SAC and DLE PDF
SAC and DLE PDF
SAC and DLE PDF
An analysis of the
Performance Improvements (PI) Limited Database
Date Rev
October 2014 0
February 2015
1
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members assume liability for any use made thereof. In addition, this technical note has been prepared on the
basis of practice within the UKCS and no guarantee is provided that this technical note will be applicable for
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endorsement or recommendation of that technology or the manufacturers of that technology.
APPENDICES
Appendix A Gas Turbine Loading
Appendix B Typical Emissions Test Results
Glossary
BAT Best Available Techniques
CH4 Methane
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
DLN / DLE Dry Low NOx / Dry Low Emissions
GE The General Electric Company
GT Gas Turbine
IED Industrial Emissions Directive
LCP BREF Large Combustion Plant Best Available Techniques Reference Document
LHV Lower Heating Value
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
OGUK Oil & Gas UK
PI Performance Improvements (PI) Ltd.
PPC Pollution Prevention Control
SAC Standard Annular Combustion technology
SO2 Sulphur Dioxide
UKCS United Kingdom Continental Shelf
UHC Un-burnt Hydrocarbons
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
Hence the continued use of existing SAC gas turbine units is recommended in the foreseeable future.
The analysis conducted shows that 66 out of 91 turbines were operating at <70% of
the rated load and 45 out of 91 turbines were <60%. The average loading was 53%.
N+1 (or load share) operation is normal operating practice. Out of the 192 units in
the database, 187 (97%) of these were operating in load share.
There are several examples where DLE engines under normal operation are outwith
the BREF limits for NOx and CO. e.g. CO limit is 100 mg/Nm3 whereas measured
values were in excess of 5,000 mg/Nm3 at low loads.
The potential variability of fuel gas quality that is experienced on some platforms
would be problematic for DLE operation. In the example quoted in the report, CH4
varied between 65% and 85% which is a significant range.
Of the gas turbines studied, dual fuel machines were significantly more common
that single fuel use machines. It was noted that 97% of power generation units were
dual fuel. Power generation is by far the most common duty for GTs offshore,
making up 66% of the units studied.
It is estimated that at an average load (53%), no standard gas turbines would meet
the BREF limits set for NOX (while they would meet the limits for CO).
Of the 6 DLE units PI have knowledge of in the UKCS, 5 are loading <70% with only
one being lightly loaded. At these high loads, the units would meet the proposed
BREF limits for NOX and CO. However, if loaded below 60% it is likely that DLE units
would not meet the BREF limits.
Number of GTs in
192
database
Number of GTs with
complete 174
information
Power Generation
128
Units
Mechanical Drive
64
Units
DLE Units 6
Units operating in
187
Load Share
Single Unit
5
Operation
The majority of gas turbines in the UKCS are dual fuel power generation units, with SAC (or
cannular) standard combustors. These units are typically operated in load share (i.e. N+1
operation). Mechanical drive machines (where the GTs drive a compressor or a pump) are in
the minority with only 64 of these units in the database.
The majority of these mechanical drive machines are gas fired only, with only two machines
being dual fuel. The percentage ratios of these figures are expressed in Table 2.
Unit Duty
Single unit operation is seen as risky and undesirable. If the generator trips in single unit operation, a
smaller emergency generator (normally a diesel engine) is started to prevent a “black out / lights
out” scenario. As the emergency generator is normally of limited size, aggressive load shedding of
the operational plant loads takes place in order to reduce the platform load to a level that can be
handled by the smaller unit. As such, in the event of a generator trip, production from the platform
will cease until the main unit can be restarted. If, of course, in the event that the standby unit fails to
start, all power to the platform is lost which creates significant safety issues.
As gas turbine models are typically chosen to reflect the anticipated load on the platform, load share
operation means that units are loaded less than 70% of gas turbine manufacturers rated load. In the
gas turbines studied, PI has loading information for 91 units (out of the 192 units in our database).
Out of these 91 units, 66 of them were loaded less than 70% and 45 units were loaded at less than
60%. Of these units, the average gas turbine load was only 53%.
Of the 6 DLE machines in the PI database only one unit was partly loaded at 44% with the average
load being 71%, although, this is not a guarantee that these GTs will sustain such a load throughout
the life of the field. As the fields mature electrical demands on the platforms may decline as
production decreases, leading to these units become lightly loaded and out with DLE range of
operation.
GT Loading
Number below 70% Number above 70%
load load
66 25
Percentage below 70% load
73%
Number below 60% Number above 60%
load load
45 54
Percentage below 60% load
49%
DLE Units Loads
Unit1 70%
Unit 2 70%
Unit 3 81%
Unit 4 89%
Unit 5 44%
Unit 6 72%
As DLE operation typically requires units to be loaded greater than 60%, DLE technology is not
considered BAT for existing turbines on the UKCS as most platforms would not be able to meet the
operational criteria and maintain platform security from both a production and safety standpoint.
Gas Turbines are the most common type of power generation unit found offshore, both on fixed
platforms and FPSOs. There are two general types of gas turbine; aero-derivative and industrial, the
prime difference being the weight of the engine as industrial engines are heavier built. Both types
operate in the same way.
Gas turbine operation is best expressed by the typical Brayton engine cycle where air entering the
engine intake is compressed by an axial compressor (thereby reducing its volume and increasing its
pressure) and is then mixed with fuel and combusted. The explosive action adds heat and the
expansion drives a turbine stage allowing work to be done, typically driving an item of rotating
equipment such as a compressor or an alternator for power generation.
The most common type of combustion system is the Standard Annular combustor. Annular
combustors do away with the separate combustion zones (found on the older Cannular type) and
combustion nozzles are located around a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus of the gas
turbine). There are many advantages to annular combustors, including more uniform combustion,
shorter size (therefore lighter), and less surface area. A typical example is shown in Figure 1.
Annular combustors tend to have very uniform exit temperatures. They also have the lowest
pressure drop of existing burner designs. The annular design is also simpler making them
desirable for offshore operation.
The formation of NOx and CO occurs in different temperature regimes. NOx is formed mainly
through the thermal NOx route, which becomes significant at combustion temperatures above 1850
K. CO is present at lower temperatures, due to lower reaction rates and less oxidation of CO to form
CO2, which is a function of combustion efficiency and residence time. Hence, the window of
technological opportunity to achieve low NOx and CO lies in a narrow range for both equivalence
ratio and thus combustion temperature, as shown in Figure 2.
Emissions of UHC are a result of local fuel-rich zones. All of the fuel will not be combusted and UHC
will occur in the combustion gases. In gas turbines it is seen that UHC emissions in general follow the
same pattern as CO emissions.
The concept of DLE technology focuses on controlling the flame temperature within a narrow band
to minimise both the NOx and CO emissions. Normally this involves making a lean air/fuel mix, which
reduces the flame temperature, and is often based on premixing in an initial chamber. Additional air
is then added in a subsequent chamber to complete the combustion process and to provide a
cooling function.
The disadvantages of running in lean conditions are the marginal blowout limit and the risk of high
CO/UHC emissions at low combustion temperatures, due to incomplete combustion. Hence,
operation of a low emission combustion system requires accurate fuel control, which is particularly
vulnerable to small disturbances that may result in combustion instabilities. A major problem when
designing combustors with lean premixing has been keeping the combustion generated noise levels
at a satisfactory low level.
At operating loads below 60% (gas fuel) and below 65% (liquid fuel), the guide vanes are fully
opened. Terminating the temperature control causes the system to lean out, so the pilot fuel is
increased to a higher level to maintain flame stability. The result of the two control changes is the
increase of NOx and CO emissions. Typical emissions characteristics across the turbine load range
are shown in Figure 3.
NOx emissions contribute to acid deposition and may also contribute to ozone formation when
mixed with volatile organic compounds in sunlight.
Hence, engine manufacturers now offer modified combustion systems known as DLE (Dry Low
Emissions). These turbines can be very effective as they can reduce NOx production by up to 90%.
This effect is achieved by operating in a fuel lean configuration mode using a complex burner
system, which reduces the combustion temperature. The designs differ slightly but they usually have
several different combustion modes with the main combustor having several sub-sections. The use
of the different sections varies as fuel flow increases, and their operation is optimised along with air
flow control (e.g. air bleed) to maintain air/fuel pre-mix and lean burn conditions.
There are numerous issues associated with DLE combustion technology when used in offshore oil
and gas production.
In general, DLE technology is not yet fully mature compared to SAC, leading to reduced
reliability.
Effective DLE air/fuel control has narrow tolerances, and it does not work well in situations
where the properties of the fuel gas can change quickly, as can occur on offshore
installations. The consequences are a loss of DLE performance with a potential for flame
failure (‘flameout’) with subsequent production trip and increased flaring. One operator in
particular experienced many flameouts.
The fuel systems are intolerant of heavy ends in the fuel gas (C10+).
The load generally has to be above 60% for the DLE system to work effectively. Below this
value, combustion performance can be compromised, particularly with excessive quantities
of carbon monoxide being produced. Furthermore, because most DLE fuel control systems
focus on limiting flame temperature (and hence controlling NOx) they are prone to high CO
and UHC in instances where incomplete combustion or internal leakage paths between
burner rings go undetected / uncontrolled.
DLE systems require additional air bleed at various loads, which increases the CO2 emissions
marginally (2% to 3%). Effective control is very sensitive to correct operation and feedback
of air flow control / variable geometry mechanisms including bleed valves and guide vanes.
The engines require frequent “fuel mapping” to re-tune fuel control to thermodynamic and
physical tolerances (e.g. performance degradation and fuel valve replacement respectively)
that requires additional expertise, thus increasing the numbers of personnel offshore and
cost of additional OEM intervention due to ‘black box’ technology.
The need for a more detailed maintenance regime requiring additional training of personnel.
DLE machines are less likely to offer extended time between overhauls and generally cost more to
overhaul e.g. typical DLE overhaul costs are increased by up to £300,000 when compared to SAC
type machines. Overhaul cost increase is per major overhaul i.e. approximately every 24,000 fired
hours.
3 units belonging to one operator have already been changed back to SAC combustors due to
combustion rumble issues
2 units belonging to another operator have experienced frequent issues with burner cracking
(due to “caking” of the diesel nozzles). This operator is considering changing the units back to
SAC combustion.
A third operator with a dual fuel power generation unit found that they are unable to run on
diesel for any significant amount of time.
Of the units known to PI, only the single fuel mechanical drive DLE units have been known to
operate with any reasonable success but units with these specific demands are in a minority.
DLE units when operated at a lower load may still not meet the Best Available Techniques BREF
limits for NOx and CO production. Figures 4 & 5 show results from a recent test on a DLE unit.
As may be seen, the DLE units when loaded below 60% have:
NOx emissions that are greater than the BREF limit of 50mg/Nm3
CO emissions which increase dramatically to over 5,000mg/Nm3 at low load. This is far
greater than the BREF Limit of 100 mg/Nm3 and could represent a health hazard. Anecdotal
evidence from USA indicates numerous DLE units are not allowed to run with these emissions
at low load.
For a gas turbine fitted with standard combustors (SAC or the older cannular style) the typical
emissions characteristics can be seen, with NOx increasing in a linear fashion with load and CO being
Figure 6 & 7 below shows a comparison between SAC and DLE engines for NOx and CO emissions.
These results are taken from a selection of the emissions tests carried out by PI in the UKCS. They
show:
Across all load ranges DLE engines do emit less NOx, and have a “flatter” emissions profile.
While at low loads, CO emissions are in general far greater than typical SAC engine and
considerably above the LCP BREF limit of 40 mg/Nm3.
On this particular site the wide range of fuel gas properties is due to the following:
Change in the number of wells that are on line which is a consequence of regular well testing
or reservoir management requiring wells to be taken off line. Even platforms with only one
fuel gas source experience changes in fuel gas quality as a result of changes to the well
configuration
Variation in mix from the different sources due to temperature and pressure changes in the
process
90.00
85.00
80.00
CH4 Content
75.00
70.00
65.00
60.00
0:00:00 2:24:00 4:48:00 7:12:00 9:36:00 12:00:00 14:24:00 16:48:00 19:12:00 21:36:00
Hrs Since Shutdown
1400
1350
1300
1250
BTU
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
0:00:00 2:24:00 4:48:00 7:12:00 9:36:00 12:00:00 14:24:00 16:48:00 19:12:00 21:36:00
Figures 9 and 10 - Variation of Methane Content and LHV vs Hrs since Shutdown
For a DLE gas turbine the consequences are even more marked. Often an on line chromatograph is
installed which has a response time of several minutes. Again the gas turbine controls cannot handle
the mechanical lag and the unit is tripped as a consequence of the safety provisions. Hence, the
uptimes for DLE gas turbine units are lower than their SAC counterparts.
The cost and feasibility of providing a more consistent fuel gas quality has been evaluated on
numerous occasions. Frequently this involves a separate gas import line or a major change to the
system design involving an extensive shutdown. At all times, the costs have been proved
uneconomic.
However, it can be seen that the offshore operating environment presents a unique challenge to DLE
gas turbines due to:
Low loads due to use of spinning reserve which gives high CO levels magnitudes in excess of
the proposed limit.
Poor reliability due to mechanical issues, especially with dual fuel units
Frequent engines tuning / mapping requires significantly more contractor/OEM input to the
operation of the units.
Simplicity of Standard Annular Combustors is ideal for offshore operations due to lower
maintenance requirements and higher reliability
Standard Annular Combustion engines are more suited to dual fuel operation which is the
most common and desirable operation
Subject: Typical NOx and CO Results from SAC Machines SAC Machines