WELDING BASICS

By S.H.K.N. Gunarathna
Irrigation Department
7/7/2016
• Fabrication process to make high strength
joint between two or more parts by heating to
their melting temperature, with or without
the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal.
• The welding process is used to metallurgically
join together two metal pieces, to produce
essentially a single piece of metal.
• Flame burns at about 3,500 °C
• Commonly used to permanently join mild steel.
• Prefabrication of steel sheet, tubes and plates.
• Oxyacetylene can also be used for brazing, bronze
welding, forging / shaping metal and cutting.
• Rod-Copper coated rod (RG45 or RG60)
– RG - Rod Gas
– 45 - tensile strength times 10,000 = 45,000
PSI
• Rod diameter - (1/16, 3/32, 1/8, 5/32,
3/16 and 1/4 inch)
• Rod length – (1 ½ and 3 feet)
• A type of welding that uses a welding power
supply to create an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt the
metals at the welding point.
• They can use either direct (DC) or alternating
(AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes.
• Metal Arc Welding
• Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA or MMAW),
• Flux Shielded Arc Welding
• informally as Stick Welding,
• A manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode covered with a flux to
lay the weld
• Most widely used arc welding process in the
world
• Open Circuit Voltage(50V-100V)
– Voltage generated by welding machine when no
welding being done
• Machine running idle
• Arc voltage (18V-36V)
– Voltage generated between electrode and work
during welding
• Load voltage
– Voltage at output terminals of welding machine when
arc is going
– Combination of arc voltage plus voltage drop in
welding circuit
Some jobs require steep volt-ampere curve

Other jobs use less steep volt-ampere curve

1. Engine-driven generators
– Powered by gas or diesel combustion engine
2. Inverters
– Increases frequency of incoming primary power
3. A.C. transformers
– Used to step down A.C. line power voltage to A.C.
welding voltage
4. Transformer-rectifiers
– Step Down Welding voltage then passed through
rectifier to convert A.C. output to D.C. welding
current
• Three main areas
– Cost of purchasing equipment (nearly equal)
– Operating efficiency
• Motor generator machine: 52-65%
• Transformer-rectifiers: 64-72%
• Inverters: 85%
– Maintenance
• Motor generator machine: replacing parts,
lubrication
• Transformer-rectifiers and inverters have no moving
parts
• Electrode negative and electrode positive used in d.c.
welding
• DCEN (D.C. electrode negative)
– Electrode connected to negative terminal of power source
and work connected to positive terminal (current flows
from neg to pos) flow from electrode to work = more
electrode consumption.
• DCEP (D.C. electrode positive)
– Electrode connected to positive terminal of power source
and work connected to negative terminal
• Duty cycle is a capacity rating of a welding
power source, expressed as a percent (%). It is
the percentage of a ten minute period that
the power source can operate at a given
output current level before exceeding its
thermal limit (i.e. the windings get too hot)
and shutting down
• Shorter cables can carry more current than longer
cables of the same diameter.
• Welding cable is often rated with a conductor
temperature of 75°C ,90°C or 105°C .
• Properly sized welding cable to feel warm to the
touch after prolonged welding.
• if the diameter of cable is too small for the level
of current flowing through it, then the cable will
overheat.
• Oversized cable for a given amperage level does
not conduct current any more effectively than
properly sized cable.
• Total length of the welding circuit
• Rated output of welding power source
• Duty cycle of the welding power source
• Is a consumable - it gets melted during the
welding process
• Is composed of two parts
– Core Rod (Metal Filler)
 Carries welding current
 Becomes part of the weld
– Flux Coating
 Produces a shielding gas
 Can provide additional filler
 Forms a slag
 E7018
• E indicates electrode
• 70 indicates 70,000 psi tensile strength
• 1 indicates use for welding in all positions
• 8 indicates low hydrogen
http://www.mig-welding.co.uk/electrode-
classification.htm
Digit Type of Coating Welding Current

0 High cellulose sodium DC+

1 High cellulose potassium AC, DC+ or DC-

2 High titania sodium AC, DC-

3 High titania potassium AC, DC+
4 Iron powder, titania AC, DC+ or DC-

5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+

6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DC+
7 High iron oxide, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

8 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

• 1- Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead
• 2-Flat, Horizontal
• 4- Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down)

• Flat Position - usually groove welds, fillet welds

only if welded like a “V”
• Horizontal - Fillet welds, welds on walls (travel is
from side to side).
• Vertical - welds on walls (travel is either up or
down).
• Overhead - weld that needs to be done upside
down.
• A weld resulting from a pass

Stringer Bead
Weave Bead
• Stringer (drag) (whip)
• Weave
– circles
– crescent
– zig zag
– box weave
– stitch
 Weld Pass - A single progression of welding along a joint. The
result of a pass is a weld bead or layer

Fill Pass Cover Pass

Root Pass Hot Pass

 Heat Affected Zone
Joint and Weld

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• Gas Shielded Tungsten Welding (GTAW)
• Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
• The arc is established between the tip of a
tungsten electrode and the work piece to melt
the base and filler material (if a filler metal is
used).
• TIG welding uses a non-consumable tungsten
• Filler metal, when required, is added by hand
• Shielding gas protects the weld and tungsten
• Argon
• Helium
• Argon/Helium Mixtures

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 Argon Helium
• Good arc starting • Faster travel speeds
• Good cleaning action • Increased penetration
• Good arc stability • Difficult arc starting
• Focused arc cone • Less cleaning action
• Lower arc voltages • Less low amp stability
• 10-30 CFH flow rates • Flared arc cone
• Higher arc voltages
• Higher flow rates (2x)
• Higher cost than argon

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Argon/Helium Mixtures
• Improved travel speeds over pure argon
• Improved penetration over pure argon
• Cleaning properties closer to pure argon
• Improved arc starting over pure helium
• Improved arc stability over pure helium
• Arc cone shape more focused than pure helium
• Arc voltages between pure argon and pure helium
• Higher flow rates than pure argon
• Costs higher than pure argon

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 Stainless steel weld parameters

40
*Figure copied from “TIG Handbook”
• Tungsten has the following properties:
– High tensile strength
– Hardness
– High melting temperature
– High boiling temperature
– Good electrical conductivity
• Tungsten is the best choice for a non consumable
electrode
– High melting temperature
– Good electrical conductivity
• As the tungsten electrode becomes hot the arc
between the electrode and the work stabilizes
– But a clean and correctly ground tungsten is needed
• Because of the intense heat some erosion of the
electrode will occur
• Welds more metals and
metal alloys than any
other process
• High quality and
precision
• Pin point control
• Aesthetic weld beads
• No sparks or spatter
• No flux or slag
• No smoke or fumes
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• Lower filler metal deposition
rates
• Good hand-eye coordination
a required skill
• Brighter UV rays than other
processes
• Slower travel speeds than
other processes
• Equipment costs tend to be
higher than other processes

44
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a welding
process which joins metals by heating the
metals to their melting point with an electric
arc.
The arc is between a continuous, consumable
electrode wire and the metal being welded.
The arc is shielded from contaminants in the
atmosphere by a shielding
Metal Inert Gas (MIG ).
GMAW can be done in three different ways:
1. Semiautomatic Welding - Equipment controls only the
electrode wire feeding. Movement of welding gun is
controlled by hand. This may be called hand-held
welding.
2. Machine Welding - uses a gun that is connected to a
manipulator of some kind (not hand-held). An operator
has to constantly set and adjust controls that move the
manipulator.
3. Automatic Welding - uses equipment which welds
without the constant adjusting of controls by a welder
or operator. On some equipment, automatic sensing
devices control the correct gun alignment in a weld
joint.
Almost all GMAW is done with reverse
polarity also known as DCEP
Positive (+) lead is connected to the torch
Negative (-) lead is connected to the work
piece
Provides a relatively consistent voltage to the
arc
Arc Voltage is the voltage between the end of
the wire and the work piece
Purpose of shielding gas is the protect the
weld area from the contaminants in the
atmosphere
Gas can be Inert, Reactive, or Mixtures of both
Gas flow rate is between 25-35 CFH (Cubic
Foot Per Hour)
Argon, Helium, and Carbon Dioxide are the
main three gases used in GMAW
Large gaps filled or bridged easily
Welding can be done in all positions
No slag removal required
High welding speeds
High weld quality
Less distortion of work piece
• Less portable with
shorter gun lengths (15
foot guns)
• GMAW equipment is
more expensive than
SMAW equipment
• External shielding gas
can be blown away by
winds
• High radiated heat
• Difficult to use in out of
position joints

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 Burn hazard Protection clothes and gloves

Eye protection against spatters and

Helmet or special glasses
ultraviolet and infrared rays

Toxic gases:
- carbon monoxide (CO)
- ozone (O2) Well ventilated area
- phosgene gases produced with
some metals when welded
• Here’s a good example of a
welder wearing all the proper
welding protection
Welding Lens Shade
Process Number
 Shielded metal arc  10-14
 Gas metal arc  11-12
 Gas Tungsten arc  12
 Torch brazing  3 or 4
 Gas welding  4-8

11006115 Copyright Business & Legal Reports, Inc.

• Porosity • Excessive Penetration
• Slag inclusions • Undercut
• Lack of Fusion
• Spatter
• Overlap
• Porosity is the entrapment of small volumes of
gas in solidifying weld metal
• Prevention
– Drying consumables
– Cleaning, degreasing material being welded
– Electrode or filler metals with higher level of
deoxidants
– Sealing air leaks, reducing excess shielding gas
flow
• Slag inclusions are irregularly shaped, not
spherical like porosity
• Prevention
– Position work and/or change electrode/flux to
increase slag control
– Better slag removal between passes
– Dress weld surface smooth if it is likely to cause
slag traps
– Remove heavy mill scale on plate
• Lack of fusion is caused by incorrect welding
conditions
• Prevention
– Procedure for complete fusion should be verified
by testing
– Increased energy input
– Correct electrode angle and work position
• Incomplete root penetration can be caused by
– Excessively thick root face, insufficient root gap
– Incorrect welding conditions
– Misalignment of second weld
• Prevention
– Improved joint preparation
– Test weld verifications for correct parameters
– Reassessment of back gouging
• Overlap is an imperfection at the weld toe or
root caused by metal flowing onto the surface
of the base metal without fusing to it
• Prevention
– Adjust electrode manipulation to ensure fusion of
base metal
– Limit size of fillet to 9-mm leg length
• Undercut is an irregular groove at the weld toe in the
parent metal or previous pass caused by
– excessive weaving
– melting of top edge of fillet weld with high current
• Prevention
– Weld in flat position
– Change shielding gas to one which produces better
wetting
– Terminate welds so they don’t finish at a free edge
• Excessive penetration is caused by
– Incorrect assembly or preparation
• Edge preparation too thin to support weld underbead
• Excessive root gap
– Energy input too high
– Lack of operator skill
• Prevention
– Control of preparation, backing bars
• Spatter consists of small droplets of electrode
material that land beside the weld and may or
may not fuse to the base material
• Prevention
– Reduce energy input
– Shorter arc length
– Reposition current return clamp to reduce
magnetic arc blow or switch to AC current
 Inspection and Testing
Visual inspection
Visually examining the weld for surface defects

Nondestructive evaluation
Uses various methods that do not damage the
specimen

Destructive testing
Methods in which the weld is destroyed during
the test or to prepare the specimen
 Destructive Testing
Mechanical tests use a weld joint in a
conventional testing method, such as a tensile
test or shear test

Metallurgical tests involve creating metallurgical

specimens, such as micrographs, to examine
the features of the weld
 VISUAL
• While welding • After welding
– The rate the electrode – Under cut
melts – Lack of root fusion
– The way the weld metal – Any pin holes from gas
flows or slag
– Sound of the arc – Amount of spatter
– The light given of – Dimensions of weld
 DYE PENETRANTS
• These are an aid to visual inspection

• Will only find surface defects

• Use correct type

DYE PENETRANTS
 DYE PENETRANTS
• Types
– Red
– Flouresant

• CAUTION
– Oil based
– Water washable
DETECTION
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE

• Mainly for surface

defects
• Some sub surface
defects can be found
• Only ferrous metal
 ACOUSTICS

Striking with a rounded

object

Ringing tone if no defect

Tone changes when

object is cracked
PRESSURE TEST
 RADIOGRAPHIC

X-RAY
GAMMA RAY
Electro magnetic
radiation of short
duration
Both of these methods
are a danger to health
X- RAY
 X-RAY VIEWER

Pictures taken are

viewed as negatives
will only give flat image
not in three
dimensional
darkened area must be
used for viewing
 ULTRASONIC TESTING

This uses high pitched

sound
The sound will not pass
through an air gap so
bounces back and is
picked up on a receiver
The reader is a
oscilloscope
ULTRA SONIC