Student Companion ResourcesSB025/DB024 

BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1.0 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.1 Biodiversity and classification
LEARNING OUTCOME:
(a) State the types of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem).
(b) State hierarchical classification
(c) Explain briefly the classification systems:-
- Five-kingdom system (Robert Harding Whittaker, 1969)based on level of cell
organization, types of organism and modes of nutrition.
- Three-domain system ( Carl Woese, 1977) Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya) based on
rRNA base sequence.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
What is • Short for ​bio​​logical ​diversity
Biodiversity? • Greek “ bios ” means life , “logos” means study so the
general meaning of ​biology​​ is the study of living things.
• Diversity means the state of being diverse or a range of
different things.
• refers to the variation of life forms within a given area.
• Malaysia have not less than:
15,000 plants species 140 snakes species
150 frogs species 80 lizards species
600 birds species 150 frogs species
210 mammals species 140 snakes species
80 lizards species

State types of • It also refers to the interrelatedness of genes, species, and

biodiversity ecosystems and their interactions with the environment.
(genetic, species • Three types of biodiversity:
and ecosystem) •

•
Ecosystem diversity
- Variety of ecosystem or throughout the entire
biosphere

Species diversity

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- Diversity among species in an ecosystem

Genetic diversity
- Diversity of genes within a species.

State
hierarchical
classification.

State the • In 1969, ​R.H Whittaker ​proposed a five-kingdom system:

classification
systems
• five-kingdom
system based
on the
Whittaker
(1969)

• Classification system is based on :

1) Level of cell organization

- Prokaryote
- Eukaryote

2) Type Of Organisms
- Unicellular
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- Multicellular

3) Mode of nutrition
- Saprophytic
- Photosynthetic
- Holozoic
State the • Classification system is based on three-domain system
classification
systems
• Three-domai
n system
(Bacteria,
Archaea and
Eukarya)

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.2 Domain Bacteria and Archaea
LEARNING OUTCOME:
(a) State the TWO domain of prokaryotes, bacteria (​E.coli​) and Archaea (​Sulfolobus​ sp.)
(b) Differentiate between the two domain of prokaryotes, bacteria (​E.coli​) and Archaea
(​Sulfolobus​ sp.) based on :-
a. Cell wall structure
b. Association of histon to DNA
c. Structure of membrane lipids.
(c) Describe the diversity of bacteria (based on cell shapes and Gram-stain)
(d) State the importance of bacteria

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Domain of
prokaryotes

Differences
between
Bacteria and
Archaea

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Diversity of • Based on:

Bacteria • Cell shapes

● Gram-staining

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Outer membrane helps in resistance

Cell wall with a less peptidoglycan Cell wall with a large amount
of peptidoglycan

retain crystal violet stain crystal violet stain

More pathogenic Less threatening pathogens

Eg: ​E. coli Example : ​Bacillus,
Staphylococcus and
S​treptococcus

Importance of
bacteria

• Recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation)

– Breakdown of plant and animal remains
– Recycling of nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus.

• Symbiotic relationships with other organisms

– Enterobacteria; example: E. coli
– supplies vitamin K and vitamin B complex in humans
intestines
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– Breaking cellulose in herbivores.

• Pathogenic
– Bacteria that can cause diseases in humans, animals, and
plants
– Example:
E.coli ​– diarrhea, Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

• Widely used in research and technology

– Genetic engineering
• Plasmid used as a cloning vector
• Bacteria used as host cell

BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista/Protoctista
LEARNING OUTCOME:
a) State the unique characteristics of Protista
b) State the classification of Protista based on the unique feature:
a. Two major phyla of algae (photosynthetic pigment):
i. Chlorophyta (​Chlamydomonas​ sp.)
ii. Phaeophyta (​Fucus​ sp.)
b. Four major phyla of Protozoa (locomotioa):
i. Euglenophyta (​Euglena​ sp.)
ii. Rhizopoda (​Amoeba​ sp.)
iii. Ciliophora (​Paramecium​ sp.)
iv. Apicomplexa (​Plasmodium​ sp.)
c) Explain the importance of Protista:

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Unique • Eukaryotes
characteristics • Most are unicellular and some multicellular
of Protista • Most are microscopic, but some are large
• Heterotrophic or autotrophic
• Reproduce asexually or sexually

State
classification i. Chlorophyta (​Chlamydomonas​ sp.)
of Protista
● phyla of
algae:

ii. Phaeophyta (​Fucus​ sp.)

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Unique ● Photosynthetic
characteristics
a. Chlorophyll a + other photosynthetic pigments
of Algae

● Not differentiated into stem, leaves or root

a. Thallus : an undifferentiated vegetative tissues

● Habitat
a. Water or on very damp surfaces

● Great diversity in structure

a. Unicellular
b. Simple filamentous
c. Colonials
d. Huge seaweeds
● Reproduction
a. Asexual

● Vegetative reproduction
i. In colonial algae,
- Colonies fragment to produce separate, smaller
colonies
- In larger thalloid algae (​Fucus)​
- New thalli develop from main thallus and break off

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ii. Fragmentation
- In filamentous algae (Eg: ​Spirogyra)​
- Filament breaks forming two filaments

iii. Binary fission

- A unicellular organism divides into 2 equal halves

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iv. Zoospores
- Motile flagellate spores produced by many algae
- Eg: ​Chlamydomonas

a.Sexual

● Isogamy
- Fusion of two identical in shape and size gametes
- Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas

● Anisogamy
- One gamete is less motile and larger than the other

● Oogamy
- One gamete is large and stationary
- One gamete is small and motile
- Known as male and female gametes respectively

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State i. Euglenophyta (​Euglena​ sp.)

classification
of Protista
● phyla of
Protozoa:

v. Rhizopoda (​Amoeba​ sp.)

vi. Ciliophora (​Paramecium​ sp.)

vii. Apicomplexa (​Plasmodium​ sp.)

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Unique • Animal-like
characteristics • Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, cilia, and direct cell
of Protozoa movements; some sessile
• Unicellular :
- Some colonial
- Some with multicellular stages in the life cycle
• Modes of nutrition​ (​heterotrophic​, ​autotrophic​ ​, ​parasites)
• Cause serious human diseases
• Examples:
- Plasmodium​ - malaria
- Trypanosoma​ – sleeping sickness
• Live in many different environments
- Aquatic or terrestrial habitat
• Free-living or symbiotic mode of life
• Reproduction
​ udding​, ​Cysts)
- Asexual​ (​Binary fission​, B
- Sexual ​(​Conjugation ,​ ​Syngamy )

Importance of ● Roles in biosphere (CO​2​ fixation)

Protista - Photosynthetic protista (most of algae and some of protozoa)
- Example:
o Protozoa: ​Euglena​ sp.
o Algae: ​Fucus​ sp. ​Chlamydomonas​ sp.

● Food source (​Chlorella​ sp.)

- Many people believed ​Chlorella​ could serve as a potential
source of food and energy
- because its photosynthetic efficiency can, in theory, reach 8%
comparable with other highly efficient crops such as sugar cane

● Eutrophication (algal bloom)

- ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural
substances, such as nitrates and phosphates,
through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system

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- the depletion of oxygen in the water, which induces reductions
in specific fish and other animal populations

● Red tide (red algae)

- Red tide​​ is a common name for a phenomenon known as
an algal bloom(large concentrations of aquatic microorganisms)
- it is caused by a few species of dinoflagellates and the bloom
takes on a red or brown color
- Some red tides are associated with the production of natural
toxins, depletion of dissolved oxygen or other harmful effects

● Human health (​Plasmodium​ sp. – malaria)

- Infected female ​Anopheles bites uninfected human and
transmits ​Plasmodium​ sporozoites into human blood
BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi
LEARNING OUTCOME:
(a) State the unique characteristics of Fungi
(b) State the classification of Fungi into three major phyla based on types of spore-bearing
structure:
Zygomycota (​Rhizopus sp.),​ Ascomycota (​Penicillium sp.​), Basidiomycota (​Agaricus sp.)​
(c) State the importance of Fungi

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Unique • Eukaryotic
characteristics • Do not contain chlorophyll
of Fungi • Nonphotosynthetic
• Absorptive heterotrophs - digest food first & then absorb it into their
bodies
• Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their
host
• Store food energy as glycogen
• Most are saprophytic – live on other dead organisms
• Heterotrophic
- Parasitic
- Saprophytic
- Mutualist
• Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
• Most are multicellular, but some unicellular like yeast
• Cell walls are made of chitin (a complex polysaccharide)

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Structural
organization

● Basic building units called hyphae

● Form interwoven mat called mycelium
● Not divided into true cells
● Cross-walls or septa (singular septum): divide into compartments​ -
Septate
● Hyphae without septa ​- N
​ on-septate

Reproduction • Reproduce both asexually and sexually

in Fungi • Most fungi are haploid throughout their life cycle
• Sexual reproduction occur
- when hyphae of different mating types (+ and -) meet and fuse
together

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Fungi - Based on types of spore-bearing structure

classification

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Phylum Spore-bearing structure - zygosporangium

Zygomycota • Zygosporangium contain zygospores (formed by sexual
reproduction)

Phylum Fruiting body of ascomycota - ascocarp

Ascomycota Spore-bearing structure - ascus
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• Ascus contain ascospores

Phylum • Eg: ​Agaricus ​sp.(mushroom)

Basidiomycota • Most advance fungi

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The • Decomposers
importance of - Saprophytic fungi
Fungi - Feed on dead and decaying organisms
- Help to recycle nutrients
- e.g: phosphates, ammonia, sulphates

• Symbionts
- e.g: Lichens (Fungi + algae)
- Algae photosynthesize and provides organic food
- Fungus receives food in exchange for housing, water, and
minerals
- Commonly encrusted on rocks and tree trunks

• Pathogen
- Some of fungal species are parasites mostly of plants
- Cause huge economic effects

• Commercial food production

- Edible mushrooms (Popular food, eaten raw or cooked)
- Fermented food
- Yeasts (Produce alcoholic beverages & Raise bread)
-
• Pharmaceutical
- Penicillin
o Used as antibiotics
o Effective against bacteria that cause pneumonia,
meningitis​.

BIOLOGY SCORE

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CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe alternatioan of generation as the unique characteristics of Plantae.
(b) State the classification of Plantae into four groups :-
i. Bryophytes iii. Gymnosperms
ii. Pteridophytes iv. Angiosperms

MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
Unique • Multicellular
characteristic • Autotrophic
s of Plantae - Photosynthesis
• Alternation of generations
• Two multicellular individuals alternate, each producing the other.
• sporophyte diploid (2n) generation
– Produces haploid spores by meiosis
• gametophyte haploid (n) generation
– Produces gametes

• Plants can be divided into 2 groups :-

i) non-vascular
• Lack vascular tissue
• Leafy or thalloid appearance
• No true roots, stems and leaves

ii) vascular
• Have vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients
- xylem transports water
- phloem transport dissolved substances

● 4 major groups of plants :-

- Bryophytes
- Pteridophytes
- Gymnosperm
- Angiosperm

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Classify
Plantae into
four groups

BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.1 Kingdom Plantae: Bryophytes
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Bryophytes.
(b) State the classification of Bryophytes into 3 phyla :-
i. Phylum Bryophyta (​Polytrichum​ sp.)
ii. Phylum Hepatophyta (​Marchantia​ sp.)
iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (​Anthoceros​ sp.)
(c) State the terrestrial adaptation for bryophyte

MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
Unique • Simplest group of land plants
characteristic • Live in damp, shady places
s of • Restricted in size
Bryophytes - Very small (1-2 cm in height)
➢ Make sure all cells could obtain enough nutrients

• Non-vascular plants
- Lack specialized vascular tissues
➢ Rely on diffusion and osmosis
➢ Whole surface of the plant can absorb needed nutrients

• Seedless plants
- Produce haploid spores

• No true roots, stems and leaves

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- Anchored by rhizoids
➢ Tiny, hair-like structures
➢ Not composed of tissues
➢ Lack specialized conducting cells
➢ Do not play a primary role in water and mineral
absorption
- Have flat, broad tissues that function like leaves
➢ contain chloroplast for photosynthesis

• Alternation of generations
- Gametophyte
➢ Dominant
➢ Male gametophyte : antheridia
➢ Female gametophyte : archegonia

- Sporophyte
➢ Attached and dependent upon the gametophyte for
nutrition
➢ Smaller and shorter-lived
➢ The smallest and simplest sporophytes

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• Phylum Bryophyta (​Polytrichum​ sp.)

Classification
of
Bryophytes

• Phylum Hepatophyta (​Marchantia​ sp.)

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• Phylum Anthocerophyta (​Anthoceros​ sp.)

● Drying out
Terrestrial - A sterile jacket developed around antheridia and archegonia
adaptations which prevent them from drying out.
of bryophytes

● Reproduction
- Delicate sex cells must be protected by gametangium.
● Gaseous exchange
- Presence of stomata facilitate the movement of gasses such as
CO​2​ and O​2​ in and out through the cuticle

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.2 Kingdom Plantae: Pteridophytes
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Pteridophytes.
(b) State the classification of Pteridophytes into 2 phyla :-
i. Phylum Lycophyta (​Lycopodium​ sp., ​Selaginella​ sp.)
ii. Phylum Pterophyta (​Dryopteris​ sp.)

MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
Unique • Vascular plants
characteristic - Lignified vascular tissues
s of - Tracheids and sieve tube only
Pteridophytes ● Transport system
● Support
• Seedless
- Produce spores
• Has true roots, stems and leaves

• Non-flowering plants
• Photosynthetic – can make their own food
• Alternation of generations
- Sporophyte is dominant
- Gametophyte​ is ​reduced to a small, simple structure

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Type of • Homosporous
spores - Plants producing one type of spores
- The spores are equal in size
- The spores are produced from the same sporangia.
- The spores developed one kind of gametophyte.
- Spores germinates in soil and produce independent gametophyte.
- Eg: ​Lycopodium s​ p.

• Heterosporous
- Plants producing 2 types of spores
➢ Megaspores (large spores) ----- ​female gametophyte
➢ Microspores (small spores) ----- ​male gametophyte
- The microspores are produces from the microsporangia and
megaspores are produced from the megasporangia.
- The microspores develops into male gametophyte wheres the
megaspore develops into female gametophyte.
- Spores germinate within sporangia and produce dependent
gametophyte.
- Eg: ​Selaginella ​sp.

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Classification i. Phylum Lycophyta

of
Pteridophytes

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Lycopodium​ sp.

Selaginella​ sp.

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ii. Phylum Pterophyta

Dryopteris​ sp.

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.4 Kingdom Plantae: Gymnosperm
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Gymnosperms.
(b) State the classification of Gymnosperms into 4 phyla :-
i. Phylum Cycadophyta (​Cycas​ sp.)
ii. Phylum Coniferophyta (​Pinus​ sp.)
iii. Phylum Ginkgophyta (​Ginkgo biloba)​
iv. Phylum Gnetophyta (​Gnetum​ sp.)

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Unique • Non-flowering plants
characteristics • Have true roots, leaves and stems
of
Gymnosperms • Naked seed
- Seeds are exposed on the surface of spore producing structures:
● Sporophylls

• Heterosporous
- Microspores
- Megaspores

• Reproductive organs are usually bear in cones.

- sporophylls are spirally arranged
- no double fertilization

• Ovules (modified megasporangium)

- Contain the female gametophyte

• Vascular cambium leads to secondary growth (wood)

• Have vascular tissues

- Xylem
✓ Tracheids only
- Phloem
✓ No companion cells

Alternation of generations
- Sporophyte dominant
- Gametophyte very much reduced
✓ Depends entirely on the sporophyte
✓ No free living gametophyte

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Classification i. Phylum Coniferophyta (​Pinus​ sp.)

of
Gymnosperms

Male and Female ​Pinus​ sp.

ii. Phylum Cycadophyta (​Cycas​ sp.)

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iii. Phylum Ginkgophyta (​Ginkgo biloba)​

iv. Phylum Gnetophyta (​Gnetum​ sp.)

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.5 Kingdom Plantae: Angiosperm
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Describe the unique characteristics of Angiosperms (Phylum Anthophyta)

MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
Unique • Flowering plants
characteristic - Produce flowers and fruits
s of • True roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
Angiosperms • Seed plants
- seed enclosed in fruit
• The most diverse and geographically widespread
- Herbaceous and woody plant
• Complete vascular tissue
- xylem
✓ Tracheids
✓ Vessels : in most species
✓ Fiber cells : support
✓ Efficient water transport
- phloem
✓ Sieve tubes
✓ Companion cells

• Heterosporous
• Reproduce asexually and sexually
• Reproduction involves double fertilization.

• Alternation of generations
➢ sporophyte
✓ Dominant
✓ The plant body
➢ Gametophyte
✓ Very much reduced
✓ male gametophyte : Pollen grains
✓ female gametophyte : Embryo sac

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Classification
of i. Class Dicotyledonae (​Mangifera indica​)
Angiosperms

ii. Class Monocotyledonae (​Zea mays​)

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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 1 : BIODIVERSITY
SUBTOPIC : 1.6.6 Evolutionary relationship in plant kingdom
LEARNING OUTCOME: (a) Explain the evolutionary relationships among groups in the plant
kingdom (bryophytes to angiosperms)

BRYOPHYTES PTERIDOPHYTES GYMNOSPERM ANGIOSPERMS

S
Size Very small Medium Large Large

Dominance of Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte

gametophytes
and
sporophytes
Dependence Sporophyte Sporophyte depends Sporophyte is Sporophyte is totally
of depends on the on the gametophyte totally independent independent
gametophytes gametophyte for only at the early
and the rest of its life development
sporophytes
Water Needed - sperm Needed- sperm Not needed- sperm Not needed- sperm
dependence in motile motile non-motile non-motile
fertilization
Presence of Absent- lack Simple vascular Complex vascular Complex vascular
vascular lignified vascular tissues- lignified tissue tissue
tissues vascular
- lignified vascular - lignified vascular
Xylem – tracheids Xylem – tracheids
only and vessels
Phloem – Sieve Phloem- Sieve tubes
tubes with no and companion cells
companion cells
Embryo Not protected Not protected Protected by the Protected by the seed
protection seed

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