Writing Up Research - Experimental Research Report Writing For Students of English PDF
Writing Up Research - Experimental Research Report Writing For Students of English PDF
Writing Up Research - Experimental Research Report Writing For Students of English PDF
WRITING UP RESEARCH
CONTENTS
]
To the Student vi
©1990 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
I
~ A Division of Simon & Schuster
. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
~ THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT 1
iii
different fields of study as possible in the excerpts. Students should be advised [
that they need not be familiar with every word in every model or exercise in [
order to recognize the conventions being studied or to understand the instruc-
tional point being presented. [
TO THE STUDENT
THE EXPERIMENTAL
This book is designed to help you learn to use the most important features of
RESEARCH REPORT
technical and scientific English in writing about research in your field. The prin-
cipal type of writing treated here is the experimental research report, but the
information in this book is also relevant to writing research proposals, literature
reviews, summaries, abstracts, and especially theses and dissertations.
Many of the expressions and grammatical structures presented in these
chapters may not be new to you. What will be new are the specific uses of
these items in technical writing. These uses are called "conventions" because
they are commonly followed by authors in most fields of research. Technical OVERVIEW
writing in English is very conventional. That is, when you have learned the con-
ventions presented in this book, you will be able to write an acceptable report An experimental research report is a paper written by an investigator to
about almost any research project that you may carry out. describe a research study that he or she has completed. The purpose of the
Examples from published research articles in various field are included in report is to explain to others in the field what the objectives, methods, and find-
each ~hapter. These show you how scientists use the language forms you are ings of the study were. The report may be published in a professional journal, it
~tudymg when they write up their research. Sometimes these examples will may appear as a monograph distributed by a research institution or publishing
mclude technical vocabulary that is new to you. Try not to be distracted by company, or it may be written in the form of a thesis or dissertation as part of
these terms; they should not interfere with your ability to understand the exam- the requirements for a university degree.
ples or to. appreciate the way these writers use the language conventions you We use the term "experimental research" here in a very broad sense, re-
are studymg. We hope, in fact, that you will find these excerpts to be interesting ferring to various kinds of studies. One typical kind is the controlled Scientific
examples of research in many different fields. experiment, where the researchers conduct empirical tests while identifying and
. In working through this book, you will be asked to find examples of pub- controlling as many factors as possible that may affect the outcome of the study.
hshed research in your area of interest. This is done because we believe that the Another common kind of research is correlational, in which the investigators
m?~e you read, the better you will write. You will also be asked to carry out an compare two or more different variables to determine if any predictable rela-
ongmal research project to put into practice the conventions you are studying. tionships exist among them. Other kinds of studies may deal with information
Through these activities of reading, writing, and research practice, you will obtained from survey questionnaires or from case studies. Still other studies use
soon master the language of the experimental research report. computer-generated models that attempt to explain or predict phenomena ob-
served in the laboratory or in nature.
Robert Weissberg and Suzanne Buker
New Mexico State University
~i PREFACE
THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT
All these kinds of studies share some common characteristics. First, they are
:lesigned around a research question. As a possible answer to the research ques- I ABSTRACT I Chapter 9
·on, the researcher formulates a hypothesis and then designs the study in such a
ay as to reject or support the hypothesis. Also, such studies are usually quanti- INTRODUCTION Chapters 2, 3, and 4
atiue-that is, they deal with numerical data obtained in carrying out the study.
hese data are usually treated with one or more statistical tests to determine how
eriously the results should be taken.
I METHOD I Chapters 5 and 6
The reports written to describe these different kinds of studies also have
uch in common. Normally, a report includes descriptions of the purpose,
ethod, and results of the study. Complete results are usually presented in tables
~ Chapter 7
nd graphs. Such a report contains references to other published works in the / DISCUSSION \ Chapter 8
arne area of study. A bibliography (a list of references) listing these works, along
ith all the information needed to find them in a library, is always included at the
nd of the report. Finally, a brief summary or an abstract covering the most im-
ortant information in the report is usually attached. FIGURE 1.1 Typical sections of the experimental research report.
The organizational format for all experimental research reports is basically
the same, regardless of the field of study in which the author is working. Some of
the research fields treated in this book are listed here. The Experimental Research Report-An Example
To help you understand the basic format of the experimental research report,
we present here a report originally published in a profeSSional journal. The re-
port describes a study carried out in the field of agricultural education. The
Education Management Biology Sociology study evaluates the effectiveness of using microcomputers to teach economic
Economics Chemistry Psychology Engineering principles to university students in a graduate course.
Agronomy Animal Science Language Business
Most individuals seem to agree that the microcomputer will Table 1.1 Design of the Study
continue to hold an important role in education. Gubser (1980) and A B C
Hinton (1980) suggested phenomenal increases in the numbers of Control Treatment Treatment
computers both in the school and the home in the near future. There n = 21 persons n = 25 persons n = 16 persons
are always problems with a sudden onslaught of new technology. Lecture-discussion Microcomputer- Microcomputer-
Like any new tool that has not been fully tried and tested, the role of technique assisted instruc- assisted instruc-
the computer is in question. How should the computer be used in the 2 two-hour class tion (no experi-
sessions tion (intermediate
classroom? Should the computer be the teacher or used as a tool in ence) experience)
Evaluation by writ- Maximum of 4 hours
the classroom in the same way as an overhead projector? Can ten tests Maximum of 4 hours
for instruction of instruction
teachers do a better job of teaching certain types of materials with Evaluation by writ- Evaluation by writ-
the microcomputer than with conventional teaching methods? Will ten test ten test
the microcomputer have different effects on students with varying Record of actual Record of actual
levels of experience? Schmidt (1982) identified three types of micro- time used time used
computer use in classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool, Population
and a means of providing instruction. Foster and Kleene (1982) cite
four uses of microcomputers in vocational agriculture: drill and . The population for the study consisted of graduate students in
practice, tutorial, simulation and problem solving. ~~ncultu:al education at the University of Missouri-Columbia. Par-
ticipants rn the ~tudy were enrollees in courses offered through agri-
The findings of studies examining the use of various forms of cultural education at the University of Missouri-Columbia during the
computer-assisted instruction (CAl) have been mixed. Studies by summer of 1983: T~is provided 21 students for control Group A, 25
Hickey (1968) and Honeycutt (197 4) indicated superior results with ~tudents ~or begrnnrng microcomputer Group Band 16 students for
CAl while studies by Ellis (l978), Caldwell (1980) and Belzer (l976) rntermedlate microcomputer Group C. The assumption was made
indicated little or no significant effect. Although much work has been tha~ the participants represented a sample of graduate students in
done to date, more studies need to be conducted to ascertain the agncultural education. Therefore, the findings and implications of
effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in teaching various the study sho~ld. be generalized to the extent that future groups of
subjects in a variety of learning situations. students are Similar to the participants.
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of using . The 21 students designated as the control group were taught
microcomputer-assisted instruction as compared to a lecture-discus- usrng a lecture-discussion technique. Forty-one students were di-
sion technique in teaching principles and methods of cost recovery :ided i~to two treatment groups to receive microcomputer-assisted
and investment credit on agricultural assets to graduate students in rn~tructlon. The class consisted of two sections with placement deter-
agricultural education (Rohrbach, 1983). This topic was identified as ml~~d by previous microcomputing experience. Students with the
being of importance to teachers in providing them the necessary ablll~ to run and edit software programs were assigned to the inter-
background to teach lessons in farm records. mediate-level group, and the remaining students were assigned to
the beginners group.
4 THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT
THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT 5
Demographic data were collected from all subjects in relation tion in farm management and a graduate research assistant in farm
to age, teaching experience, and knowledge and use of principles management.
and methods relating to cost recovery and investment credit. Prior
The evaluation instrument used in the study was developed to
experience with the information was calculated on a nine-point
measure the attainment of concepts in the learning package. The
scale.
written evaluation was subjected to the Kuder-Richardson 20 test
Before receiving instruction, each group was introduced to the which yielded a reliability coefficient of .89. Validity of each question
study by giving them the same orientation to the procedures to be was established by a panel of experts with experience in teaching
used. It was explained that the learning sessions would be followed the concepts related to the material. There were 29 questions on the
with a written evaluation on the material presented. They were told test which were worth one point each.
that the evaluation score would not count toward their grade in the
Null hypotheses were developed to test the research questions
course, but that it was important that they do as well as possible.
of the study. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the first
The classes comprising the control group were organized into null hypothesis of no difference in performance among the groups
two-hour class sessions. The instructor used two-hour sessions on (Ho l ). Differences were isolated using the Scheffe post hoc proce-
two consecutive days for teaching using a lecture-discussion tech- dure. A Pearson correlation coefficient was used to ascertain the
nique. The written evaluation was given during the first hour of the relationship between time spent on microcomputer-assisted instruc-
third day. tion and student performance (H0 2). Demographic data were exam-
ined to ascertain the homogeneity of the control group and experi-
The treatment groups were given general instructions about mental groups. An alpha level of .05 was used in testing the
operating the microcomputer learning program and were told they hypotheses. The data were analyzed with the Statistical Analysis
could spend a maximum of four hours in the laboratory working System library computer package at the University of Missouri-Co-
with the microcomputer-assisted instruction. The instructor who lumbia (Ray, 1982).
taught the control group was in the microcomputer laboratory to
Results
respond to questions and monitor student progress. Students were
given two days to complete the task, were asked to keep a record of The age, teaching experience, prior experience with materials
the amount of time used, and were given the written evaluation and time on task varied somewhat among groups as shown in Table
during a one-hour time period of the third day. 1.2. Time on task was held constant at 200 minutes for the control
group, but ranged from 30 to 221 minutes for Group B and from 45
Development of Materials and Instrument to 180 minutes for Group C.
The materials used in teaching principles and methods in cost recov- Table 1.2 Characteristics of Participants
ery and investment credit with the lecture-discussion method have
Relative
been in place for three years and were the basis for writing a com-
Prior
puter teaching program. The microcomputer learning modules, Teaching Experience
written in BASIC Language for the Apple lie microcomputer, con- Experience with Time on Task
tained the principles, methods, examples, objectives, problems and Age (years) (years) Materials in Minutes
so forth to be learned by students in the segment of the class de- N Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range
voted to cost recovery and investment credit. The modules were Control
designed to present the concepts using the same problems and ex- Group A 21 29.8 22-53 5.9 0-25 4.29 0-9 200 200-200
amples used in the lecture discussion procedure. All teaching materi- Treatment
als and related microcomputer learning modules were checked for Group B 25 33.0 22-44 8.4 0-17 4.08 0-9 112.2 30-221
Treatment
technical accuracy by a professor of agricultural economics respon-
Group C 16 35.6 24-50 11.4 1-24 4.81 0-9 90.4 45-180
sible for preparing inservice materials related to tax law changes, a
professor of agricultural education responsible for inservice educa- Total 62 32.6 22-53 8.3 0-25 4.34 0-9 136.3 30-221
INTEGRATION Method.
Results.
XERCISE 1.4 Writing Up Your Own Research Discussion.
The best way to benefit from this book is to conduct an actual experimental re- STEPS IN BEGINNING THE RESEARCH PROCESS
search project and then to write up the results. Perhaps you are currently in-
volved in a research project. If you are not, the following exercise will help you Select an area of interest.
get practical experience in carrying out and writing up experimental research. Focus on one aspect of the area.
Write a research question.
1. By yourself, or with a group of classmates, choose an area of interest that
you would like to research. Limit this area to a specific topic that will Formulate a hypothesis.
produce numerical data. Following are some examples of possible Design the study.
research topics.
In order to better understand the function of Stage I, the setting, let us begin by
briefly looking at all five stages of an introduction. Following is the introduction
to the research report about computers in education that we saw in Chapter 1.
Notice that it contains five distinct stages.
Establishing a Context During the past 40 years, the United States has experienced
the integration of the computer into society. Progress has been
made to the point that small, inexpensive computers with ex-
Stage I
panded capabilities are available for innumerable uses. Many
schools have purchased and are purchasing microcomputers for
infusion into their directed learning programs.
WHAT HAVE YOU OBSERVED? tl(iA le,;e,(p. E'fE MOVEMENTS WHILE WATCHING A BASEBALL PITCH
1. What do you think is the purpose of each of the five stages in this PI. 5ji+i~'" Vr"tl~any motor skills require action based on rapid change in
introduction? 1 ... fvh' the envir~nment. 20 ne such skill is baseball batting. 3The baseball
2. Why do you think the writers put the five stages in this particular order? tVt-' Ii' L batter relies most heavily on vision for pertinent information.
3. Do you think this order of information could be used for writing 4Moreover, a good pitcher will attempt to give the hitter mislead-
introductions in other fields, or is it valid only for education? ing cues during the wind-up and delivery. 5Visual-search strategies
4. Which stage is the longest? Can you see any reason for this? must be used by a batter to sample relevant locations in the visual
display so response can be made at the proper time.
/ti5f);>r / 6Research has shown that visual-search patterns can be gov-
erned by a variety of factors including experience. 7Mourand and
Ordering your Information Rockwell (l972) examined the visual-search strategies used by six
l ~olAc,e
The preceding example is typical of introductions to experimental research re- novice and four expert drivers. 8Novice drivers sampled their mir-
C&ivtfJ) rors and instruments more frequently than did expert drivers. 90 n
ports in many different fields in terms of (1) the kinds of information it provides
to the reader and (2) the order in which the information is sequenced. Figure the freeway, novice drivers made smooth pursuit movements while
the experts made only eye fixations.
2.2 illustrates this sequence.
10Bard, Fleury, Carriere, and Halle (1980) examined the
visual-search patterns of expert and novice gymnastic judges.
FIRST STAGE: General statement(s) about a
11They found that the expert judges had 27% fewer fixations than
field of research to provide the reader with a . .IU d ges. 12E ye f"Ixatlons a Iso d'ff
novice I ered for novice and expert
setting for the problem to be reported
basketball pl~. 13Bard and Fleury (1976) showed slides of
GENERAL SECOND STAGE: More specific statements typical offensive basketball situations to players and recorded their
about the aspects of the problem already eye movementslfixations. 14Expert players made fewer fixations
studied by other researchers than novices.
15The informational content of various portions of a base-
THIRD STAGE: Statement(s) that indicate the
ball's trajectory from pitcher to batter has been debated but most
need for more investigation
of the research has focused on the terminal portion of the ball
FOURTH STAGE: Very specific statement(s) flight. 16The purpose of the present study was to examine the vis-
SPECIFIC giving the purpose/objectives of the writer's ual-search strategies of expert and novice baseball players during
study the preparatory phase (wind-up and release of the pitch) of base-
ball hitting. 17A second goal was to document the existence of an
FIFTH STAGE: Optional statement(s) that
give a value or justification for carrying out eye-movement reaction time prior to the eyes tracking the pitch.
the study
FIGURE 2.2 The fives stages of the introduction.
ESTABLISHING A CONTEXT 23
22 ESTABLISHING A CONTEXT
Sentence(s) _ EXERCISE 2.2 Analysis
Stage I (the setting):
Stage II (already studied): Sentence(s) _
Following is an example of Stage I from the introduction to a research re-
Stage III (investigation needed): Sentence(s) _ port about waste-water treatment. Read the selection and then answer the
questions which follow.
Stage IV (purpose): Sentence(s) _
Writers do not always arrange the stages of their introductions in this exact THE USES OF DUCKWEED IN WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
order. Sometimes a writer interrupts one stage with another, and then returns CrAb
to the earlier stage. Sometimes Stage II (usually called "The Review of Litera- 1 Clean watJr is a basic human need. 21ts discovery, trans-
ture") is completely separate from the rest of the introduction. (In theses an~ port, and systematic renewal have always been crucial to all but
dissertations, for example, it is often written as a separate chapter.) Stage V IS the least densely populated societies. 31ncreasing population and
often omitted entirely, as we saw in the preceding example. However, the gen- industrial wastes, together with diminishing sources of easily avail-
eral plan given here is very common and is the easiest for the beginning re- able energy with which to manage them, are converging to em-
search writer to use. phasize that all the earth's resources are finite. 4But the supply of
clean water, though also finite, is at least infinitely renewable.
5Among the various approaches to improving present tech-
nologies for waste-water treatment, several involve the use of
plants, which can remove pollutants and provide materials useful
Inventing the Setting as animal feeds or energy sources. 6Various aquatic plants are
being proposed in such approaches, and the duckweeds in particu-
You should write the setting (Stage I) of your introduction so that it provides
lar, an essentially unique group of higher aquatic plants, might be
your readers with the background necessary to see the particular topic of your especially advantageous in such systems.
research in relation to a general area of study. In order to do thiS, start with
obvious, generally accepted statements about the area in which you are work-
ing. Then, step by step, move the reader closer to your specific topic. You may
do this in just a few sentences or in several paragraphs.
You can think of this stage as a process of first, establishing a "universe" 1. Which sentences in the preceding introduction make obvious statements
for your readers; then, isolating one "galaxy" within this universe; and finally, or statements that would be accepted as fact concerning the general area?
leading your readers to one "star" in the galaxy. That "star" is your specific
topic. In the example about baseball, the universe is "motor skills," the galaxy is 2. Which sentence focuses on one subarea of the general area of study?
"baseball batting," and the star is "visual-search strategies of batters."
l'his process can create large water potential EXERCISE 2.4 Library
differences between the leaves
and the soil surrounding the In the library, locate a journal article, thesis, or dissertation reporting re-
roots. search findings in your area of interest. Find Stage I of the introduction (the
setting), photocopy it, and analyze it by answering the following questions:
Look. at the first two sent.ences of a report from the field of psychology. Indi-
c~te If each of the genenc noun phrases underlined is countable (plural or
slng~lar) or uncountable by placing a C or U above the phrase. The first
Generic Noun Phrases one IS done for you.
Statements in the setting of an introduction tend to be general in nature. In-
stead of referring to specific things, they often refer to entire classes of things.
When you write sentences that contain nouns referring to an entire class of
things, you should use generic noun phrases to carry this meaning. Generic U
noun phrases refer to all members of a particular class of living things, objects 1 Happiness is one of the six human emotions said to be universally
like "alluvial diamonds," or concepts like "diamond production" in the previous present and understood. 2A smile, one of the expressions of emo-
example. tion that appears to be universally exhibited and understood~
In English there are different ways to write generic noun phrases. If the thought to be sensitive to social context and to be shaped by social
noun is countable, you can make it generic by adding the plural marker -s and factors. --
omitting any article, or by using it in its singular form with the indefinite article a
or an.
ESTABLISHING A CONTEXT 29
28 ESTABLISHING A CONTEXT
'.
In a dd Itlon, Eng \.IS h h as a fourth way of forming generic nouns you. should
. d A countable noun in its singular form sometimes SPECIFIC NOUN PHRASES: Pointing Back to Old Information
earn to recogmze an use. . . . . k' d f
arnes t e genenc meamng when used with the defmlte
. h . . . . article the. This 10.. 0
. h ' ft used when referring to hvmg creatures or famlhar EXAMPLE: New Mexico Solar Energy Institute is developing
enenc noun p rase IS 0 en
a computerized diagnostic assistant for solar domes-
achinery and equipment.
tic hot water systems. The computer-implemented
assistant will be used at naval shore facilities
throughout the world.
GENERIC NOUN PHRASES: Countable Nouns with the
If you are having difficulty determining which, if any, article to use ~efore a
noun or noun phrase, ask yourself the following sequence of questions:
DESIGN OF ALUMINUM BICYCLE FRAMES
1. Is the noun meant in a general or a speCific sense? If it is specifiC, use
1 Recent concerns about expenditure of energy_
"the" before the noun. If it is general, ask yourself a follow-up question:
for human transportation_ have accentuated need for
2. Is the noun countable or uncountable? If it is countable, use a or an
more efficient passenger vehicle_ . 2The result has been an un-
(singular) or -s on the end (plural). If it is uncountable, use 0 (no article or
precedented increase in use of lightweight structural
-s ending).
materials in manufacture of automobile_ in
United States. 3Another result has been increased pop-
ularity of bicycle_ for practical transport.
I YOUR NOUN PHRASE I
'"
4With large interest in bicycle transportation,
research has been conducted at University of
.. /
.. ..
California, Davis in recent years to develop _ lightweight alu-
1. GENERAL? SPECIFIC? minum bicycle. 5 _ _ Aluminum_ was chosen because prelimi-
nary calculation_ showed that weight could be reduced while
.. ..
increasing frame efficiency. 6 _ _ Efficiency_ indicates
2. UNCOUNTABLE? COUNTABLE? the (add -5 if plural) ability of a frame to absorb as small an amount of en-
ergy as possible from total usable effort during pedal-
ing. 7Hence, _ highly efficient frame delivers almost all usable
0 alan (singular) rider effort to the drive train with very little energy going into
-5 (plural) distortion of frame.
FIGURE 2.3
32 ESTABLISHING A CONTEXT
F~TABLISHING A CONTFYT
xpressing Old Information
IMPLIED OLD INFORMATION
here are various ways you can state old information to connect back to the
nformation in a previous sentence. One way is to simply repeat a word or to EXAMPLE: Curly top virus can be a serious problem in toma-
use a derived form of the word. toes. The incidence [of curly top Virus] varies from
year to year.
EXPRESSING OLD INFORMATION: Word Repetition EXAMPLE: Withholding or Withdrawing life-supporting treat-
and Derivation ment is one of the most important ethical issues for
medicine in the late twentieth century. At least six
EXAMPLE: Approximately three years ago, an apparently new physicians have been accused of murder [to give
and unexplained disorder called acquired immune you one example of the ethical consequences in-
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was recognized. Char- volved in Withholding or withdrawing treatment] this
year alone.
acteristically, AIDS is associated with a progressive
depletion of T cells.
Another way you can indicate old information is to use pronouns and pointing
words.
EXPRESSING OLD INFORMATION: Pronouns 1 Hydrology is based on the water cycle, most commonly
and Pointing Words called the hydrologic cycle. 2 is visu-
alized as beginning with the evaporation of water from the oceans
EXAMPLE: Water is one of the most intriguing substances on and continental lands. 3The resulting
earth. It has the interesting property that its freezing is condensed to form clouds, which in turn may result in precipi-
point is within the range of the earth's surface tem- tated water, or precipitation. 4 which
perature variation for significant parts of the year. falls upon the land is dispersed in several ways. SA large portion is
temporarily retained in the soil near where it falls and is ultimately
EXAMPLE: Ice forms when water is cooled to O°C and con- returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration of
tinues to lose heat. Generally, this happens when plants. 6 of the precipitated water,
the air temperature falls below a°C. called runoff, finds its way over and through the surface soil to
stream channels, while penetrates
into the ground to become part of the earth's groundwater supply.
Sometimes you can assume the reader knows the old information without your
haVing to state it explicitly.
1. Imagine you are a researcher working for the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. For the last year, you have EXERCISE 2.14 Writing Up Your Own Research
been gathering statistical data that will allow you to predict the location
and severity of food shortages for the coming decade. Your data include: Now that you have practiced writing the setting for the introduction to a
research report on a topic of general interest, apply what you have learned
per capita income ~ in this chapter to the topic you selected for your own research project in
gross national product from selected countries of the world for the Chapter 1. Write a setting (Stage I) for the introduction to your study.
food production figures past 20 years
export and import figures Before you start writing, think about how you can best orient your readers
to your specific topic. Remember, the setting should give them a frame of refer-
2. You must now write a report to be published by the U.N. stating your ence that will allow them to see how your topic fits into the wider "universe" of
findings and making your predictions. your general area. Restrict your setting to one or two paragraphs. To help you
3. Suppose you have already organized and outlined the information for the plan this section, consider the organization and language conventions we have
other stages of the introduction to your report except Stage I. The other studied in this chapter. Refer to the following checklist to help you remember
three stages will include the following information: these points.
Introduction: Stage I
INFORMATION
Move from general to specific statements.
Begin with generally accepted statements of fact about an area of
study. INTRODUCTION:
Identify one subarea within the general area which includes your
topic. Reviewing
Arrange ideas in logical sequence.
Use old information at the beginning of your sentences.
Previous
Research
LANGUAGE
plural -s;
a or an;
no article;
OVERVIEW
the.
In Stage I of your introduction you establish a setting for your research topic. In
Mark specific noun phrases appropriately:
Stage II you review the findings of other researchers who have already pub-
the. lished in your area of interest. For this reason, Stage II is often called the re-
view of literature. It is essentially an organized collection of references, or
Indicate old information by using repeated or derived words, pro- citations, to other works which are listed in a separate section at the end of your
nouns, or pointing words or by implying old information. report.
The review of literature serves three important functions. First, it continues
the process started in Stage I of giving your readers background information
needed to understand your study. Second, it assures your readers that you are
familiar with the important research that has been carried out in your area.
Third, it establishes your study as one link in a chain of research that is devel-
oping and enlarging knowledge in your field.
1~'~
systems. 10 As part of our continuing program of studies of the
structure and dynamics of Chihuahuan desert ecosystems, we
FIGURE 3.1 Literature review (Stage II). designed the study reported here to understand the relationship
Stage IV between litter redistribution and the spatial distribution and compo-
sition of the soil microarthropod community.
INFORMATION CONVENTIONS
The following introduction is from a report in the field of ecology. Notice how
Stage II supports the background information presented in Stage I.
WHAT HAVE YOU OBSERVED?
1. Notice that the writers of the preceding literature review cite other authors
in two different ways. What are the two ways?
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LInER AND MICROARTHROPODS 2. What do you think determines a writer's choice between these two forms?
IN A CHIHUAHUAN DESERT ECOSYSTEM 3. What do you think determined the order of the citations in the preceding
literature review?
lin most deserts of the world, transitions between topo-
graphic elements are abrupt and watercourses which are dry most
of the time tend to dissipate their occasional waters within local
basins. 20 ccas ional torrential rainfall, characteristic of most desert Citation Focus
regions, washes loose debris into watercourses or transports this
Stage I material, depositing it in and along the shores of ephemeral lakes. When you cite the work of other authors, you may choose to focus either on
3These physical processes result in a redistribution of dead plant the information provided by that author, or on the author him- or herself. The
material (Iitter), affect the distribution of soil water and create a first focus we call information prominent because the information is given pri-
heterogeneous biotic community. 4Therefore, before the dynamics mary importance. The author's name(s) and date of publication are parentheti-
of desert ecosystems can be adequately understood, the spatial cally attached at the end of the sentence. More complete source information is
relationships must be clarified. found in an alphabetical list of references at the end of the paper.
III Look back at the article about desert ecosystems at the beginning of this
chapter. For each sentence (5 through 8) in Stage II, indicate whether the
writers used information prominent or author prominent citations.
INFORMATION PROMINENT CITATION
Sentence 5 _
Information + I Reference number
Sentence 6 _
The introduction of high strength, Sentence 7 _
high flexibility materials has raised
Sentence 8 _
the need for a dynamic approach to
floor design (1,2,8,9) .
Order of Citations
It is possible to arrange your Stage II citations in order from those most distantly
Information prominent citations are commonly used to signal the begin- related to your study to those most closely related, as in the article on desert
ning of Stage II, where the citations refer to research in the general area of your ecosystems. In addition, there are other ways to order your citations. For ex-
study. (They may appear in Stage I as well.) ample, in a literature review describing the history of research in an area, you
As the literature review continues, the citations refer to studies more may arrange your citations in chronological order. Or, if you have a large num-
closely related to your own. In this kind of citation, the author's name is given ber of citations to include in your literature review, as in a thesis or dissertation,
more emphasis. It serves as the subject of the sentence, followed by the date or you can group them according to the different approaches to the research prob-
citation number in parentheses, and then by the information. This kind of cita- lem taken by different authors. The citations within each group can then be
tion is called author prominent. ordered chronologically or from general to specific.
e>\ '<i~
REVIEWING PREVIOUS RESEARCH C$ ~ REVIEWING PREVIOUS RESEARCH 45
(Anderson, 1943), initiating structure-consideration (Hemphill,
ORDERING OF CITATIONS 1957), directiveness-warmth (Dunki & Biddle, 1974) task oriented-
supportive (Cruikshank, 1976), and teacher structuring-praise
Citations grouped Citations (Soo, & Soo" 1976). :)
by approach ordered
(One approach) .
chronologically
\..-
_ _ _ (earliest)
Order of citations in example A:__C""---...r_L"'-- _
+
(Another approach)
+
Still another
1-_ _ _ (latest) B. THE MEASUREMENT OF MOBILITY
Look at each of the following examples of Stage II. Indicate if the method
of ordering citations used is distant to close, chronological, different ap-
Order of citations in example B: ----~l:--l------::::).-L:.------------
proaches, or a combination of these methods. Read the title carefully to
determine the specific focus of the author's own study.
c. SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION AND FERTILIZATION OF
FIELD CORN
A. PROVIDING DIRECTION AND BUILDING COMMITMENT: Little literature has been published on subsurface irrigation
TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONAL LEADERSHIP and fertilization through line emitters. Earl and Jury (4), Keng et a!'
(5) and others have examined water movement patterns and root
The conception of teaching as institutional leadership was first development associated with trickle irrigation but in all cases emit-
proposed by Waller (1932) who paid explicit attention to the orga- ters have been placed at or near the soil surface. Williams and
nization of schools and the roles of teacher and student as defined Hanson (1) placed perforated plastic tubing 25 to 30 cm below
by the organization. Recent literature on teacher leadership has cotton rows and over a 3-year period were able to achieve a 10%
not really followed Waller's approach of considering the roles of yield increase when compared to flood irrigation. Phene (9) de-
teachers and students in school organizations but has more closely scribed the use of line emitters for high frequency irrigation of
resembled what Waller referred to as "personalleadership". sweet corn. Yield was 10% higher than obtained with sprinkler
The literature on classroom leadership has also suffered from irrigation with the use of 50% less water. Mitchell et a!' (7) irrigated
problems other than the tendency to deal with personal leadership. field corn with perforated plastic tubing. Over a 3-year period
There has been a great deal of conceptual confusion about the yields with subsurface irrigation averaged 68% more than the non-
dimensions of teacher behavior to be examined. Different investi- irrigated control plots. ~
_--j~~==----fZ)-------'-------
gations have used a variety of variables such as authoritarian-
democratic (Lewin, Lippett & White, 1939), dominant-integrative Order of citations in example C:
The following citations are taken from Stage II of the introduction to a re-
search report from the field of nutrition. The citations are given here in
'4 &F-
cl-
11
J')J,£,.f1Nl1
scrambled order. Number the citations in the order you feel they should
appear in the literature review for this report.
EXERCISE 3.4 Library
I.}~~ t 1 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , In your library locate a journal article, thesis, or dissertation reporting re-
search in your area of interest. Find Stage II (the review of literature), pho-
v _If''( tocopy it, and answer the following questions:
,'IJ' FOOD HABITS OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS AT
~NEW MEXICO STATE UNIVERSITY 1. Is Stage II written inside the introduction, as shown in our diagram (Figure
As you can see from these rules, the progression of verb tenses in your
literature review follows the progression shown in the diagram below.
General Statements about the Research
The present perfect tense is also used in general statements that describe the
LITERATURE REVIEW
level of research activity in an area. These statements are often written without
citations.
Citation form I I Tense I
GENERAL STATEMENTS: Level of Research Activity
Beginning citations: Simple present
Information prominent and
Verb Weak author prominent present perfect
+ +
(present perfect) General statements
Reference number
or date +
Verb of
report
..
Findings
(present)
adjacent sentences, while others were separated by other senten-
ces, ten-year-old children recalled the closely positioned details
better than the more distantly positioned ones. 7Kieras (1978) Sillen (1) showed that aluminum in
seawater is
(study) reading time in adult subjects
regulated by a
using short paragraphs as the learning material. SHe (note) thermodynamic
that reading time was less when a balance.
sentence was preceded by those containing related information
than when one or more unrelated sentences intervened between
directly related ones.
2. When you believe the findings are restricted to the specific study you are
citing, use the past tense in the complement verb.
+
Reference number
or date +
Verb of
report
..
Findings
(past)
reported findings as fact or only tentative. Then rewrite each excerpt.so
that it indicates the opposite attitude.
.. ..
cause an increase in potassium uptake.
Notice that in all three of these cases, the verb of report is always in the past
tense, while the verb tense in the "findings" part of the sentence varies accord-
ing to the author's attitude.
NONSTATIONARITY AND EVALUATION OF MUTUAL FUND
PERFORMANCE
EXERCISE 3.6 Transformation
1 Several authors have evaluated the performance of mutual
Each of the following excerpts is taken from Stage II of a different experi- funds. 2Keynor (17) and Sharpe (15) developed performance mea-
mental research report. In each case, determine if the author views the sures for establishing relative rankings for such funds. 3Treynor
Reread the literature review example that you used for the previous library
exercise. In it, underline the verbs of report and the complement verbs in DIFFERENTIAL GAIN RATES IN INTENSIVE ESL PROGRAMS:
each sentence. Identify the tense of each verb you find and explain why WHO GAINS THE MOST?
the author(s) chose it. Determine if your author(s) followed the language
conventions we have studied for Stage II. Students entering intensive English as a second language
programs at various proficiency levels may make comparatively
greater or lesser gains in proficiency over the same period of train-
ing. The problem of predicting rates of progress is particularly
EXERCISE 3.11 Analyzing Bibliography Conventions interesting for teachers and administrators in intensive programs
Stage I
where some of the students have had little or no previous instruc-
There are several different conventions for constructing a bibliography (list tion in English language skills, but where all students are preparing
of references). To learn the one you should use, go to the library and find a to take university courses in English after a brief period of language
journal in your field. Photocopy the reference page from an .arti~le an~ instruction. The organization and teaching strategies of such a
analyze the order of information elements and the punctuation (including program are crucial to the future academic success of the
capitalization) that is used. Analyze one bibliographic entry for each of the students.
following types of references:
Stage II Literature Review
1. a journal article;
2. a book; A. Several studies-individual characteristics of language learn-
3. an edited volume. ers, environmental variables (classroom,
school, community)
You may want to check with a professor in your department or with the 1. CARROLL: Affective variables of students-predict success
graduate school at your university to see if a particular bibliography style is in foreign language learning?
required. Findings: a. motivation-yes
b. aptitude-yes
c. IQ-no
2. FATHMAN: External variables-affect the successful
learning of English as a second language?
INTEGRATION Findings: a. class size-yes
b. school size-yes
c. school location (urban/rural)-
EXERCISE 3.12 Guided Writing yes
B. Other studies-use standardized English language tests to
Here you are given a background paragraph (Stage I) from the introduction
predict students' academic success
to a research report about students learning English as a second language.
The final part of the introduction (Stages III, IV, and V) is also given. Stage II, 1. MASON: Compare students' initial scores on Michigan
the literature review, is represented in outline form. Using the information in Test of English Language Proficiency with stu-
the outline, write a literature review appropriate for this introduction. Refer dents' grade point average (GPA) after one
to the list of references at the end of the outline for your citation year
information. Findings: Michigan not a good predictor
Carroll, John B. 1962. The prediction of success in intensive foreign When you have finished writing your Stage II, put it together with the
language training. In Training Research and Education, R. Gla- Stage I you wrote in the previous chapter. You may want to make some
ser (Ed.). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. changes in the setting based on the information you have added in the litera-
Fathman, A. K. 1976. Variables affecting the successful learning of ture review. Show these first two stages of your introduction to your instructor
English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly 10:433-441. or research team members to get their reactions.
INFORMATION
1 Food expense is one of the largest recurring items in the 1. You may indicate that the previous literature described in
budgets of most families. 2Today, food purchases take more than Stage II is inadequate because an important aspect of the
one-sixth (17.8%) of the total consumer disposable income in the research area has been ignored by other authors.
United States (3). 3This expenditure includes money spent for meals
2. You may indicate that there is an unresolved conflict among
away from home as well as for food bought for use at home. 4Many
the authors of previous studies concerning the research topic.
demographic factors affect food-buying decisions, including age,
This may be a theoretical or methodological disagreement.
Stage III education, income, and experience (10). 5However, student wives
[
are a specialized population group about which little is known. 6The 3. You may indicate that an examination of the previous litera-
purpose of this study was to learn more about the food-buying prac- ture suggests an extension of the topic, or raises a new
Stage IV [
tices of wives of university students. 71t is hoped that information research question not previously considered by other workers
from this study may be useful in identifying areas of weakness or in your field.
[ lack of knowledge to those who are responsible for planning courses
StageV
and programs in consumer education.
In indicating some kind of gap left by earlier studies, Stage III prepares the
reader for your own study.
66 ADVANCING TO PRESENT RESEARCH ADVANCING TO PRESENT RESEARCH 67
would lead to the acceptance of greater financial risk, reducing the
STAGE III: Missing Information effects of the diminished business risk on total risk.
7While most of the literature on risk and risk response treats
+ I Research topic only production and price risk (i.e., business risk), we intend to intro-
duce the notion of financial risk explicitly into the decision-making
process. Sin this paper we present a conceptual framework for link-
ing production and investment decisions to the financing decision via
However, few studies have the effects of computer a risk constraint.
reported on assisted instruction.
lThere is considerable current interest in methods of limiting Writing Stage IV: The Statement of Purpose
the business risk to which farmers are exposed. 2S ome approaches
to business risk modification involve insurance, government pro- Stage IV serves to state as concisely as possible the specific objective(s) of your
grams, weather modification, and innovations of individual research report. This stage, the statement of purpose, thus follows directly from
farmers. Stage III because it answers the need expressed in Stage III for additional re-
31t is recognized that the introduction or modification of risk in search in your area of study.
the production process affects the pattern of resource allocation and You may write the statement of purpose (Stage IV) from one of two
in turn the level of production (Dillon 1979, pp. 102-48; Just, alternative orientations:
Wiens, and Wolgen 1980). 4We suggest that there is also a
financial response to business risk modification. 5The difference is 1. The orientation of the statement of purpose may be towards the report
important in that business risk and financial risk may well be trade- itself-that is, it may refer to the paper (thesis, dissertation, or report) that
offs in the risk behavior of farmers. 6Th us, a decline in business risk communicates the information about the research.
The purpose of
The aim of
this thesisJ
the present paper
is to determine whether an auto-
............
matic measurement system can be a. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ This paper describes the results of
The objective of this report applied to educational settings. aerial surveys and interviews conducted in Honduras to deter-
mine the distribution and status of manatees in that country.
b. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ In this paper we present a concep-
2. Or the orientation of the statement of purpose may be towards the
research activity, in other words the study itself, rather than the written tual framework for linking production and investment decisions
report. to the financing decision via a risk constraint.
c. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The present study was made to de-
termine whether or not genetic differences in germination at low
STAGE IV: Statement of Purpose temperature exist in pepper species, and to establish the magni-
Research Orientation tude of such differences.
1. The statement of value may be written from the point of view of the 1. Look back at the introduction about the food buying habits of student wives
practical benefits which may result from applying the findings of your at the beginning of the chapter. Indicate the sentence that contains Stage V.
research. Sentence _
2. Look back at the introduction about business and financial risk in Exercise
4.1. Is there a Stage V included in this introduction?
STAGE V: Statement of Value
Practical Orientation Yes No _
3. Sometimes Stage V is combined with Stage IV in the same sentence. In
EXAMPLE A: This research may provide an alternative to the each of the following sentences, draw a slash (/) to indicate where Stage IV
problem of manually demonstrating instrumenta- (the statement of purpose) ends, and Stage V (the statement of value)
tion principles in classroom environments. begins.
EXAMPLE B: The results of this study could be useful to educa-
tors responsible for planning course work in con-
sumer education.
a. This paper describes some demographic factors that might be
important for a better understanding of rural-to-urban
2. Or you may write the statement of value to emphasize the theoretical migration in developing countries.
importance of your study in advancing the state of knowledge in your b. The aim of this investigation was to study groundwater condi-
specific area of research. tions in order to aid in evaluating the general hydrologic
situation in the area under study.
c. The purpose of this study was to learn more about the food-
STAGE V: Statement of Value buying habits of student wives so that areas of weakness or lack
Theoretical Orientation of knowledge could be exposed to those who are responsible
for planning courses and programs in consumer education.
EXAMPLE A: Both of the factors under investigation in this study
may be of importance in explaining the irregular d. The effect of soil temperature on Verticillium wilt disease in
occurrence of this disease. peppers is discussed in this paper, as is varietal susceptibility of
the pepper host, both of which may be of importance in ex-
EXAMPLE B: Results of this study may suggest a broader hy-
plaining the irregular occurrence of the disease in California.
pothesis for further research into the effects of
atmospheric chemicals on rubber.
The following sentences are taken from an introduction to a research report Find the introduction to a study in your field from a thesis, dissertation, or
in the field of environmental engineering. Identify the stage that each sen- journal article in your library. Identify Stages III, IV, and V. Also, indicate:
tence represents (from I to IV), and then number the sentences in the order
you believe the authors used when they wrote the report. You may find more 1. which orientation (research or report) the author used in Stage IV;
than one sentence for each stage. 2. which point of view (practical or theoretical) the author used in Stage V;
3. what research question the author(s) had in mind when they designed the
study.
Notice that nouns like literature, research, and work are uncountable and are
therefore followed by singular verb forms.
On the other hand, if you choose to use the report orientation, use the
B. SOME CHEMICAL EFFECTS IN FATIGUE
present or future tense.
CRACKING OF VULCANIZED RUBBER
~
This thesis
will
deal with f the implementation and operation of
discuss an automatic measurement system
appropriate for classroom and labo-
ratory demonstrations.
ere you are given several research questions implying different experi- Selec~ing the most appropriate modal auxiliary is often a problem because the
lental purposes. Convert each question to a Stage IV statement of meanmgs of some of these words differ only slightly from one another. Use the
urpose. Practice using both report and research orientation. chart below to help you choose the best modal auxiliary when you are writing
these stages. The modals are listed here in order of their degree of
tentativeness.
L. What are the groundwater characteristics of the Animas Basin in Colorado?
~. Do bacteria counts differ under transient and steady-state conditions using
the direct microscopic count method?
t What is the optimal engineering design method for rock filter systems? MODAL AUXILIARIES: Degrees of Tentativeness
l. Can alluvial diamond deposits be analyzed as systematically as any other (SURE)
geological phenomenon?
STAGE IV:
). How long does advertising affect the sales of a particular product? EXAMPLES:
no doubt about the future
The data contained in this report
will supplement that presented in
tage V-Model Auxiliaries and Tentativeness
our earlier publication.
tage V, the statement of value, is usually written in a way that suggests an
:titude of tentativeness or modesty on the part of the author. When reporting no doubt about the future, assuming The purpose of this study was to
)ur own study, you should not sound too sure of the benefits, either practical certain conditions
determine if the use of home com-
r theoretical, of your work. It is conventional to sound more cautious. This is puters would improve the math
:complished in Stage V by using modal auxiliaries, principally may. scores of third grade children.
STAGE V:
STAGE V: Statement of Value Using Modal Auxiliaries reasonable expectation about the This alternative method should
future
simplify the analysis procedure.
some doubt about the future Both of the factors studied here
I Your research I + I Modal auxiliary I + may be of importance in explaining
the occurrence of this disease.
The application of the ~ may ~ increase the proportion of more doubt about the future
Results of this study could have
strategies described here 1 should f drug abusers who can be considerable impact on estimates of
identified. land values.
The system described here could serve as the basis for a
study of automatic mea- (TENTATIVE)
surement systems in an
instrumentation course.
rhe same introduction you have been practicing with is again given here,
:>ut this time the sentences are indicated only by lists of key words. Without INTEGRATION
·eferring to the original, reconstruct one sentence from each list. Add all
lecessary words and word endings, and write out each group as a com-
:>Iete sentence. The key words are grouped and listed in the correct order.
EXERCISE 4.14 Guided Writing
LANGUAGE
METHOD
AUDITORY COMPREHENSION OF ENGLISH BY
MONOLINGUAL AND BILINGUAL PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Method
1A bilingual group and a monolingual group, each com-
overview [
prised of 30 children, were compared. 21n each group there were
six subjects at each of five different age levels. 3The subjects were
OVERVIEW sample [ selected from seven day care centers in Houston. 4These centers
accept only child~en from below poverty thr~shold; th.us, compara-
After the introduction, the second major section of the experimental research restrictions [ ble socioeconomic status among the test sublects was Insured.
report, often labeled method, describes the steps you followed in conducting
5The bilingual subjects were selected from the 99 Mexican-
your study and the materials you used at each step. The method section is use-
American children in a previous study (Carrow, 1971) on the basis
ful to readers who want to know how the methodology of your study may have sampling
of performance at age mean or above in both languages on a test
influenced your results, or who are interested in replicating or extending your technique
[ of auditory comprehension. 6This criterion was employed to assure
study.
basic understanding of both languages.
In this chapter we first look at the general kinds of information included in
7The test instrument employed in this study was a revised
method; then we focus on the part of the method section that describes proce-
version of the Auditory Test for Language Comprehension (Car-
dural steps. In the next chapter we examine materials.
row, 1968), which permits the assessment of oral language
. materials comprehension of English and Spanish without requiring language
expression. Sit consists of a set of 114 plates, each of which
contains three black and white line drawings representing 15
\ 7 grammatical categories.
9Both groups were tested by the same examiner, a Mexican-
90 METHOD METHOD 91
subsequent performance when the test was administered again in EXERCISE 5.1 Analysis
I the second language.
13The test required the child to indicate his response by point- Read the following example of a method section from the field of wildlife
procedure
statistical
treatment [
l ing to the picture which corresponded to the examiner's utter~n~e.
14A score of one was given for each item passed. 15Test admInIs-
tration required 30 to 45 minutes in each language for each child.
16A 2 x 5 analysis of variance was used to test for age and
language group differences.
science. The study investigated the blood chemistry of bears and its
relationship to seasonal changes in bears' activity. Identify the information
elements you find in each sentence of the selection. (NOTE: Some senten-
ces may contain more than one element.)
(. always included)
U~TLlnn
INFORMATION ELEMENT INFORMATION ELEMENT c. Twelve women from one of these villages were offered
supplementary food 6 days a week. The remaining ten women
Sentence 6: _
Sentence 1: from the other two villages were unsupplemented.
Sentence 2: Sentence 7: _ d. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and body weight for
Sentence 3: Sentence 8: _ each woman were measured approximately every 6 weeks
Sentence 4: Sentence 9: _ during pregnancy. Subjects were asked not to eat or work
Sentence 10: _ beforehand. After the subject had lain quietly in an air-condi-
Sentence 5:
tioned room for 30 min, RMR was measured by open-circuit
calorimetry.
Writing the Procedural Description e. Twenty-two pregnant women ages 20-32 years from
three villages in a remote rural area of Gambia, West Africa,
The description of the steps you followed in conducting your study should be were investigated.
written clearly so that a reader in your field could accurately replicate your pro-
f. The subjects breathed through a respiratory valve and
cedure. Of course, the best way to describe a procedure is step-by-step, or
chronologically. expired air was collected into a Douglas bag. The volume was
measured with a large capacity wet-type gas meter (Alexander
Wright Co Ltd, London). Oxygen and carbon dioxide concen-
EXERCISE 5.2 Arrangement trations were measured with a Servomex OA580 oxygen
analyser (Taylor Instrument Analytics Ltd, Crowborough,
The method section from a research report in the field of medicine is given
Sussex) and a model SSI carbon dioxide analyser (Analytical
here with the sentences in scrambled order. Rearrange and number the
sentences in a more conventional order, as you think the authors originally Development Co Ltd, Herts).
wrote them.
94 METHOD METHOD 95
2. - - - - - - - - - The study areas were established LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS
.. the southeast slopes of Mt. Summer-
on a waters he d d raining
ford on the Dona Ana rcnge on the University Ranch, 40 km Choosing Verb Tense and Voice in Procedural Description
NNE of Las Cruces, Dona Ana County, New Mexico.
Several grammatical conventions govern the method section. In this chapter we
3. - - - - - - - - - - Three gibberellic acid combina-
concentrate on those conventions governing the procedural description. These
tions, 0, 500, and 1000 ppm, were used in a factorial concern choosing the correct verb tense and verb voice.
combination of treatments replicated 10 times in a completely
randomized design.
SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW Pretest
4. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The ocean depth in the area under
The following procedural description is taken from a report in the field of
study is 2000 m. civil engineering. It describes a construction project in which a special
5. The subjects were 116 students of technique was used in bUilding a dam to stabilize the ground under the
English as a second language enrolled in the Continuing structure. Fill in each blank space with any appropriate word.
Education Program at Queens College, New York.
6. A proportionate, stratified,
random, cross-sectional sample was employed. The number of STABILIZATION OF SOILS BY MEANS
OF ELECTRO-OSMOSIS
workers from each trade included in the study reflected the
proportion of the construction population represented by that Procedure
trade.
7. Analyses of variance were used to 1 An earthen dam was constructed across the West Branch of
detect significant differences among varieties or locations. the Mahoning River in northeastern Ohio. 2Three spillway conduits
Duncan's multiple range test was used to separate means. at the base of the dam monitored for deformation
during construction of the embankment. 3 Just prior to completion
of the embankment, large deformations _
4The top of the embankment subsequently moved,
and piezometers were installed. Sit was _
EXERCISE 5.4 Library
that the piezometric levels in the clay were extremely high. 6Stabil-
In the library find a study in your field (either a journal article, a thesis, or a ity analyses that the piezometric levels
dissertation). Locate the section or chapter corresponding to method and needed to be immediately lowered, and electro-osmosis was
make a photocopy of the section. Then answer the following questions.
- - - - - - - -_ _ as the most suitable method for this
1. Is the section (or chapter) in your report labeled "method"? If not, what is purpose.
it called? 7Electrodes were positioned at the bottom of the clay deposit,
2. Which of the elements from the list on page 92 can you find in your along the central 1OOO-ft long portion of the embankment. 8Eight
example? In what order are they presented?
rows of electrodes installed along the top of the
3. Read the part of your example that describes the procedure used in the
study. Is it written clearly enough so that you can easily understand the embankment, and six rows placed along both the
sequence of steps that the experimenters describe? upstream and downstream sides.
Choosing the Correct Verb Tense in Procedural Descriptions IThe determination to locate a route underground is a basic
factor in the cost of the fixed facilities of the transit system. 20 nce
The procedures you used in carrying out your study should usually be described the decision is made to build underground, the general station
in the simple past tense. Sentences included under method that are not locations are selected. 3Design and construction costs then become
written in the past tense usually do not refer to the procedures used in the study controlled by station configuration, site considerations, geotechni-
being reported. Instead, they may describe standard procedures that are com- cal conditions, station size, and system depth. 4These factors
monly used by others. indicate the large potential range of construction costs for under-
ground subway stations. 5 To illustrate this range, several transit
systems were visited, and seven typical station designs were devel-
oped as a representative range of acceptable solutions (see Figure
PROCEDURAL DESCRIPTIONS:
5.2).
Past Tense
6The first five types are open cut, and the last two are mined.
7Types 1 and 2 are very shallow or at platform level. 8Stations
Surveys were sent to student health services at 180 colleges.
such as those are common to most systems, and particularly to
The study was carried out on a marine laboratory research Mexico City. 9Type 3 is a low-height train room with the mezzanine
vessel. underground, separated from the main train room. I 0The Toronto
stations are examples of this type. II Type 4 is a station with
The generators supplied about 14,000 amps when fully
platforms stacked one above the other. 12Although this station is
operational.
not often used, it has advantages in narrow or constricted areas.
13Type 5 is a station with the mezzanine inside the train room.
14Many systems are adopting this type of station. 15Type 6 is a
NOTE: In a few fields of study, procedural descriptions can sometimes be single-chamber system, and Type 7 is constructed with multiple
written in the simple present tense. You should check journals in your field (see chambers. 16Type 6 is not widely used, but Type 7 is used exten-
Exercise 5.11) or ask professors in your university department to determine sively, e.g., in London.
which convention to use. 17Cost estimates were prepared for these various stations at
different depths of cover, assuming that ground conditions, utilities,
adjacent structures, and other controls were constant over the
EXERCISE 5.5 Analysis range of estimates. 181n order to standardize estimates and permit
comparison of cost factors, station Type 5 was used as the refer-
Read the following excerpt and examine Figure 5.2, both taken from ence station. 19The cost for this station with 20 ft of cover was
another report in the field of civil engineering. This study investigated calculated and established at 1.00-the basis for comparative
possible construction designs for the underground stations in a subway estimates.
98 METHOD METHOD 99
Cut-and-Cover Box
Choosing the Appropriate Verb Voice-Active or Passive
Mezzanine Separate ~
"",ruM You can use either the active or the passive voice when you describe the proce-
from Trainroom and at ~
1 Street Level
Side Platform
dure used in your project. Examples of both voices are given in the following
box. Notice that the formation of the passive voice requires the be auxiliary +
Cut-and-Cover Box the past participle of a verb.
Structure Sl
M"uoi" 8<",.,"" ~
8Q
2 from Trainroom and at
Platform Level
III III
PROCEDURAL STATEMENTS
Side Platform - --~
c:
.2 Sl
ACTIVE VOICE
1ii
>
C"'-ood-Co~, B"
Structure
~
CIlI
u Mezzanine Separate
W
)( III
3 w
'5
0
from Trainroom and
Above Platform Level Q
I Agent I +
Main verb
+ I Object I + I Complement I
Side Platform (active)
c:
QI
Co
0 C"'-.od-Co~'
Structure
B" '
III
Mezzanine Separate
Q We stress to the rubber segments in
4 from Trainroom and
Above Platform Levels
Stacked Platforms Q
gradually increasing incre-
ments.
Cut-and-Cover Box Sl
~
Structure
PASSIVE VOICE
Mezzanine within
However, your professor or editor may specifically ask you not to use the ( \ v;,,~O ~'''-
passive voice because he or she prefers a more personal style with fre-
"ou>r.O \
s. -_~ ...
.
• ~-210_
in example C. A.lfi. _
Method Past
participle!
+I CONJUNCTION 1+I Subject! 1+B + Past
participle 2
1 We started construction of the reinforced concrete structure
in July, 1976, and completed it by May, 1977. 2We built standard
sections of forms for the casting of the concrete. 3We used The data were collected and they were analyzed.
~
concrete of the B225 type, in accordance with government regula-
tions. 4At the two ends of the structure we constructed wingwalls,
SHORT FORM:
and we installed three side openings on the downhill side to
provide enough daylight to render the use of electric lights The data were collected and analyzed.
unnecessary.
FULL FORM:
Past
participle,
+I CONJUNCTION 1+ I Subject 1+ G:l
U + participle
2Past
2
WEED CONTROL IN CHILE PEPPERS AT THE
ESPANOLA VALLEY BRANCH STATION
SHORTENING "WHICH" CLAUSE SENTENCES obtain between two to five plants per hill which were spaced at
IN THE PASSIVE VOICE 3-ft intervals.
FULL FORM:
4. _ _ _ The variety which was seeded each year was
I Subject I+I CONJUNCTION I+B + Past
participle,
+ I Verb I + I Complement I Espanola No.1.
The data which were obtained were subjected to an 5. _ _ _ A randomized block design was used each year with
~
analysis of three replications in 1966 and 1968.
variance.
SHORT FORM:
6. _ _ _ Weed counts were made and records were kept of the
time which was required to remove weeds from one 30-ft row.
The data obtained were subjected to an
analysis of
variance.
M~Tl-tnn
104 METHOD
EXERCISE 5.8 Identification
Read the following selection describing the procedures used to carry out a 1A mathematical model developed for the
study in the field of economics. Underline all examples of the passive
evaluation of alternative natural gas policies. 2The model is based
voice. Also, underline any short forms of the passive that you recognize.
upon a simplified energy-demand function which relates the quan-
tity of energy consumed to price. 3This relationship _
not by a statistical procedure. 4Rather,
AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF NATURAL GAS parameters specified which, on the basis of previous
POLICY ALTERNATIVES studies, were to approximate market
behavior.
Procedures SEnergy consumption was defined to include natural gas, oil,
1A mathematical model was developed for the evaluation of and electricity in the residential, com-
alternative natural gas policies. 2The model is based upon a mercial, and industrial sectors. 6Fuels used for transportation and
simplified energy-demand function which relates the quantity of oil for industrial feedstock were
energy consumed to price. 3This relationship was not estimated by
------- because natural gas is not generally
a statistical procedure. 4Rather, parameters were specified which,
on the basis of previous studies, were thought to approximate used for these purposes. 71t is used to produce anhydrous
market behavior. ammonia, but this use was also _
SEnergy consumption was defined to include natural gas, oil, 8The supply and price of natural gas and the prices of
and electricity used in the residential, commercial, and industrial potential natural gas substitutes specified for each
sectors. 6Fuels used for transportation and oil used for industrial
policy option. 9The model was then to
feedstock were excluded because natural gas is not generally used
for these purposes. 71t is used to produce anhydrous ammonia, but calculate the price of energy, the quantity of energy, and the quan-
this was also excluded. tities of natural gas substitutes that would consumed.
8The supply and price of natural gas and the prices of 10From this information, policy alternatives evalu-
potential natural gas substitutes were specified for each policy
ated by comparing the consumer expenditure _
option. 9The model was then used to calculate the price of energy,
the quantity of energy, and the quantities of natural gas substitutes with each policy.
that would be consumed. 10From this information, policy alterna-
tives were evaluated by comparing the consumer expenditure
associated with each policy.
Part of the procedural section you have been practicing with is given again,
EXERCISE 5.9 Fill-in but this time the sentences are indicated only by lists of key words. Without
looking back to the original, reconstruct one sentence from each list, using
The procedural description about natural gas policy is given here again. passive voice verbs or short passive forms wherever possible. Add all nec-
This time, without looking back at the original, fill in each blank space with essary words and word endings and write out each group as a complete
any appropriate be auxiliary or past participle. sentence. The key words are grouped and listed in the correct order.
Image of bottle
superimposed
on screen
Method
EXERCISE 5.14. Writing Up Your Own Research
Sample - stratified, random, cross-sectional In previous chapters you have begun writing up an original research pro-
- 2800 construction workers, major midwestern city ject. You have already written the introduction, including a literature review
LANGUAGE
laboratory equipment
field equipment
human or animal subjects
natural substances
fabricated materials
surveys, questionnaires and tests
computer models
mathematical models
Read the following selection taken from a report in the field of solar technology
which describes a design for a solar food dryer. Notice the types of information
the writer has included in this materials description, and the order in which the
information is presented.
A SEE-SAW DRYER
114
I
MATERIALS
lengthwise into parallel channels of equal width, and crosswise by
means of retaining bars. 7The bottom of the dryer was made of
bamboo matting painted black. 8The cover of the frame was made
2.
3.
What is the function of the sentences before that sentence?
What type of material is described in this example, based on the
categories listed in the previous box?
MATERIALS 115
Ordering Your Information sampling and measuring the rate of runoff. 6Power is supplied by
a 1O-horsepower gasoline engine which drives both a centrifugal
If the materials you used are well known to researchers in your field, it is con- pump ond 2-kw electrical generator. 7Water from the tank truck is
ventional to identify them only. However, if you used specially designed or un- supplied to the apparatus by the centrifugal pump (Homart
conventional materials in your experiment, it is common to write a detailed 736.25). 8The pressure of the output from the pump is controlled
description of them in the report. In this case, you should include the following by an adjustable bypass pressure regulator valve plumbed to
information, in the order given: return the excess water to the tank. 9The output from the regulator
is connected to the spray assembly by 100 feet of 3/4 -inch hose.
10This moving spray assembly applies water to the plots through
DESCRIBING SPECIALLY DESIGNED MATERIALS: Three Steps eight nozzles (Spraying Systems 80100), mounted as specified by
Meyer and McCune (2). llThe assembly is moved back and forth
A. Overview: This step consists of one or two sentences that give a olong aluminum I-beams by lh-inch roller chains (see Figure 6.4).
general idea of the material and the purpose for which it is in-
tended.
B. Description of principal parts: Here, each major part or character-
istic of the material is described in logical sequence.
C. Functional description: This last step shows how the various fea-
tures described in Step B function together.
Read the following materials section from an article in the field of soil
science. It describes a piece of field equipment used to simulate natural
rainfall. Identify Steps A, B, and C in the selection (see previous box).
Read the following method section from a study about international stu-
dents in an intensive English program. Then indicate where the description
of materials begins. Finally, find Step B (the description of principal parts)
and determine what type of arrangement plan is used, spatial or functional.
Method
lThe study employed a pre- and posttest design. 2The
FIGURE 6.4 Spray assembly.
Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency (MTELP) was admin-
istered to the students once at the beginning of the program and
again 10 months later at the end of the academic year. 3The
Step A. Overview: From sentence to sentence _ MTELP is a standardized measure designed to predict academic
Step B. Description of principal parts: From sentence _ success of international students at American colleges and universi-
to sentence _ ties. 4The test consists of 100 items and is divided into three parts.
Step C. Functional description: From sentence to sentence _ SPart I contains 40 questions on grammar; Part II contains 40
questions on vocabulary; and Part III contains 20 questions testing
reading comprehension.
Ordering the Description of Principal Parts-Step B
6Students were given an alternative form of the test at the
In Step B you describe the principal features of the material used in your study. second administration (posttest). 7The sample was stratified into
There are two main organizing plans that you can use in this step, depending three general proficiency groups based on the pretest scores,
on your material. which we labeled Low, Middle and High. 8Each group consisted of
21 students, the Low group including students with initial scores of
45 and below, the Middle group with scores falling between 46
ARRANGEMENT PLANS FOR DESCRIBING PRINCIPAL PARTS and 55, and the High group including pretest scores of 56 and
OF MATERIALS (STEP B) above.
MATERI.6.LS 11~
11R U.6.TFAI.6.1 ~
Integrating Materials with Procedure EXERCISE 6.3 Analysis
The materials used in a study are sometimes described separately from the The method section given here is taken from a report in the field of marine
procedures. This arrangement may be used when several different pieces of geology. It is written in integrated form-that is, the materials are described
conventional laboratory equipment are used to carry out a routine procedure. together with the procedure, step by step, in each sentence. After you read
This can be seen in the following example from the field of chemistry. the selection, fill in the blanks in each column to indicate each procedural
step and the material used in that step.
A. ALUMINUM IN SEAWATER:
All the aromatic compounds used were commercially available CONTROL BY BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
materials without further purification. 2-propanol was distilled from
sodium metal. The instrumentation used included an HFT-80 and Procedures
NT-300 spectrometer, a Hewlett Packard 5980-A mass
lTo investigate seasonal and annual variations in physical,
spectrometer, a Waters Associates HPLC Instrument, Model 600A,
chemical and biological properties of a portion of the Mediterra-
and a Varian Aerograph 1400 GC instrument with a 1O-ft column
nean Sea, a standard oceanographic station location 12 nautical
containing 15% Carbowax on Chromosorb W.
miles (22 km) west of Calvi, Corsica, has been occupied by the
Stareso Marine Laboratory research ship Recteur Debuission at
irregular intervals since 1974. 2The ocean depth is 2000 m.
3Water samples for aluminum (AI) and nutrient analysis were col-
More commonly, however, materials and methods are described in an lected there from various depths. 4Temperature of the samples was
integrated form, often with both elements mentioned in each sentence. Notice determined by reversing thermometers.
this arrangement in the following section from the same chemistry experiment. SAil the samples for AI and nutrient analysis were filtered
(The material mentioned in each sentence is underlined, and the procedure through 0.45-J.tm Millipore filters immediately after collection. 6The
is~ircled·D filtered samples were kept at 4°C in polyethylene bottles for later
analysis. 7To prevent further biological activity, one or two drops
of chloroform was added to each sample. 8The samples were
B. analyzed for AI 2 weeks after collection, using lumogallion as the
chelating agent.
1 Aqueous sodium hydroxide (30 g, 185 mL) ~as cooled)in ice
in a 500-mL beaker, ~tirred magnetica!!Y)while 5 g of nickel-alumi-
num alloy ~as adde{Din several small portions, and gradually
&armeC1)to 100°C as required to maintain the hydrogen evolution. PROCEDURAL STEPS MATERIALS
2The ~ was then allowed to settle and the liquid&as decanted)
3After ein washe with 5% fresh sodium hydroxide and distilled 1. collect water samples 1. from research ship
water until neutral, the nickel suspension ~as filtereCDwith a glass
2. determine temperature 2. reversing thermometers
funnel and then finally(washecpwith 100 mL of 2-propanol. 4The
catalyst&as transferreCDwith small amounts of dry 2-propanol to a 3. 3.
glass-stoppered bottle. 4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
120 MATERIALS MATERIALS 121
LIBRARY EXERCISE 6.4
In the library find a study in your field (a journal article, a thesis, or a disser-
EVENT-RELATED BRAIN POTENTIALS IN BOYS
tation written by a student in your field). Locate the section of the report
AT RISK FOR ALCOHOLISM
that describes the materials used in the study. Make a photocopy of this
section and then do the following tasks.
Method
1. Identify the materials used in the study.
2. Determine whether each material mentioned is conventional or specially 1Twenty-five sons of alcoholic fathers were tested. 2The boys
designed. _ _ _ _ _ between the ages of 7 and 13, and a
3. If any of the materials are given an extensive description, find the mean age of 11.9 (standard deviation, 2.1). 31n each case the
sentences in the descriptions that correspond to Step A (overview), Step
father diagnosed as alcoholic and at
B (description of principal parts), and Step C (functional description).
4. If there is a step B, identify the arrangement as spatial, functional, or one time or another had been treated for alcoholism. 4We
some other arrangement plan. excluded the boys whose mothers alcoholic, who had
5. Determine whether the procedures and materials in your selection are been alcoholic during pregnancy or who _
described in an integrated form or separately.
excessively after giving birth. 50nly boys without medical
problems and without exposure to alcohol or
other substances of abuse _
in this study.
LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS 6The 25 normal control (NC) subjects were boys who were
matched for socio-economic status and age to the high-risk (HR)
subjects. 7The NC group a mean age of 12.5 years
Choosing Verb Tense and Voice in Describing Materials (standard deviation, 2.4) and not differ significantly
in age from the HR group. 8They were _
In the first part of this chapter we looked at some conventions for organizing
in the study only if they had no exposure to alcohol or substances
information about the materials used in your study. There are also some gram-
matical conventions you should know in order to describe materials clearly in of abuse, and no history of alcoholism or other
your report. These conventions mainly involve choosing the correct verb tense psychiatric disorder in first- or second-degree relatives. 9 All
and voice.
subjects paid volunteers.
Main verb
I Sample Description
(past)
INVESTIGATING THE LINGUISTIC ACCEPTABILITY
between the ages of 7 and OF EGYPTIAN EFL STUDENTS
The boys were
13.
Method
The men interviewed were primarily from St. Louis, Mo.
The subjects were 18 Arabic-speaking students lThe Michigan Test scores of the 18 students in our sample
attending classes at the Amer- ranged from 71-77%, thus placing them in the upper level English
ican University in Cairo. courses. 2Students in this range of scores generally _
English skills adequate for communicative purposes, but they still
_ _ _ _ _ serious mistakes with tenses, articles, prepositions,
However, when describing the general population from which the sample sub-
and word order. 3These 18 students to us from semi-
jects were selected, the present tense is normally used.
private Language Schools, where the medium of instruction
_ _ _ _ _ typically either French or English, in addition to
DESCRIBING POPULATIONS: Present Tense Verbs Arabic. 4For most students from these schools, English _
the second rather than the first foreign language. 5The 18 students
in our study highly motivated, both to remain at the
Main verb
I Population I (present)
I Description I American University of Cairo and to improve their English
proficiency.
A typical chemical includes a helical, tube-in-tube greenhouse was cooled by pulling outside air through water-
reactor heat exchanger. saturated pads on the south end of the building.
3. Air enters and leaves the solar collector pipe
through the air release vacuum breaker valves mounted at the
highest point of the system.
On the other hand, descriptions of specially designed materials with which 4. The JPL reactor was more heavily instrumented
other workers in your field may not be familiar are usually written in the past than the others for purposes of testing. In addition to inlet and
tense. Common devices that you modified in some special way for use in your
outlet gas temperature measurements, 21 thermocouples were
study are also sometimes described in the past.
located in and on the converter.
5. The quartz reactors tested for this work are fab-
ricated by the Wm. A. Sales Company of Wheeling, Illinois.
Both quartz reactors are configured as six-turn flat spirals,
DESCRIBING SPECIALLY DESIGNED OR MODIFIED MATERIALS:
tube-in-tube, over the entire length.
Past Tense Verbs
6. Liquid from the wall of the column was directed
to the holding chamber and then was carried to the boiler via
Modified Main verb Description a liquid level controller which was specifically designed for this
material (past)
application.
For the testing program was protected from weather
this collector by an outer window of
.10 mm tedlar.
Using Active and Passive Voice in Describing Materials
Both active and passive voice verb constructions are used in describing experi-
mental materials. Your decision to use active or passive voice depends partly on
EXERCISE 6.6 Identification whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. Only transitive verbs can be used in
the passive voice. (Your dictionary will tell you if a given verb is transitive or
Each of the following excerpts comes from a different report. Read each intransitive. )
one and determine if the material described is conventional (assumed to be If the verb is transitive, follow these rules to determine which voice to use:
UATCI:IIAI ~
1. The passive voice is usually used when a human agent (the experimenter) EXERCISE 6.7 Sentence Construction
is manipulating the materials.
Following are two lists, one of verbs and the other of nouns. Match each
verb with an appropriate noun and write a sentence using these two words
that might occur in a description of materials. Use either the active or pas-
HUMAN AGENT INVOLVED: Passive Voice
sive voice, depending on (1) whether the verb is transitive or not; and (2) if
transitive, whether you wish to indicate that a human agent was involved in
EXAMPLE A: The temperature inside the chamber was increased from the action.
0° to 20°C. (The researcher increased the tempera-
ture.) NOUNS VERBS
EXAMPLE B: Four thermocouples were monitored hourly. (A temperature design
researcher monitored them.) questionnaire control
students test
air pressure select
generator produce
2. The active voice is usually used when no human is directly responsible for solar collector rise
manipulating the materials-that is, when the materials operate "by sample decrease
themselves." growth rate measure
population enter
water consist of
NO HUMAN AGENT INVOLVED: Active Voice
EXAMPLE c: A 200 hp generator provided power to the piezometers. EXERCISE 6.8 Identification
EXAMPLE 0: Control gauges monitored air pressure inside the Read the section here describing the design of a solar hot water system.
chamber. Refer to the accompanying diagram. Underline all examples of verbs in the
active voice once. Underline passive voice verbs twice. Also, determine if
the material described is conventional or specially designed.
In examples C and D, the use of the active voice indicates that the experi-
menters were not directly involved in the functioning of the equipment.
• "0
water heater (C) and replaced by solar heated water. 6An elec- EXERCISE 6.9 Fill-in
tronic control turns the pump on only during those hours when
usable solar energy can be collected. 71t also activates the drain- The description of the solar system is given again here. This time, without
down valve (E) to drain the system when the collectors sense a looking back at the original, fill in each blank with an appropriate active or
freeze, or when the storage tank is completely charged with passive verb or auxiliary in the correct tense. Refer to the figure if neces-
thermal energy. sary.
8The existing water heater serves as a back-up unit during
long periods of cloudy weather, or when demand is unusually high.
90therwise, its energy consumption is eliminated as long as the
solar water temperature is higher than the existing water heater's
1 Solar systems designed to heat water now
thermostat setting.
common in private homes in many parts of the country. 2A typical
_ _ _ conventional equipment _ _ _ specially designed equipment domestic water heating system of three
principal parts, which are: (A) roof-mounted solar collectors, (B) a
solar storage tank, and (C) an existing water heater. 3Water
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ through the south-facing collectors by a
circulation pump. (D) 4As water _
through the collectors, it acquires heat and returns to the storage
tank. 5When hot water is needed, it taken from the
existing water heater (C) and replaced by solar heated water. 6An
electronic control turns the pump on only during those hours when
usable solar energy can be . 71t also
activates the drain-down valve (E) to drain the system when the
collectors a freeze, or when the storage
tank completely charged with thermal energy.
8The existing water heater as a back-up unit
SOLAR HEATED WATER
during long periods of cloudy weather, or when demand is unusu-
ally high. 90therwise, its energy consumption _
eliminated as long as the solar temperature higher
than the existing water heater's thermostat setting.
DENSE
WATER INSULATION
RESERVOIR 3 inches
The following outline describes a questionnaire used in the study of job 1. Materials are described differently depending on whether they are
satisfaction among construction workers that you wrote about in Chapter 5 conventional or specially designed.
(see Exercise 5.13.). Using the information contained in the outline, write a 2. When describing specially designed materials, the order of information
description of the questionnaire as if you were the researcher, describing follows a three-part sequence.
materials in a report about this study. (The questionnaire was modified 3. The description of principal parts may be arranged functionally or
from one used in previous studies.) spatially.
4. Verb tenses are determined by the kind of materials being described.
5. Verb voice depends on the specific verbs you use and whether or not you
are referring to a human agent.
Materials
CHECKLIST FOR CHAPTER 6
Questionnaire: Modified version of Michigan Organizational
Assessment Package
C. Use 7-point scale (from 1, "Not Very Important," to 7, _ _ _ Briefly identify conventional materials.
"Extremely Important" _ _ _ Use three-step order for describing specially designed materials.
LANGUAGE
MATERIALS 135
134 MATERIALS
INFORMATION CONVENTIONS
The results section of the report presents the findings of the study in both
figures and jn wri~ Figures (graphs, tables, and diagrams) pr~sent the
c~ete finC!fri'gSTn numerical terms, while the accompanying text helps the
reader to focus on the most important aspects of the results and to interpret
them. In this chapter we concentrate on the text, which usually consists of three
main information elements. In the following selection from the field of foreign
language education, these three elements have been identified for you.
location
1-Ni; (htvv).1 f YMwti
of [ 1 ~~yS the mean percentile scores on the four
results ~ubtests fo~ non-im e si.on and. immersion French students. ~ jj~L
Students In the French ImmerSion programs perform~
cantly better than their non-immersion peers on all four Modern
most Language Association tests by more than two to one in terms of
OVERVIEW important scores attained on each of the subtests. 3For example, in the listen-
findings ing subtest, immersion students scored at the 80th percentile, while
In this chapter we examine the third major section of the experimental research
non-immersion students scored at the 14th ercentile. 4Clearly, the
report, called results, in which you present the findings of your study and
findings indica at the amount of exposure to a foreign lan- :fl
briefly comment on them. Some writers call this section "results and discus-
sion," thus indicating more extensive comments on the findings of the study.
guage has a positive effect on student performance. Sit ipea~"':::>
)/
that the intensity of immersion programs (an average of 5% of
However, in this chapter we follow the convention of including only brief com- comments total instruction per week in French compared to approximately
ments focused on the statistical analysis, reserving the more general comments
10% for non-immersion) and use of the foreign language to study
for a later section. Before you write this part of your report, check with your
basic subjects results in substantial differences in performance in all
professor or editor to find out which organizational format you should follow.
four skill areas of the MLA test.
s&tV'ttj
\ / I41Jhn;y
~~j
CJ ~ NON-IMM IS:SI IMM
~ ~~~~-tj
FIGURE 7.2 Mean percentile
1. Which sentences in the example present the actual results of the study?
2. How are the results of the study described in the first of these sentences? DEXTROAMPHETAMINE: COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL
3. Which findings from this study are described numerically in the text? Why EFFECTS IN NORMAL PREPUBERTAL BOYS
do you think the authors chose to mention these particular data?
Results
lThe children left the testing center 3 hours after medication
or placebo had been administered; parents were asked to keep a
Ordering Your Information diary record of behavior during the afternoon and evening.
2Behavioral and cognitive effects during the drug session are given
The example just shown is typical of results sections in research reports in many in Figure 1 and Table 1.
fields. As you can see, this section consists of three basic elements of 3Behavioral ratings showed both immediate and delayed
information. effects which differed from each other. 4Amphetamine administra-
tion in comparison with placebo was associated with decreased
motor activity combined with generally improved attentional per-
formance (faster reaction time, superior memory and improved
attention) and decreased galvanic skin response. 5After drug
RESULTS: Three Information Elements administration, the children appeared unusually inactive, not simply
,/ less restless. 6There was an increase in task-related descriptive
V ELEMENT 1: a statement that locates the figurers) where the speech and a decrease in speech not task-related, such as ques-
results can be found tions (Table 1). 7These results are entirely consistent with those
v- reported for hyperactive children on stimulant medication in
I....-/' ELEMENT 2: statements that present the most important findings previous studies (12).
V
J ELEMENT 3: statements that comment on the results
EXAMPLE:
-
statements that comment on the results.
NOTE: As we can see in the preceding example, an author may use both
the three-step format and the shorter two-step alternative in the same results
_
Look at the two results sections that follow, both from the field of educa-
tional psychology. Decide whether the authors used the alternating pattern B. P 1- FEARS OF SENEGALESE SECONDARY
or the sequential pattern in commenting on their results. Alft.&v-t\A.tll\~ l Ol,+ent' SCHOOL STUDENTS
MtelvResults
c:P4
The findings for the whole sample are summed by sex and by
socioeconomic level in Table 1.
A. A COMPARISON OF HEMISPHERIC PREFERENCE Family (7.7%). Students entered the following items: fear of
BETWEEN HIGH ABILITY AND LOW ABILITY my parents (2.9%), fear of my father (4.2%) (when he beats me,
r'-~tr\. toJ;~ ELEMENTARY CHILDREN
1.5%; when he is furious 1.4%; when he chides me, 1.3%). That
fathers should have such a high score results from the fact that
Results Wolofs are an ethnic group reputed for the severity with which
children are brought up (18). This severe education of the child
Results indicated that children in the high ability group seems to be mostly the responsibility of the father (20).
responded as having significantly greater integrated hemispheric Imagination, supernatural phenomena (6.4%). Under this
responses than did the low ability group [t(68) = 5.34, p < .01]. heading were entered sorcerers, evil genii, evil spirits, ghosts
The low ability group responded with a significantly greater prefer- (4.1 %), God (2.1 %) and nightmares (.2%). A close comparison
ence for right hemispheric responses [t(68) = 2.55, p < .01] than between the answers in the present questionnaire and those in
did the high ability group. In addition, the low ability group also Bariaud et al. (3) reveals that fear of nightmares (3.1 %) is greater
displayed a significantly greater preference for the left hemispheric with the French sample than with ours. Conversely, fear of supersti-
responses [t(68) = 4.87, p < .01] than did the high ability group tions seems to be greater in Senegal. A tentative interpretation
(see Table 1). might be that in Senegal the supernatural seems to be part and
The data from the two sub-categories measuring left or right parcel of everyday life, and nightmares are just one vehicle among
hemispheric preferences suggest that the children who are display- several others expressing it. For the French students, on the con-
ing learning problems and who are not achieving up to the norm in trary, the supernatural seems to boil down to irrational and naive
school-related subjects are depending on one hemisphere and its superstitions that science and technology will soon eradicate.
mode of thought. Whether the dominance is on either the left or Nightmares, therefore, serve as the last socially acceptable outlet
right cerebral hemisphere, the cognitive development of the low for all the fears and superstitions that have resisted scientific
ability students is not adequate as evidenced by the placement of processing.
these children in special learning disability or educable mentally Animal (5.9%). This item remains important even for older
handicapped classes. students, which contradicts Bamber's (2) and Mauer's (13)
findings ....
Pattern in example A: _
Pattern in example B: _
142 RESULTS
RF:~IIIT~
Functions of Comments EXERCISE 7.5 Library
The comments (Element 3) in results sections may serve a variety of different In your library locate the results section of an experimental research report
functions. Some of the most common functions are listed in the following box. in your field. Make a photocopy of the section and analyze it by answering
the following questions.
Each comment given here comes from a different research report. Deter-
mine the function of each according to the list in the preceding box.
LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS
The language conventions we look at in the results section of the report will help
you to choose the appropriate verb tense or modal auxiliary for each element of
information. We also examine some special words and expressions you can use
a. ( These data indicate that performance of Rhizobium
to report different types of findings.
japonicum strains is likely to be better under irrigated
conditions.
b. 1 This difference in perceived time available for youth SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW Pretest
related activities is likely due to the additional amount of time
~ Following is the results section from a report in the field of public health.
spent on the job by divorced mothers. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of toxic chemicals
c. ) These findings accord with trose from a larger study on the birth weight of children born near a waste disposal area. Fill in each
in which the same supplementation program increased blank with any appropriate word.
birthweights by an average of 224 g in the months July to
January (11).
d. L The reasons for this erratic pattern could be the age
distribution o~ldren or the relatively small number of INCIDENCE OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AMONG LOVE CANAL
RESIDENTS
women in the sample with three or more children.
e. 3> Up to this point, these results ~h those Results
of Chapman and Hutcheson (1982).
lThe proportion of low birth weight infants among all live
births was established for the entire study area, the swale area,
144 RESULTS RESULTS 145
50
and the area abutting the canal. 2Results shown in E
Cl
iii Swale area
Table 7.1 and Figure 7.3. 3Among the 617 children born in the ~ 40 Rest of Love Canal
.c
entire study area, 53 (8.6 percent) low weight birth. - Upstate New York
ii 30
41n the houses abutting the canal there 124 live
'0 20
births with 8 (6.5 percent) low birth weight infants, and among the
.,
Ql
Cl
In using the three-step format to write your results section, you should observe
Table 7.1 Total Live Births and Children Born with Low Birth Weights
the following verb tense conventions. In Element 1, use the present tense to
Number of births locate your data in a figure.
Swale Rest of canal
Low Low
ELEMENT 1: LOCATING THE FIGURE
birth birth
Present Tense
History Live weight Live weight P
All live births 174 21 (12.1) 443 32 (7.2) 0.027 EXAMPLE: Results of the t-tests are presented in Table 1.
Smoking
Never smoked 70 7 (10.0) 174 7 (4.0) 0.035
25 (9.4) 0.175 EXAMPLE: Table 4 summarizes the test results on precontamina-
Smoked 102 13 (12.7) 265
Household education ted insulators.
< 12 years 41 6 (14.6) 105 3 (2.9) 0.004
12 to 15 years 124 14(11.3) 285 24 (8.4) 0.179
~ 16 years 7 1 (14.3) 44 0(0.0)
Notice in the examples in the box above that locational statements can be
The P values are based on one-tailed z tests for two proportions. Numbers written in either the active or passive voice, but in both cases the present tense
in parentheses are percentages. is used.
Read the following excerpt from the results section of a report in the field of
ELEMENT 3: COMMENTING ON THE RESULTS applied psychology. Underline the verb(s) in each sentence and complete
Present Tense and Modal Auxiliaries the chart that follows.
When the comment gives a possible explanation for the results, lTable 3 presents the data for workers holding skill jobs. 2The
use a modal auxiliary. overall piece rate was $6.03 per hour and the correlation between
age and earnings was .26 (p < .001). 3The older workers
can surpassed the younger ones and earned higher wages. 4These
EXAMPLE: These results be explained by considering
may results appear to reject the assumption that younger and older
the voltage distribution on 230 kV insulators during workers show equal productivity on skill jobs. 5Forty accidents
freezing conditions. involving skill workers were reported for the calendar year (Table
3). 6The reported cases were evenly split among workers younger
When the comment generalizes from the results, use may. than 45 and those age 45 and older. 71n this case, the prediction of
equivalent accident rates between age groups appears to be con-
EXAMPLE: Hyperactive children may be generally responsive to firmed.
amphetamines.
There are three different types of findings that you may need to report, Prices showed a tendency to over the three-
depending on the kind of study you do. Specific words and expressions are increase year period.
used in writing about each type. The percentage tended to decline in the second half
of female of the decade.
1. In some studies the findings involve a comparison among groups, often students
one or more experimental groups with a control group. In these cases
Element 2 statements are often written using comparative or superlative
expressions. I Variable I I Verb of variation I Time period I
I Superlative I I Group 1 I
The highest incidence of Otitis was found among Australian 3. Findings of a third type show the relationship of one variable with another,
Media Indians. or relationships among variables. When you report these kinds of results,
it is common to use verbs of correlation or association in Element 2.
30
I Variable X I I Verb of correlation/association I Variable Y I
20
tion { with
associated with C
Q.l
.s 15
Dry weight of
top growth was not
highly
significantly
1
related to total nitrogen.
0
c
w
10
1
closely
5
Read the following results selection from a study in psychology which was The results section from the study about space flight is given again here.
carried out to investigate the effects of space flight on astronauts. These This time, without looking back at the original, fill in each blank space with
results report the effect of weightlessness on the astronauts' eye move- any appropriate verb or auxiliary.
ments during sleep. Underline the verbs in each sentence and identify their
tenses. Be sure you understand why each tense is used.
Observations. 1 During the first sleep period (night 0) in space, the Observations. 1 During the first sleep period (night 0) in space, the
number of eye movements increased dramatically compared with number of eye movements dramatically
any of the pre- or post-flight nights, but it returned to normal by compared with any of the pre- or post-flight nights, but it
night 1 (Figure 7.5). 2Similar fluctuations were seen in the percent-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to normal by night 1 (Figure 7.5).
age of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep as a function of total
sleeping time. 30 n night 1, REM sleep increased to 50 percent, 2Similar fluctuations seen in the percentage of rapid
whereas it is normally between 20 and 25 percent of total sleeping eye movement (REM) sleep as a function of total sleeping time.
time. 4This abrupt increase is not pathological. 51nstead, it reflects 30 n night 1, REM sleep to 50 percent,
a temporary imbalance of the REM mechanisms which include
whereas it normally between 20 and 25 percent of
other autonomic variables such as heart rate and blood pressure.
total sleeping time. 4This abrupt increase not patho-
61n pathological conditions, REM sleep decreases rather than
increases. logical. 51nstead, it a temporary
imbalance of the REM mechanisms which include other autonomic
20 variables such as heart rate and blood pressure. 61n pathological
conditions, REM sleep rather than
increases.
;;
~ 10
I
E
o
w
l. during 3. on night 1
first sleep period (night 0) REM sleep EXERCISE 7.12 Guided Writing
space increase
number of eye movements 50 percent Suppose that you have carried out a three-year study in the United States
increase to determine people's attitudes towards education and specifically their
but
4. abrupt increase willingness to finance public education projects through increased taxes.
not patholonical You have collected your data <;ind have presented it in the figure below.
return to normal
night 1 Now write the text to accompany this graph. Include all the types of infor-
Figure 7.5 5. in pathological conditions mation that are conventionally included in a results section.
REM sleep
decrease
2. similar fluctuations
rather than 100
see
percentage of REM sleep increase
function 90
total sleeping time
80
70
60 59
C 52
XERCISE 7.11 Library Q)
()
Q; 50
c.. 45
sing the results example from the library that you photocopied for Library
40
Exercise 7.5, analyze each sentence for the following features:
30
1. Verb tense
a. What verb tense is used in each sentence? 20
b. Explain why this particular tense is used. .
c. Do the tenses used in your library example follow the conventions 10
you have learned here?
0
1983 1985 1986
2. Element 2 statements
a. What type of findings are presented-comparison among gro~ps,
fluctuation of a variable over time, or relationships among vanables?
b. What special verbs and phrases do the authors use to express these FIGURE 7.6 Percent of U.S. population favoring higher taxes for public
education (1983-1986).
different types of findings?
RESULTS 157
156 RESULTS
EXERCISE 7.13 Writing Up Your Own Research LANGUAGE
In previous chapters you designed and carried out your own research pro-
ject. You should now have the data necessary to begin writing up the Use present tense to locate findings in a figure.
results section of your report. Follow these steps.
Use past tense to indicate the most important findings.
Use present tense or modal auxiliaries to comment on the
1. Arrange your data in some convenient form for analysis, such as a large findings.
grid or table. ~se c~mparative and superlative expressions to report findings
2. Apply any statistical procedures appropriate for your data and mvolvmg a comparison among groups.
experimental design. If you do not have much background in inferential
statistics, you might simply calculate totals, means, and percentages. Use verbs and phrases of variation to describe variables that
3. Construct a graphic (or graphics) in the form of tables or figures to fluctuate over time.
illustrate your results. Use verbs of effect or association to report findings that involve
4. Write a results text to accompany your graphic(s) following the relationships among variables.
conventions we have studied in this chapter. Consult the checklist which
follows to remind yourself of these conventions.
Describing Results
INFORMATION
158 RESULTS
INFORMATION CONVENTIONS
As the shaded area representing discussion in Figure 8.1 suggests, this section
moves the reader back from the specific information reported in the methods
and the results sections to a more general view of how the findings should be
interpreted.
Look at the following discussion section from a research report in the field
of applied psychology. In this study the productivity of older and younger
factory workers was compared. Notice the kinds of information that are in-
cluded in this example.
DISCUSSION
AGE, EXPERIENCE, AND PERFORMANCE ON
SPEED AND SKILL JOBS IN AN APPLIED SEITING
Discussion
lThe decremental theory of aging led us to infer that older
original
OVERVIEW workers in speed jobs would have poorer performance, greater
hypothesis [
absenteeism, and more accidents compared with other workers.
In this chapter we look at the fourth section of the experimental research 2The findings, however, go against the theory. 3The older workers
report. Usually titled discussion, it is the last major section of the report, fol- findings generally earned more, were absent less, had fewer accidents,
[
lowed by the list of references. In the discussion section you step back and take and had less turnover than younger workers. 40 ne possible
a broad look at your findings and your study as a whole. As in the introduction, conclusion is that the requirements of the speed jobs in the light
researchers use the discussion section to examine their work in the larger con- explanation manufacturing industry under study do not make physical demands
for on the older workers to the limits of their reserve capacity. 5The
text of their field. findings
Sometimes this section is called "conclusions" instead of "discussion." In competence and experience of the older workers in these specific
either case, the writing conventions reflect some common features. jobs may have compensated for their reduced stamina ...
6This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the
relationship between age, experience, and productivity in one
particular industry. 71t is possible of course that other industries
limitations with a different complex of speed jobs and skill jobs may produce
entirely different results. Sin addition, it is important to emphasize
that methodological problems in the research design limit our
interpretations.
9The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in
need for other manufacturing plants, as well as in other occupational areas
further in light, medium, and heavy industries in order to construct a typol-
research [
ogy of older worker performance in a variety of jobs.
Ordering your Information Read the following discussion section from a report in the field of manage-
ment. The study was carried out to determine if management by objectives
The information that you include in this section depends greatly on the findings (MBO) practices would improve the quality and quantity of work and level
of your study; however, the specific-to-general movement indicated by the of satisfaction of employees in a human services agency.
shape of the shaded area in Figure 8.1 is a convention that most writers follow.
The kinds of information that you can include in your discussion section are not
fixed. However, the first elements are typically those that refer most directly to
the study and its findings. They include:
THE EFFECTS OF MBa ON PERFORMANCE AND
SATISFACTION IN A PUBLIC SECTOR ORGANIZATION
FIRST INFORMATION ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION:
Specific Reference to the Study Discussion
1. A reference to the main purpose or hypothesis of the study; 'The results of the satisfaction questionnaire were mixed.
2Sa tisfaction with supervision significantly increased after
2. A review of the most important findings, whether or not they implementation of the MBa program, and there was directional
support the original hypothesis, and whether they agree with (but not significant) support that work satisfaction improved.
the findings of other researchers; 3These results are consistent with previous research (Steers, 1976;
3. Possible explanations for or speculdions about the findings; Tosi et aI., 1976). 40 ur findings thus lend support for the hypothe-
sis that MBa leads to a satisfaction improvement, at least over the
4. Limitations of the study that restrict the extent to which the
short term (lvancevich, 1976). 5Reliance on these measures must
findings can be generalized. be tempered, however, because a control group was not available
and only two measures were taken (before and after) in assessing
As the discussion section continues, the writer moves the reader's atten- changes in satisfaction.
tion away from the specific results of the study and begins to focus more 6Because a high degree of variability was found in the data,
generally on the importance that the study may have for other workers in the it would be beneficial to replicate this study on larger and different
field. populations. 71t would also be interesting to measure satisfaction
over several periods of time instead of for one pre- and one post-
LATER INFORMATION ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION: intervention. 8The limitations in field experiments not withstanding,
General Statements about the Study this study suggests that MBa may have a favorable impact on
performance and satisfaction in public sector agencies. 9 Reinforce-
5. Implications of the study (generalizations from the results); ment of the MBa process and continuous reinforcement while
using the system should aid in its acceptance and use.
6. Recommendations for future research and practical applica-
tions.
162 DISCUSSION
EXERCISE 8.2 Analysis
Now identify the elements of information in the example that correspond to
those listed in the boxes on page 162. Each of, the foll~wing statements comes from a different research report
Determine the .lnf~rm~tion el~ment e~ch sentence represents (see the fi~st
Sentences 1, 2, 3, and 4: Information element - - - - - - - - -
two boxes earlier In this section) and Indicate the element in the blank
Sentence 5: Information element - - - - - - - - - spac,e ~efore each statement. Also underline the part of each sentence
that indicates the author's position towards the information.
Sentences 6 and 7: Information element - - - - - - - - -
In the discussion section more than any other place in the report, researchers 2. . . These findings lead us to believe
make explicit their own views on the study and its findings. The researcher may that more dl~l.cult materi?ls ~ho~ld be used in order to give ESL
~tuden~s additional practice In discerning implicit relationships
take a position with respect to the explanations, implications, limitations, or In English texts.
applications of the findings (Elements 3, 4, 5, and 6).
3. _ _ _-;--_--,--- What explains this larger than
~xpected gap.bet:-veen the two groups? It may be that dictat-
In~ to a machine IS faster than writing-at least for letters of
RESEARCHER'S POSITION ON INFORMATION IN THE DISCUSSION this type.
I Position I I Information element I res~a~ch IS exploratory and that there are problems with the
statistical model.
One possible explanation is that speed jobs do not tax older workers 5. . From our results, we suggest that
to their limits. (explanation) the optimal level of indentation for a computer program is 2-4
spaces.
We can no longer assume that it is satisfactory to seek explanations
only in economic factors. (implication) 6. . . This finding is of considerable
Im~ortanc~ since it su.ggests that the "resetting" of the meta-
We acknowledge that other industries may produce differ- bolIC machinery (25) IS not confined to a single homeostatic
ent results. (restriction) compartment.
D. In the first case, we can expect that to the extent that SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW Pretest
a student has a high level of culture conflict orientation, he or
she will have an increased probability of cheating.
Following is a portion of the discussion section from a report in the field of
E. This research has attempted to assess two theories of child psychology. The report compared the behaviors of overly competitive
deviant behavior in terms of their ability to account for cheat- and less competitive children. Fill in each blank with any appropriate word.
ing among a sample of college students (N = 650).
DISCUSSION 167
ance with that of a superior child even when they had been repeat- EXERCISE 8.5 Analysis
edly told that their performance represented a "pretty good" Read the following discussion section from a report in social psychology
score. 40 ne of this finding is that Type whose purpose was to identify the attitudes and opinions that affect driving
A children's awareness of high standards may trigger their behavior. Then identify the sentences that contain a complex structure like
attempts to achieve ever higher goals. SThese findings - - - - - the one shown in the preceding box.
consistent with previous research (Pepitone, 1972), and they pro-
vide support for the hypothesis ambiguous standards
(or no standards) for evaluation of performance be
one factor that leads children to adopt high performance standards. INTERPERSONAL FACTORS IN DRIVING
DISCUSSION 169
168 DISCUSSION
erb Tenses Used in Discussion Statements
VERB TENSES IN FIRST DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:
he verb tenses used in the discussion section depend on the type of informa- Past, Present, and Modal Auxiliaries
)0 you want to present. Remember that the first information elements of the
scussion refer specifically to the study and its findings. The verb ten~e ~ost.
)mmonly used in referring to the purpose, the hypothesis, and the fmdmgs IS I Explaining the findings I
Ie simple past.
... lThe results indicate that the level of indentation has a signifi-
cant effect on program comprehension and that deeper indentation Expressions Indicating the Researcher's Position
could become more of a hindrance than an aid. 2The level of
indentation that seems to produce optimal results in comprehension The main clause of a complex sentence in the discussion section often contains
is between 2 and 4 spaces; as the number of spaces increases, the special expressions that indicate the researcher's own point of view, or position,
comprehension level decreases. 3The blocked and nonblocked towards the information contained in the noun clauses. At the beginning of the
styles of the program yielded no significant differences between the discussion section, certain expressions make it clear that you are reconsidering
experts and the novices. 4We are not sure how to explain these the hypothesis of your study.
Main clause
It was anticipated (position) + I THAT I + Noun clause
(information)
The theory led us to
infer older workers in speed
that jobs would have poorer
In line with this hypothe-
performance than youn-
sis, we assumed
ger workers. suggest
The results seem incon- imply
sistent with our hypothe- lend support to frost affects the pan by
These findings that breaking its massive
sis the assumption
lead us to structure.
believe
provide evidence
Other expressions are typically used when you need to explain your findings.
One reason could be that jobs in light manufactur- 1. (implication) An increase in chlorine emission is accompanied
ing do not tax older by a corresponding increase in noise, so that the detection limit
workers to their limits. remains constant.
6. (explain findings, negative) Significant details, invisible to the EXERCISE 8.9 Fill-in
naked eye, and visible only to 3-D processing, could have
The discussion section from the report about squatter housing is given
been added to the Shroud of Turin.
again here. This time, without looking back at the original, fill in each blank
space with any appropriate word.
Discussion
EXERCISE 8.8 Identification
lThis study data from the Philip-
Read the following discussion section from a study in the field of eco- pines to determine whether a squatter-owner's valuation of his
nomics. The study investigated the monetary value of illegal, informal own house compare with that of an independent
housing in the urban areas of developing countries. Underline the verbs
appraiser. 2The results show discrepancies in the
and modal auxiliaries in each sentence and identify the tenses. Explain
why each tense is used by indicating the information element that each estimates were quite large for individual properties. 3However,
statement represents. these discrepancies were largely offset when the averages for
reasonably sized samples were compared. 4This _
earlier findings by Kain and Quigley (1972) for conventional
housing in the United States. 50 vera ll, it _
THE VALUE OF SQUATIER DWElLINGS IN that squatter housing markets behave as economically rational
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
entities similar to conventional markets. 6They be
Discussion accounted for in any analysis regarding housing markets in devel-
oping countries.
lThis study has used data from the Philippines to determine
whether a squatter-owner's valuation of his own house would com-
pare with that of an independent appraiser. 2The results show that
INTEGRATION
M = Sentence(s) _
NOTE: In some publications this section is titled "summary." Check with
your editor or professor to determine the appropriate title for you to use. R = Sentence(s) _
C = Sentence(s) _
Read the following abstract carefully. It is taken from the child psychology Reducing the Abstract
study that we saw in Chapter 8. Identify the sentences in the abstract that
correspond to the elements B, P, M, R, and C in the preceding box. Abstracts are usually written to be as brief and concise as possible. For journal
articles the editor often establishes a word limit for the abstract that authors can-
not exceed. In order to shorten an abstract to satisfy such limitations, you can
eliminate or combine much of the information shown in the previous box.
The reduced abstract typically focuses on only two or three elements, with
TYPE A BEHAVIORS BY CHILDREN, SOCIAL COMPARISON, AND the emphasis placed on the results of the study. Information concerning the
STANDARDS FOR SELF-EVALUATION purpose and method is presented first (background information is not included) .
Then the most important results are summarized. Finally, conclusions and rec-
Abstract. 1Type A behavior, an established risk factor for coronary ommendations may be included in one or two sentences.
heart disease, is characterized by extremes of competitive achieve-
ment striving, impatience, hostility, and aggression. 2As part of an
effort to understand the origins of this behavior pattern, the
present study assessed the impact of performance standards on the ORDER OF INFORMATION ELEMENTS
social behavior ofType A and Type B children. 3Children performed IN REDUCED ABSTRACTS
a five-trial task. 4Half were given an explicit standard with which
to compare their own performance; half were given no standard. P + M = purpose and method of the study
SAfter 5 trials, all subjects were informed that their total score R = results
represented the middle score of the whole group and were asked to C = conclusions and recommendations'
select one score for further comparison. 6Results showed no signifi-
cant differences among groups on the frequency of comparison. • optional
71n contrast, the results did show that regardless of the presence or
4R~TAIi~T 1A7
186 ABSTRACT
EXERCISE 9.2 Analysis
Read the following reduced abstract from a report in the field of business
PROGRAM INDENTATION AND COMPREHENSIBILITY
and economics dealing with the reading difficulty of tax information book-
lets. Identify the kinds of information that are included and then answer the
Abstract. IThe consensus in the programming community is that
four questions that follow.
indentation aids program comprehension, although many studies
do not back this up. 2We tested program comprehension on a
Pascal program. 3Two styles of indentation were used-blocked
and nonblocked-in addition to four possible levels of indentation
THE READABILITY OF INDIVIDUAL INCOME TAX (0, 2, 4, 6 spaces). 4Both experienced and novice subjects were
INSTRUCTION BOOKLETS IN SOUTH CAROLINA AND used. SAlthough the blocking style made no difference, the level of
OTHER SOUTHEASTERN STATES ~dentation had a signi.ficant effect on pr09ram comprehension.
2-4 spaces had the highest mean score for program comprehen-
Abstract. ITo determine the understandability of individual income sion. 7We recommend that a moderate level of indentation be
tax booklets, a Reading Ease score was calculated for the 1977 used to increase program comprehension and user satisfaction.
Federal income tax return form 1040 and tax forms of nine south-
eastern states. 2The instruction booklets of all states except Virginia
were found to be at a reading level higher than the median educa-
tionallevel of the average citizen-taxpayer in those states. 3The
South Carolina booklet was three grade levels above the median
education level for the state. 4The Federal instruction booklet was EXERCISE 9.4 Arrangement
easiest to read, falling four grade levels below the median educa-
tion level of U.S. citizens. Sif an equitable state income tax system ~ach of the foll~wing sentences is taken from the abstract to a report in the
is to be maintained, actions must be taken to reduce the disparity field of economIcs. The sentences are not in their correct order. Indicate
between median education levels and the readability of state the probable order used by the author in writing the abstract.
income tax instruction booklets.
1. Which elements are included in sentence 1? THE DECENTRALIZATION OF AMERICAN ECONOMIC LIFE:
2. Which element is represented by the most number of sentences? AN INCOME EVALUATION
3. Which element is represented by the final sentence?
4. Which element has been eliminated?
A. This investigation provides a national analysis of these
growth patterns by examining the behavior of three variables:
EXERCISE 9.3 Reconstruction change in per capita income, population deconcentration, and
growth in economic productivity.
Following is the abstract from a report in the field of computer program- B. The results suggest that the presence or absence of
ming. Read the abstract and analyze each sentence for the type of infor-
unique sets of industry factors can be used to explain growth
mation it contains. Then write out a reduced version, combining method
and purpose into one or two sentences and eliminating any nonessential variation in both the center and the periphery of the industrial-
elements. ized region.
An abstract from a report in the field of agronomy is given here. Fill in each
blank space with any appropriate word.
fhe verb tenses used in writing sentences in the abstract are directly related to Read the following abstract from a civil engineering study about a test of
those you used in the corresponding sections earlier in your report. For an experimental type of pavement construction. Underline each present
example, background (B) sentences in the abstract are similar to background tense verb once, each past tense verb twice, and draw a circle around any
sentences in Stage I of the Introduction: They both are written in the present (modal auxiliarie~you find.
tense.
IR Results (past tense) I The same abstract from the civil engineering report about pavement is
given again here. This time, fill in each blank space with an appropriate
verb or auxiliary. Do not look back at the original selection until you have
EXAMPLE: Older workers surpassed younger ones in both speed and skill finished.
jobs.
EXAMPLE: The results suggest that the presence of unique sets of industry
factors can be used to explain variation in economic growth. 1 Roadways constructed of conventional pavement
- - - - - subject to deformations after prolonged use. 2A
Read the following shortened version of a report from the field of English
language learning. In the left margin write a code letter for each sentence
to indicate what kind of information it contains (B = background, P = prin-
cipal activity/purpose, M = methodology/materials, R = results, and C =
1. roadways 3. objective
conclusion). Now answer the following questions:
conventional payment this study
subject investigate construction problems
1. Based on your coding and what you have learned about experimental
deformations develop specifications
research reports, is there any information in this report that you would
prolonged use full-scale test reorder?
2. Is there any information that you would add?
2. laboratory model study 4. model test results
anchored pavement compare Now write an abstract for the report. Do not copy directly from the report;
carry out results use your own words to express the author's ideas. Limit your abstract to
finite-element analysis 100 words.
94 ABSTRACT ABSTRACT 195
Discussion: Language learners and teachers have long
assumed that the best way to learn a second language was by
living in an environment in which it is used. This study lends strong
ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION:
empirical support to this assumption.
THE EFFECTS OF LIVING WITH AN AMERICAN FAMILY
What this study does not do is separate the integrative moti-
vation factor which may have influenced students to choose to live
This study investigated the degree of English language with American families from the exposure factor operative during
acquisition of 83 students who were living in English-speaking that stay with the families. Future studies need to develop instru-
environments during their 14-week term of formal language study. ments which can make the distinction.
The purpose of the investigation was to compare rate of English
acquisition of these students with that of their classmates who were
living in dormitories or apartment situations, usually in close prox-
imity to other speakers of their first language.
EXERCISE 9.11 Writing Up Your Own Research
Fathman (1976) studied different sorts of second language
learning programs and found that, " ... (students) making the most In writing the abstract to your own research report, follow the procedure
marked improvement were in settings where the use of English was you have learned in this chapter. Select important information from each of
encouraged and necessary for communication." (Fathman 1976: the major sections of your report. Remember that you can write a reduced
433). Subjects of this study were living with American families-that abstract by eliminating and combining information elements. Do not copy
is, their English was encouraged and was necessary for sentences directly from the report. Synthesize the information in your
communication. major sections into clear, concise statements that will give your reader an
Additionally, "one of the most important factors (in language accurate preview of the contents of your report. Your abstract should not
learning) is the attitude of the learner to the language and its exceed 200 words.
speakers." (Spolsky 1969: 271). The fact that living in the American
family was elected by the student at slightly higher cost than other
housing situations would seem to suggest a positive attitude and CHECKLIST FOR CHAPTER 9
motivation.
Hypotheses tested:
Abstracts
HI: Mean of TOEFL scores of homestay students = Mean of
TOEFL scores of non-homestay students. INFORMATION
H2 : Mean of classroom grades of homestay students = Mean Select and order information from previous sections of your report
of classroom grades of non-homestay students. corresponding to elements B, P, M, R, and C.
Materials and procedure: All students took Michigan A or For reduced abstracts, eliminate B statements and combine state-
Placement Tests before beginning English instruction. For purposes ments containing P and M information.
of pretest and later statistical analysis each of the 83 homestay
students was paired with a non-homestay student who had an
identical Michigan A or Placement score (±2). LANGUAGE
Results: At the end of the 14 weeks of intensive (22.5 hours
per week) English study, all students received classroom grades in Use appropriate verb tenses, tentative verbs, and modal auxiliaries,
grammar, reading, composition and spoken English. Some took the depending on which section of the report the information comes
TOEFL. In all instances scores of homestay students were higher. from.