 5 7 10 1517 20 21 25 27 30
N Assumed mean = 17
Example 5: Find the arithmetic mean of 10 observations 14, 36, 25, 28, 35, 32, 56, 42, 50,
62 by assuming mean as 40. Also find mean by regular formula. Do you find any
difference.
Solution: Observations of the data = 14, 25, 28, 32, 35, 36, 42, 50, 56, 62
Let the assumed mean is A = 40
∴ Arithmetic mean = A+
∑( xi − A)
N
(14 − 40) + (25 − 40) + (28 − 40) + (32 − 40) + (35 − 40) + (36 − 40) + (42 − 40) + (50 − 40) + (56 − 40) + (62 − 40)
x = 40 + 10
( −26) + ( −15) + ( −12) + ( −8) + ( −5) + ( −4) + (2) + (10) + (16) + (22)
= 40 +
10
( −70 + 50)
= 40 +
10
20
= 40 –
10
= 40 − 2 = 38
By usual formula x =
∑xi =
14 + 25 + 28 + 32 + 35 + 36 + 42 + 50 + 56 + 62
N 10
380
= = 38
10
In both the methods we got the same mean.
This way of computing arithmetic mean by deviation method is conveniently used for data with
large numbers and decimal numbers.
Consider the following example.

Example 6: Market value (in rupees) of a share through a week is changing as 3672, 3657,
3673, 3665, 3668. Find the arithmetic mean of the market value of the share.
Solution: Observations of the data = 3657, 3665, 3668, 3672, 3673
Estimated mean = 3668
Arithmetic mean x = A+
∑( xi − A)
N
(3657 − 3668) + (3665 − 3668) + (3668 − 3668) + (3672 − 3668) + (3673 − 3668)
= 3668 +
5
( −11 − 3 − 0 + 4 + 5) ( −5)
= 3668 + = 3668 + = 3668 - 1 = ` 3667.
5 5
Try These
1. Estimate the arithmetic mean of the following data

(i) 17, 25, 28, 35, 40
(ii) 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 10, 10, 10, 12, 12, 13, 19, 19, 19, 20
Verify your answers by actual calculations.
Project work
1. Collect marks of 10 of your classmates in different subjects in the recent examinations.

Estimate the arithmetic mean of marks in each subject and verify them by actual calculations.
How many of your estimations represent exact mean?
2. Measure the heights of students of your class and estimate the mean height. Verify their
mean from records of your physical education teacher. Do you notice any difference?
7.1.3 Median
Median is another frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is simply the middle
term of the distribution when it is arranged in either ascending or descending order, i.e. there are
as many observations above it as below it.
If n number of observations in the data arranged in ascending or descending order
 n + 1
th
• When n is odd,  observation is the median.
 2 

 n n 
th th
• When n is even, arithmetic mean of two middle observations   and  + 1 is the

 2 2 
median of the data.
Example 7: Find the median of 9 observations 14, 36, 25, 28, 35, 32, 56, 42, 50.
Solution: Ascending order of the data = 14, 25, 28, 32, 35, 36, 42, 50, 56
No of observations n = 9 (odd number)
 n + 1
th
Median of the data =  observation
 2 
= 5th observation = 35
∴ Median = 35
Example 8: If another observation 61 is also included to the above data what would be the
median?
Solution: Ascending order of the data = 14, 25, 28, 32, 35, 36, 42, 50, 56, 61
No of observations n = 10 (even number)
Then there would be two numbers at the middle of the data.
th th
n n 
Median of the data = arithmetic mean of   and  + 1 observations
2 2 
th th
= arithmetic mean of 5 and 6 observations
35 + 36
= = 35.5
2
Do This
Here are the heights of some of Indian cricketers. Find the median height of the team.
S.No. Players Name Heights
5' 10'' means 5 feet 10 inches
1. VVS Laxman 5'11''
2. Parthiv Patel 5'3''
3. Harbhajan Singh 6'0''
4. Sachin Tendulkar 5'5''
5. Gautam Gambhir 5'7''
6. Yuvraj Singh 6'1''
7. Robin Uthappa 5'9''
8. Virender Sehwag 5'8''
9. Zaheer Khan 6'0''
10. MS Dhoni 5'11''
Note :
● Median is the middle most value in ordered data.
● It depends on number of observations and middle observations of the ordered data. It is
not effected by any change in extreme values.
Try These
1. Find the median of the data 24,65,85,12,45,35,15.
2. If the median of x, 2x, 4x is 12, then find mean of the data.
3. If the median of the data 24, 29, 34, 38, x is 29 then the value of ‘x’ is
(i) x > 38 (ii) x < 29 (iii) x lies in between 29 and 34 (iv) none
7.1.4 Mode
When we need to know what is the favourite uniform colour in a class or most selling size of the
shirt in shop ,we use mode. The mode is simply the most frequently occurring value.Consider the
following examples.
Example 9: In a shoe mart different sizes (in inches) of shoes sold in a week are; 7, 9, 10, 8,
7, 9, 7, 9, 6, 3, 5, 5, 7, 10, 7, 8, 7, 9, 6, 7, 7, 7, 10, 5, 4, 3, 5, 7, 8, 7, 9, 7.
Which size of the shoes must be kept more in number for next week to sell? Give
the reasons.
Solution: If we write the observations in the data in order we have
3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10,
10, 10.
From the data it is clear that 7 inch size shoes are sold more in number. Thus the
mode of the given data is 7. So 7 inch size shoes must be kept more in number
for sale.
Example 10: The blood group of 50 donors, participated in blood donation camp are A, AB,
B, A, O, AB, O, O, A, AB, B, A, O, AB, O, O, A, B, A, O, AB, O, O, A, AB,
B, O, AB, O, B, A, O, AB, O, O, A, AB, B, A, O, AB, O, A, AB, B, A, O, AB,
O, O. Find the mode of the above verbal data.
Solution: By observing the data we can find that A group is repeated for 12, B group is
repeated for 7, AB group is repeated for 12, O group is repeated for 19 times.
∴ Mode of the data is = ‘O’ group.
Is their any change in mode, if one or two more observations, equal to mode are included in the
data?

Note :
● Mode is the most frequent observation of the given data.
● It depends neither on number of observations nor values of all observations.
● It is used to analyse both numerical and verbal data.
● There may be 2 or 3 or many modes for the same data.
Exercise - 7.1
1. Find the arithmetic mean of the sales per day in a fair price shop in a week.
`10000, `.10250, `.10790, `.9865, `.15350, `.10110
2. Find the mean of the data;10.25, 9, 4.75, 8, 2.65, 12, 2.35

3. Mean of eight observations is 25. If one observation 11 is excluded, find the mean of the
remaining.
4. Arithmetic mean of nine observations is calculated as 38. But in doing so, an observation
27 is mistaken for 72. Find the actual mean of the data.
5. Five years ago mean age of a family was 25 years. What is the present mean age of the
family?
6. Two years ago the mean age of 40 people was 11 years. Now a person left the group and
the mean age is changed to 12 years. Find the age of the person who left the group.
7 Find the sum of deviations of all observations of the data 5, 8, 10, 15, 22 from their mean.
8. If sum of the 20 deviations from the mean is 100, then find the mean deviation.
9. Marks of 12 students in a unit test are given as 4, 21, 13, 17, 5, 9, 10, 20, 19, 12, 20, 14.
Assume a mean and calculate the arithmetic mean of the data. Assume another number as
mean and calculate the arithmetic mean again. Do you get the same result? Comment.
10. Arithmetic mean of marks (out of 25) scored by 10 students was 15. One of the student,
named Karishma enquired the other 9 students and find the deviations from her marks are
noted as − 8, − 6, − 3, − 1, 0, 2, 3, 4, 6. Find Karishma’s marks.
11. The sum of deviations of ‘n’ observations from 25 is 25 and sum of deviations of the same
‘n’ observations from 35 is − 25. Find the mean of the observations.
12. Find the median of the data; 3.3, 3.5, 3.1, 3.7, 3.2, 3.8
13. The median of the following observations, arranged in ascending order is 15.
10, 12, 14, x − 3, x, x + 2, 25.Then find x.
14. Find the mode of 10, 12, 11, 10, 15, 20, 19, 21, 11, 9, 10.
15. Mode of certain scores is x. If each score is decreased by 3, then find the mode of the new
series.
16. Find the mode of all digits used in writing the natural numbers from 1 to 100.
17. Observations of a raw data are 5, 28, 15, 10, 15, 8, 24. Add four more numbers so that
mean and median of the data remain the same, but mode increases by 1.
18. If the mean of a set of observations x1, x2, ...., ...., x10 is 20. Find the mean of x1 + 4,
x2 + 8, x3 + 12, .... ...., x10 + 40.
19. Six numbers from a list of nine integers are 7, 8, 3, 5, 9 and 5. Find the largest possible
value of the median of all nine numbers in this list.
20. The median of a set of 9 distinct observations is 20. If each of the largest 4 observations
of the set is increased by 2, find the median of the resulting set.
7.2 Organisation of Grouped Data
We have learnt to organize smaller data by using tally marks in previous class. But what happens
if the data is large? We organize the data by dividing it into convenient groups. It is called grouped
data. Let us observe the following example.
A construction company planned to construct various types of houses for the employees based
on their income levels. So they collected the data about monthly net income of the 100 employees,
who wish to have a house. They are (in rupees) 15000, 15750, 16000, 16000,16050, 16400,
16600, 16800, 17000, 17250, 17250……………… 75000.
This is a large data of 100 observations, ranging from ` 15000 to ` 75000. Even if we make
frequency table for each observation the table becomes large. Instead the data can be classified
into small income groups like 10001 − 20000, 20001 − 30000, . . . , 70001 − 80000.
These small groups are called ‘class intervals’ .The intervals 10001 − 20000 has all the
observations between 10001 and 20000 including both 10001 and 20000. This form of class
interval is called ‘inclusive form’, where 10001 is the ‘lower limit’, 20000 is the ‘upper limit’.
7.2.1 Interpretation of Grouped frequency distribution:
Example 11: Marks of 30 students in mathematics test are Sl. Marks No of

given in the adjacent grouped frequency No Students
distribution. 1 0– 5 5
2 5 – 10 7
(i) Into how many groups the data is
3 10 – 15 10
classified?
4 15 – 20 6
5 20 – 25 2

(ii) How many students are there in the third group?

(iii) If a student gets 10 marks, should he be included in 2nd or 3rd class?
(iv) What are the marks of 6 students who are in 4th class interval?
(v) What are the individual marks of 2 students in the fifth group?
Answers
(i) The data is classified into 5 groups or 5 classes.
(ii) There are 10 students in the third group.
(iii) Here 10 is the upper limit of 2nd class and lower limit of 3rd class. In such
case upper limit is not included in the class. So 10 is included in the 3rd
class interval.
(iv) Marks of 6 students in 4th class interval varies from 15 and below 20.
(v) Individual marks of students can’t be identified from this frequency
distribution, they may be from 20 and below 25.
Do This Ages No of People

1 – 10 15
Ages of 90 people in an apartment are given in the
11 – 20 14
adjacent grouped frequency distribution
21 – 30 17
(i) How many Class Intervals are there in the table?
31 – 40 20
(ii) How many people are there in the Class Interval
41 – 50 18
21-30?
51 – 60 4
(iii) Which age group people are more in that 61 – 70 2
apartment?
(iv) Can we say that both people the last age group (61-70) are of 61, 70 or any
other age?
7.2.2 Limits and Boundaries
Suppose we have to organize a data of marks in a test. We make class intervals like 1-10, 11-20
,...... If a student gets 10.5 marks, where does it fall? In class 1-10 or 11-20 ? In this situation
we make use of real limits or boundaries.
Consider the class intervals shown in the adjacent table. Class Intervals
● Average of Upper Limit (UL) of first class and Lower Limit Limits Boundaries
(LL) of second class becomes the Upper Boundary (UB) of
1 – 10 0.5 - 10.5
the first class and Lower Boundary (LB) of the second class.
10 + 11 11 – 20 10.5 – 20.5
i.e., Average of 10, 11; = 10.5 is the boundary.
2 21 – 30 20.5 – 30.5
● Now all the observations below 10.5 fall into group 1-10
31 – 40 30.5 – 40.5
and the observations from 10.5 to below 20.5 will fall into
next class i.e 11-20 having boundaries 10.5 to 20.5. Thus 10.5 falls into class interval of
11-20.
● Imagine the UL of the previous class interval (usually zero) and calculate the LB of the first
0 +1
class interval. Average of 0, 1 is = 0.5 is the LB.
2
● Similarly imagine the LL of the class after the last class interval and calculate the UB of the
40 + 41
last class interval. Average of 40, 41 is = 40.5 is the UB.
2
These boundaries are also called “true class limits”.
Observe limits and boundaries for the following class intervals.
Class interval Limits Boundaries
Inclusive Lower Upper Lower Upper
classes limit limit boundary boundary
1-10 1 10 0.5 10.5
11-20 11 20 10.5 20.5
21-30 21 30 20.5 30.5
Class interval Limits Boundaries

Exclusive Lower Upper Lower Upper
classes limit limit boundary boundary
0-10 0 10 0 10
10-20 10 20 10 20
20-30 20 30 20 30
There in the above illustration we can observe that in case of discrete series (Inclusive class
intervals) limit and boundaries are different. But in case of continuous series (exclusive class

intervals) limits and boundaries are the same. Difference between upper and lower boundaries
of a class is called ‘class length’, represented by ‘C’.
Do These
1. Long jump made by 30 students of a class are tabulated as

Distance (cm) 101 – 200 201 – 300 301 – 400 401 – 500 501 – 600
No of students 4 7 15 3 1
I. Are the given class intervals inclusive or exclusive?
II. How many students are in second class interval?
III. How many students jumped a distance of 3.01m or more ?
IV. To which class interval does the student who jumped a distance of
4.005 m belongs?
2. Calculate the boundaries of the class intervals in the above table.
3. What is the length of each class interval in the above table?
7.2.3 Construction of grouped frequency Distribution
Consider the marks of 50 students in Mathematics secured in Quarterly examination 31, 14, 0,
12, 20, 23, 26, 36, 33,41, 37,25, 22, 14,3, 25, 27, 34, 38, 43, 32, 22, 28, 18, 7, 21, 20, 35,
36, 45, 9, 19, 29, 25, 33, 47, 35, 38, 25, 34, 38, 24, 39, 1, 10, 24, 27, 25, 18, 8.
After seeing the data, you might be thinking, into how many intervals the data could be classified?
How frequency distribution table could be constructed?
The following steps help in construction of grouped frequency Class Tally Frequency
distribution. Intervals Marks (No of
(Marks) students)
Step1: Find the range of the data.
0– 7 |||| 4
Range = Maximum value – Minimum value 08 – 15 |||| | 6
= 47 – 0 = 47
16 – 23 |||| |||| 9
Step2: Decide the number of class intervals. (Generally 24 – 31 |||| |||| ||| 13
number of class intervals are 5 to 8) 32 – 39 |||| |||| |||| 14
If no of class intervals = 6 40 – 47 |||| 4
47
⇒ Length of the class interval = ; 8 (approximately)
6
Step 3: Write inclusive class intervals starting from minimum value of observations.
i.e 0-7 ,8-15 and so on...
Step 4: Using the tally marks distribute the observations of the data into respective class intervals.
Step 5: Count the tally marks and write the frequencies in the table.
Now construct grouped frequency distribution table for exclusive classes.
1. Make a frequency distribution of the following series. 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,

4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7.
2. Construct a frequency distribution for the following series of numbers.
2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 11, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 20,
21, 22, 24, 24, 25. (Hint: Use inclusive classes)
3. What are the differences between the above two frequency distribution tables?
4. From which of the frequency distributions we can write the raw data again?
7.2.4 Characteristics of Grouped Frequency Distribution
1. It divides the data into convenient and small groups called ‘class intervals’.
2. In a class interval 5-10, 5 is called lower limit and 10 is called upper limit.
3. Class intervals like 1-10, 11-20, 21-30 .... are called inclusive class intervals, because
both lower and upper limits of a particular class belong to that particular class interval.
4. Class intervals like 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 ... are called exclusive class intervals, because
only lower limit of a particular class belongs to that class, but not its upper limit.
5. Average of upper limit of a class and lower limit of the next class is called upper bound of
the first class and lower bound of the next class.
6. In exclusive class intervals, both limits and boundaries are equal but in case of inclusive
class intervals limits and boundaries are not equal.
7. Difference between upper and lower boundaries of a class is called ‘length of the class’.
8. Individual values of all observations can’t be identified from this table, but value of each
observation of a particular class is assumed to be the average of upper and lower boundaries
of that class. This value is called ‘class mark’ or ‘mid value’ (x).

Example 12: The following marks achieved by 30 candidates in mathematics of SSC

examination held in the year 2010.
45, 56, 75, 68, 35, 69, 98, 78, 89, 90, 70, 56, 59, 35, 46, 47, 13, 29, 32, 39,
93, 84, 76, 79, 40, 54, 68, 69, 60, 59. Construct the frequency distribution
table with the class intervals ; failed (0 – 34), third class (35 – 49), second class
(50 – 60), first class (60 – 74) and distinction (75 – 100).
Solution: Class intervals are already given. So proceed from step 3
Step 3: Write class intervals as given. Class Tally Frequency
Intervals Marks (No of
Step 4: These are inclusive class intervals. Recall that
(Marks) students)
upper limits also belong to the class. Using
0 – 34 ||| 3
the tally marks, distribute the observations
35 – 49 |||| || 7
of the data into different class intervals. 50 – 59 |||| 5
Step 5: Count the tally marks and write the 60 – 74 |||| | 6
frequencies in the table. 75 – 100 |||| |||| 9
(Note : The lengths of class intervals are not same in this case)
Example 13: A grouped frequency distribution table is given below with class mark (mid values
of class intervals) and frequencies. Find the class intervals.
Class marks 7 15 23 31 39 47
Frequency 5 11 19 21 12 6
Solution: We know that class marks are the mid values of class intervals. That implies class
boundaries lie between every two successive class marks.
Step 1: Find the difference between two successive class marks; h = 15 - 7 = 8.
(Find whether difference between every two successive classes is same)
Step 2: Calculate lower and upper boundaries of every class with class mark ‘x’, as
x – h/2 and x + h/2
8 8
For example boundaries of first class are 7 – = 3 or 7 + = 11
2 2
Class Marks Class intervals Frequency

7 (7 – 4) – (7 + 4) = 03 – 11 5
15 (15 – 4) – (15 + 4) = 11 – 19 11
23 (23 – 4) – (23 + 4) = 19 – 27 19
31 (31 – 4) – (31 + 4) = 27 – 35 21
39 (39 – 4) – (39 + 4) = 35 – 43 12
47 (47 – 4) – (47 + 4) = 43 – 51 6
7.3 Cumulative Frequency

Class Interval No of
In a competitive examination 1000 candidates appeared for a
(Marks) Candidates
written test. Their marks are announced in the form of grouped
frequency distribution as shown in the adjacent table. 0 – 10 25
10 – 20 45
Two candidates Sarath, Sankar are looking at the table and
20 – 30 60
discussing like …
30 – 40 120
Sarath: How many candidates have appeared for the test? 40 – 50 300
Sankar: It seems 1000 candidates appeared for the test. 50 – 60 360
Sarath : See, 360 candidates achieved 50-60 marks. 60 – 70 50
70 – 80 25
Sankar: If 60 is the cut off mark, how many candidates are
80 – 90 10
eligible to get call letter?
90 – 100 5
Sarath : Do you mean how many got 60 and above marks in
altogether?
Sankar : It is 50 + 25 + 10 + 5, that is 90 candidates will be eligible.
Sarath : But there are only 105 jobs. How many candidates are eligible, if cut off mark as 50.
Sankar : In that case, 360 + 50 + 25 + 10 + 5, that is totally 450 candidates are eligible to get
call letter for interview.
Similarly we can make some more conclusions.
Number of candidates, who got equal or more than 90 (Lower boundary) = 5
Number of candidates, who got equal or more than LB of ninth CI = 10 + 5 = 15
Number of candidates, who got equal or more than LB of eighth CI = 25 + 15 = 40
Number of candidates, who got equal or more than LB of seventh CI = 50 + 40 = 90

We are getting these values by taking progressive total of frequencies from either the first or last
class to the particular class. These are called cumulative frequencies. The progressive sum of
frequencies from the last class of the to the
Class Interval LB Frequency Greater than
lower boundary of particular class is called
(Marks) (No of cumulative
‘Greater than Cumulative Frequency’
Candidates) frequency
(G.C.F.).
Watch out how we can write these greater 0 – 10 0 25 25+975 = 1000
than cumulative frequencies in the table. 10 – 20 10 45 45+930 = 975
1. Frequency in last class interval itself 20 – 30 20 60 60+870 = 930
is greater than cumulative frequency
30 – 40 30 120 120+750 = 870
of that class.
2. Add the frequency of the ninth class 40 – 50 40 300 300+450 = 750
interval to the greater than cumulative 50 – 60 50 360 360+ 90 = 450
frequency of the tenth class interval
60 – 70 60 50 50 + 40 = 90
to give the greater than cumulative
frequency of the ninth class interval 70 – 80 70 25 25 + 15 = 40
3. Successively follow the same 80 – 90 80 10 10 + 5 = 15
procedure to get the remaining
90 – 100 90 5 5
greater than cumulative frequencies.
The distribution that represent lower boundaries of the classes and their respective Greater
than cumulative frequencies is called Greater than Cumulative Frequency Distribution .
Similarly in some cases we need to calculate less than cumulative frequencies.
For example if a teacher wants to give some Class Interval UB No of Less than
extra support for those students, who got less (Marks) Candidates cumulative
marks than a particular level, we need to frequency
calculate the less than cumulative frequencies. 0–5 5 7 7
Thus the progressive total of frequencies from 5 – 10 10 10 10+7 = 17
first class to the upper boundary of a particular 10 – 15 15 15 15+17 = 32
class is called Less than Cumulative Frequency 15 – 20 20 8 8+32 = 40
(L.C.F.).
20 – 25 25 3 3+40 = 43
Consider the grouped frequency distribution
expressing the marks of 43 students in a unit test.
1. Frequency in first class interval is directly written into less than cumulative frequency.
2. Add the frequency of the second class interval to the less than cumulative frequency of the
first class interval to give the less than cumulative frequency of the second class interval
3. Successively follow the same procedure to get remaining less than cumulative frequencies.
The distribution that represents upper boundaries of the classes and their respective less
than cumulative frequencies is called Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.
Try These
1. Less than cumulative frequency is related to _______________

2. Greater than cumulative frequency is related to _______________
3. Write the Less than and Greater than cumulative frequencies for the
following data
Class Interval 1 -10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50
Frequency 4 7 12 5 2
4. What is total frequency and less than cumulative frequency of the last
class above problem? What do you infer?
Example 14: Given below are the marks of students in a less than cumulativae frequency
distribution table.. Write the frequencies of the respective classes. Also write the
Greater than cumulative frequencies. How many students’ marks are given in the
table?
Class Interval (Marks) 1 -10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50
L.C.F. (No of students) 12 27 54 67 75
Solution:
Class Interval L.C.F. Frequency G.C.F.
(Marks) (No of students)
1 – 10 12 12 12 + 63 = 75
11 – 20 27 27 - 12 = 15 15 + 48 = 63
21 – 30 54 54 - 27 = 27 27 + 21 = 48
31 – 40 67 67 - 54 = 13 13 + 8 = 21
41 – 50 75 75 - 67 = 8 8
Total number of students mentioned in the table is nothing but total of frequencies or less than
cumulative frequency of the last class or greater than cumulative frequency of the first class
interval, i.e. 75.

Exercise - 7.2
1. Given below are the ages of 45 people in a colony.

33 8 7 25 31 26 5 50 25 48 56
33 28 22 15 62 59 16 14 19 24 35
26 9 12 46 15 42 63 32 5 22 11
42 23 52 48 62 10 24 43 51 37 48
36
Construct grouped frequency distribution for the given data with 6 class intervals.
2. Number of students in 30 class rooms in a school are given below. Construct a frequency
distribution table for the data with a exclusive class interval of 4 (students).
25 30 24 18 21 24 32 34 22 20 22
32 40 28 30 22 26 31 34 15 38 28
20 16 15 20 24 30 25 18
3. Class intervals in a grouped frequency distribution are given as 4 – 11, 12 – 19, 20 – 27,
28 – 35, 36 – 43. Write the next two class intervals. (i) What is the length of each class
interval? (ii) Write the class boundaries of all classes, (iii) What are the class marks of
each class?
4. In the following grouped frequency distribution table class marks are given.
Class Marks 10 22 34 46 58 70
Frequency 6 14 20 21 9 5
(i) Construct class intervals of the data. (Exclusive class intervals)

(ii) Construct less than cumulative frequencies and
(iii) Construct greater than cumulative frequencies.
5. The marks obtained by 35 students in a test in statistics (out of 50) are as below.
35 1 15 35 45 23 31 40 21 13 15
20 47 48 42 34 43 45 33 37 11 13
27 18 12 37 39 38 16 13 18 5 41
47 43
Construct a frequency distribution table with equal class intervals, one of them being
10-20 (20 is not included).
6. Construct the class boundaries of the following frequency distribution table. Also construct
less than cumulative and greater than cumulative frequency tables.
Ages 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 - 12 13 - 15
No of children 10 12 15 13 9
7. Cumulative frequency table is given below. Which type of cumulative frequency is given.
Try to build the frequencies of respective class intervals.
Runs 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50
No of cricketers 3 8 19 25 30
8. Number of readers in a library are given below. Write the frequency of respective classes.
Also write the less than cumulative fequency table.
Number of books 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Greater than Cumulative frequency 42 36 23 14 6
7.4 Graphical Representation of Data:
Frequency distribution is an organised data with observations or class intervals with frequencies.
We have already studied how to represent of discrete series in the form of pictographs, bar
graphs, double bar graph and pie charts.
Let us recall bar graph first.
100
7.4.1 Bar Graph
90
A display of information using vertical or 80
horizontal bars of uniform width and different 70
N o. o f S tu d en ts
lengths being proportional to the respective 60

values is called a bar graph. 50
Let us see what a bar graph can represent. 40
Study the following vertical bar graph. 30

20
(i) What does this bar graph represent?
10
(ii) How many students secured A, B or C
0 A G ra d e B G ra d e C G ra d e
grades?
Acheivement in exam

(iii) Which grade is secured by more number

C ars
of the students?
(iv) How many students are there in the
A u tos
class?
It is easy to answer the questions from
S co oters
the graph.
Similarly in some graphs bars may be drawn B ik es
horizontally. For example observe the second
bar graph. It gives the data about number of B icy cles
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
vehicles in a village Sangam in Nellore district.
N o . of veh icles
1. All the bars (or rectangles) in a bar graph have

(a) same length (b) same width (c) same area (d) equal value
2. Does the length of each bar depend on the lengths of other bars in the graphs?
3. Does the variation in the value of a bar affect the values of other bars in the same graph?
4. Where do we use vertical bar graphs and horizontal bar graphs.
7.5 Graphical Representation of Grouped Frequency Distribution
Let us learn the graphical representation of grouped frequency distributions of continuous series
i.e. with exclusive class intervals. First one of its kind is histogram.
7.5.1 Histogram
7.5.1.1 Interpretation of Histogram:

Observe the following histogram for the given grouped frequency distribution.
Scale : on X-axis Class Interval Frequency

18
1cm = 1clss interval (Marks) (No of Students)
16 on Y-axis
14 1 cm = 2 students
0 – 10 3
12 10 – 20 5
F req u ency
10 20 – 30 9
8 30 – 40 10
6 40 – 50 15
4 50 – 60 19
2 60 – 70 13
70 – 80 11
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9 0 1 00
80 – 90 9
C la ss In terv a ls
90 -100 6
(i) How many bars are there in the graph?
(ii) In what proportion the height of the bars are drawn?
(iii) Width of all bars is same. What may be the reason?
(iv) Shall we interchange any two bars of the graph?
From the graph you might have understood that
(i) There are 10 bars representing frequencies of 10 class intervals.
(ii) Heights of the bars are proportional to the frequencies,
(iii) Width of bars is same because width represents the class interval. Particularly in this example
length of all class intervals is same.
(iv) As it is representing a continuous series, (with exclusive class intervals), we can’t interchange
any two bars.
Try These
Observe the adjacent histogram and 45
answer the following questions- 40
(i) What information is being 35

N o . o f Stu d en ts
30
represented in the histogram?
25
(ii) Which group contains
20
maximum number of students?
15
(iii) How many students watch TV 10
for 5 hours or more? 5
(iv) How many students are 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

D u ratio n o f w a tch in g T V (h ou rs)
surveyed in total?

7.5.1.2 Construction of a Histogram Class Frequency Class

Interval (No of Intervals
A TV channel wants to find which age group of people
(Age group) viewers)
are watching their channel. They made a survey in an
11 – 20 10 10.5 – 20.5
apartment. Represent the data in the form of a
21 – 30 15 20.5 – 30.5
histogram. 31 – 40 25 30.5 – 40.5
Step 1 : If the class intervals given are inclusive (limits) 41 – 50 30 40.5 – 50.5
convert them into the exclusive form 51 – 60 20 50.5 – 60.5
61 – 70 5 60.5 – 70.5
(boundaries) since the histogram has to be
Limits Boundaries
drawn for a continuous series.
S c a le :
Step 2 : Choose a suitable scale on the x - ax is : 1 c m = 1 c las s in te r v al
X-axis and mark the class intervals y - ax is : 1 c m = 5 p e o p le
on it. 45
Step 3 : Choose a suitable scale on the 40
Y-axis and mark the frequencies on 35
N o. of P e o p le
it. (The scales on both the axes may 30

not be same) 25
Scale : X-axis 1 cm = one class 20
interval Y-axis 1 cm = 5 people 15

10
Step 4 : Draw rectangles with class intervals
5
as bases and the corresponding
0
1 0.5
2 0.5
3 0.5
4 0.5
5 0.5
6 0.5
7 0.5
frequencies as the corresponding

heights. C la ss In te r va ls
7.5.1.3 Histogram with Varying Base Widths

Consider the following frequency distribution table.
Category Class Intervals (Marks) Percentage of Students
Failed 0-35 28
Third Class 35-50 12
Second Class 50-60 16
First Class 60-100 44
You have noticed that for different categories of children performance the range of marks for
each category is not uniform.
If we observe the table, the students who secured first class is 44 % which spreads over the class
length 40 (60 to 100). Where as the student who have secured second class is 16% of the
students spread over the class length 10 (50 to 60) only. Therefore to represent the above
distribution table into histogram we have take the widths of class intervals also into account.
In such cases frequency per unit class length (frequency density) has to be calculated and histogram
has to be constructed with respective heights. Any class interval may be taken as unit class
interval for calculating frequency density. For convenience least class length is taken as unit class
length.
∴ Modified length of any rectangle is proportional to the corresponding frequency
Frequency of class
Density = Length of that class × Least class length
Class intervals Percentage Class length Length of the rectangle

(Marks) of students
28
0 – 35 28 35 × 10 = 8
35
12
35 – 50 12 15 × 10 = 8
15
16
50 – 60 16 10 × 10 = 16
10
44
60 – 100 44 40 × 10 = 11
40
With the modified lengths histogram has to be constructed as in the previous example.
Step 1: Choose a suitable scale on the 20
X-axis and mark the class 18
intervals on it. 16
Step 2: Choose a suitable scale on the 14
Y-axis and mark the frequencies 12

Freq u en cy
on it. (The scales on both the axes 10
may not be same) 8

6
Scale: X-axis 1 cm = 1 Min. class interval
4
Y-axis 1 cm = 2 %
2
Step 3: Draw rectangles with class
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9 0 1 00
intervals as bases and the
C la ss In terv a ls
corresponding frequencies as the
heights.

7.5.1.4 Histogram for grouped frequency distribution with class marks
Example 15: Construct a histogram from the following distribution of total marks obtained by
65 students of class VIII.
Marks (Mid points) 150 160 170 180 190 200
No of students 8 10 25 12 7 3
Solution: As class marks (mid points) are given, class intervals are to be calculated from
the class marks.
Step 1: Find the difference between two successive classes. h = 160 -150 = 10.
(Find whether difference between every two successive classes is same)
h
Step 2: Calculate lower and upper boundaries of every class with class mark ‘x’, as x – and
2
h
x+.
2
Step 3: Choose a suitable scale. X-axis 1 cm = one class interval
Y-axis 1cm = 4 students
Step 4: Draw rectangles with class intervals as bases and the corresponding frequencies as the
heights. Y
27
Class Class Frequency
24
Marks (x) Intervals (No of
21
students)
N o . o f Stu d en ts
18
150 145 – 155 8
15
160 155 – 165 10 12
170 165 – 175 25 9
180 175 – 185 12 6

3
190 185 – 195 7
X
1 45 1 55 1 65 1 75 1 85 1 95 2 05
200 195 – 205 3 C la ss M a rks
1. Class boundaries are taken on the ‘X ’-axis. Why not class limits?
2. Which value decides the width of each rectangle in the histogram?
3. What does the sum of heights of all rectangles represent?
7.5.2 Frequency Polygon

7.5.2.1 Interpretation of Frequency Polygon
Frequency polygon is another way of representing a quantitative data and its frequencies. Let us
see the advantages of this graph.
Consider the adjacent histogram Y
18
representing weights of 33 people in a
company. Let us join the mid-points of the 16
upper sides of the adjacent rectangles of 14
o f S tu d en ts
D
this histogram by means of line segments. 12
o . people
Let us call these mid-points B,C,D,E,F and 10 B
G. When joined by line segments, we 8
No .Nof
obtain the figure BCDEFG. To complete 6

C
the polygon, we assume that there is a class 4
interval with frequency zero before 30.5- E G
2
A F H
35.5 and one after 55.5 - 60.5, and their
25 .5
30 .5
35 .5
40 .5
45 .5
50 .5
55 .5
60 .5
65 .5
X
mid-points are A and H, respectively.
W eigh ts (in K g )
ABCDEFGH is the frequency polygon.
Although, there exists no class preceding the lowest class and no class succeeding the highest
class, addition of the two class intervals with zero frequency enables us to make the area of the
frequency polygon the same as the area of the histogram. Why is this so?
1. How do we complete the polygon when there is no class preceding the first class?
2. The area of histogram of a data and its frequency polygon are same. Reason how.
3. Is it necessary to draw histogram for drawing a frequency polygon?
4. Shall we draw a frequency polygon for frequency distribution of discrete series?
7.5.2.2 Construction of a Frequency Polygon
Consider the marks, (out of 25), obtained by 45 students of a class in a test.Draw a frequency
polygon corresponding to this frequency distribution table.

Class Frequency Mid Y

18
Interval (No. of Values
16
(Marks) students) D
14
0-5 7 2.5 12
M a rk s
5-10 10 7.5 C
10
E
10-15 14 12.5 8 B
F
6
15-20 8 17.5
4
20-25 6 22.5
2
Total 45 A G
X
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Steps of construction N o . of S tu den ts
Step 1: Calculate the mid points of every class interval given in the data.
Step 2: Draw a histogram for this data and mark the mid-points of the tops of the rectangles
(here in this example B, C, D, E, F respectively).
Step 3: Join the mid points successively.
Step 4: Assume a class interval before the first class and another after the last class. Also
calculate their mid values (A and H) and mark on the axis. (Here, the first class is 0 – 5.
So, to find the class preceding 0 - 5, we extend the horizontal axis in the negative
direction and find the mid-point of the imaginary class-interval – 5 – 0)
Step 5: Join the first end point B to A and last end point F to G which completes the frequency
polygon.
Frequency polygon can also be drawn independently without drawing histogram. For this, we
require the midpoints of the class interval of the data.
Do These
1. Construct the frequency polygons of the following frequency distributions.
(i) Runs scored by students of a class in a cricket friendly match.
Runs scored 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60
(ii) Sale of tickets for drama in an auditorium.

Rate of ticket 10 15 20 25 30
No of tickets sold 50 30 60 30 20
7.5.2.3 Characteristics of a Frequency Polygon:
1. Frequency polygon is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution (discrete /

continuous)
2. Class marks or Mid values of the successive classes are taken on X-axis and the
corresponding frequencies on the Y-axis.
3. Area of frequency polygon and histogram drawn for the same data are equal.
1. Histogram represents frequency over a class interval. Can it represent the frequency at a
particular point value?
2. Can a frequency polygon give an idea of frequency of observations at a particular point?
7.5.2.4 Construction of a Frequency Polygon for a grouped frequency distribution

without using histogram:
In a study of diabetic patients, the following data were obtained.

Ages 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60
No of patients 5 9 16 11 3
Let us construct frequency polygon for it without using the histogram.

Step 1: Find the class marks of different classes.
Step 2: Select the scale :
X-axis 1 cm = 1 class interval
Y-axis 1 cm = 2 marks
Step 3: If ‘x’ denotes the class mark and f denotes the corresponding frequency of a particular
class, then plot (‘x’, f) on the graph.
Step 4: Join the consecutive points in order by line segments.
Step 5: Imagine two more classes, one before the first class and the other after the last class
each having zero frequency. Mark their mid values on the graph.
Step 6: Complete the polygon.

Class Interval No of Class Points Y

18
(Ages) Patients Mark D
16
0 – 10 0 5 (5, 0) 14
10 – 20 5 15 (15, 5) 12
E
M arks
10
20 – 30 9 25 (25, 9) C
8
30 – 40 16 35 (35, 16) 6 B
40 – 50 11 45 (45, 11) 4
F
2
50 – 60 3 55 (55, 3) G
A
-5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 X
60 – 70 0 65 (65, 0) N o . of S tu de n ts
7.5.3 Frequency Curve for a grouped frequency distribution
It is another way of representation of the data by a free hand curve.

Let us construct frequency curve for the above data without using the histogram.
Step 1: Find the class marks of different classes.
Step 2: Select the scale :
X-axis 1 cm = 1 class interval
Y-axis 1 cm = 2 marks
Step 3: If ‘x’ denotes the class mark and f denotes the corresponding frequency of a particular
class, then plot (x, f) on the graph.
Step 4: Join the consecutive points successively by a free hand curve.
Y
Class No of Class Points 18
Interval Patients Mark 16
(Ages) 14
N o . of P a tien ts
0 – 10 0 5 (5, 0) 12
10
10 – 20 5 15 (15, 5)
8
20 – 30 9 25 (25, 9)
6
30 – 40 16 35 (35,16)
4
40 – 50 11 45 (45,11) 2
50 – 60 3 55 (55, 3)
X
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
60 – 70 0 65 (65, 0) A g es (in yea rs)
7.5.4 Graph of a Cumulative Frequency Distribution
A graph representing the cumulative frequencies of a grouped frequency distribution against the
corresponding lower / upper boundaries of respective class intervals is called Cumulative Frequency
Curve or Ogive Curve.
These curves are useful in understanding the accumulation or outstanding number of observations
at every particular level of continuous series.
7.5.4.1 Less than Cummulative frequency curve

Consider the grouped frequency distribution of number of tenders received by a department
from the contractors for a civil work in a course of time.
CI (days) 0–4 4-8 8 - 12 12 – 16 16 – 20
No of tenders 2 5 12 10 3
Step 1: If the given frequency distribution is in inclusive

Class No of UB L.Cu.Fr
form, then convert it into an exclusive form.
Interval Tenders
Step 2: Construct the less than cumulative frequency
(Days)
table.
0–4 2 4 2
Step 3: Mark the upper boundaries of the class
intervals along X -axis and their corresponding 4–8 5 8 7
cumulative frequencies along Y- axis 8 – 12 12 12 19
Select the scale : 12 – 16 10 16 29
X-axis 1 cm = 1 class interval 16 – 20 3 20 32
Y-axis 1 cm = 4 tenders
Y
Step 4: Also, plot the lower boundary of the first 36
class (upper boundary of the class 32
previous to first class) interval with 28
N o . o f tend ers
cumulative frequency 0. 24
20
Step 5: Join these points by a free hand curve
16
to obtain the required ogive.
12
Similarly we can construct ‘Greater than
8
cumulative frequency curve’ by taking greater
4
than cumulative on Y-axis and corresponding
‘Lower Boundaries’ on the X-axis. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 X
N o . of d a ys

Exercise - 7.3
1. The following table gives the distribution of 45 students across the different levels of Intelligent
Quotient. Draw the histogram for the data.
IQ 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110-120 120-130
No of students 2 5 6 10 9 8 5
2. Construct a histogram for the marks obtained by 600 students in the VII class annual
examinations.
Marks 360 400 440 480 520 560
No of students 100 125 140 95 80 60
3. Weekly wages of 250 workers in a factory are given in the following table. Construct the
histogram and frequency polygon on the same graph for the data given.
Weekly wage 500-550 550-600 600-650 650-700 700-750 750-800
No of workers 30 42 50 55 45 28
4. Ages of 60 teachers in primary schools of a Mandal are given in the following frequency
distribution table. Construct the Frequency polygon and frequency curve for the data without
using the histogram. (Use separate graph sheets)
Ages 24 – 28 28 – 32 32 – 36 36 – 40 40 – 44 44 – 48
No of teachers 12 10 15 9 8 6
5. Construct class intervals and frequencies for the following distribution table. Also draw the
ogive curves for the same.
Marks obtained Less than 5 Less than 10 Less than 15 Less than 20 Less than 25
x1 + x2 + x3 + ...... + xn x
• Arithmetic mean of the ungrouped data = or =
n
∑x i (short representation) where ∑ xi represents the sum of all xi s
N
where ‘i ’ takes the values from 1 to n
• Arithmetic mean = Estimated mean + Average of deviations
Or x = A +
∑( xi − A)
N
• Mean is used in the analysis of numerical data represented by unique value.
• Median represents the middle value of the distribution arranged in order.
• The median is used to analyse the numerical data, particularly useful when
there are a few observations that are unlike mean, it is not affected by
extreme values.
• Mode is used to analyse both numerical and verbal data.
• Mode is the most frequent observation of the given data. There may be
more than one mode for the given data.
• Representation of classified distinct observations of the data with frequencies
is called ‘Frequency Distribution’ or ‘Distribution Table’.
• Difference between upper and lower boundaries of a class is called length
of the class denoted by ‘C’.
• In a a class the initial value and end value of each class is called the lower
limit and upper limit respectively of that class.
• The average of upper limit of a class and lower limit of successive class is
called upper boundary of that class.
• The average of the lower limit of a class and uper limit of preceeding class
is called the lower boundary of the class.
• The progressive total of frequencies from the last class of the table to the
lower boundary of particular class is called Greater than Cumulative
Frequency (G.C.F).

• The progressive total of frequencies from first class to the upper boundary
of particular class is called Less than Cumulative Frequency (L.C.F.).
• Histogram is a graphical representation of frequency distribution of exclusive
class intervals.
• When the class intervals in a grouped frequency distribution are varying we
need to construct rectangles in histogram on the basis of frequency density.
Frequency density =
Frequency of class
Length of that class ×
Least class length in the data
• Frequency polygon is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution

(discrete / continuous)
• In frequency polygon or frequency curve, class marks or mid values of the
classes are taken on X-axis and the corresponding frequencies on the
Y-axis.
• Area of frequency polygon and histogram drawn for the same data are
equal.
• A graph representing the cumulative frequencies of a grouped frequency
distribution against the corresponding lower / upper boundaries of respective
class intervals is called Cumulative Frequency Curve or “Ogive Curve”.
Thinking Critically
The ability of some graphs and charts to distort data depends on perception of individuals to
figures. Consider these diagrams and answer each question both before and after checking.
(a) Which is longer, the vertical or horizontal line?
(b) Are lines l and m straight and parallel?
(c) Which line segment is longer : AB or BC
(d) How many sides does the polygon have? Is it a square?
(e) Stare at the diagram below. Can you see four large posts rising up out of the paper?
State some and see four small posts.
l
m
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e)
Exploring Geometrical Figures 181
Chapter
8
Exploring Geometrical Figures
8.0 Introduction
We come across various figures of geometry in our daily life. There are objects that have direct
and indirect connection with geometry. These objects or actions have geometrical properties
and applications.
Look at the following pictures, what are the various geometrical figures and patterns involved in
it? You might have found some shapes are similar in nature, some are of congruent and some
geometrical patterns that are evenly spread on the floor.
Can you identify such congruent shapes, similar shapes and symmetric shapes or patterns in the
pictures?
The shapes of windows in the picture are congruent; the triangular elevations are similar and the
tile patterns that spread on the floor are of symmetric figures.
Let us study how these principles of geometrical shapes and patterns are influencing our dialy
life.

8.1 Congruency
You may have seen various objects with same size and shape which we use in our daily life. For
example blades of a fan are of same size and shape.
Another example for congruency of shapes in daily life.

Go to an audio shop and find a Compact Disc (CD) there, what do you notice?
The CDs are of same size and shape. If you place them one above the other, they cover each
other exactly. We can say that the faces of CDs are congruent to one another.
Now put the post cards one above the other. You will find that all post cards have same size and
shape; they are all congruent to one another.
You too name certain objects with congruent faces.
8.1.1 Congruency of shapes

(i)
Rotate Flip
Move
In the above, do all the figures represent the same object irrespective of their position?
Here the same figure is moved, rotated and flipped to get figures. They represent the same hand
fan.
If we place all figures one above the other, what do you find?
They all cover each other exactly i.e. they have same size and shape.
Do you remember what we call the figures with same size and shape?
Figures with same size and shape are called congruent figures.
Flip : Flip is a transformation in which a plane figure is
reflected across a line, creating a mirror image of the original
figure.
After a figure is flipped or reflected, the distance between the line of reflection and each point
on the original figure is the same as the distance between the line of reflection and the corresponding
point on the mirror image.
Rotation : "Rotation" means turning around a center. The
distance from the center to any point on the shape stays
the same. Every point makes a circle around the center.
There is a central point that stays fixed and everything else moves around that point in a circle.
A "Full Rotation" is 360°
Now observe the following geometrical figures.
A A B B
(i)
rotate flip
move
B C B C C A A C
Triangle
P P Q Q
(ii) rotate flip
move
R P
Q R Q
R P R
Angle
In all the cases if the first figure in the row is moved, rotated and flipped do you find any change
in size and shape? No, the figures in every row are congruent they represent the same figure but
oriented differently.
If two shapes are congruent, still they remain congruent if they are moved or rotated. The shapes
would also remain congruent if we reflect the shapes by producing their mirror images.
We use the symbol to represent congruency.

Do This
Identify which of the following pairs of figures are congruent.
1 3
2 4 6
7 12
10
15
11 14
8
9 13
Can you say when do two (a) Line segments (b) angles and (c) triangles are congruent?
(a) We know that two line segments are congruent if they have same lengths.
Q
A B
Length of AB = length of PQ then AB PQ

(b) Two angles are congruent if they have same measure.
B Q
O P
R
A
(c) Two triangles !ABC and !PQR are congruent if all the pairs of corresponding sides are
equal.
i.e. AB = PQ and "A = " P A P
BC = QR " B = "Q
CA = RP "C = "R
!ABC !PQR. B CQ R
Now how can you say that two polygons are congruents?
Let us discuss this with an example. Suppose two squares ABCD and PQRS. If we place one
square (i.e.) ABCD on the other i.e. PQRS, they should cover each other exactly
S R D C
P Q A B
i.e. the edges must coincide with each other, only then we say that the two squares are congruent.
If two polygons are congruent then their corresponding sides are equal and corresonding angles
are equal. Thus the two geometrical shapes are said to be congruent if they cover each other
exactly.
Do This:
Look at the following pairs of figures and find whether they are congruent. Give
reasons. Name them.
(i) R 4 Q (ii) P Q
C
3
5
P
A B
L M N

R 3 Q D 2 O 2 N
C
N
(iii) (iv)
3 3 3
3 3 3
4 4
P A 2 B
L 2 M
L 4 M
(v)
2 2
8.1.2 Similar shapes

In our books, we have pictures of many object from our sorroundings. For example pictures of
elephants, tigers, elevation plan of a huge building, block diagram of a microchip etc.
Are they drawn to their original size? No, it is not possible. Some of them are drawn smaller than
the real object and some of them are drawn larger.
Do This
1. Identify the out line figures which are similar to those given first.
(a)
(i) (ii) (iii)
(b)
(i) (ii) (iii)

A picture of a tree is drawn on a paper. How do you say the picture drawn is similar to its
original?
Tree Picture
Here is an object and is reduced different proportions. Which of the following reductions
resembles the original object?
3 2
3 2.25 2.25
4 4 3
3 3
Original object Reduction -1 Reduction - 2 Reduction - 3 Reduction -4

By comparing the dimensions, we say that reduction-3 resembles the original object. How?
Let us, find the ratio of corresponding sides of original object and reduction - 3, what do you
notice?
Length of the original 4
=
length of the reduction -3 3
breadth of the original 3 3# 4 12 4
= = = =
breadth of the reduction -3 2.25 2.25 # 4 9 3
We notice that the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.
Here all the corresponding angles are right angles and are equal.
Hence we conclude that “two polygons are similar if their corresponding angles are congruent
and lengths of corresponding sides are proportional”.
Find the ratio of corresponding sides for all other reductions.
8.1.3 Where do we find the application of similarly?
Engineers draw elevation plans, similar to the building to be constructed, D.T.P operators draw
diagrams on the computer which can be magnified in proportion to make banners. Photographer
makes photo prints images of same by enlarging or reducing without distortion is based on
principle of proportion. Diagrams of science apparatus and maps in social studies you have
come a cross are in proportion i.e. similar to the original objects.

Checking the similarity

Observe the following pairs of similar figures. Measure their sides and find the ratio between
corresponding sides, also find the corresponding angles, what do you observe?
(i)
1
2
1 2 2 3 3
2 2
3
4.5
(ii)
3
10
2 2 3 3 3 5 6
3 4 8
4.5
Complete the table based on the figures given in previous page.
Ratio of corresponding sides Corresponding angles
1 1
(i) Square = $ (90o,90o,90o,90o) = (90o,90o,90o,90o)
2 2
2 2 2
(ii) Equilateral triangle = $ $ (60o,60o,60o) = (60o,60o,60o)
3 3 3
2
(iii) Rectangle = = ......... (90o,90o,90o,90o) = (90o,90o,90o,90o)
3
3
(iv) Right triangle = = ......... (......., ......., .......,) = (......., ......., .......,)
6
In every pair of these examples, we find the ratios of corresponding sides are equal and the pairs
of corresponding angles are equal.
Consider another example.
In the adjacent figure if two triangles !ABC and !ADE are similar then we write it as
!ABC ~ !ADE. If those two triangles are placed one over the other. You will find that the pairs
of corresponding angles are equal E
(i.e.) "A "A

C
"B "D (why?)
"C "E (Why?)
A B D
and the ratio of corresponding sides are equal

AB BC AC
(i.e.) $ $
AD DE AE
Let us see an illustration how the principle of similar triangles helps to find out the heights of the
objects located at for away.
Illustration: A girl stretched her arm towards a pillar, holding a pencil vertically in her arm by
standing at a certain distance from the pillar. She found that the pencil exactly covers the pillar as
in figure. If we compare this illustration with the previous exmple, we can say that
'( ( ( ()
Height of the pillar(H)
Length of the pencil(h) H
'(((()
h
Distance of pillar from the girl(D)
=
Length of her arm(d) d
'((((( )
'( ( ( ( (D( ( ( ( ( )
By measuring the length of the pencil, length of her arm and distance of the pillar, we can estimate
the height of the pillar.
Try This
Stretch your hand, holding a scale in your hand vertically and try to cover your
school building by the scale (Adjust your distance from the building). Draw
the figure and estimate height of the school building.
Example 1: In the adjacent figure !%ABC ~ !%PQR, and "C $ 530 . Find the side PR and
"P. A
Solution: !%ABC ~ !%PQR
When two triangles are similar their
corresponding angles are equal and 4 5 P
corresponding sides are in proportion.
2
PR PQ PR 2
= &%% =
AC AB 5 4
B 3 C Q R
2
PR = × 5 = 2.5
4
Again
"R = "C = 53o

Sum of all three angles in a triangle as 180o

i.e. %"P + "Q + "R = 180o
%%%%%%%%"P + 90o + 53o = 180o
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%"P = 180o – 143o = 37o
Example 2: Draw two squares of different sides. Can you say they are similar? Explain. Find
the ratio of their perimeters and areas. What do you observe?
Solution: Let us draw two squares of sides 2 cm and 4 cm. As all the sides are in proportion
AB BC CD DA 2 S R
= = = =
PQ QR RS SP 4
1
= D C 4
2
And all the pairs of corresponding

2
angles are 90o
So square ABCD ~ square A 2 B P 4 Q
PQRS
Perimeter of ABCD = 4 × 2 = 8 cm
Perimeter of PQRS = 4 × 4 = 16 cm
Ratio of their perimeters = 8 : 16 = 1 : 2 Ratio of their perimeters is same as
ratio of their corresponding sides.
Area of ABCD = 2 × 2 = 4 cm2
Area of PQRS = 4 × 4 = 16 cm2
Ratio of their areas = 4 : 16 = 1 : 4 = 12 : 22
= Ratio of squares of the corresponding sides.
Example 3: Jagadeesh tried to estimate the height of a tree by covering the height with a
D
vertical scale holding it at a distance of
50 cm from his eyes along horigental line
and draw the figure as shown. If scale
measurement of the tree is 15 cm and
B
distance of the tree from him is 50 m. Find 15 cm
O50 cm A
the actual height of the tree. ' 50 m ) C
Solution: From the figure !%OAB ~ !%OCD

Corresponding sides of two similar triangles are in proportion.
OA AB OB
* = =
OC CD OD
0.5 0.15 50 # 0.15

* = &%%CD = = 15 m
50 CD 0.5
* Height of the tree = 15 m
8.2 Dilations:
Some times we need to enlarge the figures say for example while making cutouts, and some times
we reduce the figures during designing. Here in every case
1 1
the figures must be similar to the original. This means we 4 D C
need to draw enlarged or reduced similar figures in daily 3
life. This method of drawing enlarged or reduced similar A
1
2 D C B
1
figure is called ‘Dilation’.

1 A B
Observe the following dilation ABCD, it is a rectangle
drawn on a graph sheet. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Every vertex A, B, C, D are joined from the sign ‘O’ and

produced to double the length upto A1, B1, C1 and D1 respectively. Then A1, B1, C1, D1are
joined to form a rectangle which two times has enlarged sides of ABCD. Here, O is called
OA1 2
centre of dilation and = = 2 is called scale factor.
OA 1
Do This
1. Draw a triangle on a graph sheet and draw its dilation with scale factor 3. Are
those two figures are similar?
2. Try to extend the projection for anyother diagram and draw squares with
scale factor 4, 5. What do you observe?
8.2.1 Constructing a Dilation:
Example 4: Construct a dilation, with scale factor 2, of a triangle using only a ruler and
compasses.
Solution: R
Step 1: Draw a !% PQR and choose the
center of dilation C which is not on
the triangle. Join every vertex of the P Q
triangle from C and produce. C

R1
Step 2: By using compasses, mark three
points P 1 , Q 1 and R 1 on the
projections so that R
CP1 = k (CP) = 2 CP
1
P Q
1
P Q
CQ1 = 2 CQ
C
CR1 = 2 CR
R1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Step 3: Join P Q , Q R and R P . Notice
that !%P1Q1R1 ~ !%PQR
R
1
P Q
1
P Q
Exercise - 8.1
1. Name five pairs of congruent objects, you use daily.

2. (a) Draw two congruent figures. Are they similar? Explain
(b) Take two similar shapes. If you slide rotate or flip one of them, does the similarity
remain?
3. If %!%ABC % %!%NMO, name the congruent sides and angles.
4. State whether the following statements are true. Explain with reason.
(i) Two squares of side 3 cm each and one of them rotated through 45o are congruent.
(ii) Any two right triangles with hypotenuse 5 cm, are congruent.
(iii) Any two circles of radii 4 cm each are congruent.
(iv) Two equilateral triangles of side 4 cm each but labeled as !%ABC and !%LHN are
not congruent.
(v) Mirror image of a polygon is congruent to the original.
5. Draw a polygon on a square dot sheet. Also draw congruent figures in different directions
and mirror image of it.
6. Using a square dot sheet or a graph sheet draw a rectangle and construct a similar figure.
Find the perimeter and areas of both and compare their ratios with the ratio of their
corresponding sides.
7. 7 pillars are used to hold a slant iron gudder as shown

in the figure. If the distance between every two pillars
is 1 m and height of the last piller is 10.5 m. Find the
10.5 m
height of pillar.
1m
8. Standing at 5 m apart from a vertical pole of height 3 m, Sudha observed a building at the
back of the piller that tip of the pillar is in line with the top of the building. If the distance
between pillar and building is 10 m, estimate the height of the building. [Here height of
Sudha is neglected]
9. Draw a quadrilateral of any measurements. Construct a dilation of scale factor 3. Measure
their corresponding sides and verify whether they are similar.
8.3 Symmetry:
Look at the following figures. If we fold them exactly to their halves, one half of each figure
exactly coinsides with other half.
What do we call such figures? What do we call the line along which we fold the figures so that
one half coincides with the other? Do you recollect from earlier classes.
They are called symmetric figures and the line which cuts them exactly into two halves is called
line of symmetry.
Do These
Draw all possible lines of symmetry for the following figures.

Observe the following symmetric designs which we see around us.
All these designs are products of different kinds of symmetry.

Here, the dog has her face made perfectly symmetrical with a bit of photo
magic. Do you observe a vertical line at the center?
It is called ‘line of symmetry’ or ‘mirror line’.
We call this symmetry as ‘Reflection symmetry’ or ‘Mirror symmetry’.
Consider another example, reflection of a hill in a lake. It is also

reflection symmetry and line of symmetry is a horizontal line that
separating the hill and its image. This may not be perfectly
symmetric because lower part is blurred by the lake surface.
8.3.1 Rotational symmetry
Observe the lines of symmetry in the following.
Different geometrical figures have different number of axes of symmetry.

Rotate each figure given above, about its centre and find out how many times it resembles its
initial position during its one complete rotation.
For example, rectangle has two lines or axes of symmetry. When a rectangle is rotated about its
center its shape resembles the initial position two times. We call this number as ‘order of rotation’.
Tabulate your findings in the following table.
Geometrical figure No. of axes of No. of times resumes Order of
symmetry its initial position rotation
Isosceless triangle ............... ............... ...............
Rectangle 2 2 2
Equilateral triangle ............... ............... ...............
Square ............... ............... ...............
Circle ............... ............... ...............
1. What is the relation between order of rotation and number of axes of symmetry of a
geometrical figure?
2. How many axes of symmetry does a regular polygon has? Is there any relation between
number of sides and order of rotation of a regular.polygon?
8.3.2 Point symmetry

Observe the adjacent figure. Does it have line of symmetry? It does not have line symmetry, but
it has another type of symmetry. The figure looks the same either you see it from upside or from
down side. i.e., from any two opposite directions. This is called point
symmetry. If you look at the figure you may observe that every part of it
has a matching point. If you draw a line through its centre, it cuts the
diagram on either sides of the center at equal distance. Draw some more
lines through center and verify. Now this figure is said to have ‘point
symmetry’.
We also observe some letters of English alphabet have point symmetry too.
X H I S N Z
Try These
1. Identify which of the following have point symmetry.
2. Which of the above figures are having symmetry?

3. What can you say about the relation between line symmetry and point
symmetry?
8.3.3 Applications of symmetry
• Majority of the objects what we use have atleast one type of symmetry.
• Most of he Machine made products are symmetric. This speeds up the production.
Observe these patterns
Basic / Unit figure
Where do you find these? We find these patterns in floor designs and fabric painting etc.
How these patterns are formed?
Usually these patterns are formed by arranging congruent figures or mirror images side by side in
all the directions to spread upon an area without any overlaps or gaps.
This is called tessellation. This enhances the beauty of the diagrams.
Are they symmetric as a whole?
Does the basic figure which is used to form the tessellation is symmetric?
You can observe that only some patterns have symmetry as a whole as in fig(b) and others does
n’t have any symmetry as a whole as in fig(a), through the basic figures/unit figures are symmetric.
Observe the following tessellations again.
What are the basic shapes used in these tessellations?
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

You may notice that the basic shapes used to draw tessellation are pentagon, rectangle, squares
and equilateral triangle. Most tessellation can be formed with these shapes.
Exercise - 8.2
1. Cut the bold type English alphabets (capital) and paste in your note book. Draw possible
number of lines of symmetry for each of the letter.
(i) How many letters have no linear symmetry?
(ii) How many letters have one line of symmetry?
(iii) How many letters have two lines of symmetry?
(iv) How many letters have more than two lines of symmetry?
(v) Which of them have rotational symmetry?
(vi) Which of then have point symmetry?
2. Draw lines of symmetry for the following figures. Identify which of them have point
symmetry. Is there any implication between lines of symmetry and point symmetry?

3. Name some natural objects with faces which have atleast one line of symmetry.
4. Draw three tessellations and name the basic shapes used on your tessellation.
• Shapes are said to be congruent if they have same shape and size.
• Shapes are said to be similar if they have same shapes but in different size.
• If we flip, slide or turn the congruent/similar shapes their congruence/
similarity remain the same.
• Some figures may have more than one line of symmetry.
• Symmetry is of three types namely line symmetry, rotational symmetry and
point symmetry.
• With rotational symmetry, the figure is rotated around a central point so
that it appears two or more times same as original. The number of times
for which it appears the same is called the order.
• The method of drawing enlarged or reduced similar figures is called Dialation.
• The patterns formed by repeating figures to fill a plane without gaps or
overlaps are called tessellations.
Rotating a Polygon
The following procedure draws a regular polygon
with n sides.
Interesting pictures can be drawn by repeating these rotations through a full circle. The angle
of rotation is found by dividing 3600 by the number of times the figure is repeated. The
number of repeatitions in the following diagram is 8.
If we take square what is the figure formed by rotating one of its vertex and by rotating its
diagonal mid point.
Area of Plane Figures 199
Chapter
9
Area of Plane Figures
9.0 Introduction
Devarsh wants to purchase a plot to construct a house for himself. Some of the shapes of the
plots visited by him are shown below.
ad
Ro ad
Ro
ad
30m
100m Ro
20m
A D
12m
B C
(a) (b) (c)
Plot (a) in the shape of a trapezium, Plot (b) in the shape of quadrilateral and plot (c) in the
shape of a pentagon . He wants to calculate the area of such figures to construct his house in the
field.
We have learnt how to find the area of a rectangle, square, parallelogram, triangle and rhombus.
In this chapter we will learn how to find the area of a trapezium, quadrilateral, circle and a sector.
First let us review what we have learnt about the area of a rectangle, square, parallelogram and
rhombus.

Do This
1. Find the area of the following figures:
7 cm
(i) (ii) (iii)
4 cm
4 cm 4 cm
7 cm 5 cm
5 cm
(iv) 3 cm
m (v) (vi)
4c
14 cm 5 cm 5 cm
3 cm
m
4c
20 cm 5 cm
2. The measurements of some plane figures are given in the table below. However,
they are incomplete. Find the missing information
Figure Measurements Formula for Area of the
area given figure
Square Side of the square A = side×side ...............

is 15 cm
Rectangle Length = 20 cm A=l b 280cm2

Breadth = ..........
h Triangle Base = 5 cm A = ......... 60cm2

b
Height = ...........
h Parallelogram Height = 7.6cm A=b h 38cm2

Base = ..............
b
d1 Rhombus d1 = 4 cm ................ ...............

d2
d2 = 3 cm
9.1 Area of a Trapezium
Kumar owns a plot near the main road as in the figure below. Unlike some other rectanglar plots
in his neighbourhood, the plot has only a pair of parallel sides. So, it is nearly a trapezium in
shape. Can you find out its area?
10m
c
C E
h
b
30m
20m
20m
a
20m
1
2
D A
12m
12m h
(i) (ii)
Let us name the vertices of this plot as shown in figure (i). By drawing CE ! AB, we can divide
it into two parts, one of rectangular shape and the other of triangular shape (which is right angled),
as shown in figure (ii).
1
Area of ECB = h c = 12 10 = 60 m2
2
Area of rectangle ADCE = AE × AD = 20 × 12 = 240 m2
Area of trapezium ABCD = Area of " ECB + Area of rectangle ADCE

= 60 + 240 = 300 m2

Thus we can find the area if the trapezium ABCD by combining the two areas i.e. is rectangle
ADCE and triangle ECB.
AD = EC = h
# Area of ABCD = Area of ADCE + Area of ECB
1 AE = a, AB = b = a + c
= (h a) + (h c)
2
1
= h(a + c)
2
% 2a $ c &
= h'
) 2 (*
% 2a $ c & h
= h' ( = (a + a + c)
) 2 * 2
1
= h (a + b) (! c + a = b)
2
1
= height (sum of parallel sides)
2
By substituting the values of h, b and a in the above expression Where h = 12
1 a = 20
Area of trapezium ABCD = h (a + b) b = 30
2
1
= × 12 × (30 + 20) = 300 m2
2
Example1: Here is a figure of a playground. Find the area of the playground.
b
D C
A E F B
b
c d
a
Solution: Here we can not divide the figure into one rectangle and one triangle. Instead ,we
may divide it into a rectangle and two triangles conveniently. Draw DE ! AB and
CF ! AB . So that trapezium ABCD is divided into three parts. One is rectangle
DEFC and other two are triangles "ADE and "CFB .
Area of trapezium ABCD = Area of ADE + Area of Rectangle DEFC + Area of CFB
1 1
= ( h c) + (b h) + ( h d)
2 2
h + c $ b $ d,
1 1
=
-2 2 .0
/
+ c $ 2b $ d ,
= h- .
/ 2 0
+c $ b $ d $ b,
= h- .
/ 2 0
+a $ b,
= h- . (c + b + d = a)
/ 2 0
So, we can write the formula for the area of a trapezium
+ sum of parallel sides ,

= height - .
/ 2 0
1
= distance between two parallel sides×(sum of parallel sides)
2
Activity
1. Draw a trapezium WXYZ on a piece of graph paper as

Z b Y
shown in the figure and cut it out as shown in Fig. (i)
W a X
Fig. (i)
2. Find the Mid point of XY by folding its side XY and name Z Y

it ‘A’ as shown in Fig.(ii)
A
W X
Fig. (ii)
3. Draw line AZ.

4. Cut trapezium WXAZ into two pieces Z

by cutting along ZA. Place ZYA A
h
as shown in the fig. (iii) where AY
placed on AX in such a way that ‘Y’
W a X b B
coincides with ‘X’. We get WZB.
(Y) (Z)
What is the length of the base of the Fig.(iii)
larger triangle? Write an expression
for the area of this triangle fig. (iii)
5. The area of this triangle WZB and the area of the trapezium WXAZ are the same (How?)
Area of trapezium WXAZ = Area of triangle WZB
1 1
= ×height × base = × h × (a + b)
2 2
Note : Check the area by counting the unit squares of graph.
Do This
1. Find the area of the following trapezium.
7 cm
6 cm
10 cm
8 cm
5cm
9 cm
Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)

2. Area of a trapezium is 16cm2. Length of one parallel side is 5 cm and distance
between two parallel sides is 4 cm. Find the length of the other parallel side?
Try to draw this trapezium on a graph paper and check the area.
3. ABCD is a parallelogram whose area is 100 sq. cm. D C
P is any point inside the parellelogram (see fig.) find P
the area of ar"APB + ar"CPD. A B
Solved examples
Example 2: The parallel sides of trapezium are 9cm and 7cm long and the distance between
them is 6cm. Find the area of the trapezium.
Solution: Parallel sides of the trapezium are 9 cm and 7 cm, the sum of the lengths of
parallel sides (9 + 7) cm = 16cm
9cm
Distance between them = 6cm
6cm
7cm
1
Area of the trapezium = (sum of the lengths of parallel sides) × (distance between them)
2
1
= ( 16 6) cm2
2
= 48cm2
Example 3: Area of a trapezium is 480cm2. Length of one of the parallel sides is 24cm and
the distance between the parallel sides is 8cm. Find the length of the other parallel
side.
Solution : One of the parallel sides = 24cm
Let the length of the other parallel sides be ‘x’ cm
Also, area of the trapezium = 480 cm2
Distance between the parallel sides = 8 cm
1
# Area of a trapezium = (a + b) h
2
1
# 480 = (24 + x) 8
2
1 480 = 96 + 4x
1 480 2 96 = 4x
1 4x = 384
384
1 x = = 96 cm
4

Example 4: The ratio of the lengths of the parallel sides of a trapezium is 4:1. The distance
between them is 10cm. If the area of the trapezium is 500 cm2. Find the lengths
of the parallel sides.
Solution: Area of the trapezium = 500cm2
Distance between the parallel sides of the trapezium =10 cm
Ratio of the lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium = 4 : 1
Let the lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium be 4x and x cm.
1
Area of the trapezium = (a + b) h
2
1
1 500 = (x + 4x) 10
2
1 500 = (x + 4x) 5
1 500 = 25x
500
1 x = = 20cm
25
# One parallel side = 20cm
# The other parallel side = 4x = 4 20 = 80cm (! parallel sides are in 4:1)
Example 5: In the given figure, ABED is a parallelogram in which AB = DE = 10 cm and the
area of " BEC is 72cm2. If CE = 16cm, find the area of the trapezium ABCD.
10cm 16cm
D E C
A B
10cm
Solution: Area of " BEC = Base altitude

1
72 = 16 h
2
72 2
h = = 9 cm
16
In trapezium ABCD
AB = 10 cm
DC = DE + EC (! DE = AB)
= 10 cm + 16 cm = 26 cm
# Area of the trapezium ABCD
1
= (a + b) × h
2
1
= (AB + DC) h
2
1
= (10 + 26) 9 cm2
2
= 18 9 cm2
= 162 cm2
Example 6: Mohan wants to buy a field on a river-side. A plot of field as shown in the adjacent
figure is available for sale. The length of the river side is double the length of the
road side and are parallel.
The area of this field is 10,500m2 and the distance between the river and road is
100 m. Find the length of the side of the plot along the river.

Solution: Let the length of the side of the field along the road be x m.
Then, length of its side along the river = 2x m.
Distance between them = 100 m.
1
Area of the field = (a + b) h
2
1
10,500 = (x + 2x) 100
2
10,500 = 3x 50
10, 500
x = = 70 m.
3 50
# Length of the plot on river side = 2x = 2× 70
= 140 m
9.2 Area of a Quadrilateral
A quadrilateral can be split into two triangles by drawing one of its diagonals. This ‘Triangulation’
helps us to find the area of a quadrilateral.
Mahesh split the quadrilateral ABCD into two triangles by drawing the diagonal AC.
We know that the area of a triangle can be found using C
two measurements, base of the triangle and vertical height
of the triangle, which is the distance from its base to its B
apex (point at the top of a triangle), measured at right h1
angles to the base. d h2
Mahesh has drawn two perpendicular lines to AC from A D

D and B and named their lengths as h1 and h2 respectively.
Area of the quadrilateral ABCD = (area of ABC) + (areaof ADC)
%1 & %1 &
= ' AC h1( + ') AC h2 (
)2 * 2 *
1
= AC[h1 + h2]
2
1
Area of quadrilateral ABCD = d(h1 + h2)
2
Where ‘d’ denotes the length of the diagonal AC.
a
Try These
We know that parallelogram is also a h

quadrilateral. Let us split such a h
quadrilateral into two triangles. Find their
areas and subsequently that of the
parallelogram. Does this process in tune b
with the formula that you already know?
1
Area of a quadrilateral = Length of a diagonal × Sum of the lengths of the perpendiculars
2
from the remaining two vertices on the diagonal.
A
Example 7: Find the area of quadrilateral
ABCD
D B 12cm
11cm
C
Fig. (i)
Solution: Area of quadrilateral ABCD
A
1
= d(h1 + h2)
2
Sum of the length of h1
perpendiculars from the
D B 12cm
remaining two vertices on the 11cm
diagonal AC = (h1 + h2) h2
h1 + h2 = 12 cm.
C
Fig. (ii)

Length of the diagonal (BD) = 11 cm.

1 1
# Area of quadrilateral = d(h1 + h2) = 12 11 = 6 11 = 66 cm2.
2 2
9.3 Area of Rhombus B
We can use the same method of splitting into triangles (which

we called triangulation) to find a formula for the area of rhombus.
A C
In the figure ABCD is a rhombus. We know that the diagonals O
of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
# OA = OC, OB = OD
And 3AOB = 3BOC = 3COD = 3AOD = 900 D
Area of rhombus ABCD = area of " ABC + area of " ADC

1
= AC OB + AC OD
2
1
= AC (OB+OD)
2
1
= AC BD (# OB + OD = BD)
2
1
Thus area of a rhombus = d1d2 , where d1, d2 are its diagonals.
2
In words we say, area of a rhombus is half the product of diagonals.
Example 8: Find the area of a rhombus whose diagonals are of length 10 cm and 8.2 cm.
1
Solution: Area of the rhombus = d1d2 where d1, d2 are lengths of diagonals
2
1
= 10 8.2 cm2
2
= 41cm2
9.4 Surveying the field
A surveyor has noted the measurements of a field in his field book in metres as shown
below. Find the area of that field.
To S
200
25 to T 160
110 60 to R
25 to L 70
30 40 to Q
From P
The data gives the following information

1. The field is in the shape of a hexagon whose vertices are P, Q, R, S, T and L.
2. PS is taken as diagonal
3. Vertices Q and R on one side of the diagonal and the vertices T and L are on another side.
4. The perpendicular drawn from Q to is 40 m.
5. In the field book the measurements are real and recorded from bottom to top.
6. The field is divided into 2 triangles, 2 trapeziums.
S
We can find the following measurements from the above figure
200
AC = PC 2 PA
T D
25 160
= 110 2 30 = 80 m
CS = PS 2 PC C R
110 60
= 200 2 110 = 90 m
DS = PS 2 PD
L B
= 200 2 160 = 40 m 25 70
A Q
BD = PD 2 PB 30
40
= 160 2 70 = 90 m
P

1
Area of APQ = b h
2
1
= 30 40 = 600 Sq.m.
2
1
Area of trapezium AQRC = h(a + b)
2
1
= AC (AQ + CR)
2
1
= 80 (40 + 60)
2
1
= 80 100
2
= 4000 Sq. m.
1 1
Area of CRS = CR CS = 60 90 = 2700 Sq.m.
2 2
1
Area of trapezium PLTS = h(a + b)
2
1
= LB (TL + SP)
2
1
= 25(90 + 200) (! TL = BD = 90)
2
1
= 25 290
2
= 3625 Sq.m.
Area of the field = 600 + 4000 + 2700 + 3625
= 10,925 Sq. m.
Do This
The following details are noted in metres in the field book of a surveyor. Find the area
of the fields.
(i) To D (ii) To C
140 160
50 to E 80 30 to D 130
50 50 to C 90 60 to B
30 30 to B 40 to E 60
From A From A
Think and Discuss:
A parallelogram is divided into two congruent triangles by drawing a diagonal across it. Can we
divide a trapezium into two congruent triangles?
Try These
Find the area of following quadrilaterals.

B C
3c
m
2cm
m
6c
5c
7cm 8cm
6cm
m
(i) (ii) (iii)
9.5 Area of a Polygon
The area of a polygon may be obtained by dividing the polygon into a number of simple shapes
(triangles, rectangles etc.) Then the areas of each of them can be calculated and added up to get
the required area.

Observe the following pentagon in the given figure:

B B
C C
h1
h1
h2 h2
A D A D
F G
h3 h3
E E
Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)
Fig.(i) : By drawing two diagonals AC and AD the pentagon ABCDE is divided into three parts.
So, area ABCDE = area of "ABC + area of "ACD + area of " AED
Fig.(ii) : By drawing one diagonal AD and two perpendiculars BF and CG on it, pentagon
ABCDE is divided into four parts. So, area of ABCDE = area of right angled "AFB + area of
trapezium BFGC + area of right angled CGD + area of AED. Why is this so? (Identify
the parallel sides of trapezium BFGC).
Try These
(i) Divide the following polygon into parts (triangles and trapezium) to find
out its area.
H
G O P
F I N Q
E M R
FI is a diagonal of polygon EFGHI NQ is a diagonal of polygon MNOPQR
(ii) Polygon ABCDE is divided into parts as shown in the figure. Find the
area if AD = 8cm, C
B
AH = 6 cm, AF = 3cm
and perpendicular,
BF = 2cm, CH = 3cm
and EG = 2.5cm A G D
F H
Area of polygon ABCDE = area of
"AFB + _______
1
Area of "AFB = AF BF E
2
1
= 3 2 = _______
2
(BF $ CH)
Area of trapezium FBCH = FH
2
(2 $ 3)
=3 [! FH = AH - AF]
2
1 Area of " CHD = HD CH = _______

2
Area of " ADE = AD GE = _______
So, the area of polygon ABCDE = ….

(iii) Find the area of polygon MNOPQR if MP = 9 cm, MD = 7 cm,
MC = 6 cm, MB = 4 cm, MA = 2 cm
NA, OD, QC and RB are perpendiculars to diagonal MP
O
N
3cm
2.5cm
B C
M P
A D
2.5cm 2cm
Q
R

Example 9: Find the area of the field shown along side. All dimension are in metres.
Solution: Area of ABCDE = Area of " ABH + area of trap BCFH + area of " CDF +
D
+ Area of " AED
45556
Now, area of ABH 50
= AH HB F C
50
60 40
1
= 25 25 E G
2 15 25
H B
25
625 2
= m = 312.5 m2 A
2
1
Area of trap BCFH = (HB + FC) HF
2
1
= (25 + 50) 55m2
2
75 55 2
= m = 2062.5 m2
2
Area of " CDF = FC DF
1
= 50 50 m2 = 1250 m2
2
Area of " AED = AD EG
1
= 130 60
2
= 3900 m2
Thus, area of ABCDE = 312.5 m2 + 2062.5 m2 + 1250 m2 + 3900 m2
= 7525m2
Example 10: There is a hexagon MNOPQR of each side 5 cm and symmetric about NQ.
Suresh and Rushika divided it into different ways. Find the area of this hexagon
using both ways.
N N
N
M O
M O M O
11cm
5cm
R P
R P R P
Q
8cm Q R
Suresh’s Method Rushika’s Method

Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)
1 Solution: Method adopted by Suresh

2 Since it is a regular hexagon. So, NQ divides the hexagon into
11cm
two congruent trapeziums. You can verify it by paper folding.
5 cm
Now area of trapezium MNQR
4cm
11 $ 5
= 4
2
= 2 16 = 32 cm2
So the area of hexagon MNOPQR = 2 32 = 64 cm2
N
Method adopted by Rushika’s
" MNO and " RPQ are congruent triangles with altitude 3 3cm
O
cm (fig.4). You can verify this by cutting off these two triangles M
and placing them on one another.
Area of MNO = 8 3 = 12 cm2
= Area of " RPQ R P

3cm
Area of rectangle MOPR = 8 5 = 40 cm2
Now, area of hexagon MNOPQR = 40+12+12 = 64 cm2. Q

5
Exercise - 9.1
1. Divide the given shapes as instructed
(i) into 3 rectangles (ii) into 3 rectangles (iii) into 2 trapezium
(iv) 2 triangles and a rectangle (v) into 3 triangles

2. Find the area enclosed by each of the following figures
7cm
E D
B
20cm
8cm
D C
A F C
C E
15cm
6cm
6cm
4cm
18cm
18cm
A B
28cm
E 4cm D
18cm
(i) (ii) (iii)

3. Calculate the area of a quadrilateral ABCD when length of the diagonal AC = 10 cm and
the lengths of perpendiculars from B and D on AC be 5 cm and 6 cm respectively.
4. Diagram of the adjacent picture frame has outer dimensions
28 cm 24 cm and inner dimensions 20 cm 16 cm. Find
the area of shaded part of frame, if width of each section is
16cm
24cm
the same.
20cm
28cm
5. Find the area of each of the following fields. All dimensions are in metres.
E 50 D
D
40
40
80 F H
20 80
E I
60
80 I C
H C 40
70 40
60
G
F G 40
50
50 K B
80 70 30
50
A B
30 A
(i) (ii)
6. The ratio of the length of the parallel sides of a trapezium is 5:3 and the distance between
them is 16cm. If the area of the trapezium is 960 cm2, find the length of the parallel sides.
7. The floor of a building consists of around 3000 tiles which are rhombus shaped and each
of its diagonals are 45 cm and 30 cm in length. Find the total cost of flooring if each tile
costs rupees 20 per m2.
8. There is a pentagonal shaped parts as shown in figure. For finding its area Jyothi and
Rashida divided it in two different ways. Find the area in both ways and what do you
observe?
30cm
15cm
15cm
15cm Jyoti Diagram Rashida's Diagram

9.6 Area of circle
Let us find the area of a circle, using graph paper.
Draw a circle of radius 4 cm. on a graph paper . Find the

area by counting the number of squares enclosed.
As the edges are not straight, we roughly estimate the area

of circle by this method. There is another way of finding
the area of a circle.
Fig.(i) Fig.(ii) Fig.(iii)
Draw a circle and shade one half of the circle as in (Fig.(i)), now fold the circle into eight equal
parts and cut along the folds as in Fig (ii))
Arrange the separate pieces as shown in Fig. (iii), which is roughly a parallelogram. The more
sectors we have, the nearer we reach an appropriate parallelogram as done above. If we divide
the circle in 64 sectors, and arrange these sectors.It given nearly rectangle Fig(iv)
Radius
Half of the Circumference
Fig.(iv)
What is the breadth of this rectangle? The breadth of this rectangle is the radius of the circle ‘r’
As the whole circle is divided into 64 sectors and on each side we have 32 sectors, the length of
the rectangle is the length of the 32 sectors, which is half of the circumference (Fig.(iv)).
Area of the circle = Area of rectangle thus formed
= l b
= (half of circumference) radius
1
= 27r r = 7r 2
2
So the area of the circle = 7r 2
Thread activity:
The commentaries of the Talmud (A book of Jews) present a nice approach to the formula,
2
A = 7r to calculate the area of a circle. Imagine that the interior of a circle is covered by
concentric circles of yarn. Cut the yarn circles along a vertical radius, each strand is straightened
and arranged as shown in the figure below to form an isosceles triangle
(i) Radius (ii)
Circumference of the circle

(iii)
The base of the isosceles triangle is equal to the circumference of the circle and height is equal to
the radius of the circle.
1
The area of the triangle = base height
2

1
= 27r r
2
= 7r 2
# Area of a circle = 7r 2 (Where r is the radius of the circle)
Try These
Draw circles of different radius on a graph paper. Find the area by counting
the number of squares. Also find the area by using formula. Compare the two
answers.
Example 11: A wire is bent into the form of a square of side 27.5 cm. The wire is straightened
and bent into the form of a circle. What will be the radius of the circle so
formed?
Solution: Length of wire = perimeter of the square
= (27.5 4) cm = 110 cm.
When the wire is bent into the form of a circle, then it represents the circumference
of the circle which would be 110 cm.
Let r be the radius of this circle
Then, circumference = =2 r cm
= r cm
# 110 = r
110 7
1 r = cm
44
= 17.5 cm
Example 12: The circumference of a circle is 22 cm. Find its area? And also find the area of
the semicircle.
Solution: Let the radius of the circle be r cm
Then circumference = 27r
# 27r = 22 What is area of Semi-circle?

The shaded
2 r = 22
region of the
r O r
circle is imagine d
r = 22 = 3.5 cm as by folding
# Radius of the circle = 3.5cm the circle along
its diametre.
% 22 7 7 & Can we say area of the shaded
Area of the circle 7r 2 = ') ( cm
2
7 2 2* region is 1/2 of area of the circle?
= 38.5 cm2
Its area is 1/2 of the area of circle
1 2
Area of the semi circle = 7r 1 2
2 = 7r
1 2
= 38.5 8 19.25 cm 2 what will be the perimetre of the
2
semi-circle ?
9.7 Area of a Circular Path or Area of a ring
In a park a circular path is laid as shown in the given figure.Its outer and inner circles are concentric.
Let us find the area of this circular path. R
17
22 The Area of the circular path is the difference of Area of outer circle
22
27 and inner circle. r
If we say the radius of outer circle is ‘R’ and inner circle is ‘r’ then
Area of the circular path = Area of outer circle – Area of inner circle
2
= 7R 2 7 r
2
= 7 (R2 2 r2)
Hence
Area of the circular path or Area of a ring = 7 (R2 2 r2) or 7 (R + r) (R 2 r)
Where R, r are radii of outer circle and inner circle respectively
Example:13 Observe the adjacent figure. It shows two circles

with the same centre. The radius of the larger circle
is 10cm and the radius of the smaller circle is 4cm.
4cm
Find (i) the area of the larger circle
10cm
(ii) The area of the smaller circle
(iii) The shaded area between the two circles.
(take 7 = 3.14)
Solution: (i) Radius of the larger circle = 10 cm

So, area of the larger circle = 7R2
= 3.14 10 10 = 314 cm2
(ii) Radius of the smaller circle = 4 cm
2
So, area of the smaller circle = 7r
= 3.14 4 4 = 50.24 cm2
(iii) Area of the shaded region = Area of the larger circle – Area of the smaller
circle
= (314 – 50.24) cm2
= 263.76 cm2.
Example 14: Calculate the area of shaded part of the figure given below
A 25 m F
3.4 m
G J
19.1 m
12.3m
B E
H I
3.4 m
C D
Solution: Shaded Area = Area of rectangle AGJF + Area of rectangle HCDI + Area of
semi circular ring ABCHG + Area of semicircular ring DEFJI
Area of rectangle AGJF = 25 3.4 = 85 m2.
Area of rectangle HCDI = 25 3.4 = 85 m2.
22
Area of a ring ABCHG = [(R2 – r2)] = [(9.55)2 – (6.15)2]
7
22
Area of a ring DEFJI = 7 [(R2 – r2)] = [(9.55)2 – (6.15)2]
7
1
= (25 3.4) + (25 3.4) + 7 [(9.55)2 – (6.15)2] + 7 [(9.55)2 – (6.15)2]
2
22
= [85 + 85 + 15.7 3.4]m2 19.1
7 R= 8 9.55
2
= (170 + 167.77)m2 12.3
r = 8 6.15
= 337.77m2 2
Example 15: Find the area of shaded region of the figure given below.
D
F
L
7 cm
B E
A G
7 cm C 3.5 cm 7 cm
Solution: Shaded area = Area ADBCLA + Area EFGE + Area BEGKCB
1 +% 10.5 & 2 % 7 & 2 , 1 % 7 & 2 1 +% 17.5 & 2 % 7 & 2 , 2

= 7 -' (* 2 ') (* . $ 7 ') (* $ 7 -') (* 2 ') (* . cm
2 )
-/ 2 2 .0 2 2 2 -/ 2 2 .0
%1 22 35 7& % 1 22 49 & % 1 22 21 49 & 2

= ') ( +' ( +
2 7 4 4* ) 2 7 4 * ') 2 7 4 4*
( cm
% 385 77 1617 &

= ') $ $ ( cm
2
16 4 16 *
% 2310 & 2
= ') ( cm
16 *
= 144.375 cm2
9.8 Length of the arc

Observe the following circles and complete the table
27 r
180
o o l
90 o
45 x
o 60o
360 o
r r r r r r
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

Fig Angle Length of Arc Relation between angle and

length of arc
360 0
(i) 360 0
27r 27r = 27r
360 0
180 0
(ii) 180 0
7r 27r = 7r
360 0
7r
(iii) 900 _________
2
7r
(iv) 450 _________
4
x0
(v) xo l 2 7r = l
360 0
7r
(vi) 600 _________
3
x"
From the above observations, the length of the arc of a sector (l) is 27r where ‘r’ is the
360"
radius of the circle and ‘x’ is the angle subtended by the arc of the sector at the centre.
If the length of arc of a sector is l
27r 3600 l
8 0
l x o
x
x" 360o
Then l = 27r
360"
9.9 Area of Sector 27 r
We know that part of a circle bounded by two radius and an arc is called sector.
2
The Area of a circle with radius r = 7r
Angle subtended by the arc of the sector at centre of the circle is x0
Area of a sector and its angle are in direct proportion O
o o
# Area of sector : Area of circle = x : 360 r xo r
x" A B
The area of sector OAB = Area of the circle
360" l
xo 2r
Hence Area of sector OAB = !r 2 [!r 2 = !r 2 ]
360o
xo r
= 360o 2!r 2
r
= l 2
lr
A = (l is length of the arc)
2
Example 13: Find the area of shaded region in each of the following figures.
21m
21m
21m
21m
Solution: (i) Area of the shaded region

={Area of the square with side 21m} – {Area of the circle with diameter 21m}
If the diameter of the circle is 21m
22
Then the radius of the circle = =10.5m
2
Area of the shaded region = (21 21) –

( 227 21
2
21
2 )m
2
= 441 – 346.5
= 94.5 m2
(ii) Area of shaded region = {Area of the square with side 21 m} –
{4 Area of the sector}
= (21 21) – ( 4
90o
360o
22
7
21
2
21
2 )m 2
(if diameter is 21m, then radius is 21 m)

2

= (21 21) – ( 4 ! 14 ! 227 ! 212 ! 212 )

= (441 – 346.5) m2
= 94.5 m2
Exercise - 9.2
1. A rectangular acrylic sheet is 36 cm by 25 cm. From it, 56 circular buttons, each of

diameter 3.5 cm have been cut out. Find the area of the remaining sheet.
2. Find the area of a circle inscribed in a square of side 28 cm.
28cm
[Hint. Diameter of the circle is equal to the side of the square]
28cm
3. Find the area of the shaded region in each of the following figures.
10.5m
42cm
d
[Hint: d + + = 42]
2 21m
d = 21
side of the square 21 cm
4. The adjacent figure consists of four
small semi-circles of equal radii and
two big semi-circles of equal radii
(each 42 cm). Find the area of the
shaded region
5. The adjacent figure consists of four D
half circles and two quarter circles.

If OA = OB = OC = OD = 14 cm.
Find the area of the shaded region.
A O B
C
6. In adjacent figure A, B, C and D are centres of equal circles which touch externally is pairs
and ABCD is a square of side 7 cm. Find the area of the shaded region.
D C
A B
7. The area of an equilateral triangle

is 49 3 cm2. Taking each
A
angular point as centre, a circle
is described with radius equal to 7 cm 600 7 cm
half the length of the side of the 7 cm 7 cm

triangle as shown in the figure.
600 600
Find the area of the portion in B C
7 cm 7 cm
the triangle not included in the
circles.
8. (i) Four equal circles, each of radius ‘a’ touch one another. Find the area between them.
(ii) Four equal circles are described about the four corners of a square so that each circle
touches two of the others. Find the area of the space enclosed between the circumferences
of the circles, each side of the square measuring 14 cm.

9. From a piece of cardbord, in the A B

shape of a trapezium ABCD, and
AB||CD and BCD = 90 0,
quarter circle is removed. Given
AB = BC = 3.5 cm and DE = 2 3.5 cm
cm. Calcualte the area of the
remaining piece of the
22 D C
cardboard. (Take ! to be ) 2cm E 3.5 cm
7
10. A horse is placed for grazing inside a rectangular field 70 m by 52 m and is tethered to one
corner by a rope 21 m long. How much area can it graze?
C B
52 m
Q
O 21 m P A
70 m
1
Area of a trapezium = (Sum of the lengths of parallel sides) " (Distance
2
between them)
1
• Area of a quadrilateral = " length of a diagonal " Sum of the lengths of
2
the perpendiculars from the remaining two vertices on the diagonal)
• Area of a rhombus = Half of the product of diagonals.
2
• Area of a circle = !r where ‘r’ is the radius of the circle.
• Area of a circular path (or) Area of a Ring = !(R2- r2) or !(R + r) (R-r)
when R, r are radii of outer circle and inner circle respectively.
x0
• Area of a sector = 0
" !r 2 where x° is the angle subtended by the
360
arc of the sector at the center of the circle and r is radius of the circle.
lr
A#
2
Direct and Inverse Proportions 231
Chapter
10
Direct and Inverse Proportions
10.0 Introduction
Gopi uses 4 cups of water to cook 2 cups of rice everyday. Oneday

when some guests visited his house, he needed to cook 6 cups of
rice. How many cups of water will he need to cook 6 cups of rice?
We come across many such situations in our day-to-day life, where
we observe change in one quantity brings in change in the other
quantity. For example,
(i) What happens to the quantity of mid day meal needed if
more number of students are enrolled in your school? more
quantity of mid day meal is required.
(ii) If we deposit more money in a bank, what can you say about the interest earned? Definitely
the interest earned also will be more.
(iii) What happens to the total cost, if the number of articles purchased decreases? Obviously
the total cost also decreases.
(iv) What is the weight of 20 tea packets, if the weight of 40 tea packets is 1.6 kg? Clearly the
weight of 20 tea packets is less.
In the above examples, we observe that variation in one quantity leads to variation in the other
quantity.
Do This
Write five more such situations where change in one quantity leads to change in
another quantity.
How do we find out the quantity of water needed by Gopi? To answer this question, we now
study some types of variations.

10.1 Direct Proportion
On the occasion of Vanamahotsavam, Head of Eco team in a school decided to take up plantation
of saplings. Number of Eco club members of each class is furnished here.
Class VI VII VIII IX X

Number of Eco students 5 7 10 12 15
Each student has to plant two saplings. Find the number of saplings needed for plantation for
each class.
Class VI VII VIII IX X

Number of Eco students 5 7 10 12 15
Number of saplings required 10 14 20 24 30
What can you say regarding number of saplings required? What kind of a change do you find in
the number of saplings required and the number of students? Either both increase or both decrease.
number of saplings required 10 14 20 2
= = = = …… = = 2 which is a constant and is
number of students 5 7 10 1
called constant of proportion.
As the ratio is the same, we call this variation as direct proportion.
x
If x and y are any two quantities such that both of them increase or decrease together and
y
remains constant (say k), then we say that x and y are in direct proportion. This is written as
x ∝ y and read as x is directly proportional to y.
x
∴ = k ⇒ x = ky where k is constant of proportion.
y
If y1 and y
2 are the values of y corresponding to the values of x1 and x2 of x respectively,
x x
1 2
then =
y y
1 2
Do These
1. 1. Write three situations where you see direct proportion.
2. Let us consider different squares of sides 2, 3, 4 and 5cm, Find the areas of
the squares and fill the table.
Side in cm Area in cm2
2
3
4
5
What do you observe? Do you find any change in the area of the square with a
change in its side? Further, find the area of a square to the length of its side. Is the
ratio same? Obviously not.
∴ This variation is not a direct proportion.
3. The following are rectagles of equal breadth on a graph paper. Find the area
for each rectangle and fill in the table.
1 4
2 5
Rectangle 1 2 3 4 5
Length (cm)
Area (cm2)
Is the area directly proportional to length?

4.. Take a graph paper make same rectangles of same length and different width.
Find the area for each. What can you conclude about the breadth and area?

Example1: If the cost of 65 tea-packets of the same size is ` 2600, what is the cost of 75
such packets?
Solution: We know if the number of tea packets purchased increases then the cost also
increases. Therefore, cost of tea-packets directly varies with number of
teapackets.
No. of tea packets (x) 65 75

Cost (y) 2600 ?
x x
1 2
So = Here
y y 1=
x 65 y
1 = 2600 x
2 = 75 2=
y ?
1 2
65 75 75 × 2600
by substituting. = ⇒ 2=
y = ` 3000
2600 y
2 65
So cost of 75 such packets is ` 3000.

Example 2: Following are the car parking charges near a railway station
Number of Hours Parking Charge
(x) (y)
upto 4 hours ` 60
8 hours ` 100
12 hours ` 140
24 hours ` 180
Check if the parking charges and parking hours are in direct proportion.
Solution: We can observe that both values are gradually increasing.
x
Are they in direct proportion? What is the value of ?
y
If it is a constant, then they are in direct proportion. Otherwise they are not in
direct proportion. Let check in this case.
x 4 8 12 24
= , , ,
y 60 100 140 180
You can easily observe that all these ratios are not equal. So they are not in direct
proportion.
Example 3: A pole of 8 m height casts a 10m long shadow. Find the height of the tree that
casts a 40 m long shadow under similar conditions.
Solution: Length of a shadow directly varies to the height of the pole.

x x
1 2
So = Here x1 = 8m y = 10m x = ? and y = 40m
y y 1 2 2
1 2
8 x 8 × 40
Substitute = 2 ⇒ x
2 = = 32 m
10 40 10
So height of the tree is 32 m.
Example 4: If a pipe can fill a tank of capacity 50 l in 5 hours. Then how long will it take to fill
a tank of capacity 75l.
Solution: Volume of water in a tank ∝ time required to fill it.
x x
1 2
So here = Here
y y
x
1= 50 l y
1 = 5hr x
2 = 75 l and y
2=?
1 2
15
50 75 75 × 5 375 1
= ⇒ x = = = 7 hr
5 x 50 50 2 2
1
Time required to fill a tank of capacity 75 l is 7 hr
2
Example 5: If the cost of 20m of a cloth is ` 1600, then what will be the cost of 24.5 m of
that cloth.
x x
1 2
Cost directly varies with the length of cloth. So = where
Solution: y y 1 = 20 m
x
1 2
y
1 = ` 1600, x
2 = 24.5 m and y
2 = ?
20 24.5 1600 × 24.5
Substitute 1600 = y ⇒ x2 = = ` 1960
2 20
Cost of 24.5 m of cloth is ` 1960.
Do This
Measure the distance in the given
map and using that calculate actual
distance between (i) Vijayawada and Warangal
Visakhapatnam
Vishakapattanum, (ii) Tirupati and
Warangal. (Scale is given)
Scale shows how lengths between Vijayawada
two cities are reduced in drawing

Scale :
Scale : 1 cm = 300 km 1 cm = 300 km
Convert scale to ratio or 1 cm :
30000000 cm using centimetres as Tirupati
common unit.

Exercise - 10.1
1. The cost of 5 meters of a particular quality of cloth is ` 210. Find the cost of (i) 2 (ii) 4
(iii) 10 (iv) 13 meters of cloth of the same quality .
2. Fill the table.
No. of Apples 1 4 7 12 20
Cost of Apples (in `) 8 ……. …….. …….. ……….

3. 48 bags of paddy costs ` 16, 800 then find the cost of 36 bags of paddy.
4. The monthly average expenditure of a family with 4 members is ` 2,800. Find the
monthly average expenditure of a family with only 3 members.
5. In a ship of length 28 m, height of its mast is 12 m. If the height of the mast in its model is
9 cm what is the length of the model ship?
6. A vertical pole of 5.6 m height casts a shadow 3.2 m long. At the same time find (i) the
length of the shadow cast by another pole 10.5 m high (ii) the height of a pole which casts
a shadow 5m long.
7. A loaded truck travels 14 km in 25 minutes. If the speed remains the same, how far can it
travel in 5 hours?
8. If the weight of 12 sheets of thick paper is 40 grams, how many sheets of the same paper
2
would weigh 16 kilograms?
3
9. A train moves at a constant speed of 75 km/hr.
(i) How far will it travel in 20 minutes?
(ii) Find the time required to cover a distance of 250 km.
10. The design of a microchip has the scale 40:1. The length of the design is 18cm, find the
actual length of the micro chip?
11. The average age of consisting doctors and lawyers is 40. If the doctors average age is 35
and the lawyers average age is 50, find the ratio of the number of doctors to the number of
lawyers.
Project work
1. Take a map of India. Note the scale used there. Measure the map distance between any
two cities using a scale. Calculate the actual distance between them.
2. The following ingredients are required to make halwa for 5 persons: Suji /Rawa = 250 g,
Sugar = 300 g, Ghee = 200 g, Water = 500 ml. Using the concept of proportion, estimate
the changes in the quantity of ingredients, to prepare halwa for your class.
10.2 Inverse Proportion
A parcel company has certain number of parcels to deliver. If the company engages 36 persons,
it takes 12 days. If there are only 18 person, it will take 24 days to finish the task. You see as the
number of persons are halved time taken is doubled, if company engages 72 person, will time
taken be half?
Yes of course . Let’s have a look at the table.
÷2 ÷4 ×2 ×3
No. of persons 36 18 9 72 108
Time taken 12 24 48 6 4
×2 ×4 ÷2 ÷3
How many persons shall a company engage if it want to deliver the parcels with in a day?
Two quantities change in such a manner that, if one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases
in same proportion and vice versa, is called inverse proportion. In above example ,the number of
persons engaged and number of days are inversely proportional to each other.
Symbolically, this is expressed as
1
number of days required ∝
number of persons engaged
1
If x and y are in inverse proportion then x ∝
y
k
x = where k is constant of proportionality.
y
xy = k.
If y
1 and y2 are the values of y corresponding to the values x
1 and 2 of
x x respectively then
x y
1 2
x y
1 1 = x2y2 (= k), or x
=
y
.
2 1

Do These
1. Write three situations where you see inverse proportion.
2. To make rectangles of different dimensions on a squared paper using 12
adjacent squares.Calculate length and breadth of each of the rectangles so
formed. Note down the values in the following table.
Rectangle Length Breadth Area
6
Number (in cm) (in cm) (sq.cm)
5
1 l
1…… b1…… ……...
2 l
2…… b2…… ……...
3 4
l
3…… b3…… ……...
4 l
4…… b4…… ……...
2
5 l
5…… b5…… ……...
6 l
6…… b6…… ……...
3 1
What do you observe? As length increases, breadth decreases and vice-versa (for
constant area).
Are length and breadth inversely proportional to each other?
Example 6: If 36 workers can build a wall in 12 days, how many days will 16 workers take
to build the same wall ? (assuming the number of working hours per day is constant)
Solution: If the number of workers decreases, the time to taken built the wall increases in
the same proportion. Clearly, number of workers varies inversely to the number
of days.
x y
Since the number of workers are
So here 1 = 2 where decreasing
x y
2 1 36
x
1 = 36 workers y
1 = 12days 36 ÷ x = 16 ⇒ x =
16
x = 16 workers and y = (?) days
2 2 So the number of days will
No. of workers No. of days increase in the same proportion.
36 12 36
i.e. x × 12 = × 12
16
16 y
2 = 27 days
36 y2 12 × 36
Substitute, = ⇒ y
2= = 27 days.
16 12 16
Therefore 16 workers will build the same wall in 27 days.
Can we say that every variation is a proportion.

A book consists of 100 pages. How do the number of pages read and the number of pages left
over in the book vary?
No. of pages read (x) 10 20 30 50 70

Left over pages (y) 90 80 70 50 30
What happened to the number of left over pages, when completed pages are gradually increasing?
Are they vary inversely? Explain.
Exercise - 10.2
Observe the following tables and find which pair of variables (x and y) are in inverse proportion
(i) x 50 40 30 20 (ii) x 100 200 300 400

y 5 6 7 8 y 60 30 20 15
(iii) x 90 60 45 30 20 5
y 10 15 20 25 30 25
2. A school wants to spend ` 6000 to purchase books. Using this data, fill the following
table.
Price of each book (in `) 40 50 75
Number of books that can be 150 100 75
purchased
3. Take a squared paper and arrange 48 squares in different number of rows as shown
below:
6 R ow s
4 Row s
1 2 C o lu m ns 8 C o lum n s

Number of Rows (R) 2 3 4 6 8

Number of Columns (C) --- --- 12 8 ---
What do you observe? As R increases, C decreases

(i) Is R1 : R2 = C2 : C1?
(ii) Is R3 : R4 = C4 : C3?
(iii) Is R and C inversely proportional to each other?
(iv) Do this activity with 36 squares.
Class Project Day of Number of Number of

the week students students
Prepare a table with number of students present present (x) absent (y) x :y
and number of students absent in your class for
a week. Monday
Discuss with your friends and write your Tuesday

observations in your note book. Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Now let us solve some examples.
Example 7: Ration is available for 100 students in a hostel for 40 days.
How long will it be last, if 20 more students join in the hostel after 4 days?
Solution: As the number of students increase, ration will last for less number of days in
the same proportions are in inverse proportion.
No. of days No. of students
ration available
40 100
After 4 days 36 100
x 120
Now the question is if there is availability of rice for 36 days for 100 students.
How long will it last for 120 students.
36 120 Since the number of students are increasing

=
x 100 120
100 × x = 120 ⇒ x =
100
3 So the number of days will decrease in same proportion.
36 ×10 0 i.e. 36 ÷ x
x = = 30 days
12 0 120
= 36 ÷
100
100
⇒ 36 × = 30 days
120
Example 8: A car takes 4 hours to reach the destination by travelling at a speed of 60 km/h.
How long will it take if the car travels at a speed of 80 km/h?
Solution: As speed increases, time taken decreases in same proportion. So the time
taken and varies inversely to the speed of the vehicle ,for the same distance.
method 1 method II
Speed Time Speed Time
60 4 x × 60 4 ÷ x
80 x 80 y
(or)
60 x
= 60 × x = 80 and 4 ÷ x = y
80 4
80
60 × 4 = 80 × x x =
60
60 × 4 80
x = = 3 hr. 4÷ = y
80 60
4 × 60
y = = 3 hr.
80
Example 9: 6 pumps are required to fill a tank in 1 hour 20 minutes. How long will it take if
only 5 pumps of the same type are used?
Solution: Let the desired time to fill the tank be x minutes. Thus, we have the following
table.
Number of pumps 6 5
Time (in minutes) 80 x
Lesser the number of pumps, more will be the time required by it to fill the tank.

So, this is a case of inverse proportion.

Hence, 80 × 6 = x × 5 [x1 y1 = x2 y2]
80 × 6
or = x
5
or x = 96 minutes. 5 pipes in a tank
Thus, time taken to fill the tank by 5 pumps is 96

minutes or 1 hour 36 minutes.
6 pipes in a tank
Exercise - 10.3
1. Siri has enough money to buy 5 kg of potatoes at the price of ` 8 per kg. How much can
she buy for the same amount if the price is increased to ` 10 per kg?
2. A camp has food stock for 500 people for 70 days. If 200 more people join the camp,
how long will the stock last?
3. 36 men can do a piece of work in 12 days. In how many days 9 men can do the same
work?
4. A cyclist covers a distance of 28 km in 2 hours. Find the time taken by him to cover a
distance of 56 km with the same speed.
5. A ship can cover a certain distance in 10 hours at a speed of 16 nautical miles per hour. By
how much should its speed be increased so that it takes only 8 hours to cover the same
distance? (A nautical mile in a unit of measurement used at sea distance or sea water i.e.
1852 metres).
1
6. 5 pumps are required to fill a tank in 1 hours. How many pumps of the same type are
2
used to fill the tank in half an hour.
7. If 15 workers can build a wall in 48 hours, how many workers will be required to do the
same work in 30 hours?
8. A School has 8 periods a day each of 45 minutes duration. How long would each period
become ,if the school has 6 periods a day ? ( assuming the number of school hours to be
the same )
9. If z varies directly as x and inversely as y. Find the percentage increase in z due to an

increase of 12% in x and a decrease of 20% in y.
10. If x + 1 men will do the work in x + 1 days, find the number of days that (x + 2) men can
finish the same work.
11. Given a rectangle with a fixed perimeter of 24 meters, if we increase the length by 1m the
width and area will vary accordingly. Use the following table of values to look at how the
width and area vary as the length varies.
What do you observe? Write your observations in your note books
Length(in cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Width(in cm) 11 10 ……. …….. …….. …….. ……. …… …..
Area (in cm2) 11 20 ……. …….. ……. …….. ……. …… ……
10.3 Compound Proportion
Some times change in one quantity depends upon the change in two or more quantities in some
proportion. Then we equate the ratio of the first quantity to the compound ratio of the other two
quantities.
(i) One quantity may be in direct proportion with the other two quantities.
(ii) One quantity may be in inverse proportion with the other two quantities
(iii) One quantity may be in direct proportion with the one of the two quantities and in inverse
proportion with the remaining quantity.
Example 10: Consider the mess charges for 35 students for 24 days is ` 6300. How much
will be the mess charges for 25 students for 18days.
Solution: Here, we have three quantities i.e mess charges, number of students and number
of days.
Mess charges in ` Number of students Number of days
6300 35 24
? (x) 25 18
6300 : x 35:25 = 7:5 24:18 = 4:3
Mess charges is directly proportional to number of students.

Mess charges ∝ number of students.
6300 : x = 7:5

Again mess charges are directly proportional to number of days.

Mess charges ∝ number of days.
6300 : x = 4 : 3
Since, mess charges depends upon both the value i.e number of students and
number of days so we will take a compound ratio of these two variables.
Mess charges ∝ compound ratio of ratio of number of students and ratio of
number of days.
6300 : x = compound ratio of 7 : 5 and 4 : 3
6300 : x = 7 × 4 : 5 × 3
6300 : x = 28: 15
Product of extremes = product of means.

28 × x = 15 × 6300
15 × 6300
x =
28
x = ` 3375.
Hence, the required mess charges is ` 3375.
Example 11: 24 workers working 6 hours a day can finish a piece of work in 14 days. If each
worker works 7 hours a day, find the number of workers to finish the same piece
of work in 8 days.
Solution: Here we have three quantities i.e number of workers, number of hours per day
and number of days.
No. of workers No. of hours per day No. of days
24 6 14
? (x) 7 8
24 : x 6:7 14 : 8 = 7 : 4
Number of workers inversly proportional to number of hours per day.
1
Number of workers ∝
number of hours per day
24 : x = inverse ratio of 6 : 7 i.e. 7 : 6

⇒ 24 : x is directly proportional to 7 : 6.
Again ,number of days is inversely proportional to number of workers.
1
Number of workers ∝
number of days
24: x = inverse ratio of 7 : 4 i.e. 4 : 7

As, number of workers depends upon two variables i.e number of days and
number of hours per day. Therefore,
Number of workers ∝ compound ratio of inverse ratio of number of hours per
day and inverse ratio of number of days.
24 : x = compound ratio of 7 : 6 and 4 : 7
Alternate method
24 : x = 7 × 4 : 6 × 7 24 7 4
= ×
24 : x = 4 : 6 x 6 7
24 2
24 : x = 2 : 3 =
x 3
Product of means = product of extremes . 2 × x = 24 × 3
2 × x = 24 × 3 72
x = 36
x = = 36
2
Hence the required number of workers = 36.
Example 12: 12 painters can paint a wall of 180 m long in 3 days. How many painters are
required to paint 200 m long wall in 5 days?
Solution: Here number of painters are in direct proportion to length of the wall and inversely
proportional to number of days.
No. of painter Length of the wall (m) No. of days
12 180 3
x 200 5
12 : x 180 : 200 = 9 : 10 3:5
Number of painters α length of the wall

12 : x = 9 : 10 ---- (1) and
1
Number of painters α number of days

12 : x = inverse ratio of 3 : 5 Alternate method

12 : x = 5 : 3 ---- (2) 12 9 5
= ×
x 10 3
from (1) and (2)
12 3
12 : x = compound ratio of 9 : 10 and 5 : 3 =
x 2
12 : x = (9 : 10) × (5 : 3)
12 × 2 = 3 × x
12 : x = 9 × 5 : 10 × 3 4
12 : x = 45 : 30 = 3 : 2 12 × 2
x= =8
12 : x = 3 : 2 (product of extremes = product of means) 3
3× x = 12 × 2
24
x= =8
3
Number of painters required = 8
Exercise - 10.4
1. Rice costing ` 480 is needed for 8 members for 20 days. What is the cost of rice required
for 12 members for 15 days ?
2. 10 men can lay a road 75 km. long in 5 days. In how many days can 15 men lay a road
45 km. long ?
3. 24 men working at 8 hours per day can do a piece of work in 15 days. In how many days
can 20 men working at 9 hours per day do the same work ?
4. 175 men can dig a canal 3150 m long in 36 days. How many men are required to dig a
canal 3900 m. long in 24 days?
5. If 14 typists typing 6 hours a day can take 12 days to complete the manuscript of a book,
then how many days will 4 typists, working 7 hours a day, can take to do the same job?
• If x and y are in direct proportion, the two quantities vary in the same ratio
x
x x
1 2
i.e. if = k or x = ky . We can write = [y1, y2 are values of y
y y y
1 2
corresponding to the values x1, x2 of x respectively]

• Two quantities x and y are said to vary in inverse proportion, if there exists
a relation of the type xy = k between them, k being a constant. If y1, y2 are
the values of y corresponding to the values x1 and x2 of x respectively,
y
x
1 2
then x1y1 = x2y2 (= k), or = .
x y
2 1
• If one quantity increases (decreases) as the other quanitity decreases

(increases) in same proportion, then we say it varies in the inverse ratio of
the other quantity. The ratio of the first quantity (x1 : x2) is equal to the
inverse ratio of the second quantity (y1 : y2). As both the ratios are the
same, we can express this inverse variation as proportion and it is called
inverse proportion.
• Sometimes change in one quantity depends upon the change in two or
more other quantities in same proportion. Then we equate the ratio of the
first quantity to the compound ratio of the other two quantities.
Diffy with fractions

The process in this activity is called Diffy. The name comes from the process of taking
successive differences of numbers and the activity provides practicing skills in subtraction.
Directions:
Step1 : Make an array of circles as shown and
choose four fractions in the top four circles 3 2 1 1
Step2 : In the first three circles of the second row 4 3 2 4 3 −1
write the difference of the fractions above 1 1 1 1 4 4
and to the right and left of the circle in the 12 6 4 2
question, always being careful to subtract
the smaller of these two fractions from the
larger. In the fourth circle of second row
place the difference of fractions in the first
and fourth circles in the preceding row, again
always subtracting the smaller fraction from
the larger.
Step3 : Repeat step 2 to fill the successive rows of the circles. You may stop if you obtain a
row of zeros.
Step4 : Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 several times and each time start with different fractions.
Try Fraction Diffy with the fractions in first row 2 , 4 , 3 , 5
7 5 2 6

Chapter
11
Algebraic Expressions
11.0 Introduction:
Consider the expressions:
1 3x
(i) 3 + 8 – 9 (ii) xy (iii) 0 (iv) 3x + 5 (v) 4xy + 7 (vi) 15 + 0 – 19 (vii) ( y ≠ 0)
3 y
(i), (iii) and (vi) are numerical expressions where as (ii), (iv) and (v), (vii) are algebraic expressions.
Do you identify the difference between them?
You can form many more expressions. As you know expressions are formed with variables and
constants. In the expression 3x + 5, x is varaible and 3, 5 are constants. 3x is an algebraic term
and 5 is a numerical term. The expression 4xy + 7 is formed with variables x and y and constants
4 and 7.
1
Now xy has one term and 2xy + pq–3 has 3 terms in it.
3
So you know that terms are formed as a product of constants and one or more variables.
Terms are added or subtracted to form an expression.
We know that the value of the expression 3x + 5 could be any number. If x = 2 the value of the
expression would be 3 (2) + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11. For different values of x, the expression 3x + 5
holds different values.
Do This
1. Find the number of terms in following algebraic expressions

5xy2, 5xy3–9x, 3xy + 4y–8, 9x2 + 2x + pq + q.
2. Take different values for x and find values of 3 x + 5.
Let us consider some more algebraic expressions, 5xy2,

5xy3 – 9x, 3xy + 4y – 8 etc. It is clear that 5xy2 is monomial,
The sum of all exponents of the
variables in a monomial is the
5xy3 – 9x is binomial and 3xy + 4y – 8 is trinomial. degree of the monomial
As you know that the degree of a monomial 5x2y is ‘3’. The highest degree among the degrees
Moreover, the degree of the binomial 5xy3 – 9x is ‘4’. of the different terms of an algebraic
expression is called the degree of that
Similarly, the degree of the trinomial 3xy + 4y – 8 is ‘2’. algebraic expression.
Algebraic Expressions 249
Expressions that contain exactly one, two and three terms are called monomials, binomials and
trinomials respectively. In general, any expression containing one or more terms with non-zero
coefficients is called a multinomial.
11.1 Like and unlike terms:

Observe the following terms.
2x, 3x2, 4x, –5x, 7x3
Among these 2x, 4x and –5x have same variable with same exponent. These are called like
terms. Like terms may not have same numerical coefficients. Why 8p and 8q are not like? Why
8p and 8pq are not like? Why 8p and 8p2 are not like?
Do This
1. Find the like terms in the following
ax2y, 2x, 5y2, –9x2, –6x, 7xy, 18y2.
2. Write 3 like terms for 5pq2
11.2 Addition and subtraction of algebraic expressions:

Example:1 Add 5x2+ 3xy + 2y2 and 2y2– xy + 4x2
Solution: Write the expression one under another so that like times align in columns. Then
add
5x 2 + 3xy + 2y2
+ 4x2 – xy + 2y2
9x 2 + 2xy + 4y2
1. Sheela says the sum of 2pq and 4pq is 8p2q2 is she right ? Give your explanation.
2. Rehman added 4x and 7y and got 11xy. Do you agree with Rehman ?
Example:2 Subtract 2xy + 9x2 from 12xy + 4x2 – 3y2

Solution: Write the expressions being subtracted (subtrahend) below the expression from
which it is being subtracted (minuend) aligning like term in columns.
minuend 12xy + 4x2 – 3y2
Change the signs of each term in the
subtrahend 2xy + 9x 2
expression being subtracted then add.
(–) (–)
10xy – 5x2 – 3y2
[Note : Subtraction of a number is the same as addition of its additive inverse. Thus subtracting
–3 is the same as adding +3. Similarly subtracting 9x2 is the same as adding –9x2, subtracting
–3xy is same as adding +3xy].
Do This
1. If A = 2y2 + 3x – x2, B = 3x2 – y2 and C = 5x2 – 3xy then find

(i) A + B (ii) A – B (iii) B + C (iv) B – C (v) A + B + C (vi) A + B – C
11.3 Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions:

Introduction: (i) Look at the following patterns of dots.
Pattern of dots Total number of dots
Row × Column
4×9
5×7
To find the number of

dots we have to multiply
m×n the expression for the
m number of rows by the
expression for the
number of columns.
m×n
n+3
Here the number of rows

(m + 2) × (n + 3) is increased by 2, i.e. m+2
m+2
and number of columns

increased by 3, i.e. n+3
(ii) Can you now think of similar situations in which two

algebraic expressions have to be multiplied?
b
We can think of area of a rectangle. The area of a b -3
rectangle is l × b, where l is the length, and b is
breadth. If the length of the rectangle is increased l
l+ 5
by 5 units, i.e., (l + 5) and breadth is decreased by
3 units , i.e., (b – 3) units, then the area of the new
To find the area of a rectangle. We
rectangle will be (l + 5) × (b – 3) sq. units. have to multiply algebraic expression
like l×b and extended as (l+5)×(b–3).
(iii) Can you think about volume of a cuboid in the form
of algebraic expression? (The volume of a
rectangular box is given by the product of its length,
breadth and height).
(iv) When we buy things, we have to carry out
multiplication.
For example, if price of bananas per dozen is ` p
and bananas needed for the school picnic are z dozens,
then we have to pay = ` p × z
Suppose, the price per dozen was less by ` 2 and the bananas needed were less by 4
dozens.
The price of bananas per dozen = ` (p – 2) and
bananas needed = (z – 4) dozens,
Therefore, we would have to pay = ` (p – 2) × (z – 4)
Try These
Write an algebriac expression using speed and time; simple interest to be paid,
using principal and the rate of simple interest.
Can you think of two more such situations, where we can express in algebraic
expressions?
In all the above examples, we have to carry out multiplication of two or more quantities. If the
quantities are given by algebraic expressions, we need to find their product. This means that we
should know how to obtain this product. Let us do this systematically. To begin with we shall
look at the multiplication of two monomials.

11.4 Multiplying a monomial by a monomial
11.4.1 Multiplying two monomials
We know that
4 × x = x + x + x + x = 4x
and 4 × (3x) = 3x + 3x + 3x + 3x = 12x
Now, observe the following products.
(i) x × 3y = x × 3 × y = 3 × x × y = 3xy
(ii) 5x × 3y = 5 × x × 3 × y = 5 × 3 × x × y = 15xy
(iii) 5x × (–3y) = 5 × x × (–3) × y
= 5 × (–3) × x × y = –15xy
(iv) 5x × 4x2 = (5 × 4) × (x × x2)
= 20 × x3 = 20x3
(v) 5x × (– 4xyz) = (5 × – 4) × (x × xyz)
= –20 × (x × x × yz) = –20x2yz
For finding the product of algebraic terms we add the power of same base variables, we use the
rules of exponents.
Observe the following and fill the blanks.
6 7 y q
4 x x p
Area = 4 × 6 = 24units Area x × 7 = ...... Area = x × y =........ Area = ...... ×....... = ......
Observe the following products:-
1. 7x × 5y = (7 × 5) × (x × y) = 35xy
2. 3x × (−2y) = {3 × (−2)} × (x × y) = −6xy
3. (−4x) × (−6y) = (−4) × (−6) × (x × y) = 24xy
4. 3x × 5x2 = (3 × 5) × (x × x2) = 15x3
5. (−2x2) × (−4x2) = (−2) × (−4) × x2 × x2 = 8x4
Note (i) Product of two positive integers is a positive integer.

(ii) Product of two negative integers is a positive integer.
(iii) Product of a positive and a negative integers is a negative integer.
Do This
1. Complete the table:
1st Monomial 2nd Monomial Product of two monomials

2x −3y 2x × (−3y)= −6xy
−4y2 −2y …….
3abc 5bcd …….
mn −4m …….
−3mq −3nq …….
2. Check whether you always get a monomial when two monomials are multiplied.
3. Product of two monomials is a monomial ? Check
11.4.2 Multiplying three or more monomials
Observe the following examples:-

Example 3: Find the product of 5x, 6y and 7z
Method I Method II
5x × 6y × 7z = (5x × 6y) × 7z 5x × 6y × 7z = 5 × x × 6 × y × 7 × z
= 30xy × 7z = 5×6×7×x×y×z
= 210xy = 210 xyz (first multiply coefficients
then variables)
Example 4: Find 3x2y × 4xy2 × 7x3y3
Solution: = 3 × 4 × 7 × (x2y) ×(xy2) × (x3y3)
= 84 × x2 × y × x × y2 × x3 × y3
= 84 × (x2 × x × x3) × (y × y2 × y3)
= 84 × x6 × y6 = 84x6y6.
Example 5: Find the product of 3x, −4xy, 2x2, 3y2, 5x3y2
Solution: 3x × (−4xy) × 2x2 × 3y2 × 5x3y2
= [3 × (−4) × 2 × 3 × 5] × (x × x × x2 × x3) × (y × y2 × y2)
= −360x7y5.
Have to observe that the product of any number of monomials is a monomial?

Exercise - 11.1
1. Find the product of the following pairs:

(i) 6, 7k (ii) −3l, −2m (iii) −5t2 −3t2 (iv) 6n, 3m (v) −5p2, −2p
2. Complete the table of the products.
X 5x −2y2 3x2 6xy 3y2 −3xy2 4xy2 x 2y 2

3x 15x2 …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
4y …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
−2x2 −10x3 4x2 y2 …. …. …. …. …. ….
6xy …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
2y2 …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
3x2 y …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
2xy2 …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
5x2y2 …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….
3. Find the volumes of rectangular boxes with given length, breadth and height in the following
table.
S.No. Length Breadth Height Volume (v) = l × b × h
(i) 3x 4x2 5 v = 3x × 4x2 × 5 = 60x3
(ii) 3a 2 4 5c v = …………………
(iii) 3m 4n 2m2 v = …………………
(iv) 6kl 3l2 2k2 v = …………………
(v) 3pr 2qr 4pq v = …………………
4. Find the product of the following monomials

(i) xy, x2y, xy, x (ii) a, b, ab, a3b, ab3 (iii) kl, lm, km, klm
(iv) pq ,pqr, r (v) −3a, 4ab, −6c, d
5. If A = xy, B = yz and C = zx, then find ABC = ...........
6. If P = 4x2, T = 5x and R = 5y, then PTR = ..........

100
7. Write some monomials of your own and find their products .
11.5 Multiplying a binomial or trinomial by a monomial
11.5.1 Multiplying a binomial by a monomial

Multiplying a monomial 5x and a binomial 6y+3
The process involved in the multiplication is:
Step Instruction Procedure
1. Write the product of monomial and binomial 5x × (6y+3)
using multiplication symbol
2. Use distributive law: Multiply the monomial (5x × 6y) + (5x × 3)
by the first term of the binomial then multiply
the monomial by the second term of the binomial
and add their products.
3. Simplify the terms 30xy + 15x
Hence, the product of 5x and 6y+3

Solution: 5x(6y + 3) = 5x × (6y + 3)
= (5x × 6y) + (5x × 3)
= 30xy + 15x
Example6: Find the product of (−4xy)(2x − y)
Solution: (−4xy)(2x − y) = (−4xy) × (2x − y)
= (−4xy) × 2x + (− 4xy) × (−y)
= −8x2y + 4xy2
Example7: Find the product of (3m – 2n2) (−7mn)
Solution: (3m – 2n2) (−7mn) = (3m – 2n2) × (−7mn)
= (−7mn) × (3m – 2n2) Q Commutative law
= ((−7mn) × 3m) – ((−7mn) × 2n2)

= −21m2 n +14mn3
Do This
1. Find the product: (i) 3x(4ax +8by) (ii) 4a2b(a−3b) (iii) (p + 3q2) pq (iv)
(m3 + n3)5mn2
2. Find the number of maximum terms in the product of a monomial and a
binomial?

11.5.2 Multiplying a trinomial by a monomial

How many maximum
Consider a monomial 2x and a trinomial (3x + 4y – 6) terms are there in the
Their product = 2x × (3x + 4y – 6) product of a

monomial and a
= (2x × 3x) + (2x × 4y) + (2x × ( –6)) (by using distributive law) trinomial?
= 6x2 + 8xy – 12x
Exercise - 11.2
1. Complete the table:

S.No. First Expression Second Expression Product
1 5q p+q-2r 5q(p+q-2r)=5pq+5q2-10qr
2 kl+lm+mn 3k ………………………………
3 ab2 a+b2+c3 ………………………………
4 x-2y+3z xyz ………………………………
5 a2bc+b2cd-abd2 a2b2c2 ………………………………
2. Simplify: 4y(3y+4)
3. Simplify x(2x2−7x+3) and find the values of it for (i) x = 1 and (ii) x = 0
4. Add the product: a(a−b), b(b−c), c(c−a)
5. Add the product: x(x+y−r), y(x−y+r), z(x−y−z)
6. Subtract the product of 2x(5x−y) from product of 3x(x+2y)
7. Subtract 3k(5k−l+3m) from 6k(2k+3l−2m)
8. Simplify: a2(a−b+c)+b2(a+b−c)−c2(a−b−c)
11.6 Multiplying a binomial by a binomial or trinomial

11.6.1 Multiplying a binomial by a binomial:
Consider two binomials as 5x+6y and 3x − 2y
Now, the product of two binomials 5x+6y and 3x −2y
The procedure of multiplication is:

Step Instructions Procedure
1. Write the product of two binomials (5x+6y)(3x-2y)
2. Use distributive law:Multiply the first 5x(3x−2y)+6y(3x−2y)
term of the first binomial by the second = (5x×3x)-(5x×2y) + (6y×3x)−(6y×2y)
binomial, multiply the second term of
the first binomial by the second binomial
and add the products.
3. Simplify (5x×3x)−(5x×2y) + (6y×3x)−(6y×2y)
=15x2 − 10xy +18xy − 12y2
4. Add like terms 15 x2+8xy-12y2
Hence, the product of 5x +6y and 3x − 2y

= (5x + 6y)(3x − 2y)
= 5x(3x − 2y) + 6y(3x − 2y) (by using distribution)
= (5x × 3x) − (5x × 2y) + (6y×3x)−(6y×2y)
=15x2− 10xy + 18xy − 12y2
= 15 x2+8xy − 12y2
Do This
1. Find the product:

(i) (a − b) (2a + 4b) (ii) (3x + 2y) (3y − 4x)
(iii) (2m − l )(2l − m) (iv) (k + 3m)(3m − k)
2. How many number of terms will be there in the product of two binomials?
11.6.2 Multiplying a binomial by a trinomial
Consider a binomial 2x + 3y and trinomial 3x + 4y − 5z.

Now, we multiply 2x + 3y by 3x + 4y − 5z.

The process of the multiplication is:

Step Instructions Process
1. Write the products of the binomials and (2x+3y) (3x+4y−5z)
trinomial using multiplicative symbol
2. Use distributive law:
Multiply the first term of the binomial
by the trinomial and multiply the second 2x(3x+4y−5z)+3y(3x+4y−5z)
term of the binomial by the trinomial and
then add the products.
3. Simplify (2x×3x)+(2x×4y)−(2x×5z) +
(3y×3x)+(3y×4y)−(3y×5z)
6x2 +8xy−10xz+9xy+12y2 −15yz
4. Add like terms 6x2+17xy−10xz+12y2−15yz
Hence, the product of (2x+3y) and (3x+4y − 5z) can be written as

= (2x+3y)(3x+4y−5z)
= 2x(3x+4y−5z)+3y(3x+4y−5z) (by using distributive law) How many maximum
= (2x×3x)+(2x×4y)−(2x×5z)+ (3y×3x)+(3y × 4y) − (3y×5z) number of terms we get in
the products of a binomial
=6x2 +8xy − 10xz + 9xy+12y2− 15yz and a trinomial?
= 6x +17 xy − 10xz +12y − 15yz
2 2
Exercise - 11.3
1. Multiply the binomials:

(i) 2a−9 and 3a+4 (ii) x−2y and 2x−y
(iii) kl+lm and k−l (iv) m2−n2 and m+n
2. Find the product:
(i) (x+y)(2x−5y+3xy) (iii) (a−2b+3c)(ab2−a2b)
(ii) ( mn−kl+km)(kl−lm) (iv) (p3+q3)(p−5q+6r)
3. Simplify the following :
(i) (x−2y)(y−3x)+(x+y)(x−3y)−(y−3x)(4x−5y)
(ii) (m+n)(m2−mn+n2)
(iii) (a−2b+5c)(a−b)− (a−b−c)(2a+3c)+(6a+b)(2c−3a−5b)
(iv) (pq-qr+pr)(pq+qr)−(pr+pq)(p+q−r)
4. If a, b, c are positive real numbers such that a + b − c = a − b + c = − a + b + c , find the

c b a
value of (a + b)(b + c)(c + a ) .
abc
11.7 What is an identity?
Consider the equation a(a−2)=a2−2a

Evaluate the both sides of the equation for any value of a
For a=5, LHS = 5(5−2) = 5×3 = 15
RHS = 52−2(5) = 25 − 10 =15
Hence, in the equation LHS = RHS for a=5.
Similarly for a = −2
LHS = (−2)(−2−2) = (−2)×(−4) = 8
RHS = (−2)2−2(−2) = 4+4 = 8
Thus, in the equation LHS = RHS for a=−2 also.
We can say that the equation is true for any value of a. Therefore, the equation is called an
identity.
Consider an equation a(a+1) = 6
This equation is true only for a = 2 and −3 but it is not true for other values. So, this a(a+1) = 6
equation is not an identity.
An equation is called an identity if it is satisfied by any value that replaces its variable(s).
An equation is true for certain values for the variable in it, where as an identity is true for all its
variables. Thus it is known as universally true equation.
We use symbol for denoting identity is ‘ ≡ ’ (read as identically equal to)
11.8 Some important Identities:
We often use some of the identities, which are very useful in solving problems. Those identities
used in multiplication are also called as special products. Among them, we shall study three
important identities, which are products of a binomial.

Consider (a + b) 2
Now,
(a + b)2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a(a + b) + b (a + b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a2 + ab + ab + b2 (since ab = ba)
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Thus (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (I)
Now, take a=2, b=3, we obtain (LHS) = (a + b) 2 = (2+3) 2 = 52 = 25
(RHS) = a2 + 2ab + b2 = 22 + 2(2)(3) + 32 = 4 + 12 + 9 = 25
Observe the LHS and RHS. The values of the expressions on the LHS and RHS are equal.
Verify Identity-I for some positive integer, negative integer and fraction
Do This:
Verify the following are identities by taking a, b, c as positive integers.

(i) (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2
(ii) (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2– b2
(iii) (a + b + c)2 ≡ a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
Consider one more identity, (x +a)(x + b) ≡ x2 + (a + b)x +ab,

(x +a)(x + b) = x(x + b) + a(x + b)
= x2 + bx + ax +ab
= x2 + (a + b)x +ab
Do This
Now take x = 2, a = 1 and b = 3, verify the identity.
• What do you observe? Is LHS = RHS?
• Take different values for x, a and b for verification of the above identity.
• Is it always LHS = RHS for all values of a and b?
• Consider (x + p) (x + q) = x2 + (p + q)x + pq
(i) Put q instead of ‘p’ what do you observe?
(ii) Put p instead of ‘q’ what do you observe?
(iii) What identities you observed in your results?
11.9 Application of Identities:
Example 8: Find (3x + 4y)2

Solution: (3x + 4y)2 is the product of two binomial expressions, which have the same
terms (3x + 4y) and (3x + 4y). It can be expanded by the method of multiplying
a binomial by a binomial. Compare the identities with this product. In this product
a = 3x and b = 4y. We can get the result of this product by substituting 3x and 4y
terms in the place of a and b respectively in the first identity (a+b) 2 = a2+2ab+b2
Hence, (3x + 4y)2 = (3x)2 + 2(3x)(4y) + (4y)2 Where a = 3x and b = 4y
= 9x2 + 24xy + 16y2 identity (a + b)2 ≡ a2+2ab + b2
Example 9: Find 2042
2042 = (200 + 4)2

Where a = 200 and b = 4
= (200)2 + 2(200)(4) + 42
identity (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
= 40000 + 1600 + 16
= 41616
Do This
Find: (i) (5m + 7n)2 (ii) (6kl + 7mn)2 (iii) (5a2 + 6b2 )2 (iv)3022
(v) 8072 (vi)7042
(vii) Verify the identity : (a − b) 2 = a2 − 2ab + b2, where a = 3m and b = 5n
Example10: Find (3m – 5n)2

Solution: (3m – 5n)2 = (3m)2 − 2(3m)(5n) + (5n)2 Where a = 3m and b = 5n
= 9m2 – 30mn + 25n2 identity: (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2

Example11: Find 1962

Where a = 200 and b = 4
1962 = (200 – 4)2
identity: (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2
2 2
= 200 – 2(200)(4) + 4
= 40000 – 1600 + 16
= 38416
Do This
Find: (i) (9m – 2n)2 (ii) (6pq – 7rs)2 (iii) (5x 2– 6y2 )2
(iv) 2922 (v) 8972 (vi)7942
Example:12: Find (4x + 5y)(4x – 5y) Where a = 4x and b = 5y

Solution: (4x + 5y)(4x – 5y) = (4x)2 – (5y)2 identity: (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2– b2
=16x2 – 25y2
Example:13: Find 407 × 393
Where a =400 and b = 7 in the
Solution: 407 × 393 = (400 + 7)(400 – 7)
identity: (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2 – b2
2 2
= 400 – 7
= 160000 – 49
= 159951
Example:14: Find 9872 – 132
Solution: 9872 – 132 = (987 + 13)(987 – 13) Where a =987 and b = 13 in the
= 1000 × 974 = 974000 identity: a2 – b2 ≡ (a + b) (a – b)
Do These
Find: (i) (6m + 7n) (6m – 7n) (ii) (5a + 10b) (5a – 10b)
(iii) (3x2 + 4y2) (3x2 – 4y2) (iv)106 × 94 (v) 592 × 608 (vi) 922 – 82
(vii) 9842 – 162
Example15: Find 302 × 308 Where x = 300, a = 2 and b = 8 in the

Solution: 302 × 308 = (300 + 2)(300 + 8) identity: (x +a) (x +b) ≡ x2 + (a + b) x + ab
= 3002 + (2 + 8)(300) + (2)(8)

= 90000 + (10 × 300) + 16
= 90000 + 3000 + 16 = 93016
Example16: Find 93 × 104

Where x = 100 a = –7 and b = 4 in the
Solution: 93 × 104 = (100 + (−7))(100 + 4) identity: (x + a) (x + b) ≡ x2+ (a+b) x + ab
93 × 104 = (100 − 7)(100 + 4)

= 1002 + (−7 + 4)(100) + (−7)(4)
= 10000 + (−3)(100) + (−28)
= 10000 – 300 – 28
= 10000 – 328 = 9672
Do you notice? Finding the products by using identities is much easier than finding by direct
multiplication.
Exercise - 11.4
1. Select a suitable identity and find the following products

(i) (3k + 4l) (3k + 4l) (ii) (ax2+ by2) (ax2 + by2)
(iii) (7d – 9e) (7d – 9e) (iv) ( m2 – n2) (m2 + n2)
(v) (3t + 9s) (3t – 9s) (vi) (kl – mn) (kl + mn)
(vii) (6x + 5) (6x + 6) (viii) (2b – a) (2b + c)
2. Evaluate the following by using suitable identities:
(i) 3042 (ii) 5092 (iii) 9922 (iv) 7992
(v) 304 × 296 (vi) 83 × 77 (vii)109×108 (viii) 204×206
11.10 Geometrical Verification of the identities

11.10.1 Geometrical Verification of the identity (a + b) 2 ≡ a
2
+ 2ab + b2
Observe the following square:

Consider a square with side (a + b)
Its area = square of the side = (side)2 = (a + b)2
Divided the square into four regions as shown in figure.
It consists of two squares with sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively
and two rectangles with length and breadth as ‘a’ and ‘b’
respectively.
Clearly, the area of the given square is equal to sum of the area of four regions.
Area of the given square

= Area of the square with side a + area of rectangle with sides a and b + area of
rectangle with sides b and a + area of square with side b
= a2 + ab + ba + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Therefore, (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
Example17: Verify the identity (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2 geometrically
by taking a = 3 and b = 2
Solution: (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
Draw a square with the side a + b, i.e., 3 + 2
L.H.S. Area of whole square
= (3 + 2)2 = 52 = 25
R.H.S. = Area of square with side 3 units +
Area of square with side 2 units +
Area of rectangle with sides 3, 2 units +
Area of rectangle with sides 2, 3 units
= 32 + 22 + 3 × 2 + 3 × 2
= 9 + 4 + 6 + 6 = 25
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
∴ Hence the identity is verified.
11.10.2 Geometrical Verification of the identity (a - b) 2 ≡ 2

a − 2ab + b2
Consider a square with side a.

• The area of the square = side × side = a2
III IV
• The square is divided into four regions.
• It consists of two squares with sides a − b
I II
and b respectively and two rectangles with
length and breadth as ‘a − b’ and ‘b’
respectively.
a−b+b=a
Now Area of figure I = Area of whole square with side ‘a’ −

Area of figure II − Area of figure III − Area of figure IV
(a–b)2 = a2 – b (a–b) – b (a–b) – b2
= a2 – ab + b2 – ab + b2 – b2
= a2 – 2ab + b2
11.10.3 Geometrical Verification of the identity (a + b)(a – b) ≡ a

2
−b 2
a2– b2 = (Area of square where the side is ‘a’) – (Area of square where the side is ‘b’)
Observe the following square:
a
Remove suqare from this whose side is b (b < a)

a -b a -b
b b
We get a a - b It consist of two parts a
I II a -b
a
So a2 – b2 = Area of figure I + area of figure II

= a (a – b) + b (a – b)
= (a – b) (a + b)
Thus a2 – b2 ≡ (a – b) (a + b)
Exercise - 11.5
1. Verify the identity (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2 geometrically by taking

(i) a = 2 units, b = 4 units
(ii) a = 3 units, b = 1 unit
(iii) a = 5 units, b = 2 unit

2. Verify the identity (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2 geometrically by taking

(i) a = 3 units, b = 1 unit
(ii) a = 5 units, b = 2 units
3. Verify the identity (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2 – b2 geometrically by taking
1. There are number of situations in which we need to multiply algebraic

expressions.
2. A monomial multiplied by a monomial always gives a monomial.
3. While multiplying a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply every term in
the polynomial by the monomial.
4. In carrying out the multiplication of an algebraic expression with another
algebraic expression (monomial / binomial / trianomial etc.) we multiply
term by term i.e. every term of the expression is multiplied by every term in
the another expression.
5. An identity is an equation, which is true for all values of the variables in the
equation. On the other hand, an equation is true only for certain values of
its variables. An equation is not an identity.
6. The following are identities:
I. (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
II. (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2
III. (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2 – b2
IV. (x + a) (x + b) ≡ x2 + (a + b) x + ab
7. The above four identities are useful in carrying out squares and products of
algebraic expressions. They also allow easy alternative methods to calculate
products of numbers and so on.
2. Verify the identity (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2 geometrically by taking

(i) a = 3 units, b = 1 unit
(ii) a = 5 units, b = 2 units
3. Verify the identity (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2 – b2 geometrically by taking
1. There are number of situations in which we need to multiply algebraic

expressions.
2. A monomial multiplied by a monomial always gives a monomial.
3. While multiplying a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply every term in
the polynomial by the monomial.
4. In carrying out the multiplication of an algebraic expression with another
algebraic expression (monomial / binomial / trianomial etc.) we multiply
term by term i.e. every term of the expression is multiplied by every term in
the another expression.
5. An identity is an equation, which is true for all values of the variables in the
equation. On the other hand, an equation is true only for certain values of
its variables. An equation is not an identity.
6. The following are identities:
I. (a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
II. (a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2
III. (a + b) (a – b) ≡ a2 – b2
IV. (x + a) (x + b) ≡ x2 + (a + b) x + ab
7. The above four identities are useful in carrying out squares and products of
algebraic expressions. They also allow easy alternative methods to calculate
products of numbers and so on.
Factorisation 267
Chapter
12
Factorisation
12.0 Introduction
Let us consider the number 42 . Try to write the ‘42’ as product of any two numbers.
42 = 1 × 42
= 2 × 21
= 3 × 14
= 6×7
Thus 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 and 42 are the factors of 42. Among the above factors, which are
prime numbers?
Do you write 42 as product of prime numbers? Try.
Rafi did like this Sirisha did like this Akbar did like this
42 = 2 × 21 42 = 3 × 14 42 = 6 × 7
=2×3×7 =2×3×7 =2×3×7
What have you observe? We observe that 2×3×7 is the product of prime factors in every case.
Now consider another number say ‘70’
The factors of 70 are 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 35 and 70 70 = 1 × 70
70 can be written as 2 × 5 ×7 as the product of prime factors. = 2 × 35
= 5 × 14
The form of factorisation where all factors are primes is called product of
prime factor form. = 7 × 10
Do This:
Express the given numbers in the form of product of primes

(i) 48 (ii) 72 (ii) 96
As we did for numbers we can also express algebraic expressions as the product of their factors.
We shall learn about factorisation of various algebraic expressions in this chapter.

12.1 Factors of algebraic expressions:
Consider the following example :

7yz = 7(yz) (7 and yz are the factors)
= 7y(z) (7y and z are the factors)
= 7z(y) (7z and y are the factors)
=7×y×z (7, y and z are the factors)
Among the above factors 7, y, z are irreducible factors. The ‘1’ is the factor of 7yz, since
phrase ‘irreducible’ is used in the place of ‘prime’ in 7yz = 1×7×y×z. In fact ‘1’ is
algebraic expressions. Thus we say that 7×y×z is the the factor of every term. But
irreducible form of 7yz. Note that 7×(yz) or 7y(z) or 7z(y) unless required, ‘1’ need not be
shown separately.
are not an irreducible form.
Let us now consider the expression 7y(z+3). It can be written as 7y (z + 3) = 7 × y × (z+3).
Here 7,y, (z + 3) are the irreducible factors.
Similarly 5x (y+2) (z+3) =5 × x × (y + 2) × (z + 3) Here 5 , x , (y + 2) , (z + 3) are
irreducible factors.
Do This
1. Find the factors of following :

(i) 8x2yz (ii) 2xy (x + y) (iii) 3x + y3z
12.2 Need of factorisation:
When an algebraic expression is factorised, it is written as the product of its factors. These
factors may be numerals, algebraic variables, or terms of algebraic expressions.
Consider the algebraic expression 23a + 23b + 23c. This can be written as 23(a + b + c), here
the irreducible factors are 23 and (a + b + c). 23 is a numerical factor and (a + b + c) is algebraic
factor.
Consider the algebraic expressions (i) x2y + y2x + xy (ii) (4x2 1) ! (2x 1).
The first expression x2y + y2x + xy = xy(x + y + 1) thus the above algebraic expression is
written in simpler form.
Factorisation 269
The second case (4x2 1) ! (2x 1)

4 x 2 1 (2 x)2 (1) 2
"
2x 1 2x 1
(2 x # 1)(2 x 1)
"
(2 x 1)
= (2x + 1)
From above illustrations it is noticed that the factorisation has helped to write the algebraic
expression in simpler form and it also helps in simplifying the algebraic expression
Let us now discuss some methods of factorisation of algebraic expressions.
12.3 Method of common factors:
Let us factorise 3x +12

On writing each term as the product of irreducible factors we get :
3x + 12 = (3 × x) + (2 × 2 × 3)
What is the common factors of both terms ?
By taking the common factor 3, we get
3 × [x + (2×2)] = 3 × (x + 4) = 3 (x + 4)
Thus the expression 3x + 12 is the same as 3 (x + 4).
Now we say that 3 and (x + 4) are the factors of 3x + 12 .Also note that these factors are
irreducible.
Now let us factorise another expression 6ab+12b
6ab+12b = (2 × 3 × a × b) + (2 × 2 × 3 × b) Note that 6b is the HCF
= 2 × 3 × b × (a + 2) = 6b (a + 2) of 6ab and 12b
$ 6ab + 12b = 6b (a + 2)
Example 1: Factorize (i) 6xy + 9y2 (ii) 25 a2b +35ab2
Solution: (i) 6xy + 9y2
We have 6 x y = 2 ×3× x ×y and 9y2 = 3 ×3 × y × y
3 and ‘y’ are the common factors of the two terms

Hence, 6xy + 9y2

= ( 2 ×3×x×y ) + (3 ×3 × y × y) (Combining the terms)
= 3 × y × [ (2 × x) + (3 × y)]
2
$ 6xy + 9y = 3y(2 x +3y)
(ii) 25 a2b +35ab2 = (5× 5 × a × a × b) +(5× 7 × a × b× b)
= 5 × a × b ×[ (5 × a) + (7 × b)]
= 5ab (5a + 7b)
2 2
$ 25 a b +35ab = 5ab (5a + 7b)
Example 2: Factorise 3 x 2 + 6 x 2y +9 x y2
3 x 2 + 6 x 2y + 9 xy2= (3 × x × x)+ (2 × 3 × x × x × y) + (3 × 3 × x × y × y)
= 3 × x [x + (2 × x × y) + (3 × y × y)]
= 3 x (x +2 xy + 3y2) ( taking 3 × x as common factor)
2 2 2 2
$ 3 x + 6 x y + 9 xy = 3 x (x +2 x y+3y )
Do This
Factorise (i) 9a2 – 6a (ii) 15 a3b – 35ab3 (iii) 7lm – 21lmn
12.4 Factorisation by grouping the terms
Observe the expression ax + bx + ay + by. You will find that there is no single common factor to
all the terms. But the first two terms have the common factor ‘x’ and the last two terms have the
common factor ‘y’. Let us see how we can factorise such an expression.
On grouping the terms we get (ax +bx) +(ay+by)
(ax +bx) +(ay+by) = x (a+b)+ y(a+b) (By taking out common factors from each group)
= (a+b)( x +y) (By taking out common factors from the groups)
The expression ax + bx + ay + by is now expressed as the product of its factors .The factors
are (a+b) and ( x +y), which are irreducible.
The above expression can be factorised by another way of grouping, as follows :
ax + ay + bx + by = ( ax + ay)+ (bx + by)
= a (x + y) + b (x + y)
= (x + y) (a + b)
Note that the factors are the same except the order.
Factorisation 271
Do This
Factorise (i) 5 x y + 5 x + 4y + 4 (ii) 3ab + 3b + 2b + 2
Example 3: Factorise 6ab – b2 – 2bc +12ac

Solution: Step 1: Check whether there are any common factors for all terms. Obviously
none.
Step 2: On regrouping the first two terms we have
6ab – b2 = b (6a – b) ———I
Note that you need to change order of the last two terms in the expression
as 12ac – 2bc.
Thus 12ac – 2bc = 2c( 6a – b)———II
Step 3: Combining I and II together
6ab – b2 – 2bc +12ac = b (6a – b) +2c (6a – b)
By taking out common
= (6a – b) (b + 2c) factor (6a – b)
Hence the factors of 6ab – b2 –2bc + 12ac are (6a– b) and (b + 2c)
Exercise - 12.1
1. Find the common factors of the given terms in each.

(i) 8x, 24 (ii) 3a, 21ab (iii) 7xy, 35x2y3 (iv) 4m2, 6m2, 8m3
(v) 15p, 20qr, 25rp (vi) 4x2, 6xy, 8y2x (vii) 12 x2y, 18 xy2
2. Factorise the following expressions

(i) 5x2 – 25xy (ii) 9a2 – 6ax (iii) 7p2 + 49pq
(iv) 36 a2b – 60 a2bc (v) 3a2bc + 6ab2c + 9abc2
(vi) 4p2 + 5pq – 6pq2 (vii) ut + at2
3. Factorise the following :

(i) 3ax – 6xy + 8by – 4bx (ii) x3 + 2x2 +5x + 10
(iii) m2 – mn + 4m – 4n (iv) a3 – a2b2 – ab + b3 (v) p2q – p r2 – pq + r2

12.5 Factorisation using identities:

We know that (a + b)2 % a2 + 2ab + b2
(a – b)2 % a2 – 2ab + b2
(a + b) (a – b) % a2 – b2 are algebraic identities.
We can use these identities for factorisation, if the given expression is in the form of RHS (Right
Hand Side) of the particular identity. Let us see some examples.
Example 4: Factorise x2 + 10x + 25
Solution: The given expression contains three terms and the first and third terms are perfect
squares. That is x2 and 25 ( 52 ). Also the middle term contains the positive sign.
This suggests that it can be written in the form of a2 + 2ab + b2,
so x2 + 10x + 25 = (x)2 + 2 (x) (5) + (5)2
We can compare it with a2 + 2ab + b2 which in turn is equal to the LHS of the
identity i.e. (a + b)2 . Here a = x and b = 5
We have x2 + 10x + 25 = (x + 5)2 = (x + 5) (x + 5)
Example 5: Factorise 16z2 – 48z + 36
Solution: Taking common numerical factor from the given expression we get
16z2 – 48z + 36 = (4 × 4z2) – (4 × 12z) + (4 × 9) = 4(4z2 – 12z + 9)
Note that 4z2 = (2z)2 ; 9 = (3)2 and 12z = 2 (2z) (3)
4z2 – 12z + 9 = (2z)2 – 2 (2z) (3) + (3)2 since a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
= (2z – 3)2
By comparison , 16z2 – 48z + 36 = 4(4z2 – 12z + 9) = 4 (2z – 3)2
= 4(2z – 3)(2z – 3)
Example 6: Factorise 25p2 – 49q2
Solution: We notice that the expression is a difference of two perfect squares.
i.e., the expression is of the form a2 – b2.
Hence Identity a2 – b2 = (a+b) (a-b) can be applied
25p2 – 49q2 = (5p)2 – (7q)2
= (5p + 7q) (5p – 7q) [ a2–b2 = (a + b) (a–b)]
Therefore, 25p2 – 49q2 = (5p + 7q) (5p – 7q)
Factorisation 273
Example 7: Factorise 48a2 – 243b2

Solution: We see that the two terms are not perfect squares. But both has‘3’ as common
factor.
That is 48a2 – 243b2 = 3 [16a2 – 81b2]
= 3 [(4a)2 – (9b)2] Again a2 – b2 = (a+b)(a – b)
= 3 [ (4a + 9b) (4a – 9b)]
= 3 (4a + 9b) (4a – 9b)
Example 8: Factorise x2 + 2xy + y2 – 4z2
Solution: The first three terms of the expression is in the form (x + y)2 and the fourth term
is a perfect square.
Hence x2 + 2xy + y2 – 4z2 = (x + y)2 – (2z)2
= [(x + y) + 2z] [(x + y) – 2z] a2 – b2 = (a+b) (a–b)
= (x + y + 2z) ( x + y – 2z)
Example 9: Factorise p4 – 256
Solution: p4 = (p2)2 and 256 = (16)2
Thus p4 – 256 = (p2)2 – (16)2
p2–16 = (p+4) (p–4)
= (p2 – 16 ) ( p2 +16 )
= (p+4) (p–4) ( p2 +16 )
12.6 Factors of the form (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Observe the expressions x2 + 12x + 35, x2 + 6x – 27, a2 – 6a + 8, 3y2 + 9y + 6.... etc. These
expression can not be factorised by using earlier used identities, as the constant terms are not
perfect squares.
Consider x2 + 12x + 35.
All these terms cannot be grouped for factorisation. Let us look for two factors of 35 whose sum
is 12 so that it is in the form of identity x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Consider all the possible ways of writing the constant as a product of two factors.
35 = 1 × 35 1 + 35 = 36
(–1) × (–35) –1 – 35 = –36
5×7 5 + 7 = 12
(–5) × (–7) –5 – 7 = –12
Sum of which pair is equal to the coefficient of the middle terms ? Obviously it is 5 + 7 = 12
2
$ x + 12x + 35 = x2 + (5+ 7) x + 35
= x2 + 5x + 7x + 35 ( 12x = 5x + 7x)
= x (x + 5) + 7 (x + 5) (By taking out common factors)
= (x + 5) (x + 7) (By taking out (x + 5) as common factor)
From the above discussion we may conclude that the expression which can be written in the form
of x2 + (a + b) x + ab can be factorised as (x + a) (x + b)
Example 10: Factorise m2 4m – 21

Solution: Comparing m2 4m – 21 with the identity x2 + (a + b) x + ab we note that
ab = 21, and a+b = –4. So, ( 7) + 3 = 4 and ( 7 )(3) = 21
Hence m2 – 4m – 21 = m2 7m + 3m– 21 Factors of –21 and their sum
–1 × 21 = –21 –1 + 21 = 20
=m(m 7) + 3 (m 7)
1 × (–21) = –21 1 – 21 = –20
= (m 7) (m +3) –7 × 3 = –21 –7 + 3 = –4
–3 × 7 = –21 –3 + 7 = 4
Therefore m2 4m – 21 = (m 7) (m +3)
Example 11: Factorise 4x2 +20x – 96
Solution: We notice that 4 is the common factor of all the terms.
Thus 4x2 + 20x – 96 = 4 [x2 +5x – 24]
Now consider x2 +5x – 24 Factors of –24 and their sum
–1 × 24 = –24 –1 + 24 = 23
= x2 + 8x 3x 24 1 × (–24) = –24 1 – 24 = –23
= x ( x + 8) 3( x + 8) –8 × 3 = –24 3 – 8 = –5
–3 × 8 = –24 –3 + 8 = 5
= ( x + 8 )( x – 3)
Therefore 4x2 + 20x – 96 = 4( x + 8 )( x – 3 )
Exercise - 12.2
1. Factorise the following expression-

(i) a2 + 10a + 25 (ii) l2 – 16l + 64 (iii) 36x2 + 96xy + 64y2
(iv) 25x2 + 9y2 – 30xy (v) 25m2 – 40mn + 16n2
(vi) 81x2 – 198 xy + 12ly2 (vii) (x+y)2 – 4xy (Hint : first expand (x + y)2
(viii) l4 + 4l2m2 + 4m4
Factorisation 275
2. Factorise the following

(i) x2 – 36 (ii) 49x2 – 25y2 (iii) m2 – 121
(iv) 81 – 64x2 (v) x2y2 – 64 (vi) 6x2 – 54
(vii) x2– 81 (viii) 2x – 32 x5 (ix) 81x4 – 121x2
(x) (p2 – 2pq + q2) – r2 (xi) (x + y)2 – (x – y)2
3. Factorise the expressions-
(i) lx2 + mx (ii) 7y2+ 35Z2 (iii) 3x4 + 6x3y + 9x2Z
(iv) x2 – ax – bx + ab (v) 3ax – 6ay – 8by + 4bx (vi) mn + m+ n+1
(vii) 6ab – b + 12ac – 2bc (viii) p2q – pr2 – pq + r2 (ix) x (y+z) – 5 (y+z)
2
4. Factorise the following

(i) x4 – y4 (ii) a4 – (b+c)4 (iii) l2 – (m – n)2
16
(iv) 49x2 – (v) x4 – 2x2y2 + y4 (vi) 4 (a+b)2 – 9 (a – b)2
25
5. Factorise the following expressions
(i) a2 + 10a + 24 (ii) x2 + 9x + 18 (iii) p2 – 10q + 21 (iv) x2 – 4x – 32
6. The lengths of the sides of a triangle are integrals, and its area is also integer. One side is
21 and the perimeter is 48. Find the shortest side.
7. Find the values of ‘m’ for which x2 + 3xy + x + my – m has two linear factors in x and y,
with integer coefficients.
12.7 Division of algebraic expressions

We know that division is the inverse operation of multiplication.
Let us consider 3x × 5x 3= 15 x4
Then 15x 4 ÷ 5x3 = 3x and 15x4 ÷ 3x = 5x3
Similarly consider 6a (a + 5) = (6a2 + 30)
Therefore (6a2 +30) ÷ 6a = a +5
and also (6a2 +30) ÷ (a+5) = 6a.
12.8 Division of a monomial by another monomial

Consider 24x3 ÷ 3x
24x3 ÷ 3x
2 ! 2 ! 2! 3! x ! x ! x
=
3! x
(3 ! x) (2 ! 2 ! 2 ! x ! x)
= = 8x2
(3 ! x)

Example 12: Do the following Division

(i) 70x4 ÷ 14 x2 (ii) 4x3y3z3 ÷ 12xyz
2!5! 7 ! x ! x ! x ! x
Solution: (i) 70x4 ÷ 14x2 =
2! 7! x! x
5! x ! x
=
1
= 5x2
4! x! x ! x! y ! y ! y ! z ! z ! z
(ii) 4x3y3z3 ÷ 12xyz =
12 ! x ! y ! z
1 2 2 2
= x y z
3
12.9 Division of an expression by a monomial:
Let us consider the division of the trinomial

6x4+10x3 + 8x2 by a monomial 2x2
6x4 + 10x3 + 8x2 = [2 × 3 × x × x ×x × x] + [2 × 5 × x × x × x] + [2 × 2 × 2 × x × x]
= (2x2) ( 3x2 ) + (2x2 ) (5 x) + 2x2 (4)
2 2
Note that 2x2 is common factor
= 2x [3x + 5x + 4]
Thus (6x4 + 10x3 + 8x2) ÷ 2x2
6 x 4 " 10 x3 " 8 x 2 2 x 2 (3 x 2 " 5 x " 4)
= =
2 x2 2 x2
= (3x2 + 5x + 4)
Alternatively each term in the expression could be divided by the monomial (using the cancellation
method)
(6x4 + 10x3 + 8x2) ÷ 2x2
Here we divide each term of the
6 x 4 10 x3 8 x 2
# " " expression in the numerator by the
2 x2 2 x2 2 x2
monomial in the denominator
= 3x2 + 5x + 4
Factorisation 277
Example 13: Divide 30 (a2bc + ab2c + abc2) by 6abc

Solution : 30 (a2bc + ab2c + abc2)
=2 ! 3 ! 5 [(a ! a ! b ! c) + (a ! b ! b ! c) + (a ! b ! c ! c)]
= 2 ! 3 ! 5 ! a ! b ! c (a + b + c)
Thus 30 (a2bc + ab2c + abc2) ÷ 6abc
2 ! 3 ! 5 ! abc(a " b " c)
#
2 ! 3 ! abc
= 5 (a + b + c)
Alternatively 30 (a2bc + ab2c + abc2) ÷ 6abc
30a 2bc 30ab 2c 30abc 2
# " "
6abc 6abc 6abc
= 5a +5b + 5c
= 5 (a + b + c)
12.10 Division of Expression by Expression:
Consider (3a2 + 21a ) ÷ (a+7)

Let us first factorize 3a2 + 21a to check and match factors with the denominator
3a 2 " 21a
(3a2 + 21a ) ÷ ( a+7) =
a"7
3a (a " 7)
= = 3a
a"7
= 3a
Example 14: Divide 39y3(50y2 – 98) by 26y2(5y+7)

Solution : 39y3(50y2 – 98) = 3 × 13 × y × y × y × [2 (25y2–49)]
=2× 3 × 13 × y × y × y × [(5y)2– (7)2] a2–b2 = (a+b)(a–b)
=2× 3 × 13 × y × y × y × [(5y + 7) (5y – 7)]
= 2× 3 × 13 × y × y × y × (5y +7) (5y – 7)
Also 26y2(5y + 7) = 2× 13 × y × y × ((5y + 7)

[ 39y3(50y2 – 98) ] ÷ [ 26y2(5y + 7) ]
[2 ! 3 ! 13 ! y ! y ! y (5 y " 7)(5 y $ 7)]

=
[2 ! 13 ! y ! y ! (5 y " 7)]
= 3y (5y $ 7)
Example 15: Divide m2$ 14m $ 32 by m+2

Solution : We have m2 $ 14m $ 32 = m2 $ 16m +2m $ 32
= m(m $ 16) + 2(m $ 16)
= (m $ 16)(m+2)
(m2 $ 14m $ 32) ÷ m+2 = (m $ 16)(m+2) ÷ ( m+2)
= (m $ 16)
Example 16: Divide 42(a4$ 13a3+36a2) by 7a(a $ 4)
Solution : 42(a4$ 13a3+36a2) = 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a × (a2 $ 13a + 36)
= 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a ×( a2 $ 9a $ 4a + 36)
= 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a × [a (a – 9) –4( a $ 9)]
= 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a ×[(a $ 9)(a – 4)]
= 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a × (a – 9) (a – 4)
42 (a4$13a3+ 36a2) ÷ 7a (a $ 4) = 2 × 3 × 7 × a × a × (a $ 9)(a – 4) ÷ 7a(a $ 4)
= 6a (a $ 9)
Example 17: Divide x(3x2 $ 108) by 3x(x $ 6)
Solution : x(3x2 $ 108) = x × [ 3(x2 $ 36)]
= x × [ 3(x2 $ 62)]
= x × [3(x + 6)(x $ 6)]
= 3 × x × [ (x + 6)(x $ 6)]
x(3x2$ 108) ÷ 3x (x $ 6) = 3 × x × [ (x + 6) (x $ 6)] ÷3x (x – 6)
= (x + 6)
Factorisation 279
Exercise - 12.3
1. Carry out the following divisions

(i) 48a3 by 6a (ii) 14x3 by 42x2
(iii) 72a3b4c5 by 8ab2c3 (iv) 11xy2z3 by 55xyz (v) –54l4m3n2 by 9l2m2n2
2. Divide the given polynomial by the given monomial
(i) (3x2– 2x) ÷ x (ii) (5a3b – 7ab3) ÷ ab
(iii) (25x5 – 15x4) ÷ 5x3 (iv) (4l5 – 6l4 + 8l3) ÷ 2l2
(v) 15 (a3b2c2– a2b3c2+ a2b2c3) ÷ 3abc (vi) (3p3– 9p2q - 6pq2) ÷ (–3p)
2 4 1
(vii) ( a2b2c2+ ab2c2) ÷ abc
3 3 2
3. Workout the following divisions :
(i) (49x – 63) ÷ 7 (ii) 12x (8x – 20) ÷ 4(2x – 5)
(iii) 11a3b3(7c – 35) ÷ 3a2b2(c – 5)
(iv) 54lmn (l + m) (m + n) (n + l) ÷ 81mn (l + m) (n + l)
(v) 36 (x+ 4) ( x2 + 7x + 10) ÷ 9 (x + 4) (vi) a (a + 1) (a + 2) (a + 3) ÷ a (a + 3)
4. Factorize the expressions and divide them as directed :
(i) (x2+7x + 12) ÷ (x + 3) (ii) (x2 – 8x +12) ÷ (x – 6)
(iii) (p2+ 5p + 4) ÷ (p + 1) (iv) 15ab (a2–7a +10) ÷ 3b (a – 2)
(v) 15lm (2p2–2q2) ÷ 3l (p + q) (vi) 26z3(32z2–18) ÷ 13z2(4z – 3)
While solving some problems containing algebraic expressions in different operations, some students
solved as given below. Can you identity the errors made by them? Write correct answers.
1. Srilekha solved the given equation as shown below-
3x + 4x + x + 2x = 90
9x = 90 Therefore x = 10
What could say about the correctness of the solution?
Can you identify where Srilekha has gone wrong?

2. Abraham did the following

For x = – 4, 7x = 7 – 4 = – 3
3. John and Reshma have done the multiplication of an algebraic expression by the
following methods : verify whose multiplication is correct.
John Reshma
(i) 3 (x$ 4) = 3x – 4 3 (x$4) = 3x – 12
(ii) (2x)2 = 2x2 (2x)2 = 4x2
(iii) (2a $ 3) (a + 2) = 2a2$ 6 (2a $ 3) (a + 2) = 2a2 + a $ 6
(iv) (x + 8)2 = x2 $ 64 (x + 8)2 = x2 +16x +64
4. Harmeet does the division as (a + 5) ÷ 5 = a+1

His friend Srikar done the same (a + 5) ÷ 5 = a/5 + 1
and his friend Rosy did it this way (a + 5) ÷ 5 = a
Can you guess who has done it correctly? Justify!
Exercise - 12.4
Find the errors and correct the following mathematical sentences

(i) 3(x – 9) = 3x – 9 (ii) x(3x + 2) = 3x2 + 2
(iii) 2x + 3x = 5x2 (iv) 2x + x +3x = sx
(v) 4p + 3p + 2p + p – 9p = 0 (vi) 3x+2y = 6xy
(vii) (3x)2 + 4x +7 = 3x2 + 4x +7 (viii) (2x)2 + 5x = 4x + 5x = 9x
(ix) (2a + 3)2 = 2a2 + 6a + 9
(x) Substitute x = – 3 in
(a) x2 + 7x + 12 = (–3)2 + 7 (–3) + 12 = 9 + 4 + 12 = 25
(b) x2 – 5x + 6 = (–3)2 –5 (–3) + 6 = 9 – 15 + 6 = 0
(c) x2 + 5x = (–3)2 + 5 (–3) + 6 = – 9 – 15 = –24
Factorisation 281
(xi) (x – 4)2 = x2 – 16 (xii) (x +7)2 = x2 + 49

(xiii) (3a + 4b) (a – b) = 3a2 – 4a2 (xiv) (x + 4) (x + 2) = x2 + 8
(xv) (x – 4) (x – 2) = x2 – 8 (xvi) 5x3 ÷ 5 x3 = 0
2
(xvii) 2x3 + 1 ÷ 2x3 = 1 (xviii) 3x + 2 ÷ 3x =
3x
4x " 3
(xix) 3x + 5 ÷ 3 = 5 (xx) # x "1
3
1. Factorisation is a process of writing the given expression as a product of its

factors.
2. A factor which cannot be further expressed as product of factors is an
irreducible factor.
3. Expressions which can be transformed into the form:
a2 + 2ab + b2 ; a2 – 2ab + b2 ; a2 – b2 and x2 + (a + b) x + ab can
be factorised by using identities.
4. If the given expression is of the form x2+ (a + b) x + ab, then its factorisation
is (x + a)(x + b)
5. Division is the inverse of multiplication. This concept is also applicable to
the division of algebraic expressions.
Gold Bach Conjecture
Gold Bach found from observation that every odd number seems to be either a prime or the
sum of a prime and twice a square.
Thus 21 = 19 + 2 or 13 + 8 or 3 + 18.
It is stated that up to 9000, the only exceptions to his statement are
5777 = 53 ! 109 and 5993 = 13 ! 641,
which are neither prime nor the sum of a primes and twice a square.

Chapter
13
VISUALISING 3-D IN 2-D
13.0 Introduction
We are living in a 3-dimensional space. Some of the objects around us are in 3 dimensional
shape. We can differntiate 2-D shapes from 3-D shapes by observing them.Look at a poster on
the wall. The surface is of rectangular shape . How many measurements does it have ? It has 2
mesurements.i.e length and breadth. Look at the book. What is the shape of the book ? It is in
cuboid shape. It has 3 measurements. Along with length and breadth it has one more measurement
i.e. height.
A triangle, square, rectangle are plane h
figures of 2-dimensions. While a cube, l l
b b
cuboid are solid objects with 3
dimensions. By arranging 2-D objects one on another it occupies some space and become a 3-
D object as in adjacent fig. It has volume also.
Do This
1. Name some 3-Dimensional, objects.

2. Give some examples of 2-Dimensional objects.
3. Draw a kite in your note book . Is it 2-D or 3-D object?
4. Identify some objects which are in cube or cuboid shape.
5. How many dimensions that a circle and sphere have?
13.1 3-D Objects made with cubes Top view
Observe the following solid shapes. Both are formed

by arranging four unit cubes.
If we observe them from different positions, it seems
to be different. But the object is same.
Side view
Visualising 3-D in 2-D 283
Similarly if a solid is viewed from different directions it appears in different shapes. For example-
Top view
Front view Side view Top view

Side view
Front view
Think and Discuss
How to find area and perimeter of top view and bottom view of the above figure?
13.2 Representation of 3-D figures on 2-D
We use to draw 3-D figures on the paper, which is a 2-D. Actually

we are able to represent only two dimensions on the plane paper,
third dimension is only our imagination.
We have practice of showing 3-D cube object as in adjacent figure.
All edges of the cube are equal in length. But in the adjacent figure
they are not equal. It has been drawn according to our view.
In order to over come this problem we use isometric dots paper, in which we can represent
length, bredth and height with exact measurment of 3-D solid objects.

Example 1 : Identify the number of cubes in the adjacent

figure.
Solution : There are three layers of cubes.
In the top layer, there is only one cube. In the
second layer, there are 3 cubes (1 is hidden). In
the lower layer, there are 6 cubes (3 are hidden).
So total number of cubes = 1 + 3 + 6 = 10
cubes.
Example 2 : Find the the measurements of cuboid in the

adjacent figure. Considering the distance
between every two consecutive dots to be
1 unit.
Also draw a side view, front view and top view 3
6
with proportional measurements.
2
Solution : Length of the cuboid l = 6 units
Breadth of the cuboid b = 2 units
Height of the cuboid h = 3 units.
Side view Front view
Top view
3 3
2
6 2 6
Example 3 : Look at the adjacent figure.

Find the number of unit cubes
in cube A and cube B and
find the ratio.
A B
Solution : There is only one unit cube in A. In figure B, by

drawing parallel lines to all side, let us divide it into
unit cubes and count. There are two layers, and each
layer has 4 unit cubes. So number of unit cubes in
B = 8 Ratio of unit cube in A and B = 1 : 8.
Example 4 : A house design given on isometric dot sheet

in adjacent figure. Measure length, breadth
and height of the house. Slab is projected
forward. Find the area of slab.
5
Solution : Length of the house = 6 units
Breadth of the house = 4 units
4 6
Height of the house = 5 units
Slab is projected forward for 1 unit
Dimensions of slab = 5 6 unit
Area of the slab = 5 6 = 30 sq. units.
Exercise - 13.1
1. Draw the following 3-D figures on isometric dot sheet.
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)

2. Draw a cuboid on the isometric dot sheet with the measurements 5 units × 3 units × 2 units.
3. Find the number of unit cubes in the following 3-D figures.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

4. Find the areas of the shaded regions of the 3-D figures given in question number 3.
5. Consider the distance between two consecutive dots to be 1 cm and draw the front view,
side view and top view of the following 3-D figures.
Top view
Top view Top view
Front
view
Side Side
view Front
Front view Side
view
view view
13.3 Various Geometrical Solids
In our surroundings we see various solid objects . Among them some solid objects have curved
faces and some solid objects have flat faces. The 3-D objects like box , book, dice , have flat
faces. The 3-D objects like ball , pipe etc have curved surfaces. Based on this property we can
classify 3-D shapes as polyhedra and non-polyhedra.
Observe the following objects.
Are there any curved faces for above solids? No, all these have only flat surfaces. This type of
solid objects with all polygonal faces are called polyhedra (singular is polyhedron)
Now observe these figures.
These objects have curved faces. This type of solid objects are called non-polyhedra.
Try This
1. Name three things which are the examples of polyhedron.

2. Name three things which are the examples of non-polyhedron.
13.4 Faces, Edges and Vertices of 3D-Objects
Observe the walls, windows, doors, floor, top, corners etc of our living room and tables, boxes
etc. Their faces are flat faces. The flat faces meet at its edges . Two or more edges meet at
corners. Each of the corner is called vertex. Take a cube and observe it where the faces meet?
Where the edges meet?
Vertex
Edges Face
Face
Vertices
Edge

Do These
Identify the faces , edges and vertices of given figures .

1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
13.5 Regular Polyhedron
Observe the faces, edges and vertices in the following shapes.
Cube Triangular Pyramid (Tetrahedron)

In each of the above two objects all their faces are congruent. All their edges are equal and
vertices are formed by equal number of edges. Such type of solid objects are called regular
polyhedra. Now observe these figures.
Cubiod Square Pyramid

Cuboid is a non -regular polyhedra because all its faces are not congruent and in the square
pyramid the one vertex formed by 4 edges and other vertices formed by 3 edges. More over all
the faces in pyramid or not congruent. It is also not a regular polyhedra. These type of objects
are non- regular polyhedra.
Thus polyhedra can be classified into regular polyhedra and non-regular polyhedra.
13.4.1 Prism and Pyramid
Now observe the following objects
The objects in first box have same faces at top and bottom. The objects in the second box
have base but the top is a common vertex. Let us observe some more objects like this.
(a) (b)
In fig (a) each object has two parallel and congruent polygonal faces, and the lateral faces are
rectangles (or Parallelograms ). In fig (b) The base is a polygon and lateral faces are triangles
,they meet at a common vertex.
The solid object with two parallel and congruent polygonal faces and lateral faces as rectangles
or parallelograms is called a prism.
A solid object whose base is a polygon and its lateral faces are triangular faces is called pyramid”.
A prism or pyramid is named after its shape of parallel and congruent polygonal faces or the
base.
A. Triangular Prism
What is the shape of two congruent and parallel faces in the adjacent
figure? And what is the shape of its lateral faces ?
Its two congruent and parallel faces are triangular and its lateral
faces are parallelograms.
This is known as triangular prism.
If the base is a square , it is called square prism.
If the base is a pentagon , it is called pentagonal prism.

B. Triangular Pyramid
A pyramid whose base is a triangle is called triangular pyramid .

It is known as tetrahedron. (Tetra-means having four faces)
If the base of a pyramid is square , it is called as square pyramid.
If the base of a pyramid is a pentagon , it is called as pentagonal
pyramid.
Do This
1. Write the names of the prisms given below:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

2. Write the names of the pyramids given below:
(i) (ii) (iii)

3. Fill the table :
Number of sides of base of Name of the prism Name of the pyramid
Prism / pyramid
3 sides
4 sides
5 sides
6 sides
8 sides
4. Explain the difference between prism and pyramid.
Think Discuss and write
If the number of sides of a polygonal base of a regular pyramid are infinitely increased what
would be the shape of the pyramid?
13.6 Number of Edges , Faces and Vertices of polyhedrons
Let us count the number of faces, edges and vertices

of a polyhedon .
number of faces 5 faces
number of edges 9 edges
number of vertices 6 vertices
Observe and complete the table.
Diagram of Name of Number of Number of Number of F+V E+2

object the object Faces (F) Vertices (V) Edges (E)
Cube 6 8 12 6 + 8 = 14 12 + 2 = 14
Cuboid
Pentagonal
Prism
Tetra
hedron
Pentagonal
Pyramid
By observing the last two columns of the above table. We can conclude that
F + V = E + 2 for all polyhedra.

The relation was first observed by the mathematician

Leonhard Euler (pronounced as Oiler).
He stated that F + V = E + 2 . . This relation ship is called
“ Euler’s relation” for polyhedra.
Leonhard Euler
13.7 Net Diagrams (1707-1783)
A net is a sort of skeleton - outline in 2-D, which, when folded the net results in 3-D shape.
We can make prisms, pyramids by using net diagrams. Observe the activity given below to make
a triangular prism.
Take a piece of paper and cut into a triangle. Mark the vertices as O1, O2, O3 and identify the
mid points of sides as A, B, C.
O
O1
A B
A B
O2 C O3 C
Fold the paper along dotted lines AB, BC, CA and raise the folds till the points O1, O2, O3 meet
(say O). By this AO1 coincides with AO2, BO1 with BO3 and CO2 with CO3.
The object so formed is a pyramid. The diagram O1, O2, O3 is a net diagram of the pyramid.
Exercise - 13.2
1. Count the number of faces , vertices , and edges of given polyhedra and verify Euler’s
formula.
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
2. Is a square prism and cube are same? explain.
3. Can a polyhedra have 3 triangular faces only? explain.
4. Can a polyhedra have 4 triangular faces only? explain.
5. Complete the table by using Euler’s formula.
F 8 5 ?
V 6 ? 12
E ? 9 30
6. Can a polyhedra have 10 faces , 20 edges and 15 vertices ?
7. Complete the following table
Object No. of No. of

vertices edges

8. Name the 3-D objects or shapes that can be formed from the following nets.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(v) (vi) (vii)
9. Draw the following diagram on the check ruled book and find out which of the following
diagrams makes cube ?
(i)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g)
(j)
(h) (i) (k)
(ii). Answer the following questions.

(a) Name the polyhedron which has four vertices, four faces?
(b) Name the solid object which has no vertex?
(c) Name the polyhedron which has 12 edges?
(d) Name the solid object which has one surface?
(e) How a cube is different from cuboid?
(f) Which two shapes have same number of edges , vertices and faces?
(g) Name the polyhedron which has 5 vertices and 5 faces?
(iii). Write the names of the objects given below .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1. How to draw 3-D objects on 2-D isometric dot paper.

2. Three different views of 3-D shapes, top view, side view and front view.
3. Polyhedron : Solid objects having flat surfaces.
4. Prism : The polyhedra have top and base as same polygon and other faces
are rectangular (parallelogram).
5. Pyramids : Polyhedron which have a polygon as base and a vertex, rest of
the faces are triangles.
6. 3-D objects could be make by using 2-D nets.
7. Euler’s formula for polyhedra : E + 2 = F + V.

Do you Know?
There are only five regular polyhedra, all of them are complex, often referred as Platonic
solids as a tribute to Plato
Cube is the only polyhedron to completely fill the space.
Net diagrams of Platonic Solids

Polyhedron Name Face of polygons Net diagram
Tetrahedron 4 Triangles
Octahedron 8 Triangles
Cube 6 Squares
Icosahedron 20 Triangles
Dodecahedron 12 Pentagons
Surface Areas and Volume (Cube and Cuboid) 297
Chapter
14
Surface Areas And Volume
(Cube and Cuboid)
14.0 Introduction
Suresh wants to wrap up his gift box. One of his friends suggested to
buy 100 cm2 paper another friend suggested to buy 200 cm2. Whose
suggestion is correct? How would he know that how much paper he has
to buy? 15 cm
20cm
10
It is obvious that size of the paper required depends on the surface area cm
of the gift box .
In order to help ourselves in such situations, let us find the ways of calculating the surface areas
of different solid objects.
14.1 Cuboid
Take a cuboid shaped box made up of thick paper or cardboard for example toothpaste box.
Cut and open it as shown in figure. Observe its shape of the faces. How many sets of identical
faces are found?
l
b II b l b
Toothpaste
h
I III IV V h
b
l l b VI b b
l
Look at the figure, if length ‘l’, breadth ‘b’, height ‘h’ are its dimensions, then you can find three
pairs of identical faces.

Now we can see that the total surface area of a cuboid is

Area I + Area II + Area III + Area IV + Area V + Area VI
= h l+l b+b h+l h+b h+l b
So total surface area = 2 (h l+b h+b l)
= 2 (lb + bh + hl)
The height, length and the breadth of the gift box are 20cm, 10cm and 15cm respectively.
Then the Total Surface Area(T.S.A)= 2(20 10 + 10 15 + 15 20)
of the box = 2 (200 + 150 + 300)
= 2 (650) = 1300 cm2
Do This
1. Find the total surface area of the following cuboid.
(i) (ii)
2cm
10cm
m
4c
6cm
m
4c
4cm
14.1.2 Lateral Surface Area: Roof
• The lateral faces (the faces excluding the top and

bottom) make the lateral surface area of the
cuboid. For example, the total area of all the four
walls of the cuboidal room in which you are sitting
is the lateral surface area of the room.
h
Hence, the Lateral Surface Area of a cuboid
(L.S.A.) = (l × h) + (b × h) + (l × h) + (b × h)
= 2lh + 2bh l b
= 2h (l + b)
Bottom
Try These
(i) Take cuboid shaped duster (which your teacher uses in the class room).
Measure its sides with scale and find out its surface area.
(ii) Cover this duster with a graph paper, such that it just fits around the
surface. Count the squares and verify the area you have calculatead.
(ii) Measure length,width and height of your classroom and find
(a) The total surface area of the room, ignoring the area of windows
and doors
(b) The lateral surface area of the room
(c) The total area of the room which is to be white washed.
1. Can we say that the total surface area of

cuboid
h h
= lateral surface area + 2 area of base.
2. If we change the position of cuboid from b
(Fig. (i) to Fig. (ii) do the lateral surface b

l
areas become equal? Fig (i)
l
Fig (ii)
3. Draw a figure of cuboid whose dimensions are l, b, h are equal. Derive the formula for
LSA and TSA.
14.2 Cube
Draw the net Fig. (i) given below, on a graph paper and cut it out. Fold it along the lines as
shown in Fig. (i) and joined the edges as shown in Fig(ii) and Fig. (iii). What is the shape of it?
Examine its faces and its dimensions.
Fig (i) Fig (ii) Fig (iii)

Observe the cube and its net diagram

In the figures (i) and (ii). Do all the faces of a cube are square in shape? Do the length,
height and width of a cube are equal?
l
l
l l
l
l
l
(i) (ii)
(a) How many faces does a cube have ? Are all faces equal?
(b) If each side of the cube is l, what will be the area of each face?
(c) What is the total surface area of the cube.
(d) What is the lateral surface area of cube?
Try These
(i) Find the surface area of cube ‘A’ and lateral surface area of cube ‘B’
8cm
10cm
8cm
10cm 8cm
10cm
A B
(ii) Two cubes each with side ‘b’ are joined to
form a cuboid as shown in the adjacent fig.
What is the total surface area of this cuboid?
b
b b
(iii) How will you arrange 12 cubes of equal lengths to form a cuboid of
smallest surface area?
(iv) The surface area of a cube of 4 4× 4 dimensions is painted. The cube

is cut into 64 equal cubes. How many cubes have (a) 1 face painted?
(b) 2 faces painted? (c) 3 faces painted? (d) no face painted ?
Example 1: Find the surface area of a cuboid whose length, breadth and height are 15cm,
12cm and 10cm respectively.
Solution: Length of the cuboid (l) = 15cm
Breadth of the cuboid (b) = 12cm
Height of the cuboid (h) = 10cm
Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl)
= 2 (15 12 + 12 10 + 10 15) cm2
= 2 (180 + 120 + 150) cm2
= 2 (450) cm2
= 900 cm2
Example 2 : If each edge of a cube is doubled. How many times will its surface area increase?
Solution: Let the edge of the cube be ‘x’
Then edge of the new cube formed =2x
Surface area of the original cube = 6x2
Surface area of the new cube = 6(2x)2 = 6(4x2) = 4(6x2)
when edge is doubled
Surface area of the new cube = 4 Surface area of the original cube
Hence, the surface area of the new cube becomes 4 times that of the original
cube.
Example 3: Two cubes each of edge 6 cm are joined face to face. Find the surface area of
the cuboid thus formed.
Solution: Look at the adjacent figure. Cube has six faces
normally when two equal cubes are placed together,
two side faces are not visible (Why?).
We are left with 12 ! 2 = 10 squared faces = 10 l2 cm2

So, the total surface area of the cuboid = 10 (6)2 cm2
= 10 36 cm2 = 360 cm2

Alternate Method:
If two cubes of edges 6cm are joined face to face it will take the shape of a cuboid whose length,
breadth and height are (6 + 6) cm, 6cm and 6cm i.e. 12 cm, 6cm and 6cm respectively. Thus,
total surface area of the cuboid
= 2 (lb + bh + lh)
= 2 (12 6+6 6 + 12 6) cm2
= 2 (72 + 36 + 72) cm2
= 2 180 cm2
= 360 cm2
Example 4: Find the cost of painting of the outer surface of a closed box which is 60 cm long,
40 cm broad and 30 cm high at the rate of 50 paise per 20cm2
Solution: Length of the box (l) = 60 cm
Breadth of the box (b) = 40 cm
Hieght of the box (h) = 30 cm
Total surface area of the box = 2 (lb + bh + hl)
= 2 (60 × 40 + 40 × 30 + 60 × 30) cm2
= 2(2400 + 1200 + 1800) cm2
= 2 × 5400 cm2
= 10800 cm2
50
Cost of painting 20 cm2 = 50 paise = `
100
" Cost of painting 1 cm2 = ` 50 1

100 20
50 1
" Cost of painting 10800 cm2 = ` 10,800 = ` 270
100 20
Exercise -14.1
1. There are two cuboidal boxes as shown in the given figure. Which box requires the less
amount of material to make?
50
50
50
60 40 50
2. Find the side of a cube whose surface area is 600 cm2.
3. Prameela painted the outer surface of a cabinet of measures 1m 2m 1.5m. Find the
surface area she cover if she painted all except the bottom of the cabinet?
4. Find the cost of painting a cuboid of dimensions 20cm × 15 cm × 12 cm at the rate of 5
paisa per square centimeter.
14.3 Volume of Cube and Cuboid
Amount of space occupied by a three dimensional object is called its volume. Try to compare the
volume of objects arround you. For example, volume of a room is greater than the volume of an
almirah kept in the room. Similarly, volume of your
pencil box is greater than the volume of the pen and
the eraser kept inside it. Do you measure volume of
either of these objects?
Remember, we use square units to find the area of a
region. How will we find the volume. Here we will
use cubic units to find the volume of a solid, as cube is
the most convenient solid shape (just as square is the
most convenient shape to measure this area).
To measure the area we divide the area into square units, similarly, to find the volume of a solid
we need to divide the space into cubical units. Unit cube is a cube of unit length . Observe that the
volume of each of the solids which are arranged in different forms are of 8 cubic units (as in Fig
above).
We can say that the volume of a solid is measured by counting the number of unit cubes it
contains. Cubic units which we generally use to measure the volume are
1 cubic cm = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm3
= 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = ____________________ mm3
1 cubic m = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m = 1 m3
= 100 cm × 100cm × 100cm = ____________________ cm3
1 cubic mm = 1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm = 1 mm3
= 0.1 cm × 0.1 cm × 0.1 cm = ____________________ cm3

14.3.1 Volume of a Cuboid:

Take 36 cubes of equal size (i.e.,side of each cube is same). Arrange them to form a cuboid. You
can arrange them in many ways. Observe the following table and fill in the blanks.
cuboid length breadth height Total no. of unit cubes
(l) (b) (h) l × b × h = V
1
(i) 12 3 1 12 × 3 × 1 = 36
it s
3 un
12 units
(ii) ... ... ... ...

it s
6 units 3 un
4 units
(iii) ... ... ... ...
9 units
(iv) nit
s ... ... ... ...
6u
6 units
What do you observe? Do you find any relation between the dimensions of the cuboid and its
volume? h
Since we have used 36 cubes to form these cuboids, thus
b
volume of each cuboid is 36 cubic units. This is equal to the l
product of length, breadth and height of the cuboid. From the above example we can say volume
of cuboid = l × b × h. Since l × b is the area of its base we can also say that,
Volume of cuboid = Area of the base × height
Activity
Take a sheet of paper. Measure its area. Pile up

such sheets of paper of same size to make a cuboid
(as in adjacent figure). Measure the height of this h
pile. Find the volume of the cuboid by finding the b
product of the area of the sheet and the height of l
this pile of sheets. Can you find the volume of paper
sheet?
Do This
Let us find the volume of a cuboid whose length, breadth and height are 6cm., 4cm
and 5cm respectively.
5cm 5cm
4cm 4cm
6cm 6cm
Let place 1 cubic centimeter blocks along the length of the cuboid . How many
blocks can we place along the length? 6 blocks, as the length of the cuboid is 6 cm.
How many blocks can we place along its breadth? 4 blocks, as the breadth of the
cuboid is 4cm. So there are 6 × 4 blocks can be placed in a layer.
How many layers of blocks can be placed in the cuboid? 5 layers, as the height of the
cuboid is 5 cm. Each layer has 6 × 4 blocks. So, all the 5 layers will have 6 4 5
blocks i.e. length × breadth × height.
This discussion leads us to the formula for the volume of a cuboid:
Volume of a Cuboid = length breadth height
a
14.3.2 Vollume of a Cube
A Cube is a cuboid whose length, breadth and height are same, a
So Volume of a cube = side side side

a
= (side)3 = a3
Where a is the side of the cube.
Length of Cube Volume of the Cube
10mm = 1cm 1000 mm3 = 1cm3
10cm = 1dm 1000 c m3 = 1dm3
10dm = 1m 1000 d m3 = 1 m3
100cm = 1m 1000000 c m3 = m3
1000m = 1km 1000000000 m3 = 1km3
Generally, we measure the volumes of liquids in millilitres (ml) or litres (l)

Further 1 cm3 = 1 ml
1000 cm3 = 1 l
1 m3 = 1000000 cm3 = 1000 l
= 1 kl (kilolitre)
Example 5: Find the volume of a block of wood whose length is 20cm, breadth is 10 cm and
height is 8 cm.
Solution: The block of wood is a cuboid and the volume of a cuboid = l × b × h
Here, length (l) = 20 cm, breath (b) = 10 cm, and height (h) = 8 cm
Volume of the block = 20 cm × 10 cm × 8 cm = 1600 cm3
Example 6: A water tank is 1.4 m long, 1m wide and 0.7m deep. Find the volume of the tank
in litres.
Solution: Length of the tank (l) = 1.4 m = 140 cm
Breadth of the tank (b) = 1 m = 100 cm
Depth of the tank (h) = 0.7 = 70 cm
Volume of the tank = l × b × h
= (140 × 100 × 70) cm3
140 100 70
= litres.
1000
= 980 litres
Do This
Arrange 64 unit cubes in as many ways as you can to form a cuboid. Find the surface
area of each arrangement. Can solid cuboid of same volume have same surface
area?
Do you know
Capacity:
There is not much difference between the two words.i.e volume
and capacity
(a) Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by an object.
(b)Capacity refers to the quantity that a container holds. Capacity
volume
3
If a water tin holds 100 cm of water then the capacity of the water
tin is 100cm3. Capacity can also measure in terms of litres.
Example 7: Find the volume of a cuboid whose breadth is half of its length and height is
double the length.
Solution: Let the length of the cuboid be x units
x
Then breadth of the cuboid = units
2
And height of the cuboid = 2x units
Volume of the cuboid = length × breadth × height
x
= (x 2x) cubic units
2
= x3 cubic units.
Example 8: A box is 1.8 m long, 90 cm wide, 60 cm height. Soap cakes of measurements
6 cm × 4.5 cm × 40 mm are to be packed in the box, so that no space is left.
Find how many cakes can be packed in each box?
Solution: Length of the box (l) = 1.8 m = 180 cm
Breadth of the box (b) = 90 cm
Height of the box (h) = 60 cm
Volume of the box = l b h
= 180 90 60 cm3
= 972000 cm3
Length of a soap cake = 6 cm
Breadth of a soap cake = 4.5 cm
Height of a soap cake = 40 mm = 4 cm
Volume of one soap cake = 6 4.5 4 cm3
= 108.0 cm3
" Required number of soap cakes
Volume of the box
=
volume of one soapcake
972000
=
108
= 9000
Hence, 9000 soap cakes can be packed in the box.

Example 9: How many cubes of side 3 cms each can be cut from wooden block in the form
of a cuboid whose length, breadth and height are 21 cm, 9 cm and 8cm
respectively. How much volume of wood is wasted?
Solution: Length of the cuboid (l) = 21 cm
Breadth of the cuboid (b) = 9 cm
Height of the cuboid (h) = 8 cm
Volume of cuboid = 21 × 9 × 8 = 1512 cu cm.
21
No. of cubes that can be cut along the length = =7
3
9
No. of cubes that can be cut along the breadth = =3
3
8
No. of cubes that can be cut along the height = = 2.6
3
Along the height we can cut only 2 pieces and remaining is waste.
" Total number of cubes cut =7×3×2
= 42
Volume of each cube = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27 cm3
Volume of all cubes = 27 × 42
= 1124 cm3
3
" Volume of the waste wood = 1512 – 1124 = 388 cm
Example 10: Water is pouring into a cuboidal reservoir at the rate of 60 litres per minute. If the
volume of reservoir is 108 m3. Find the number of hours it will take to fill the
reservoir.
Solution: Volume of the reservoir = 108 m3 = 108 1000 litres
( 1m3 = 1000 litres)
The reservoir is filling at the rate of 60 litres per minute.
108 1000
" Required time = min.
60
108 1000
= hours = 30 hours.
60 60
Example 11 : A village having a population of 4000, requires 150 litres water per head per
day. It has a tank measuring 20 m , 15 m , 6 m. How many days for the water is
sufficient enough once the tank is made full.
Solution: Volume of the tank = 20 m 15 m 6m
= 1800 m3 = 1800000 l
Volume of water consumed by 1 person in 1 day = 150 l.
Total volume of water consumed in a day by total population = 150 4000
Volume of the tank

Required number of days =
volume of water consumed in1day
1800000
= = 3 days
150 4000
Exercise - 14.2
1. Find the volume of the cuboid whose dimensions are given below.
Length Breadth Height

(i) 8.2 m 5.3 m 2.6 m
(ii) 5.0 m 4.0 m 3.5 m
(iii) 4.5 m 2.0 m 2.5 m
2. Find the capacity of the tanks with the following internal dimensions. Express the capacity
in cubic meters and litres for each tank.
Length Breadth Depth
(i) 3 m 20 cm 2 m 90 cm 1 m 50 cm
(ii) 2 m 50 cm 1 m 60 cm 1 m 30 cm
(iii) 7 m 30 cm 3 m 60 cm 1 m 40 cm
3. What will happen to the volume of a cube if the length of its edge is reduced to half ? Is
the volume get reduced ? If yes, how much ?

4. Find the volume of each of the cube whose sides are.

(i) 6.4 cm (ii) 1.3 m (iii) 1.6 m.
5. How many bricks will be required to build a wall of 8 m long, 6m height and 22.5 cm thick,
if each brick measures 25 cm by 11.25 cm by 6 cm?
6. A cuboid is 25 cm long , 15 cm broad, and 8 cm high . How much of its volume will
differ from that of a cube with the edge of 16 cm?
7. A closed box is made up of wood which is 1cm thick .The outer dimensions of the box is
5 cm 4 cm 7 cm. Find the volume of the wood used.
8. How many cubes of edge 4cm, each can be cut out from cuboid whose length, breadth
and height are 20 cm, 18 cm and 16 cm respectively
9. How many cuboids of size 4 cm 3 cm 2 cm can be made from a cuboid of size
12 cm 9 cm 6 cm?
10. A vessel in the shape of a cuboid is 30 cm long and 25 cm wide. What should be its height
to hold 4.5 litres of water?
1. If l, b, h are the dimensions of cuboid, then:

(i) its lateral surface area is 2h (l + b)
(ii) its total surface area is 2 (lb + bh + hl)
2. Lateral Surface area of a cube is 4a2
3. Total Surface area of a cube is 6a2
4. Volume of a cuboid is l × b × h
5. Volume of a cube is side × side × side = a3
6. 1 cm3 = 1 ml
1l = 1000 cm3
1 m3 = 1000000 cm3 = 1000 l
= 1 kl (kilolitre)
Playing with Numbers 311
Chapter
15
Playing with Numbers
15.0 Introduction
Imagine … one morning you wake up in a strange world - a world

without numbers, how would your day go ?
You will see no calendar to tell you which day of the month it is …
You will not be able to call up your friends to say thanks, if there are
no telephone numbers ! And yes! You will get tired of strangers
knocking your door, since no house numbers !
These are just few examples ! Think of the other ways in which your
life will go for a change in a world without numbers !
You are right . You will get late for your school and miss out yours favourite cartoons/serials, if
there would be no clocks. And yes, no cricket, no foot ball, without numbers .
So, it seems that it is not a good idea to be there without numbers. If we wish to find the cost of
some article or if want to distribute something equally among your friends, how will you do?
Can you guess which of these are fundamental operations ? All these fundamental operations
involve numbers, divisibility rules. The divisibility rules help us to find whether the given number
is divisibile by another number or not without doing division. Let us play with numbers using
some fundamental operations and divisibility rules.
15.1 Divisibility Rules

Take some numbers and check them which are divisible by 2, which are divisible by 3 and so on
till 7.
When a number ‘a’ divides a number ‘b’completely,we say ‘b’ is divisible by ‘a’.
In this chapter we will learn about divisibility of numbers and logic behind them. First recall about
place value and factors.
15.1.1 Place value of a digit :
Let us take a number 645 and expand it. 645 = 600 + 40 + 5 = 6 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 5 × 1
In the given number, the place value of 6 is 600 and the place value of 4 is 40. There are 6
hundreds, 4 tens and 5 ones in 645.

Do this:
Write the place value of numbers underlined?

(i) 29879 (ii) 10344 (iii) 98725
15.1.2 Expanded form of numbers :
We know how to write a number in expanded form .At the same time , we are familiar with how
to express a number in expanded form by using powers of ten.
For example
Standard notation Expanded form
68 =60+8 = (10 × 6) + 8 = (101 × 6) + (100 × 8)
We know that
1 0
72=70+2 = (10 × 7) + 2 = (10 × 7) + (10 × 2) 10o = 1
Let us consider a two digit number 10a + b having ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively as tens and units
digits using the above notations , the number can be written as (10 × a) + b = (101 × a) + (1 × b).
(Where a ≠ 0)
Let us now consider a number 658 , a three digit number, it can be written as
Standard notation Expanded form
658 = 600 + 50 + 8 = 100 × 6 + 10 × 5 + 1 × 8 = 102 × 6 + 101 × 5 + 1 × 8
Similarly 759 = 700 + 50 + 9 = 100 × 7 + 10 × 5 + 1 × 9 = 102 × 7 + 101 × 5 + 1 × 9
In general a three digit number made up of digits a, b, and c is written as 102a + 101b + c
= 100 × a + 10 × b + c = 100a + 10b + c, (where a ≠ 0).
We can write a number in such expanded form as
3456 = 3000 + 400 + 50 + 6 = 1000 × 3 + 100 × 4 + 10 × 5 + 6
= 103 × 3 + 102 × 4 +101 × 5 + 6
Similarly a four digit number made up of digits a, b, c and d can be written as
1000a + 100b + 10c + d = 1000 × a + 100 × b + 10 × c + d (where a ≠ 0)
= 103a + 102b + 101 c + d.
Do These :
1. Write the following numbers in expanded form

(i) 65 (ii) 74 (iii) 153 (iv) 612
2. Write the following in standard notation
(i) 10 × 9 + 4 (ii) 100 × 7 + 10 × 4 + 3
3. Fill in the blanks
(i) 100 × 3 + 10 × _____ + 7 = 357
(ii) 100 × 4 + 10 × 5 + 1 = ________
(iii) 100 × _____ + 10 × 3 + 7 = 737
(iv) 100 × ____ + 10 × q + r = pqr
(v) 100 × x + 10 × y + z = ____________
15.1.3 Factors and Multiples of numbers: 36 =1 × 36
What are the factors of 36 ? = 2 × 18

The factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36. = 3 × 12
Which is the biggest factor of 36 ?
=4 × 9
We say every factor is less than or equal to the given number .
Greatest factor of a non-zero number is the number it self. =6 × 6
Therefore, every number is a factor of itself. And ‘1’ is a factor of all numbers.
7 × 1 = 7 , 9 × 1 = 9,
If a natural number other than ‘1’ has no factors except 1 and itself , what do you say about
such numbers? Those numbers are prime numbers.
Ex : 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,….etc.
One interesting four sets of numbers 11 , 23 , 4567 , 89 are primes and made with consecutive
digits.
Check whether 191, 911, 199, 919, 991 are primes or not?
The number 828179787776757473727170696867666564636261605958575655545352

51504948474645444342414039383736353433323130292827262524232221201918
1716151413121110987654321 is written by starting at 82 and writing backwards to 1
and see that it is a prime number.

Factorize 148 into prime factors.

148 = 2 × 74 = 2 × 2 × 37 = 22 × 371 148
Number of factors of 148 is product of (Exponents of factors + 1)
2 74
of prime factors
i.e. (2 + 1) × (1 + 1) = 3 × 2 = 6 2 37
Those are 1, 2, 4, 37, 74, 148.
If a number can be written as product of primes i.e. N = 2a × 3b × 5c ...
Number of factors of N is (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ...
What are the first 5 multiples of 6 ?
6 × 1 = 6 , 6 × 2 = 12, 6 × 3 = 12, 6 × 4 = 24 , 6 × 5 = 30
6, 12, 18, 24, 30 are first five multiples of 6.
How many multiples can we write? infinite multiples.
We say number of multiples of a given number is infinite .
Do These :
1. Write all the factors of the following numbers :

(a) 24 (b) 15 (c) 21 (d) 27
(e) 12 (f) 20 (g) 18 (h) 23 (i) 36
2. Write first five multiples of given numbers
(a) 5 (b) 8 (c) 9
3. Factorize the following numbers into prime factors.
(a) 72 (b) 158 (c) 243
15.1.4 Divisibility by 10 :
Take the multiples of 10 : 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, ………….etc
In all these numbers the unit’s digit is ‘0’
Do you say any multiple of 10 will have unit digit as zero? yes,
Therefore if the unit digit of a number is ‘0’,then it is divisible by 10.
Let us see the logic behind this rule .
If we take a three digit number where ‘a’ is in hundred’s place, ‘b’ is in ten’s place and ‘c’ is
in unit’s place can be written as 100 a + 10 b + c = 10(10a + b) + c
10(10a + b) is multiple of 10. If ‘c’ is a multiple of 10 then the given number will be divisible
by 10. It is possible only if c = 0.
Do These :
1. Check whether the following given numbers are divisible by 10 or not ?

(a) 3860 (b) 234 (c) 1200 (d) 103 (e) 10 + 280 + 20
2. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by 10 or not ?
(a) 1010 (b) 210 (c) 103 + 101
Try This :
1. In the division 56Z ÷ 10 leaves remainder 6, what might be the value

of Z
Take the multiples of 5. Those are 5,10,15, 20,25,30,35 ,40,45,50,………….etc

In these numbers the unit’s digit is ‘0’ or ‘5’
If the units digit of a number is ‘0’ or ‘5’ then it is divisible by 5.
Let us see the logic behind this rule .
If we take a three digit number 100a + 10b + c where ‘a’ is in hundred’s place, b is in ten’s
place and c is in unit’s place, it can be written as 100 a + 10 b + c = 5(20a + 2b) + c
5(20 a + 2b) is multiple of 5.
The given number is divisible by 5, only if the unit’s digit c = 0 or 5
Do This :

(a) 205 (b) 4560 (c) 402 (d) 105 (e) 235785

If 34A is divisible by 5, what might be the value of A?

In the given number the unit digit A is, either 0 or 5 then only it is divisible by 5.
Hence A = 0 or 5.
Try These :
1. If 4B ÷ 5 leaves remainder 1 , what might be the value of B

2. If 76C ÷ 5 leaves remainder 2 , what might be the value of C
3. “If a number is divisible by 10, it is also divisible by 5.” Is the statement
true? Give reasons.
4. “If a number is divisible by 5, it is also divisible by 10.” Is the statement
is true or false? Give reasons.
15.1.6 Divisibility by 2:
Take the multiples of 2 : i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, ………….etc
In these numbers the unit’s digit ends with 0,2,4,6, 8 .
If the unit’s digitof the number is 0 or 2 or 4 or 6 or 8 ( even number ) then it is divisible by
2. Otherwise it will not divisible by 2.
Let us see the logic behind this rule.
If we take a three digit number 100 × a + 10 × b + c where a in hundred’s place, b is in ten’s
place and c is in unit’s place , then it can be written as 100 a + 10 b + c = 2(50a + 5b) + c
2(50a + 5b) is multiple of 2. If the given number is divisible by 2, it is possible only if the unit’s
digit c = 0 or 2 or 4 or 6 or 8 ( even number)
1. Find the digit in the units place of a number if it is divided by 5 and 2 leaves the remainders
3 and 1 respectively.
Example 1: Write the number of factors of 60 and verify by listing the 60

factors
Solution: 60 can be written as product of prime factors as 22 × 31 × 51 2 30
∴ Number of factors are (2 + 1) (1 + 1) (1 + 1) 2 15
= 3 × 2 × 2 = 12
The factors are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60 3 5
Exercise - 15.1
1. Using divisibility rules , find which of the following numbers are divisible by 2,5,10 ( say
yes or no ) in the given table . What do you observe ?
Number Divisible by 2 Divisible by 5 Divisible by 10
524 YES NO NO
1200
535
836
780
3005
4820
48630
2. Using divisibility tests, determine which of following numbers are divisible by 2
(a) 2144 (b) 1258 (c) 4336 (d) 633 (e) 1352
3. Using divisibility tests , determine which of the following numbers are divisible by 5
(a) 438750 (b) 179015 (c) 125 (d) 639210 (e) 17852
4. Using divisibility tests, determine which of the following numbers are divisible by 10:
(a) 54450 (b) 10800 (c) 7138965 (d) 7016930 (e) 10101010
5. Write the number of factors of the following?
(a) 18 (b) 24 (c) 45 (d) 90 (e) 105
6. Write any 5 numbers which are divisible by 2, 5 and 10.
7. A number 34A is exactly divisible by 2 and leaves a remainder 1, when divided by 5,
find A.
15.1.7 Divisibility by 3 and 9 :
Consider the number 378 , it can be written as 378 = 300 + 70 + 8

= 100 × 3 + 10 × 7 + 8
Here ‘3’ can’t be taken out as a common factor . = (99 + 1) 3 + (9 + 1)7 + 8

So let us reorganise the sequence as 378 = 99 × 3 + 9 × 7 + (3 + 7 + 8)

= 99 × 3 + 3 × 3 × 7 + (3 + 7 + 8)
= 3 (99 + 21) + (3 + 7 + 8)
3(99 + 21) is a multiple of 3. Therefore the given number is divisible by 3 only when
(3 + 7 + 8 )sum of digits is a multiple of 3 .
For divisibility of 9:
378 can be written as 378 = 300 + 70 + 8
= 100 × 3 + 10 × 7 + 8
= (99 +1) 3 + (9 + 1)7 + 8
= 99 × 3 + 9 × 7 + (3 + 7 + 8)
= 9 (11 × 3 + 1 × 7 ) + (3 + 7 + 8)
= 9 (33 + 7) + (3 + 7 + 8)
9(33 + 7) is multiple of 9. if the given number is divisible by 9, then (3 + 7 + 8) ,sum of digits
is a multiple of 9.
Let us explain this rule :
If we take a three digit number 100a+10b+c where ‘a’ is in hundred’s place , ‘b’ is in ten’s
place and ‘c’ is in unit’s place.
100a + 10b + c = (99 + 1)a + (9 + 1) + c = 99a + 9b +(a + b + c)
= 9(11a + b) + (a + b + c) → sum of given digits
9(11a + b) multiple of 3 and 9 .The given number is divisible by 3 or 9 , only if the sum of the
digits (a + b + c) is multiple of 3 or 9 respectively or (a+b+c) is divisibly by 3 or 9.
Is this divisibility rule applicable for the numbers having more than 3-digits? Check by taking
5-digits and 6-digits numbers.
You have noticed that divisibility of a number by 2,5 and 10 is decided by the nature of the digit
in unit place, but divisibility by 3 and 9 depends upon other digits also.
Do This:
1. Check whether the given numbers which are divisible by 3 or 9 or by both?

(a) 3663 (b) 186 (c) 342 (d) 18871
(e) 120 (f) 3789 (g) 4542 (h) 5779782
Example 2: 24 P leaves remainder 1 if it is divided by 3 and leaves remainder 2 if it is divided

by 5. Find the value of P.
Solution : If 24 P is divided by 5 and leaves remainder 2, then P is either 2 or 7.
If P = 2 the given number when divided by 3 leaves remainder 2. If P = 7, the
given number when divided by 3, leaves remainder 1. Hence P = 7.
Exercise -15.2
1. If 345 A 7 is divisible by 3,supply the missing digit in place of ‘A’.

2. If 2791 A , is divisible by 9, supply the missing digit in place of ‘A’.
3. Write some numbers which are divisible by 2,3,5,9 and 10 also.
4. 2A8 is a number divisible by 2 , what might be the value of A?
5. 50B is a number divisible by 5, what might be the value of B ?
6. 2P is a number which is divisible by 2 and 3, what is the value of P
7. 54Z leaves remainder 2 when divided by 5 , and leaves remainder 1 when divided by 3,
what is the value of Z ?
8. 27Q leaves remainder 3 when divided by 5 and leaves remainder 1 when divided by 2,
what is the remainder when it is divided by 3 ?
Consider a multiple of 6, say 24.

Obviously it is divisible by 6.
Is 24 divisible by the factors of 6 , i.e 2 and 3 ?
Units place of 24 is 4, so it is divisible by 2.
Sum of digits of 24 is 2 + 4 = 6 which is divisible by 3 also.
Now check this with some other multiple of 6.
Now we can conclude that any number divisible by 6 is also divisible by the factors of 6. i.e 2
and 3.
Let us check the converse of the statement.
If a number is divisible by 2 then 2 is its prime factor. If it is divisible by 3 then 3 is its prime
factor.

So if the number is divisible by 2 and 3 , then 2 and 3 become its prime factors, then their product
2 × 3 = 6 is also a factor of that number.
In other words if a number is divisible by 6, it has to be divisible by 2 and 3.
Do These :

(a) 1632 (b) 456 (c) 1008 (d) 789 (e) 369 (f) 258
(a) 458 + 676 (b) 63 (c) 62 + 63 (d) 22 × 32
15.1.9 Divisibility by 4 and 8 :

(a) Take a four digit number say 1000a + 100b + 10c + d = 4(250a + 25b) + (10c + d).
4(250a + 25b) is a multiple of 4.The given number is divisible by 4, only if 10c+d is
divisible by 4 .
In a given number if last two digits are divided by 4 or last two digits are ‘0’ then that number is
divisible by 4.
Take a number having more than 4 digits and write in expanded form. Can we write the number
other than unit digit and ten’s digit as multiple of 4?
Check for a number having more than 4 digits, divisibility of 4 depends upon its last two digits or
not.
(b) Take a four digit number 1000 × a + 100 × b + 10 × c + d
= 1000a + 100b +10c + d = 8(125a) + (100b + 10c + d)
8(125a) is always divisible by 8. So the given number is divisible by 8 only when
(100b+10c+d) is divisibly by 8.
In a given number if the number formed with its last 3 digits are divisible by 8 or last 3 digits are
‘0’s then that number is divisible by 8.
Take a number having more than 4 digits and write the number in expanded form. Can we write
the number other than unit’s digit ten’s digit and hundred’s digit as multiple of 8.
Check for a number having more than 4 digits, divisibility of 8 is depends upon its last three digits
or not.
Can you arrange the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 in an order so that the number formed by
first two digits is divisible by 2, the number formed by first three digits is divisible by 3, the
number formed by first four digits is divisible by 4 and so on upto nine digits?
Solution : The order 123654987 looks promising check and verify.
Example 3: Check whether 6582 is divisible by 4 ?

Solution: The number formed by last two digits is 82, is not divisible by 4. Hence the given
number is not divisible by 4.
Example 4: Check whether 28765432 is divisible by 8 ?
Solution : The number formed by last three digits is 432 is divisible by 8, hence it is
divisible by 8.
If a number is divisible by 8, then it is divisible by 4 also. Can you say if a number divisible by 4
is it divisible by 8? All multiples of 8 are divisible by 4, but all multiples of 4 may not be divisible
by 8.
Do This:
1. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by 4 or 8 or by both 4 and 8?

(a) 464 (b) 782 (c) 3688 (d) 100
(e) 1000 (f) 387856 (g) 44 (h) 83
Try This :
1. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by 4 or 8 or by both 4

and 8 ?
(a) 42 × 82 (b) 103 (c) 105 + 104 + 103 (d) 43 + 42 + 41 - 22
15.1.10 Divisibility by 7:
Take a three digit number 100 × a + 10 × b + c can be written as

100a + 10b + c = 98a + 7b + (2a + 3b + c )
Here 7 is not a common factor , let us re write it in a way that 7 becomes a common factor.
= 7(14a + b) + (2a + 3b + c)
7(14a + b) is multiple of ‘7’.The given number is divisible by 7 only when ( 2a + 3b + c ) is
divisible by 7.
Example 5: Check whether 364 is divisible by 7 or not ?
Solution : Here a = 3, b = 6, c = 4, (2a + 3b + c) = 2 × 3 + 3 × 6 + 4
= 6 + 18 + 4 = 28 (is divisible by 7)
Hence, the given number is divisible by ‘7’

Do This:
1. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by 7?

(a) 322 (b) 588 (c) 952 (d) 553 (e) 448
Try These :
1 Take a four digit general number , make the divisibility rule for ‘7’
2. Check your rule with the number 3192 which is a mulltiple of 7 .
Take a 5 digit number 10000a + 1000b + 100c + 10d + e

Here 11 can’t be taken out as a common factor. So let us reorganise the expansion as
= (9999 + 1) a + (1001–1) b + (99 + 1) c + (11–1) d + e
= 9999a + 1001 b + 99c + 11d + a – b + c – d + e
= 11 (909a + 91b + 9c + d) + (a + c + e) – (b + d)
11 (909a + 91b + 9c + d) is always divisible by 11.
So the given number is divisible by 11 only if (a + c + e) – (b + d) is divisible by 11.
i.e (a + c + e) – (b + d) is a multiple of 11 or equal to zero.
If the difference between the sum of digits in odd places (a + c + e) and sum of digits in even
places (b + d) of a number is a multiple of 11 or equal to zero, then the given number is divisible
by 11.
Observe the following table
Number Sum of the digits at Sum of the digits at Difference

odd places (from the left) even places (from the left)
308 3 + 8 = 11 0 11 − 0 = 11
1331 1+3=4 3+1=4 4 − 4=0
61809 6 + 8 + 9 = 23 1+0=1 23 − 1 = 22
We observe that in each case the difference is either 0 or divisible by 11. Hence all these
numbers are divisible by 11.
For the number 5081, the difference of the digits of odd places and even places is
(5 + 8) – (0 + 1) = 12 which is not divisible by 11. Therefore the number 5081 is not divisible
by 11.
Do This:
1. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by 11.

(i) 4867216 (ii) 12221 (iii) 100001
Consider a 3 digit number 123.

Write it two times to make a number as 123123.
Now what is the sum of digits in odd places from left? 1 + 3 + 2 = 6
What is the sum of digits in even places from the right?
2+1+3=6
what is the difference between these sums? Zero. Hence 123123 is divisible by 11.
Take any 3 digits number and make a number by writing it two times. It is exactly divisible by 11.
Try These :
1. Verify whether 789789 is divisible by 11 or not.

2. Verify whether 348348348348 is divisible by 11 or not?
3. Take an even palindrome i.e. 135531 check whether this number is
divisible by 11 or not?
4. Verify whether 1234321 is divisible by 11 or not?
Exercise - 15.3
1. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by ‘6’ or not ?

(a) 273432 (b) 100533 (c) 784076 (d) 24684
(a) 3024(b) 1000 (c) 412 (d) 56240
(a) 4808(b) 1324 (c) 1000 (d) 76728


(a) 427 (b) 3514 (c) 861 (d) 4676
5. Check whether the given numbers are divisible by ’11’ or not ?
(a) 786764 (b) 536393 (c) 110011 (d) 1210121
(e) 758043 (f) 8338472 (g) 54678 (i) 13431
(j) 423423 (k) 168861
6. If a number is divisible by ‘8’, then it also divisible by ‘4’ also . Explain ?
7. A 3-digit number 4A3 is added to another 3-digit number 984 to give four digit number
13B7, which is divisible by 11. Find (A + B).
15.2 Some More Divisibility Rules
(a) Let us observe a few more rules about the divisibility of numbers.
Consider a factor of 24 , say 12.
Factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12
Let us check whether 24 is divisible by 2,3,4,6 we can say that 24 is divisible by all factors
of 12.
So, if a number ‘a’ is divisible by another number ‘b’, then it is
divisible by each of the factors of that number ‘b’.
(b) Consider the number 80. It is divisible by 4 and 5. It is also divisible by 4 × 5 = 20, where
4 and 5 are co primes to each other. ( have no common factors for 4 and 5)
Similarly, 60 is divisible by 3 and 5 which have no common factors each other 60 is also
divisible by 3 × 5 = 15.
If ‘ a’ and ‘b’ have no common factors (other than unity), the
number divisible by ‘a’ and ‘b’ is also divisible by a × b
(Check the property if ‘a’ and ‘b’ are not co-primes).
(c) Take two numbers 16 and 20. These numbers are both divisible by 4. The number
16 + 20 = 36 is also divisible by 4.
Try this for other common divisors of 16 and 20.
Check this for any other pairs of numbers.
If two given numbers are divisible by a number, then their sum is

also divisible by that number.
(d) Take two numbers 35 and 20. These numbers are both divisible by 5. Is their difference
35 – 20 = 15 also divisible by 5? Try this for other pairs of numbers also.
If two given numbers are divisible by a number, then their difference
is also divisible by that number.
Do These :
1. Take different pairs of numbers and check the above four rules for given
number
2. 144 is divisible by 12. Is it divisible by the factors of 12 ? verify .
3. Check whether 23 + 24 + 25 is divisible by 2 ? Explain
4. Check whether 33 − 32 is divisible by 3 ? Explain
Consider a number, product of three consecutive numbers i.e. 4 × 5 × 6 = 120. This is divisible
by 3. Because in these consecutive numbers one number is multiple of 3. Similarly if we take
product of any three consecutive numbers among those one number is multiple of 3. Hence
product of three consecutive is always divisible by 3.
Try This :
1. Check whether 1576 × 1577 × 1578 is divisible by 3 or not.
Divisibility Rule of 7 for larger numbers

We discussed the divisibility of 7 for 3-digit numbers. If the number of digits of a number are
more than 3 we make it simple to find divisibility of 7.
Check a number 7538876849 is divisible by 7 or not.
Step 1 : Make the number into groups of 3-digits each from right to left. If the left most
group is less than 3 digits take it as group.
7 538 876 849
D C B A

Step 2 : Add the groups in alternate places i.e. A + C and B + D.

849 876
+ 538 + 7
1387 883
Step 3 : Subtract 883 from 1387 and check the divisibility rule of 7 for the resultant 3 digit
number as previously learnt
1387
− 883
504 By divisibility rule of 7 we know that 504 is divisible by 7.
Hence the given number is divisible by 7.
Try This :
1. Check the above method applicable for the divisibility of 11 by taking

10-digit number.
By using the divisibility rules , we can guess the missing digit in the given number. Suppose a
number 84763A9 is divisible by 3, we can guess the value for sum of digits is
8 + 4 + 7 + 6 + 3 + A + 9 = 37 + A. To divisible by 3 , A has values either 2 or 5 or 8.
Exercise - 15.4
1. Check whether 25110 is divisible by 45.

2. Check whether 61479 is divisible by 81 .
3. Check whether 864 is divisible by 36? Verify whether 864 is divisible by all the factors of
36 ?
4. Check whether 756 is divisible by 42? Verify whether 756 is divisible by all the factors of
42 ?
5. Check whether 2156 is divisible by 11 and 7? Verify whether 2156 is divisible by
product of 11 and 7 ?
6. Check whether 1435 is divisible by 5 and 7? Verify if 1435 is divisible by the product of
5 and 7 ?
7. Check whether 456 and 618 are divisible by 6? Also check whether 6 divides the sum of
456 and 618 ?
8. Check whether 876 and 345 are divisible by 3? Also check whether 3 divides the
difference of 876 and 345 ?
9. Check whether 22+23+24 is divisible by 2 or 4 or by both 2 and 4 ?
10. Check whether 322 is divisible by 4 or 8 or by both 4 and 8 ?
11. If A679B is a 5-dit number is divisible by 72 find ‘A’ and ‘B’?
15.3 Puzzles based on divisibility rules :
Raju and Sudha are playing with numbers . Their conversation is as follows :
Sudha said , let me ask you a question.
Sudha : Choose a 2- digit number
Raju : Ok . I choose. (He choose 75 )
Sudha : Reverse the digits (to get a new number)
Raju : Ok .
Sudha : Add this to the number you choosen
Raju : Ok . ( I did )
Sudha : Now divide your answer with 11, you will get the remainder zero.
Raju : Yes . but how do you know ?
Can you think why this happens ?
Now let us understand the logic behind the Sudha’s trick
Suppose Raju chooses the number 10a + b (such that “a” is a digit in tens place and “b” is a digit
in units place and a ≠ 0) can be written as 10 × a + b = 10a + b and on reversing the digits
he gets the number 10b + a. When he adds the two numbers he gets (10a + b ) + (10b + a) =
11a + 11b = 11(a + b)
The sum is always multiple of 11. Observe that if she divides the sum by 11 , the quotient is
(a + b), which is exactly the sum of digits a and b of chosen number.
You may check the same by taking any other two digit number .

Do These :
1. Check the result if the numbers chosen were

(i) 37 (ii) 60 (iii) 18 (iv) 89
2. In a cricket team there are 11 players. The selection board purchased
10x + y T-Shirts to players. They again purchased ‘10y + x T-Shirts and
total T-Shirts were distributed to players equally. How many T-Shirts will be
left over after they distrubuted equally to 11 players?
How many each one will get?
Take a two digit number reverse the digits and get another number. Subtract smaller number
from bigger number. Is the difference of those two numbers is always divisible by 9?
Do This:
1. In a basket there are ‘10a + b fruits. (a ≠ 0 and a > b). Among them
‘10b + a ‘fruits are rotten. The remaining fruits distributed to 9 persons equally.
How many fruits are left over after equal distribution? How many fruits would
each child get ?
15.4 Fun with 3- Digit Numbers:
Sudha : Now think of a 3- digit number.

Raju : Ok . ( he chooses 157 )
Sudha : Reverse the digits and subtract smaller number from the
larger number
Raju : Ok.
Sudha : Divide your answer with 9 or 11. I am sure there will be
no remainder .
Raju : Yes. How would you know ?
Right ! How does Sudha know ?
We can derive the logic the way we did for the 3-digit number 100a + 10b + c.
By reversing the digits she get 100c + 10b + a.
If (a > c) difference between the numbers is (100a + 10b + c) - (100c + 10b + a)

= 99a – 99c = 99(a – c) = 9 × 11 × (a – c)
If (c > a) difference between the numbers is (100c + 10b + a) – (100a + 10b + a)
= 99c – 99a = 99(c – a) = 9 × 11 × (c – a)
And if a = c , then the difference is ‘0’
In each case the result is a multiple of 99. Therefore, it is divisible by both 9 and 11, and the
quotient is (a – c) or (c – a).
Do This:
1. Check in the above activity with the following numbers ?

(i) 657 (ii) 473 (iii) 167 (iv) 135
Try This:
Take a three digit number and make the new numbers by replacing its digits as
(ABC, BCA, CAB). Now add these three numbers. For what numbers the
sum of these three numbers is divisible?
15.5 Puzzles with missing digits

We can also have some puzzles in which we have alphabet in place of digits in an arithmetic sum
and the task is to find out which alphabet represents which digit . let us do some problems of
addition and multiplication.
The three conditions for the puzzles.
1. Each letter of the puzzle must stand for just one digit . Each digit must be represented by
just one letter.
2. The digit with highest place value of the number can not be zero.
3. The puzzle must have only one answer.
Example 6: Find A in the addition 17A

+ 2A4
————
407
————

Solution : By observation A + 4 = 7. or 100 + 70 + A

Hence A = 3 200 + 10A + 4
173 + 234 = 407 300 + 70 + 11A + 4 = 407
11 A = 33
A = 3
Example 7 : Find M and Y in the addition Y + Y + Y = MY
Solution : Y + Y + Y = MY
3Y = 10M + Y
2Y = 10M
Y
M= (i.e. Y is divisible by 5. Hence Y = 0 or 5)
5
From above, if Y = 0, Y + Y + Y = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0, M = 0
if Y = 5, Y + Y + Y = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15, MY = 15 Hence M =1, Y = 5
Example 8: A2 − 15 = 5A,
Solution : 2 − 5 = a is possible or (10A + 2) − (10 + 5) = 50 + A
when 12 − 5 = 7, 10A − 13 = 50 + A
There fore A = 7 9A = 63
A = 7
Example 9: 5A1 − 23 A = 325
Solution : 1−A = 5 ? or (500 + 10A + 1) − (200 + 30 + A) = 325
i.e. 11 − A = 5, 501 − 230 + 10 A − A = 325
There fore A= 6 271 + 9A = 325
271 + 9A = 325
271 − 271 + 9A = 325− 271
9A = 54
A = 6
Example 10: 1A × A = 9A
Solution : For A × A = A or (10 + A) A = (90 + A)
From square tables 1, 5, 6 10A + A2 = 90 + A
1 × 1 = 1, A2 + 9A − 90 = 0
2 2
5 × 5 = 25,  9  9  9
A + 2.A   +   −   − 90 = 0
2
2 2 2
6 × 6 = 36,
2
if A = 6,  9 81
 A +  − − 90 = 0
16 × 6 = 96 2 4
2
 9 441
 A +  =
2 4
9 21
A+ =
2 2
12
A= =6
2
Example 11 : BA × B3 = 57A.
Solution : In this example we estimate the value of digits from multiplication tables by trial
and error method. In one’s place A × 3 = A. For A = 0 or 5, the unit digit of
product becomes same digit. Hence A is either 0 or 5. If we take 1 at tens place
then, to the utmost value of two digit number is 19. The product could be
19×19 = 361. Which is less than 500. Further if we take 3 at tens place then the
atleast value of both two digit number will be 30×30 = 900 which is greater than
500. So, it will be 2 at tens place. Then 20×23 = 460 or 25×23 = 575.
Hence, the required answer is 25×23 = 575.
Do These :
1. If 21358AB is divisible by 99 , find the values of A and B

2. Find the value of A and B of the number 4AB8 ( A , B are digits ) which is
divisible by 2,3,4,6,8 and 9.
Example 12: Find the value of the letters in the given multiplication AB
×5
CAB
Solution : If we take B = 0 or 1 or 5 then 0 × 5 = 0, 1 × 5 =5, 5 × 5 = 25

If B = 0 , then A 0 × 5 = CA0

then if we take A = 5 , then 50 × 5 = 250

∴ CAB = 250 .
Try These :
1. If YE × ME = TTT find the numerical value of Y +E + M + T

[Hint : TTT = 100T + 10T + T = T(111) = T(37 × 3)]
2. If cost of 88 articles is A733B . find the value of A and B
Exercise -15. 5
1. Find the missing digits in the following additions.

(a) 111 (b) 2 2 2 (c) A A A (d) 2 2 2 2 (e) BB
+ A + 8 + 7 + 9 9 + 6
+ 77 + BB + AA + 9 AAA
19 7 285 3 7 3 AAA 4 6 1
299A
2. Find the value of A in the following
(a) 7A – 16 = A9 (b) 107 – A9 = 1A (c) A36 – 1A4 = 742
3. Find the numerical value of the letters given below-
(a) D E (b) G H
× 3 × 6
F D E C G H
4. Replace the letters with appropriate digits

(a) 73K ÷ 8 = 9L (b) 1MN ÷ 3 = MN
5. If ABB × 999 = ABC123 (where A, B, C are digits) find the values of A, B, C.
15.6 Finding of divisibility by taking remainders of place values

In this method we take remainders by dividing the place values, with given number.
If we divide the place values of a number by 7, we get the remainders as
1000 ÷ 7 (Remainder 6. This can be taken as 6 − 7 = −1)
100 ÷ 7 (Remainder 2)
10 ÷ 7 (Remainder 3)
1÷7 (Remainder 1)
Place value 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 100
Remainders 3 2 1 −2 −3 −1 2 3 1
divide by 7
Suppose to check whether 562499 is divisible by 7 or not.
Digits 5 6 2 4 9 9
Place values 5 × 105 6 × 104 2 × 103 4 × 102 9 × 101 9 × 100
Remainders
divided by 7 5 × (−2) 6 × (−3) 2 × (−1) 4× 2 9× 3 9× 1
Sum of product of face values and remainders of place values is
−10 − 18 − 2 + 8 + 27 + 9 = −30 + 44 = 14(divisible by 7)
Hence 562499 is divisible by 7.
Do These :
1. By using the above method check whether 7810364 is divisible by 4 or not.

2. By using the above method check whether 963451 is divisible by 6 or not.
15.7 Some more puzzles on divisibility rules :
Example 13: Is every even number of palindrome is divisible by ’11’ ?

Solution: Let us take an even number of palindrome i.e. 12344321. The sum of digits in
odd places is 1 + 3 + 4 + 2. Sum of digits in even places 2 + 4 + 3 + 1. Their
difference is 0. Hence, it is divisible by 11.
Example 14: Is 101000-1 divisible by both 9 and 11?

Solution: Let us write 101000-1 as 999 .... 999 (1000 times). The digits in all places are 9.
Hence, it is divisible by 9. And there are 1000 digits. Sum of digits in odd places
and sum digits even places are same. Their difference is 0. Hence, it is divisible
by 11.
1. Can we conclude 102n-1 is divisible by both 9 and 11? Explain.

2. Is 102n+1-1 is divisible by 11 or not. Explain.

Example 15: Take any two digit number three times to make a 6-digit number. Is it divisible
by 3 ?
Solution: Let us take a 2-digit number 47. Write three times to make 6-digit number i.e.
474747.
474747 can be written as 47(10101). 10101 is divisible by 3. Because sum of
its digit is 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. Hence 474747 is divisible by 3.
Example 16: Take any three digit number and write it two times to make a 6-digit number.
Verify whether it is divisible by both 7 and 11.
Solution: Let us take a 3-digit number 345. Write it two times to get 6-digit number i.e.
345345.
345345 can be written as 345345 = 345000 + 345 = 345 (1000 + 1)
= 345 (1001)
= 345 (7 × 11 × 13)
Hence 345345 is divisible by 7, 11 and 13 also.
Try This :
1. Check whether 456456456456 is divisible by 7, 11 and 13?
Example 17: Take a three digit number in which all digits are same. Divide the number with
reduced number. What do you notice?
Solution: Consider 444. Reduced number of 444 is 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
Now divide 444 by 12, 444 ÷12 = 37 . Do the process with 333 , 666,etc.
You will be supposed the quotient is 37 for all the numbers .
Example 18: Is 23 + 33 is divisible by (2 + 3) or not?
Solution: We know that a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2).
So 23 + 33 = (2 + 3) (22 − 2 × 3 + 32). It is multiple of (2 + 3).
Hence 23 + 33 is divisible by (2 + 3).
1. Verify a5 + b5 is divisible by (a + b) by taking different natural numbers for ‘a’ and ‘b’?
2. Can we conclude (a2n+1 + b2n+1) is divisible by (a + b)?
15.8 Finding Sum of Consecutive numbers :
We can find the sum of consecutive numbers from 1 to 100 without adding.
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ 50 + 51 +…..+ 98 + 99 + 100
= (1 + 100) + (2 + 99) + (3 + 98) ……..(50 + 51)
= 101 + 101+ 101 + ……………. 50 pairs are there. = 50 × 101 = 5050
100 × 101
This can be written as = 5050.
2
What is the sum of first 48 natural numbers? What do you observe ?
n( n + 1)
What is the sum of first ‘n’ natural numbers? It is (verify)
2
Example 19: Find the sum of integers which are divisible by 5 from 50 to 85.
Solution: Sum of integers which are divisible by 5 from 50 to 85 = (Sum of integers which
are divisble by 5 from 1 to 85) − (Sum of integers which are divisble by 5 from
1 to 49)
= (5 + 10 + .... + 85) − (5 + 10 + .... + 45)
= 5(1 + 2 + .... + 17) − 5(1 + 2 + .... + 9)
 17 × 18 9   9 × 10 5 
= 5×  −5× 
 2   2 
= 5 × 9 × 17 − 5 × 9 × 5
= 5 × 9 × (17 − 5)
= 5 × 9 × 12 = 540
Example 20: Find the sum of integers from 1 to 100 which are divisible by 2 or 3.
Solution: The numbers which are divisible by 2 from 1 to 100 are 2, 4, ... 98, 100.
The numbers which are divisible by 3 from 1 to 100 are 3, 6, ... 96, 99.
In the above series some numbers are repeated twice. Those are multiple of 6
i.e. LCM of 2 and 3.
Sum of integers which are divisible by 2 or 3 from 1 to 100 = (Sum of integers
which are divisble by 2 from 1 to 100) + (Sum of integers which are divisble by
3 from 1 to 100) − (Sum of integers which are divisble by 6 from 1 to 100)
= (2 + 4 + .... + 100) + (3 + 6 + .... + 99) − (6 + 12 + ... 96)
= 2(1 + 2 + .... + 50) + 3(1 + 2 + ... +33) − 6(1 + 2 + .... + 16)
 50 × (50 + 1)   33 × (33 + 1)   16 × (16 + 1) 

= 2×  + 3×   −6× 
 2   2   2

 50 × 51  33 × 34 17   8 16 × 17 
= 2 × + 3 ×   − 6 ×  
 2   2   2 
= 2550 + 1683 − 816

= 4233 − 816 = 3417
Exercise – 15.6
1. Find the sum of integers which are divisible by 5 from 1 to 100.
2. Find the sum of integers which are divisible by 2 from 11 to 50.
3. Find the sum of integers which are divisible by 2 and 3 from 1 to 50.
4. (n3 − n) is divisible by 3. Explain the reason.
5. Sum of ‘n’ odd number of consecutive numbers is divisible by ‘n’. Explain the reason.
6. Is 111 + 211 + 311 + 411 divisible by 5? Explain.
7.
Find the number of rectangles of the given figure ?
8. Rahul’s father wants to deposit some amount of money every year on the day of Rahul’s
birthday. On his 1st birth day Rs.100, on his 2nd birth day Rs.300, on his 3rd birth day
Rs.600, on his 4th birthday Rs.1000 and so on. What is the amount deposited by his father
on Rahul’s 15th birthday.
9. Find the sum of integers from 1 to 100 which are divisible by 2 or 5.
10. Find the sum of integers from 11 to 1000 which are divisible by 3.
1. Writing and understanding a 3-digit number in expanded form

100a + 10b + c. Where a, b, c digits a ≠ 0, b, c is from 0 to 9
2. Deducing the divisibility test rules of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 for two or
three digit number expressed in the general form.
3. Logic behind the divisibility laws of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 10, 11.
4. Number puzzles and games.
Answers 337
Answers
1. Rational Numbers
Excercise - 1.1
I.
(i) Additive Identity
(ii) Distributive law (iii) Multiplicative identity
(iv) Multiplicative identity (v) Commtative law of addition
(vi) Closure law in multiplication (vii) Additive inverse law
(viii) Multiplicative inverse (ix) Distributive
3 5 7 9
2. (i) , (ii) 1, 1 (iii) 0, undefined (iv) ,
5 3 9 7
(v) 1, 1
12 9 6
3. (i) (ii) 0 (iii) (vi)
5 11 7
3 1 28
(v) , (vi) 0 4.
4 3 55
5. Multiplicative Associative, multiplicative inverse, multiplicative identity, closure with addition.
28 5 58 45
7. 8. (i) (ii) (iii)
15 12 13 7
7 53
9. 10.
8 6
! 1 1" 1 1 !1 1"
11. Not associative Since $ % # $ %
& 2 3' 4 2 & 3 4'
13. (i) Natural numbers (ii) 0 (iii) Negetive

Excercise - 1.3
57 22 100001 201
1. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
100 125 100000 8
19 361 553
2. (i) 1 (ii) (iii) (vi)
33 495 45
7 7
3. (i) (ii)
13 5
1400 1
4. 1 5. 6. 5 m 7. `. 1.66
9 10
1 2 3 16
8. 161 m 9. 10. m 11. 15
5 4 9
2. Linear Equations in one variable
Excercise - 2.1
1.(i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 6 (iv) 6
3
(v) (vi) 21 (vii) 27 (viii) 5
2
7 1
(ix) (x) 1 (xi) (xii) 0
3 2
25 21 8 13
(xiii) (xiv) (xv) (xvi)
7 16 3 6
Excercise - 2.2
1.(i) 670 (ii) 170 (iii) 1250 (iv) 190
(v) 200
2. 5 3. 43, 15 4. 27, 29
5. 252, 259, 266 6. 20 km 7. 99g, 106g, 95g 8. 113m, 87m
9. 16m, 12m 10. 21m, 21m, 13m
11. 390 12. 28 years, 35 years
13. 126 14. 80, 10 15. 60, 40 16. 59 ft, 29.5 ft
17. 186, 187.
Answers 339
Excercise - 2.3
11
1. 1 2. 2 3. 4. 1
4
9 4
5. 6. 1 7. 7 8.
5 7
9 11
9. 10. 11. 1 12. 96
2 3
13. 3 14. 8
Exercise - 2.4
1. 25 2. 7 3. 63 4. 40, 25, 15
5. 12 6. 4, 2 7. 16 8. 10,000 9. 40
Exercise - 2.5
145
1.(i) (ii) 168 (iii) 12 (iv) 25
21
127 9 5
(v) (vi) 1 (vii) (viii)
12 2 12
9 1 21
(ix) (x) 1 (xi) (xii)
23 7 47
3 7675
2. 30 3. 48 4. 5.
7 173
6. 25 7. 5 8. One Rupee : 30; 50 paisa coins = 10
9. 30 days 10. 20 km 11. 36
12. 860 13. 16
4. Exponents and Powers
Excercise - 4.1
1 64 1
1.(i) (ii) 128 (iii) (iv)
64 27 81
15
!1"
2.(i) $ % (ii) ( 2)14 (iii) 54 (iv) 55 (v) ( 21)4
&2'
1
3.(i) 24 ) 3 (ii)
2
13 2
4.(i) 10 (ii) 403 (iii) (iv)
16 81
17 16
(v) (vi) 5. (i) 625 (ii) 625
6 81
6.(i) 10 (ii) 10 (iii) 2 7. 3
45
8. 9. (i) 1 (ii) 72 (iii) 24
34 ) 5
16
10.
49
Excercise - 4.2
1.(i) 9.47 ) 10 10
(ii) 5.43 ) 1011 (iii) 4.83 ) 10 7 (iv) 9.298 ) 10 5
(v) 5.29 ) 10 5
2.(i) 4,37,000 (ii) 58,00,000 (iii) 0.00325 (iv) 37152900

(v) 0.03789 (vi) 0.02436
3.(i) 4 ) 10 7 m (ii) 7 ) 10 6 mm (iii) 3 ) 108 m/sec (iv) 3.84467 ) 108
(v) 1.6 ) 10 8 coulombs (vi) 1.6 ) 10 3 cm (vii) 5 ) 10 6 cm

4. 1.0008 ) 102 mm
5.(i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No (v) No
5. Comparing Quantities using Proportion
Excercise - 5.1
1.(i) 3:4 (ii) 32:3 (iii) *+, 2. (i) 168
4 3 4 5 3 5
3. 8 4. 48 5. 20 6. , , , , ,
3 4 5 4 5 3
7. 3.5 8. 1 : 3 or 4 : 7 9. 10320
10. 1 , 1 , 1 , yes 11. `. 28.5, `. 92, `. 257.6, `. 132, `. 88

2 2 2
12. (a) 83 (b) 1992 13. 2064 14. 70
Answers 341
Excercise - 5.2
1. 81.9 crores 2. 2756.25 3. `. 27.67 4. 3 ) 6cm

2
5. ` 127.50 6. 6 % 7. 17%
3
8. `.880, 10%, `.4,000, 20%, `.10,000, 20%, profit, `.392, 42%, `. 315, `.35.
9. `.2244 10. 12.5% 11. 17.647% 12. ` 69
13. `.1334 14. (i) ` 9,999 (ii) ` 2,793 (iii) ` 195.80 (approx.)
15. (i) ` 52.50 (ii) ` 73.50 16. 13
Excercise - 5.3
1. (a) 6,34,500 (b) `10,575 2. `.268.75 3. A = 8820, 820

4. `.7234.50 5. `.1311.12 6. 81,82,199 7. `.11080.50
8. (i) 400 (ii) 610 9. `.43.20 10. 5,31,616
11. `. 36659.70 12. `.17000, `.362.50 13. `.9500
14. 1297920 15. `.1103.81
6. Square Roots, Cube Roots
Excercise - 6.1
1.(i) Unit digit in the square of 39 is 1
(ii) Unit digit in the square of 297 is 9
(iii) Unit digit in the square of 5125 is 5
(iv) Unit digit in the square of 7286 is 6
(v) Unit digit in the square of 8742 is 4
2. Perfect squares are
(i) 121 (ii) 256
3.(i) 257 unit digit is 7 and hence not a perfect square
(ii) 4592 unit digit is 2 and hence not a perfect square
(iii) 2433 unit digit is 3 and hence not a perfect square
(iv) 5050 unit digit is 0 and number of zeros at the end is only one and hence not a perfect
square
(v) 6098 unit digit is 8 and hence not a perfect square
4. (i) 4312 - odd (ii)28262 - even (iii) 82042 - even
(iv) 177792 - odd (v)999982 - even

5. (i) 50 (ii) 112 (iii) 214

6. (i) 25 (ii) 81 (iii) 169
Excercise - 6.2
1. (i) 21 (ii) 28 (iii) 64 (iv) 84
2. 5 3. 6. 120 4. 6 5. 39
6. 31 7. 144, 9 8. 89 9. 4608 m2
Excercise - 6.3
1. (i) 33 (ii) 48 (iii) 88 (iv) 78
(v) 95
2. (i) 1.6 (ii) 4.3 (iii) 8.3 (iv) 9.2
3. 31 4. 67 cm 5. 91 6. 1024
7. 149 8. (i) 10 (ii) 16 (iii) 28
Excercise - 6.4
1. (i) 512 (ii) 4096 (iii) 9261 (iv) 27000

2. i) 243 - Not a perfect cube ii) 516 - Not a perfect cube
iii) 729 - a perfect cube vi) 8000 - a perfect cube
v) 2700 - Not a perfect cube
3. 2 4. 17 5. 5 6. 6 7. 2
Excercise - 6.5
1. (i) 7 (ii) 9 (iii) 11 (iv) 14
1. (i) 16 (ii) 13 (iii) 15 (iv) 18
3. i) False ii) False iii) True
vi) False v) False vi) False
7. Frequency Distribution Tables and Graphs
Exercise 7.1
1. `.11060.83 2. x = 7 3. x = 27 4. x = 43
5. x = 30 years 6. 52 years
7. x = 12 sum of deviations from x = 0
Answers 343
8. 5 9. x = 13.67 same in all cases. 10. 15.5 marks

11. x = 30 12. Median = 3.4 13. x = 18
14. Mode = 10 15. Mode = x 3 16. Mode = 1
17. 12, 16, 16, 16 18. 42 19. 8 20. 20
Exercise - 7.2
1. Class Interval 5-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64

Frequency 9 9 9 6 7 5
2. No of Students 15-19 19-23 23-27 27-31 31-35 35-39 39-43
Frequency 5 6 7 5 5 1 1
3. Class intervals 4-11 12-19 20-27 28-35 36-43 44-51 52-59
Boundaries 3.5-11.5 11.5-19.5 19.5-27.5 27.5-35.5 35.5-43.5 43.5-51.5 51.5-59.5
4. Class Marks Frequency Class Intervals Less than Greater than

cu.f cu.f
10 6 4-16 6 75
22 14 16-28 20 69
34 20 28-40 40 55
46 21 40-52 61 35
58 9 52-64 70 14
70 5 64-76 75 5
5. CI (Marks) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Fr(Students) 2 10 4 9 10
6. Class Interval Frequency Class LEss than Greater than

(Ages) (No.of children) Boundries Cu.frequency Cu.frequency
1-3 10 0.5 - 3.5 10 59

4-6 12 3.5 - 6.5 22 49
7-9 15 6.5 - 9.5 37 37
10 - 12 13 9.5 - 12.5 50 22
13 - 15 9 12.5 - 15.5 59 9

7. CI 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Eu fr 3 8 19 25 30
Given frequencies are less than cumilative frequencies.
8. CI 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
G.Cu fr 42 36 23 14 6
8.Exploring Geometrical Figures
Excercise - 8.1
1.(a) True (b) False (c) False (d) False

(e) False (f) False (g) False
2. (a) Yes; any two congruent figures oare always similar.
(b) Yes; the similarity remains.
3. AB = NM; -A = -N
BC = MO; -B = -M
CA = ON; -C = -O
4. (i) True (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False
(v) True
7. 1.5 m, 3m, 4.5m, 6m, 7.5m, 9m
8. 9m
9. Area of Plane Figures
Exercise 9.1
2. (i) 20 sqcm (ii) 424 sqcm (iii) 384 sqcm
3. 55 sqcm. 4. 80 sqcm 5. (i) 10700 sqm (ii) 11450 sqm

6. (ii) x = 75 cm, 45 cm
7. 675 cm2, 810
8. 337.5 sqcm.
Answers 345
Exercise - 9.2
1. (i) 900 sqcm, (ii) 361 sq cm 2. 616 sqcm.
3. (i) 4536 sqcm. (ii) 259.87 cm2
4. 5544 cm2 5. 309 cm2 6. 10.5 cm2 7. 6.8 cm2
6 2
8. (i) a (ii) 462 cm2 9. 6.125 cm2 10. 346.5 m2
7
10. Direct and Inverse Proportion
Exercise 10.1
1. `. 84, `. 168, `. 420, `. 546 2. 32, 56, 96, 160

3. `. 12,600/- 4. `. 2,100/- 5. 21 m 6. 6m, 8.75 m
10 9
7. 168 cm 8. 750 9. 25 cm, cm. 10. cm. 11. 2 : 1
3 20
Exercise - 10.2
1. (iii) 2. 120, 60, 80, 80

Exercise - 10. 3
1. 4 kg 2. 50 days 3. 48 4. 4
5. 4 6. 15 7. 24
11. Algebraic Expressions
Excercise - 11.1
1. (i) 42K (ii) 6lm (iii) 15t4 (iv) 18mn
3
(v) 10p
3. 60a2c
24m3n
36 k3l3
24p2q2r2
4. i) x4 y3 ii) a6b6 iii) k3l3m3 iv) p2q2r2
v) 72a2bcd

Exercise - 11.2
1. (ii) 3k2l + 3klm + 3kmn (iii) a2b2 + ab4 + cb2c3

(iv) x2yz 2xy2z + 3xyz2 (v) a4b3c3 + a2b4c3d a3b3c2d2
2. 12y2 + 16y
3. i) 2 ii) 0
2 2 2
4. a + b + c ab bc ca 5. x2 y2 z2 + 2xy yz + zx xr + yr
6. 7x2 + 8xy 7. 3k2 + 21kl 3km
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
8. a + b + c a b+b a b c+c b+a c ca
Excercise - 11.3
1. (i) 6a2 19a 36 (ii) 2x2 5xy+2y2 (iii) k2l kl2 l2m + klm
(iv) m3 + m2n mn2 n3
2. (i) 2x2 3xy + 3x2y + 3xy2 5y2
(ii) 3a2b2 a3b 2ab3 3a2bc + 30b2c
(iii) klmn lm2n k2l2 + kl2m + k2lm klm2
(iv) p4 5p3q + 6p3r + pq3 + 6q3p 5q4
3. i) 10x2 14xy ii) m3 + n3 iii) 19ca 37ab 19a2
iv) p2q2 q2r2 + pq2r pq2r + p2qr + pqr2 p2q pq2 p2r + pr2 4. 8
Exercise - 11.4
1. i) pk2 + 24kl + 16l2 ii) a2x4 + 2abx2y2 + b2y4

iii) 49d2 126de + 81e2 iv) m4 2m2n2 + n4
v) 9t2 81s2 vi) k2l2 m2n2
vii) 36x2 + 66x + 30 viii) 4b2 2ab + 2bc ca
2. i) 92416 ii) 259081 iii) 9,84,064 iv) 6,38,401
v) 89,984 vi) 6391 vii) 11,772 viii) 42,024
12. Factorisation
Excercise - 12.1
1. (i) 2, 4, 8 (ii) 3, a (iii) 7, x, y (iv) 2, m

(v) 5 (vi) 2, x (vii) 2, 3, 6, x, y
Answers 347
2. i) 5x (x 5y) (ii) 3a(3a 2x) (iii) 7p(p + 7q)

iv) 12a2b(3 5c) (v) 3abc(a + 2b + 3c)
vi) p(4p + 5q 6q2) (vii) t(u + at)
3. (i) (3x 4b) (a 2y)
(ii) (x2 + 5) (x + 2) (iii) (m + 4) (m n)
(iv) (a2 b) (a b2) (v) (p 1) (pq r2)
Excercise - 12.2
1. (i) (a + 5)2 (ii) (l 8)2 (iii) (6x + 8y)2 (iv) (5x 3y)2
(v) (5m - 4n)2 (vi) (9x 11y)2 (vii) (x y)2 (viii) (l2 + 2m2)2
2. (i) (x + 6) (x 6) (ii) (7x + 5y) (7x 5y) (iii) (m + 11) (m 11)
(iv) (9 + 8x) (9 8x)(v) (xy + 8) (xy 8) (vi) 6(x + 3) (x 3)
(vii) (x + 9) (x + 3) (x 3) (viii) 2x(1 + 4x2) (1 + 2x) (1 2x)
(ix) x2(9x + 11) (9x 11) (x) (p q + r) (p q r)
(xi) 4xy
3. (i) x(lx + m) (ii) 7(y2 + 5z2) (iii) 3x2(x2 + 2xy + 3z)
(vi) (x a) (x b) (v) (3a + 4b) (x 2y) (vi) (m + 1) (n + 1)
(vii) (b + 2c) (6a b) (viii) (pq r2)(p 1) (ix) (y + z) (x - 5)
4. (i) (x2 + y2) (x + y) (x y) (ii) (a2 + b2 + c2 + 2bc) (a + b + c) (a b c)
! 4 "! 4"
(iii) (l + m n)(l m + n) (iv) $ 7 x . %$ 7 x %
& 5 '& 5'
(v) (x2 y2)2 (vi) (5a b)(5b a)
5. (i) (a + 6) (a + 4) (ii) (x + 6) (x + 3) (iii) (p 7) (p 3)
(iv) (x 8) (x + 4) 6. 10 7. 0, 12
Exercise - 12.3
1 1 2
1. (i) 8a2 (ii) x (iii) 9a2b2c2 (iv) yz
3 5
(v) 6l2m
2. (i) 3x 2 (ii) 5a2 7b2 (iii) x(5x 3) (iv) l(2l2 3l + 4)

4
(v) 5abc(a b + c) (vi) (2q2 + 3pq p2 ) (vii) (abc + 2bc)
3
77 2
3. (i) 7x 9 (ii) 12x (iii) ab (iv) l (m . n)
3 3
(v) 4(x2 + 7x + 10) (vi) (a + 1) (a + 2)
4. (i) x + 4 (ii) x 2 (iii) p + 4 (iv) 5a(a 5)
(v) 10m (p q) (vi) 4z(4z + 3)
Exercise - 12.4
(i) 3(x 9) = 3x 27 (ii) x(3x + 2) = 3x2 + 2x

(iii) 2x + 3x = 5x (iv) 2x + x + 3x = 6x
(v) 4p + 3p + 2p + p 9p = p (vi) 3x ) 2y = 6xy
(vii) (3x)2 + 4x + 7 = 9x2 + 4x + 7 (viii) (2x)2 + 5x = 4x2 + 5x
(ix) (2a + 3)2 = 4a2 + 12a + 9
(x) (a) 0 (b) 30 (c) 6
(xi) (x 4)2 = x2 8x + 16 (xii) (x + 7)2 = x2 + 14x + 49
(xiii) (3a + 4b) (a b) = 3a2 + ab 4b2 (xiv) (x + 4) (x + 2) = x2 + 6x + 8
(xv) (x 4) (x 2) = x2 + 6x + 8 (xvi) 5x3 / 5x3 = 1
1 2
(xvii) (2x3 + 1) / 2x3 = 1 . (xviii) (3x + 2) / 3x = 1 .
2x 3 3x
5
(xix) (3x + 5) / 3x = x .
3
4x . 3 4
(xx) 0 x .1
3 3
13. Visualising 3 - D in 2 - D
Exercise - 13.1
3. (i) 5 (ii) 9 (iii) 20 (iv) 14

4. (i) 3 sq.units (ii) 9 sq.units (iii) 12 sq.units (iv) 9 sq.units
Answers 349
Exercise -13.2
1. F V E V+F=E+2
5 6 9 Satisfied
7 10 15 ,,
8 12 18 ,,
6 6 10 ,,
5 5 8 ,,
8 12 18 ,,
8 6 12 ,,
6 8 12 ,,
2. Same. Both base is a square. 3. No 4. Yes

5. F = 20, V = 6, E = 12, V + F E=2 6. No
7. V E
8 12
5 8
6 9
8. (i)Hexagonal pyramid (ii) Cuboid (iii) Pentagonal pyramid

(iv) Cylinder (v) Cube (vi) Hexagonal pyramid
(vii) Trapezoid
9. (i) a, b, c, e (ii) (a) Tetrahedran (b) sphere
(c) Cube/cuboid (d) sphere
(e) Cube is a regular polyhedron where cuboid is not.
(f) Cube, Cuboid (g) Square Pyramid
3. (a) Octogonal Prism (b) hexagonal prism
(c) triangular prism (d) Pentagonal prism
14. Surface Areas and Volumes
Exercise - 14.1
1. B 2. 10 3. 9m2
4. `.72

Exercise - 14.2
1. (i) 112.996 m3 (ii) 70m3 (iii) 22.5m3

2. (i) 13.92m3, 13920 liters. (ii) 5.2 m3, 5200 liters
(iii) 36.792 m3, 36792 liters.
1
3. Volume will become
8
4. (i) 262.144 cm3 (ii) 2.197m3 (iii) 4.096m3
5. 6400 6. 1096 cm3 7. 110cm3
8. 90 9. 27 10. 6 cm.
15. Playing with Numbers
Exercise - 15.1
1. Divisible by 2 1200, 836, 780, 4820, 48630

Divisible by 5 1200, 535, 780, 3005, 4820, 48630
Divisible by 10 1200, 780, 4820, 48630
We observed that, if a number is divisible 10, is also divisible by 2 and 5 also.
2. (a), (b), (c), (e) are divisible by 2
3. (a), (b), (c) (d) are divisible by 5
4. (a), (b), (d), (e) are divisible by 10
5. (a) 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
(c) 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45 (d) 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 30, 45, 90.
6. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, ........ 7. 6
Exercise - 15.2
1. A = 2 or 5 or 8 2. A = 8
3. 90, 180, 270, 360, 450 etc.
4. 0 to 9. We observed that divisibility of 2 does not depends upon other than unit’s digit.
5. 0 or 5 6. 4
7. 7 8. ‘0’
Answers 351
Exercise - 15.3
1. (a), (d) are divisible by 6
2. (a), (b), (c), (d) are divisible by 4
3. (a), (c), (d) are divisible by 8
4. (a), (b), (c), (d) are divisible by 7
5. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (i), (j), (k) are divisible by 11
6. All multiples of 8 are multiples of 4
7. A = 1, B = 9, A + B = 10
Exercise - 15.4
1. divisible by 45
2. divisible by 81
3. divisible by 36 and by all its factors
4. divisible by 42 and by all its factors
5. divisible by 11 and 7 and also divisible product of 11 and 7
6. divisible by 5 and 7 and also divisible by product of 5 and 7.
7. Both numbers and their sum also divisible by 6
8. Both the numbers and their difference also divisible by 3
9. Divisible by both 2 and 4
10. Divisible by both 4 and 8
11. A = 3, B = 2
Exercise - 15.5
1. (a) A = 9 (b) B = 5 (c) A = 3 (d) A = 6, sum = 2996

(e) A = 4, B = 1
2. (a) A = 5 (b) A = 8 (c) A = 4
3. (a) D = 5, E = 0, F = 1 (b) C = 1, G = 2, H = 0
4. (a) K = 6, L = 2 (b) M = 5, N = 0
5. A = 8, B = 7, C = 6

Exercise - 15.6
1. 1050
2. 620
3. 216
4. n3 n = n(n2 1) = (n 1)n(n + 1) product of three consecutive
(2n 1)(2n)
5. Sum of n consecutive odd number is 0 n(2 x 1) multiple of ‘n’.
2
6. (111 + 411) + (211 311) is divisible by 5.
7. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21
8. Rs. 1200
9. 3050
10. 166833-18 = 166815.
353
SYLLABUS
Number System (50 hrs) (i) Playing with numbers

l Writing and understanding a 2 and 3 digit number in
(i) Playing with numbers
generalized form (100a + 10b + c) where a, b, c can be
(ii) Rational Numbers only digits (0-9) and engaging with various puzzles
(iii) Square numbers, cube concerning this. (Like finding the missing numerals
numbers, Square represented by alphabets in problems involving any of
roots, Cubes, Cube the four operations)
roots.
l Number puzzles and games
l Understanding the logic behind the divisibility tests of
2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and 11 for a two or three digit number
expressed in the general form.
(ii) Rational Numbers
l Properties of rational numbers. (including identities).
l Using general form of expression to describe properties.
Appreciation of properties.
l Representation of rational numbers on the number line
l Between any two rational numbers there lies another
rational number (Making children see that if we take two
rational numbers then unlike for whole numbers, in this
case you can keep finding more and more numbers that
lie between them.)
l Representation of rational numbers as decimal and vice
versa (denominators other than 10, 100, ....)
l Consolidation of operations on rational numbers.
l Word problems on rational numbers (all operations)
l Word problem (higher logic, all operations, including ideas
like area)
(iii) Square numbers, cube numbers, Square roots,
Cubes, Cube roots.
l Square numbers and square roots.
l Square roots using factor method and division method
for numbers containing. no more than 4 digits and b) no
more than 2 decimal places

l Pythagorean triplets and verification of Pythagoras

theorem
l Cube numbers and cube roots (only factor method for
numbers containing at most 3 digits).
l Estimating square roots and cube roots. Learning the
process of moving nearer to the required number.
l Uses of brackets
l Simplification of brackets using BODMAS rule.
Algebra (20 hrs) (i) Exponents & Powers
(i) Exponents & Powers • Integers as exponents.

l Laws of exponents with integral powers
(ii) Algebraic
Expressions l Standard form of the numbers
(iii) Linear Equations in (ii) Algebraic Expressions

one variable
l Multiplication algebraic exp. (Coefficient should be
(iv) Factorisation integers)
l Some common errors (e.g. 2 + x 2x, 7x + y 7xy )
l Identities (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2, a2 ! b2 = (a ! b)
(a + b)
l Geometric verification of identities
(iii) Linear Equations in one variable

l Solving linear equations in one variable in contextual
problems involving multiplication and division
(word problems)
(iv) Factorisation
l Factorization (simple cases only)
l Factorisation by taking out common factor.
l Factorisation by grouping the terms.
l Factorisation by using identities.
l Factors of the form (x + a) (x + a)
l Division of algebraic expressions
Syllabus 355
Arithmetic (20 hrs) (i) Comparing Quantities using proportion

(i) Comparing l Comparing Quantities using proportion
Quantities using l Compound ratio - Word problems.
proportion l Problems involving applications on percentages, profit &
(ii) Direct and Inverse loss, overhead expenses, Discount, tax. (Multiple
proportion transactions)
l Difference between simple and compound interest
(compounded yearly up to 3 years or half-yearly up to 3
steps only), Arriving at the formula for compound interest
through patterns and using it for simple problems.
(ii) Direct and Inverse proportion
l Direct variation - Simple and direct word problems.
Inverse variation -Simple and direct word problems.
Mixed problems on direct, inverse variation
l Time & work problems- Simple and direct word problems
l Time & distance: Simple and direct word problems
Geometry (40 hrs) (i) Construction of Quadrilaterals

(i) Construction of l Review of quadrilaterals and their properties.
Quadrilaterals l Construction of quadrilaterals, given with
(ii) Representing - Four sides and one angle
3-D in 2D - Four sides and one diagonal
(iii) Exploring - Two adjacent sides, three angles
Geometrical Figures
- Three sides and two diagonals.
- Three sides and two angles in between them are given
l Construction of special types of quadrilaterals with two
diagonals.
(ii) Representing 3-D in 2D
• Identify and Match pictures with objects [more
complicated e.g. nested, joint 2-D and 3-D shapes (not
more than 2)].
l Drawing 2-D representation of 3-D objects (Continued
and extended) with isometric sketches.
l Counting vertices, edges & faces & verifying Euler’s
relation for 3-D figures with flat faces (cubes, cuboids,
tetrahedrons, prisms and pyramids)

(iii) Exploring Geometrical Figures

l Congruent figures
l Similar figures
l Symmetry in geometrical figures w.r.t. to triangles,
quadrilaterals and circles.
(i) Area of Plane Figures

Mensuration (15 hrs)
Area of a triangle using Heron’s formula (without proof)
l
(i) Area of Plane and its application in finding the area of a quadrilateral.
Figures • Area of a trapezium
(ii) Surface areas • Area of the quadrilateral and other polygons.
and Volumes • Area of the circle & circular paths.
(ii) Surface areas and Volumes
• Surface area of a cube, cuboid
• Concept of volume, measurement of volume using a basic
unit, volume of a cube, cuboid
• Volume and capacity.
Data handling (15 hrs) Frequency Distribution Tables and Graphs
Frequency Distribution l Revision of Mean, Median and Mode of ungrouped data.

Tables and Graphs l Determination of mean by deviation method.
• Scope and necessity of grouped data.
l Preparation of frequency distribution tables
l Cumulative frequency distribution tables
l Frequency graphs (histogram, frequency polygon,
frequency curve, cumulative frequency curves)
(iii)
357
Academic Standards
Academic standards are clear statements about what students must know and be able to do.
The following are categories on the basis of which we lay down academic standards
Problem Solving
Using concepts and procedures to solve mathematical problems
(a) Kinds of problems:
Problems can take various forms- puzzles, word problems, pictorial problems, procedural
problems, reading data, tables, graphs etc.
(b) Problem Solving
l Reads problems
l Identifies all pieces of information/data
l Separates relevant pieces of information
l Understanding what concept is involved
l Recalling of (synthesis of) concerned procedures, formulae etc.
l Selection of procedure
l Solving the problem
l Verification of answers of raiders, problem based theorems.
(c) Complexity:
The complexity of a problem is dependent on
l Making connections( as defined in the connections section)
l Number of steps
l Number of operations
l Context unraveling
l Nature of procedures
Reasoning Proof
l Reasoning between various steps (involved invariably conjuncture).
l Understanding and making mathematical generalizations and conjectures
(viii)
(ix)

l Understands and justifies procedures·Examining logical arguments.

l Understanding the notion of proof
l Uses inductive and deductive logic
l Testing mathematical conjectures
Communication
l Writing and reading, expressing mathematical notations (verbal and symbolic
forms)
Ex: 3 + 4 = 7, 3 < 5, n1+n2= n2+n1, Sum of angles in a triangle = 1800
l Creating mathematical expressions
l Explaining mathematical ideas in her own words like- a square is closed figure having
four equal sides and all equal angles
l Explaining mathematical procedures like adding two digit numbers involves first adding
the digits in the units place and then adding the digits at the tens place/ keeping in
mind carry over.
l Explaining mathematical logic
Connections
l Connecting concepts within a mathematical domain- for example relating adding to
multiplication, parts of a whole to a ratio, to division. Patterns and symmetry,
measurements and space
l Making connections with daily life
l Connecting mathematics to different subjects
l Connecting concepts of different mathematical domains like data handling and
arithmetic or arithmetic and space
l Connecting concepts to multiple procedures
Visualization & Representation
l Interprets and reads data in a table, number line, pictograph, bar graph,
2-D figures, 3-D figures, pictures
l Making tables, number line, pictograph, bar graph, pictures.
l Mathematical symbols and figures.

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MATHEMATICS

TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT & PUBLISHING COMMITTEE

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Organising Incharge : Dr.N. Upender Reddy,

Respect the Law Grow by Education

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No part of this publication may be reproduced,

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

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Sri. Soma Prasad Babu Sri. K.Varada Sunder Reddy

Sri. Komanduri Murali Srinivas Sri. Abbaraju Kishore

Sri. Padala Suresh Kumar Sri. G. Anantha Reddy

Sri. P.D.L. Ganapati Sharma Sri. M. Ramanjaneyulu

Sri. Duggaraju Venu Sri. M. Rama Chary

Sri. P. Anthony Reddy Dr. A. Rambabu

Sri D. Manohar Dr. Poondla Ramesh

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Academic Support Group Members

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Illustrations and Design Team

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Education is a process of human enlightenment and empowerment. Recognizing the

Place : Hyderabad Director

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- Text Book Development Committee

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George Polya (1887 - 1985)

● eliminate possibilities ● solve simpler problem ● solve an equivalent problem

III. Carryout the plan

1 Rational Numbers June 1-33

2 Linear Equations in One Variable July 34-58

3 Construction of Quadrilaterals July, August 59-80

4 Exponents and Powers August 81-95

5 Comparing Quantities using August 96-121

6 Square Roots and Cube Roots September 122-147

7 Frequency Distribution Tables September/ 148-180

8 Exploring Geometrical Figures October 181-198

9 Area of Plane Figures November 199-230

10 Direct and Inverse Proportions November/ 231-247

11 Algebraic Expressions December 248-266

12 Factorisation January 267-281

13 Visualizing 3-D in 2-D Febrauary 282-296

14 Surface Areas and Volumes February/ 297-310

15 Playing with Numbers March 311-336

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In each case what is the change in temperature per hour?

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In each case what is the change in temperature per hour?

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1.2 Properties of Rational numbers

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(ii) Rational numbers - closure law

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If we exclude zero from the set of integers is it closed under division?

The commutative property states

Operation Example Remark

(iii) Rational Numbers

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