SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ECE1001 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

LAB MANUAL
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

HARDWARE
1. Verification of Basic Laws
2. Node Voltage and Mesh Current Analysis
3. Thevenin’s and Maximum Power Transfer theorem
4. Superposition and Reciprocity Theorem
5. Transients response of First order circuit
6. Steady state analysis of AC circuit
7. Frequency response of series resonance circuit
SOFTWARE
1. Verification of Basic Laws
2. Node Voltage and Mesh Current Analysis
3. Thevenin’s , Norton’s and Maximum Power Transfer theorem
4. Superposition and Reciprocity Theorem
5. Transients response of First order circuit and second order circuit
6. Steady state analysis of AC circuit
7. Frequency response of series and parallel resonance circuit
 CONTENT

S.No Name of Experiment Page No.

Verification of Basic Laws
1a. Hardware
1b. Software
Node Voltage and Mesh current Analysis
2a. Hardware
2b. Software
Thevenin’s, Norton’s and Maximum power transfer Theorems
3a. Hardware
3b. Software
Superposition and Reciprocity theorem
4a. Hardware
4b. Software
Transients response of First order circuit
5a. Hardware
5b. Software
Steady state analysis of AC circuit
6a. Hardware
6b. Software
Frequency response of series resonance circuit
7a. Hardware
7b. Software
 Experiment No. 1a VERIFICATION OF BASIC LAWS
Date :

Aim:
To verify the following laws using discrete component.
a. Ohm’s Law.
b. Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
c. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 RPS (regulated power supply) (0-30V) 2
2 Ammeter (0-10mA) 1
3 Voltmeter 1
4 Resistors 100Ω, 200Ω, 300Ω 3
5 Bread Board -- --
6 Wires -- Required

Theory:

Ohms’s Law:

Ohm's Law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal conductor. This
relationship states that “The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is
proportional to the current through it”.

The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R.

Ohm's Law is given by:

V=IR

Where

V is the potential difference between two points which include a resistance R.

I is the current flowing through the resistance.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

1. Sum of all currents entering a node is zero.

2. Sum of currents entering the node is equal to sum of currents leaving the node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 Sum of voltages around any loop in a circuit is zero.

First, sum the voltages about the loop.

V= V1+V2+……+Vn = 0.

Precautions:

1. Voltage control knob should be kept at manimum position

2. current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight.
Take care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+ve to +ve
and -ve to -ve).
2. Adjust the input DC voltage ranging from 0 to 10V with step range of 0.5V.
3. Record the readings of the ammeter.
4. Plot a graph with V along x-axis and I along y-axis.
5. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm's law.
6. Determine the slope of the V-I graph. The reciprocal of the slope gives resistance of the
wire.
Tabular Column
Voltage (Vin) in Volts Current (I) through Voltage (V) across V/I
300 Ω Resistor 300 Ω Resistor

Result
It is verified that for all range of input voltage applied the current changes according and the
ratio of V/I remains constant
 Experiment No. 1b VERIFICATION OF BASIC LAWS
Date :

Aim:
To verify the following laws using LTSPICE tool.
a. Ohm’s Law.
b. Kirchhoff’s current Law.
c. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Procedure:
1. Draw the given circuit in the LTSPICE with new schematic.
2. Change the value of source and resistors.
3. Place the Ground.
4. Set the simulation profile for Operating point analysis.
5. Run the simulation and note the results

Verification of Ohm’s Law

Circuit Diagram 1:

Model
Calculati
ons:
Graph 1

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Circuit Diagram 2:

Model Calculations:

Graph 2:
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Circuit Diagram 3:
 MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS AND NODAL VOLTAGE
Experiment No. 2a ANALYSIS
Date :

Aim:
To verify the Mesh Current Analysis and Nodal Voltage Analysis

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 RPS (regulated power supply) (0-30V) 2
2 Ammeter (0-10mA) 1
3 Resistors 1
4 Bread Board -- --
5 Wires -- Required

Statement:

Kirchoff’s first law equation, that is: “the currents entering a node are exactly equal in
value to the currents leaving the node”

Precautions:

3. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position

4. current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position

Procedure:
7. Give the connections as per the diagram.
8. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the
ammeter reading
9. Set the same voltage in circuit I using RPS1 alone and short circuit the terminals
and note the ammeter reading.
10. Set the same voltage in RPS2 alone as in circuit I and note down the ammeter
reading.
 CIRCUIT – 1 - Mesh Current Analysis Circuit

CIRCUIT – 2 - Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

TABULAR COLUMN
Theoretical Values
RPS Ammeter Reading (I)
1 2 mA
Circuit – 1

Circuit – 2

Practical Values
RPS Ammeter Reading (I)
1 2 mA
Circuit – 1

Circuit – 2

Model Calculations:

Result:
Both mesh current and nodal voltage analysis have been verified theoretically and
practically.
 MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS AND NODAL VOLTAGE
Experiment No. 2b ANALYSIS
Date :

Aim: To verify Mesh Current Analysis and Nodal Voltage Analysis

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE : Using LT Spice simulation tool, create the above circuit using a
resistor, a voltage source, current source and a zero potential and give the corresponding values
to the resistor and the source voltage by right clicking the components.

 Click on edit simulate command under simulate section then select DC op point and
then run the circuit to check the operating voltage and current at each component.
 As its name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchoff’s
first law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
 At each node point write down Kirchoff’s first law equation, that is: “the currents
entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the node” then express
each current in terms of the voltage across the branch.
 For Mesh analysis use Kirchoff’s Current Law equations to determine the
currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors.
Mesh Current Analysis and Nodal Voltage Analysis Output

INFERENCE: It has been observed that current through R2 due to each source independently
equals current through R2 when both are active.
 VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S AND MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
Experiment No. 3a
Date :

(i) Thevenin’s Theorem

Aim:

To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for the given electrical circuit.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Apparatus Range

1 Regulated power supply - 1

2 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30) V 1

4 Resistors 1kΩ 4

5 Breadboard - 1

6 Connecting Wires - As required

Theory:

Thevenin’s Theorem:

Any linear active network with output terminals A and B can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit with a single voltage source Vth (thevenin’s voltage) in series with
Rth (thevenin’s resistance)

Vth - open circuit voltage across terminal A & B

Rth - equivalent resistance obtained by looking back the circuit through the open circuit
terminal A and B

Circuit Diagram 1:

Circuit Diagram 2: Practical Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage, Vth

Circuit Diagram 3: Determination of Load Current, IL from Given Circuir

Circuit Diagram 4: Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth

Circuit Diagram 5: Thevenin’s equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

(i) Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage, Vth:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 2.
2. Switch on the power supply
 3. Vary the regulated power supply to a specified voltage and note down the
corresponding voltmeter readings
4. Switch off the power supply

(ii) Determination of Load Current, IL:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 3.
2. Switch on the power supply
3. Vary the regulated power supply to a specified voltage (as in procedure (i))and note
down the corresponding ammeter readings
4. Switch off the power supply

(iii) Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 4.
2. Determine the Resistance value seen from the open terminals.

(iv) Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 5.
2. Determine the current across the Load Resistor.
3. Compare the value with the value obtained in Procedure (ii).

Theoretical Calculations:
(i) Calculation for Vth:

(ii) Calculation of Rth:

 Tabulation:

Supply Thevenin’s Voltage Thevenin’s resistance Load current

Voltage Vth (V) Vth (V) Rth (Ω) Rth (Ω) IL(mA) IL(mA)
(V) (Theoretical) (Practical) (Theoretical) (Practical) (From (From
Given Thevenin’s
Circuit) Circuit)

Result:

Thus from the load current values, it is proved that Thevenin’s Theorem holds
good for the given electrical circuit.

(ii) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Aim:
To verify maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 RPS (0-30V) 1
2 Voltmeter (0-10V) MC 1
3 Resistor 3
4 DRB -- 1
5 Bread Board & wires -- Required

Statement:
In a linear, bilateral circuit the maximum power will be transferred to the load when
load resistance is equal to source resistance.

Precautions:
1. Voltage control knob of RPS should be kept at minimum position.
2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

Procedure:
Circuit – I
1. Connections are given as per the diagram and set a particular voltage in RPS.
2. Vary RL and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat the procedure for different values of RL & Tabulate it.
4. Calculate the power for each value of RL.
To find VTH:
 5. Remove the load, and determine the open circuit voltage using multimeter (VTH)
To find RTH:
6. Remove the load and short circuit the voltage source (RPS).
7. Find the looking back resistance (RTH) using multimeter.

Equivalent Circuit:
8. Set VTH using RPS and RTH using DRB and note down the ammeter reading.
9. Calculate the power delivered to the load (RL = RTH)
10. Verify maximum transfer theorem.

Circuit - 1

To find VTH

To find RTH
Thevenin’s Equation Circuit

Power VS RL

Circuit – I

Sl.No. RL (Ω) I (mA) V(V) P=VI (watts)

1

8
 To find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

VTH (V) RTH (Ω) IL (mA) P (milli watts)

Theoretical 2002 1320 0.758 0.759
Value

Practical Value

Model Calculations:

Result:
Thus maximum power theorem was verified both practically and theoretically
 VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S , NORTON’S AND
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM USING
LTSPICE
Experiment No. 3b
Date :

(i) VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Aim:

To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for the given electrical circuit using LTSPICE
Simulation.

Apparatus Required:

LTSPICE Software

Theory: Thevenin’s Theorem:

Any linear active network with output terminals A and B can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit with a single voltage source Vth (thevenin’s voltage) in series with
Rth (thevenin’s resistance)

Vth - open circuit voltage across terminal A & B

Rth - equivalent resistance obtained by looking back the circuit through the open circuit
terminal A and B

Circuit Diagram 1:

Circuit Diagram 2: Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage, Vth

Circuit Diagram 3: Determination of Load Current, IL from Given Circuir

Circuit Diagram 4: Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth

Circuit Diagram 5: Thevenin’s equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

(v) Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage, Vth:

5. Design a circuit using LTSPICE as per the circuit diagram 2.
6. Note down the voltage using voltage probe.

(vi) Determination of Load Current, IL:

5. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 3.
6. Note down the current value.

(vii) Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth:

3. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 4.
4. Determine the Resistance value seen from the open terminals.
 (viii) Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem:
4. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 5.
5. Determine the current across the Load Resistor.
6. Compare the value with the value obtained in Procedure (ii).

Theoretical Calculations:
(iii) Calculation for Vth:

(iv) Calculation of Rth:

Simulation Steps:
Circuit Diagram 1:

--- Operating Point ---

V(n001): 10 voltage
V(n002): 4 voltage
V(n003): 2 voltage
I(R_load): 0.002 device_current
I(R3): -0.002 device_current
I(R2): 0.004 device_current
I(R1): -0.006 device_current
I(Supply_v): -0.006 device_current

Circuit Diagram 2: Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage, Vth

Circuit Diagram 3: Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth

Thevenin’s equivalent Circuit

--- Operating Point ---

V(n002): 2 voltage
V(n001): 5 voltage
I(R_load): -0.002 device_current
I(Rth): -0.002 device_current
I(Vth): -0.002 device_current

Supply Thevenin’s Voltage Thevenin’s resistance Load current

Voltage Vth (V) Vth (V) Rth (Ω) Rth (Ω) IL(mA) IL(mA)
(V) (Theoretical) (Simulation) (Theoretical) (Simulation) (From (From
Given Thevenin’s
Circuit) Circuit)

Tabulation:

Result:

The reciprocity theorem was verified for given network with the theoretical
calculation.
 (ii) VERIFICATION OF NORTON’S THEOREM

Aim:

To verify Norton’s Theorem for the given electrical circuit using LTSPICE
Simulation.

Apparatus Required:

LTSPICE Software

Theory: Norton’s Theorem:

Any linear active network with output terminals A & B can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit with a single current source I in parallel with Rth ( Thevenin equivalent
resistance)
Where Rth is the equivalent resistance obtained by looking back the circuit through the
open terminal A & B

Circuit Diagram 1:

Circuit Diagram 2: Determination of Norton’s Current, IN

Circuit Diagram 3: Determination of Load Current, IL from Given Circuir

Circuit Diagram 4: Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth

Circuit Diagram 5: Norton’s equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

1. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Measure the current through RL.
3. Short Circuit the output terminals and measure the short circuit current.
4. Find out the Norton’s Resistance viewed from the output terminals.
5. Give connections as per the Norton’s Equivalent circuit.
6. Measure the current through RL.
7. Verify Norton’s theorem by comparing currents in RL directly and that
obtained with the equivalent circuit.
Simulation Steps:

Circuit Diagram 1:

--- Operating Point ---

V(n001): 10 voltage
V(n002): 4 voltage
V(n003): 2 voltage
I(R_load): 0.002 device_current
I(R3): -0.002 device_current
I(R2): 0.004 device_current
I(R1): -0.006 device_current
I(Supply_v): -0.006 device_current

Circuit Diagram 2: Determination of Thevenin’s Resistance, Rth

Circuit Diagram 3: Determination of Norton’s Current, IN

--- Operating Point ---

V(n001): 10 voltage
V(n002): 3.33333 voltage
I(R3): -0.00333333 device_current
I(R2): 0.00333333 device_current
I(R1): -0.00666667 device_current
I(Supply_v): -0.00666667 device_current

Norton’s equivalent Circuit

--- Operating Point ---

V(n001): -1.998 voltage

I(I_norton): 0.00333 device_current
I(R_load): -0.001998 device_current
I(Rth): -0.001332 device_current
Tabulation:

Supply Norton’s Current Thevenin’s resistance Load current

Voltage IN (mA) IN (mA) Rth (Ω) Rth (Ω) IL(mA) IL(mA)
(V) (Theoretical) (Simulation) (Theoretical) (Simulation) (From (From
Given Norton’s
Circuit) Circuit)

Result:

Thus from the load current values, Norton’s theorem was verified for the given circuit.
.

(iii) Maximum Power Transfer

AIM: - To veriry Maximum power transfer theorem.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM : -

PROCEDURE:-

1. Take the Thevenin's Equivalent circuit from the previous experiment.

2. Take three values for the load resistance. One equal to Rth, one greater and one smaller.

3. Click on edit simulate command under simulate section then select DC op pnt.

4. Run the simulation by clicking on the run command and obtain the output.
OUTPUT : - After giving the values to the resistors, current source and voltage
sources , the following output has been obtained.

The formula used for power calculation = (Vth)2/4Rth

We find that the max. power is transfered when Rload=Rth .We use the formula (Vth)2/4Rth .

INFERENCE: - From this experiment Maximum power transfer theorem has been verified and
it has been noted that the maximum power has been transferred when Rload=Rth.
Experiment No. 4a VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Date :

Aim:
To verify the superposition theorem for the given circuit.

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 RPS (regulated power supply) (0-30V) 2
2 Ammeter (0-10mA) 1
3 Resistors 3
4 Bread Board -- --
5 Wires -- Required

Statement:

Superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral network containing more than
one source, the current flowing through the branch is the algebraic sum of the current flowing
through that branch when sources are considered one at a time and replacing other sources by
their respective internal resistances.

Precautions:

5. Voltage control knob should be kept at manimum position

6. current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position

Procedure:
11. Give the connections as per the diagram.
12. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the
ammeter reading
13. Set the same voltage in circuit I using RPS1 alone and short circuit the terminals
and note the ammeter reading.
14. Set the same voltage in RPS2 alone as in circuit I and note down the ammeter
reading.
15. Verify superposition theorem.

CIRCUIT – 1
 CIRCUIT - 2

CIRCUIT - 3

TABULAR COLUMN
Theoretical Values
RPS Ammeter Reading (I)
1 2 mA
Circuit – 1 10 V 10 V I = 8.83

Circuit – 2 10 V 0V I’= 3.5

Circuit – 3 0V 10 V I”= 5.3

Practical Values
RPS Ammeter Reading (I)
1 2 mA
Circuit – 1 10 V 10 V

Circuit – 2 10 V 0V

Circuit – 3 0V 10 V
Model Calculations:

Result:
Superposition theorem has been verified theoretically and practically.
 VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION AND
Experiment No. 4b RECIPROCITY THEOREM USING LTSPICE
Date :

(i) Superposition Theorem

Aim: To verify superposition theorem

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE : - Using LT Spice simulation tool, create the above circuit using a
resistor, a voltage source, current source and a zero potential and give the corresponding
values to the resistor and the source voltage by right clicking the components.

⦁ Click on edit simulate command under simulate section then select DC op point and
then run the circuit to check the operating voltage and current at each component. Current
across R2 is 3A.

 Repeat the same measurement by considering only one independent source at a time.

Theorem Proof: Current at R2 when both the independent sources considered = Summation
of current at R2 when the independent sources considered separately [Voltage source is
short-circuited and current source open circuited].
Consider only current source

Measure current across R2.

Consider only voltage source

Measure current across R2.

INFERENCE: It has been observed that current through R2 due to each source
independently equals current through R2 when both are active.

(ii) VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY THEOREM

Aim:

To verify the reciprocity theorem for the given electrical network using
LTSPICE simulation.

Apparatus Required: LTSPICE software

Theory:

Reciprocity Theorem:

In any linear bilateral network the ratio of voltage to current response, is constant
even when the position of the input and output are interchanged.

Circuit Diagram 1:
Circuit Diagram 2:

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Note down the ammeter reading and find the ratio of output current and input
voltage.
3. Interchange the position of ammeter and voltage source.
4. Note down the ammeter reading and find the ratio.
5. Compare this value with the value obtained in step – 2.

Simulation Steps:

Circuit Diagram 1:

--- Operating Point ---

V(n001): 10 voltage
V(n002): 3.33333 voltage
I(R3): -0.00333333 device_current
I(R2): 0.00333333 device_current
I(R1): -0.00666667 device_current
I(Supply_v): -0.00666667 device_current
Ratio : Supply_V / Current_I = 3000.003

Circuit Diagram 2:

--- Operating Point ---

V(n002): 10 voltage
V(n001): 3.33333 voltage
I(R3): 0.00666667 device_current
I(R2): 0.00333333 device_current
I(R1): 0.00333333 device_current
I(Supply_v): -0.00666667 device_current

Ratio : Supply_V / Current_I = 3000.003

Tabulation:

Result: The reciprocity theorem was verified for given network.

 Experiment No. 5a FIRST ORDER RL AND RC CIRCUITS
Date :

Aim: To observe the response of the first order R-C and R-L circuits.

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Function Generator - 1
2 CRO - 1
3 Decade Resistance Box - 1
4 Capacitor 0.1uF 1
5 Inductor 100mH 1
6 Bread Board -- --
7 Wires -- Required

Theory

Natural Response of the First Order Circuits.

The natural response of an RC circuit, is given by (1).

(1)
Where, vo is the value of the capacitor voltage v at t=0s, τ=RC is the time constant of the
circuit. The time constant gives the rate at which the voltage decays to zero. In circuits, this
decay response is due to ohmic losses.

The time constant can be measured by one of the following graphical methods.

(a) The Tangential Line. A line tangential at a certain point of the response curve is drawn.
The line intersects the time axis exactly in one time constant from the point of tangent.
Figure A shows the graph of the response from (1). Note that the response begins at t= 0.05
s. With reference to Figure A, a line is drawn tangential to the curve at t= 0.05 s (that is at
the onset of the decay) . The line is extended until it intersects the time axis. This occurs at
t= 0.25 s. Therefore, the time constant of the response is

τ = 0.25 - 0.05 = 0.2 s (2)

This method is suitable if a hard copy of the response graph is available.

 Fig. A. Measurement of the time constant of an exponentially decaying
response.

(b) The 63.22% Decay. The second method is suitable for measurements on the
oscilloscope. From (1), every time interval equal to one time constant the response decays
by 63.22%. Equivalently, at the end of every interval equal to one time constant, the
response is at the 100-63.22= 36.78 % of its value at the beginning of the interval. This
method of measurement is demonstrated in Figure B. The response begins its decay at
t=0.05 s, at that point the value of the curve is 1. The response reaches 36.78 % of its initial
value at t= 0.25 s. Thus the time constant is

t= 0.25-0.05=0.2 s (3)

The results of (3) and (2) are in agreement.

The Step Response of First Order Circuits.

The step response of the first order circuit RC circuit is given by (4).
Where, vf is the final value of the response (also, called the constant steady state of the
response). The step response of the circuit is characterized by the same time constant as the
natural response. The time constant affects the step response in a similar manner as the
natural response. Therefore, the methods discussed previously apply in this case, as well.

On the oscilloscope the time constant of the step response can be measured by measuring
the time the output requires to reach 63.22% of its final value.

The natural and step responses of a first order R-L circuit are the same as in (1) and (4)
given for the circuit current i. The circuit time constant is τ=L/R.

Observations.

Figure B shows the response of a first order circuit to a periodic square pulse. The first part
of the circuit response is the step response described by (4). The second part of the circuit
response, when the excitation becomes zero, is the natural response described by (1). If the
response is allowed to decay sufficiently, the following period will begin with another step
response followed by the natural response. Thus, the circuit response will alternate between
step and natural responses. To achieve good results, therefore, the period of the excitation
must be adjusted to 7 to 10 times the time constant of the circuit.

Fig. B. Circuit response to a square pulse excitation with large period. (a) The excitation.
(b) The circuit response.

Procedure:

A. The RC Circuit.

Voltage

0.1 μF

Current
Current measuring resistor
 Fig. 1. RC circuit.

1. (a) Construct the R-C circuit of Figure 1. Use a 510 Ω.

(b) Apply the square pulse generator to produce a periodic response of the circuit that
appears clearly on the oscilloscope. The period of the source is adjusted to be at least 20
times higher than the calculated time constant of the circuit. This is necessary, so that the
capacitor reaches steady state, in both charging and discharging intervals.
(c) Observe on the oscilloscope the quantities shown in the figure. Measure the circuit
time constant by the 63% decay method described above.
(d) Plot on a millimeter paper one period of the voltage and current response. Use
appropriate scale. Label the axes. Transfer measurements from the oscilloscope to the
paper by inspection.
2. Change the resistance to 250 Ω. Repeat Procedure 1. Use the same millimeter paper and
the same scale. Align the graphs. Do not change the setting of the source.

Tabulation
S.No Resistance (Ω) Voltage across the capacitor (V)

B. The R-L Circuit.

1. (a) Construct the circuit of Figure 2. Set the resistance box to 500 Ω.
a. Apply a square pulse voltage. Set the frequency of the source to correspond to 10
times the time constant of the circuit.
b. Observe on the oscilloscope the quantities shown in the figure. Measure the circuit
time constant by the 63% decay method described above.
2. Change the resistance to 250 Ω. Perform again step 1b.
Fig. 2. RL circuit

Voltage

100 mH
Tabulation
S.No Resistance (Ω) Voltage across the inductor
(V)
.

Result: Thus the time constant for the given RC and RL circuit is verified both theoretically
and practically.
 Experiment No. 5b FIRST ORDER RL & RC TRANSIENT USING LTSPICE
Date :

Procedure:
a. Draw the given circuit in the LTSPICE with new schematic.
b. Change the value of source, resistors nad inductors or capacitors.
c. Place the Ground.
d. Set the simulation profile for Operating point analysis.
e. Run the simulation and note the results.
f. Change the circuit accordingly as the switch closes.
g. Set the simulation profile for Transient circuit analysis and set Initial Condition as
IC.
h. Run the simulation and plot the graph.

Operating Point analysis of RL and RC Circuits with Source

Circuit Diagram 1:
Model Calculations:

Transient analysis of
RL circuit with
Source:
Circuit Diagram 2:
Graph 2:

The theoretical calculations match with the LTSpice calculations as the graph of them
overlaps.

Transient analysis of RC circuit with Source:

Circuit Diagram 3:
Graph 3:

The theoretical calculations match with the LTSpice calculations as the graph of them
overlaps.

Source free RL Circuit:

Circuit Diagram 4:
Graph 4:

The theoretical calculations match with the LTSpice calculations as the graph of them
overlaps.

Source free RC circuit:

Circuit Diagram 5:
Graph 5:

The theoretical calculations match with the LTSpice calculations as the graph of them
overlaps.

Analysis of RL circuit with Source:

Circuit Diagram 6(1):
Calculations:

Circuit Diagram 6(2):

IC is the initial condition which is the

initial current through the inductor
which is 2A as seen from the
calculations above.

Graph 6:
The theoretical calculations match with the LTSpice calculations as the graph of them
overlaps.
 Analysis of RC circuit with Source:
Circuit Diagram 7(1):

Calculations:

Circuit Diagram 7(2):

IC is the initial condition which is the

initial voltage through the capacitor
which is 15V as seen from the
calculations above.
Graph 7:

Analysis of RL circuit with Current Source:

Circuit Diagram 8(1):

Calculations:
Circuit Diagram 8(2):

IC is the initial condition which is the

initial current through the inductor
which is 4A as seen from the
calculations above.

Graph 8:

Finally, we get the above graph.

 Analysis of RC circuit with two sources:
Circuit Diagram 9(1):

Calculations:

Circuit Diagram 9(2):

IC is the initial condition

which is the initial voltage
through the capacitor
which is 0.5V as seen
from the calculations
above.
Graph 9:

The above graph shows the decay of voltage in the capacitor

 Experiment No. 6a AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Date :

Aim:

To familiarize the students with AC circuit analysis and measurements.

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Function Generator -- 1

2 Multimeter -- 1

3 Resistors 3

4 Resistors 1

5 Resistors 1

6 Inductor 100mH 1

7 Capacitor 0.22uF 1

4 Bread Board -- --
5 Wires -- Required

Theory:

While analyzing an electric circuit having reactive components such as inductors and
capacitors, the voltages, currents and branch impedance must be treated as complex
Quantities. These quantities may be expressed in rectangular form as a real part and
imaginary part, or in polar form as a magnitude and a phase angle. The voltage
magnitude is the quantity, which would be measured with ordinary AC voltmeter. Phase
relationships may be measured with specialized equipment or may be calculated from
Measurements of DC resistance and of impedance, the impedance being the ratio of the
applied AC voltage to the resulting AC current.
 Procedure:

Series AC Circuit:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1

2. Fix the frequency of the function generator to 500 Hz and its output voltage to 5

V (rms)

3. Measure the AC voltage across each of the elements

4. Increase the frequency by 100 Hz until 1000 Hz is reached and readjusts the
output voltage to maintain 5 V and repeat step 3.
5. Tabulate the results in Table 1.

Parallel RLC Circuit:

1. Measure the DC resistance for each resistor.

2. Measure the DC resistance of the inductor.

3. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.

4. Fix the frequency to 500 Hz, and its output voltage magnitude to 5 V (rms).

5. Measure the magnitude of the AC voltage across RS, R1, R2, and R3 and
tabulate the values in Table 2.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 1 Series AC circuit.
 Table 1
Frequency, Hz V (C) V (L) V(R1) I
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Figure 2 Parallel AC circuit.

Table 2
Frequency, Hz I1 I2 I3
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Result

1. Theoretical values (I, V (R1), V (C), V (L)) at the frequency 1000 Hz for
the series RLC circuit in Figure 1 and I1, I2, and I3 at the frequency 1000 Hz for
the parallel RLC circuit is compared against practical values.
 Experiment No. 6b STEADY STATE AC ANALYSIS USING LTSPICE
Date :

AIM : To analyze thecircuit with AC source using LTSPICE.

Procedure:

Consider the following circuit.

Assume w = 1 rad/s.

Thus f = w/ (2*pi) = 0.15915Hz

Time period (T): 1/f = 6.28s

We make this circuit using LT spice app. using resistors, inductor, and capacitor. We give
them their respective values by right clicking on them. For voltage source we right click
then select advanced then select sine and give amplitude 5, frequency 0.15915, and phase 0.
Now go to edit simulation command window and select transient.

Stop time: 100, Time to start saving data: 6T = 37.68s

Click OK and run the simulation.

Current through R2
We get the magnitude by placing the cursor at the peak value i.e. 0.59A

For phase we click on the node above L2.

We find current lags voltage by 1.59s

Thus phase = 1.59/6.28 * 360 = 91.14deg

Similarly current through L1

Magnitude: 0.851A. To find phase click on the node and L1.

We find current lags voltage by 1.2288952s

Thus phase 1.22/6.28 * 360 = 69.93deg.

Superposition theorem in AC.

Postulate:

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or the current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or current through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
Consider the following circuit:

Assume the angular frequency = 1rad s-1.

Thus frequency (f) = 1/2(pi) [since w=2*pi / f]

f=0.15915 Hz

Time period (T) = 1/f = 6.2832 s.

Now XL = jwL = 12j

Thus L = 10H

XC = -j/wC = -j2

Thus C = 0.5F

Thus our circuit becomes as given below

We draw the given circuit using voltage source, resistors, capacitors, inductors and current
source. We give the components their values by right clicking on them.

For current and the voltage source after right clicking in them select ‘advanced’ and then
select sine function and then give it amplitude 10 and 20 for current and voltage source
respectively.

Since the angular frequency = 1rad/s we give frequency 0.15915Hz to both of them and
phase angles 0 and 90o to current and voltage source respectively.

Now click on edit simulation command window and select transient.

Time to start saving data: 6*T = 37.68s

Stop time: 100

Click OK and run the simulation.

Now let current through V1 = Io

Its magnitude is given by placing the cursor at the peak of the curve.

We find the magnitude to be: 6.10A

Now to find phase we click on the element to get current and at node to get voltage as
We observe current is lags the current by 0.632 s.

Thus phase = 0.632/6.28 * 3600 = 36.22deg

Thus we have Io = 6.10<-36.22

Now we de-activate one source say current source thus our circuit becomes:

Again we find the current and the phase difference using the above method
We find the magnitude to be: 3.32A

Now for phase

We find that current lags the voltage by 815.58074ms

Thus the phase difference 0.815/6.28 *360 = 46.71deg

Thus Io1 = 3.32<-46.71

Now we de-activate the other source, thus we have

Again we find current and voltage due to current source using the above method

Thus we have

Thus we find the magnitude to be 2.89A

Now to find phase

Current lags the voltage by 435.97734ms

Thus the phase= 0.435/6.28 *360 = 24.93 deg.

Thus Io11= 2.89<-24.93

Thus we have

Io= 6.10<-36.22

Io1= 3.32<-46.71

Io11= 2.89<-24.93

Thus we observe Io = I01 + Io11

Hence superposition theorem for AC circuit is verified.

 Series and Parallel Resonance
Experiment No. 7a
Date :

Series Resonance

Aim: To plot the current Vs frequency graph of series and parallel resonant circuits and
hence measure their bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Name of the Type Range Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Function Generator 1
2 Resistor 100 Ω 1
3 Decade Inductance Box 1
4 Decade Capacitance Box 1
5 Ammeter MI (0-30) mA 1
6 Connecting Wires Single Strand Few nos

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SERIES RESONANCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR PARALLEL RESONANCE

THEORY:
A circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage V and current I are in phase with
each other. Thus at resonance condition, the equivalent complex impedance of the circuit
consists of only resistance (R) and hence current is maximum. Since V and I are in phase,
the power factor is unity.
The complex impedance
Z = R + j (XL – XC)
Where XL = ωL
XC = 1/ωC
At resonance, XL= XC and hence Z= R

Bandwidth of a Resonance Circuit:

Bandwidth of a circuit is given by the band of frequencies which lies between

two points on either side of resonance frequency, where current falls through 1/1.414 of the
maximum value of resonance. Narrow is the bandwidth, higher the selectivity of the
circuit.As shown in the model graph, the bandwidth AB is given by f2 – f1. f1 is the lower
cut off frequency and f2 is the upper cut off frequency.

Q - Factor:

In the case of a RLC series circuit, Q-factor is defined as the voltage

magnification in the circuit at resonance. At resonance, current is maximum. Io= V/R.
The applied voltage V = IoR
Voltage magnification = VL/V = IoXL
In the case of resonance, high Q factor means not only high voltage, but also
higher sensitivity of tuning circuit. Q factor can be increased by having a coil of large
inductance, not of smaller ohmic resistance.
Q = ωL / R

FORMULAE USED:

Resonant frequency fr =1/2π LC Hz

Bandwidth BW = f2 – f1
Quality Factor =fr /BW

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency and note down the corresponding meter reading.
3. Draw the current Vs frequency curve and measure the bandwidth, resonant
frequency and Q factor.
MODEL GRAPH FOR SERIES RESONANCE:

MODEL GRAPH FOR PARALLEL RESONANCE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
(a) Series resonance

S.No. Frequency in Output

Hz Current
in mA
(b) Parallel resonance

S.No. Frequency in Output

Hz Current
in mA

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

Thus the current Vs frequency graphs of series and parallel resonant circuits were plotted
and the bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor were measured.

They were found to be

(a) Series resonance

Resonant frequency = ____________

Bandwidth = ____________
Q- Factor = ____________

(b) Parallel Resonance

Resonant frequency = ____________

Bandwidth = ____________
Q- Factor = ____________
 Series and Parallel Resonance using LTSPICE
Experiment No. 7b
Date :

Series Resonance

Aim: To obtain the characteristics of series and parallel resonant circuits.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
  Go to edit simulation command window and select AC analysis.

Type of sweep: Decade

Number of points per decade: 100

Start frequency: 1

Stop frequency: 500

Then click OK. Now run the simulation.

Output:

The frequency at the peak of the curve is the resonant frequency (fr).

From the table

fr = 70.706529Hz.

Magnitude of the peak= 44.888743V

To find fl and fh

0.707*(peak value) = 31.74

fl and fh = (frequency, at magnitude = 31.74)

fl= 61.71106Hz

On right side of the curve

fh= 77.927823Hz

Thus band width = fh- fl = (77.927823 - 61.71106) Hz= 16.216763Hz

Quality Factor = [2*(3.14)* fr *L]/R=4.43

Parallel Resonance

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

 Go to edit simulation command window and select AC analysis.

  Click OK. Then run the simulation.

Output:
The frequency at the peak of the curve is the resonant frequency (fr).

From the table

fr = 58.314863Hz

Magnitude of the peak= 9.9997895V

Now to find fl and fh

0.707*(peak value) =7.0698

Now fl and fh = (frequency, at magnitude = 7.0698)

On left of peak
fl= 12.178747Hz

On right side of the peak

fh= 277.68828Hz

Thus band width = fh- fl = (277.68828 - 12.178747) Hz = 265.509533

Quality Factor = [2*(3.14)* fr *L]/R = 4.577

Result:

Resonant Frequency Band-Width Quality Factor

Series Resonance 70.706529Hz. 16.216763Hz 4.43
Parallel Resonance 58.314863Hz 265.509533 4.577