applied

sciences
Review
A Metasurfaces Review: Definitions and Applications
Syed S. Bukhari 1 , J(Yiannis) Vardaxoglou 2 and William Whittow 2, *
1 Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford OX5 1PF, UK
2 Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University,
Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 30 April 2019; Accepted: 30 June 2019; Published: 5 July 2019


Abstract: This paper is a critical review of metasurfaces, which are planar metamaterials.
Metamaterials offer bespoke electromagnetic applications and novel properties which are not found
in naturally occurring materials. However, owing to their 3D-nature and resonant characteristics,
they suffer from manufacturing complexity, losses and are highly dispersive. The 2-dimensional
nature of metasurfaces allows ease of fabrication and integration into devices. The phase discontinuity
across the metasurface offers anomalous refraction, thereby conserving the good metamaterial
properties while still offering the low-loss characteristics. The paper discusses salient features and
applications of metasurfaces; wavefront shaping; phase jumps; non-linear metasurfaces; and their
use as frequency selective surfaces (FSS).

Keywords: metasurface; frequency selective surface; FSS; metamaterial; review

1. Overview
Exotic phenomena like negative refractive index and near-zero index were brought into the
limelight by Pendry’s work on artificial materials. These materials have their individual scatterer
resonant and are generally classified as metamaterials. We start with a brief introduction to such
metamaterials, however, the primary focus of this review is on their two-dimensional counterparts called
metasurfaces, which are at the forefront of contemporary research. The behaviour of metamaterials
and metasurfaces can be analytically explained by the expansion of Floquet modes [1]. It also needs to
be mentioned that when the periodicity of these individual scatterers becomes closer in size to the
wavelength of operation, higher order propagating Floquet modes need to be taken into account, to
accurately describe their behaviour, such structures, therefore are not classified as metamaterials or
metasurfaces [1].

2. Metamaterials
It is a widely established fact that when an electromagnetic wave strikes a composite medium,
it induces electric and magnetic dipole moments in the inclusions. These dipole moments are closely
related to the effective permittivity and permeability of the composite medium. Since the size,
density, shape, and orientation of the inclusions can be controlled by the designer, materials with
specific electromagnetic response can be synthesized. These artificially designed materials are called
metamaterials. When the individual elements are resonant, such materials can possess negative
values for both, relative permittivity and permeability. It needs to be emphasized that the negative
refractive index is only possible with the resonant individual elements. This is due to the fact that
“resonances have the characteristic that their phase response reverses as frequency changes around
the resonance” [2]. Such materials are referred to in the literature as double negative media (DNG),
left-handed media and backward wave media [3–5].

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727; doi:10.3390/app9132727 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 2 of 14

The electromagnetic properties of the metamaterials can be described by using the Lorentz classical
theory. In this theory, the electron is treated like a damped harmonic oscillator in an electromagnetic
field [6,7]. When the restoring force is negligible, the Lorentz model is reduced to the Drude model.
The Drude model allows for the negative values of permittivity and permeability over a wide frequency
range. Due to this property, the Drude model is sometimes preferred to than the narrowband Lorentz
model for simulations [7].
Metamaterials with resonant individual elements can possess negative relative permittivity and
permeability values. These left-handed materials, then according to Snell’s law of refraction, make the
refracted angle negative, thus causing the incident and refracted wave to lie on the same side of normal.
This phenomenon is called negative refraction. Negative refraction allows the complete control of
electromagnetic waves (including light), in all four quadrants of a cartesian plane. Due to this unusual
characteristic, metamaterials offer potential applications which would have not been possible by only
using the naturally occurring materials [7]. One of the numerous applications of the metamaterials is
the phase compensation medium. DNG and positive indexed materials are combined together in such
a way that the phase difference across the slab of this medium is zero. By combining double positive
and double negative metamaterials, the phase difference can be controlled. It can be shown that it
is the ratio of the thicknesses and the refractive index, which cause the phase difference across the
medium to be zero and not the total thickness [7]. This shows that the negative index part of the slab
compensates for the phase propagation in the positive index part [8]. Another interesting phenomenon
which can be observed by combining the positive and negative index materials is the concentrated
resonance which occurs at the interface of such two materials [9]. This interface resonance (also known
as a surface wave plasmon) can replace the aperture related resonance in a traditional waveguide thus
making possible the existence of sub-wavelength thin waveguides. The dispersion relation for such
waveguides is also related to the thicknesses ratio and is independent of the total thickness [10,11].
Metamaterials, with a negative refractive index equal to -1, can also be used to make a superlens [12].
A superlens (also called a perfect lens) breaks the limitations imposed on focussing by wave optics
(for a traditional lens, an absolute limit on the area for focussing energy, is a square of wavelength).
This is due to the fact that the amplitude of the evanescent waves decays exponentially in a naturally
occurring medium, whereas DNG materials enhance their amplitude. The structure still obeys the law
of conservation of energy as evanescent waves do not carry any energy. It also needs to be noted that
even though the refractive index is negative, the characteristic impedance (being the ratio between the
permittivity and permeability) is still positive, thus there are no reflections at the interfaces, and no
(mismatch) energy is lost during the whole phenomenon [12,13].

3. Metasurfaces
Metasurfaces are two-dimensional or surface counterparts of metamaterials. Just like metamaterials,
it is possible to characterise their response through their electric and magnetic polarizabilities. They are
also referred to in the literature as metafilms [14]. Metamaterials control the propagation of light
due to their bespoke permittivity and permeability values; however, they still use the propagation
effect to manipulate the electromagnetic waves. This can result in a complicated relatively bulky
structure whereas metasurfaces try to manipulate the wave over a single extremely thin layer [15,16].
The two-dimensional nature of metasurfaces, therefore makes them less bulky and offers the possibility
of lower loss structures [1]. Due to their 3D nature, it is also difficult to fabricate metamaterials.
Metasurfaces offer an extremely promising alternative. Due to their planar structure, metasurfaces can
be easily fabricated using planar fabrication tools [17,18]. The planar fabrication process is also very
cost-effective in comparison to the manufacturing of the complex 3D metamaterials [19]. Metasurfaces,
being two-dimensional materials, can, therefore, be easily integrated into other devices which can
make them a salient feature for nanophotonic circuits; this property will also allow them to be a part of
“lab on chip” photonics [20].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 3 of 14

The negative index of the metamaterials is due to the resonance of the individual meta-atoms.
This property makes the metamaterials inherently dispersive, thus the electromagnetic properties
of such materials are highly sensitive to the changes in the operating frequency, thus making such
materials bandwidth limited. It has been shown in [21] that by using extremely thin metasurfaces with
deep sub-wavelength notches in a two-layered fishnet structure, the dispersion characteristics can
be engineered. This technique was then used to make a broadband metasurface filter. The (in-band)
transmission and (out of band) rejection was achieved by respectively matching and mismatching
the impedance of this metasurface (to the free space). The dispersion characteristics were controlled
by tailoring the primary (and secondary) magnetic resonances, and the plasma wavelengths for
permittivity. Both these properties (of the metasurface) were highly dependent on the design of the
sub-wavelength deep notches. The design was optimized by the help of a genetic algorithm. This
broadband metasurface also had a very low insertion loss in the transmission band [21]. Due to the
variety of advantages offered by metasurfaces over metamaterials, the scientific community has shown
a keen recent interest in this area. This has led to rapid development in the underlying physics which
govern the behaviour of metasurfaces and their potential applications.

3.1. Definition and Salient Characteristics of Metasurfaces

Metasurfaces are defined as the periodic (or aperiodic) structures where the thickness and
periodicity of the individual elements (scatterers) are small in comparison to the wavelength of operation.
These two-dimensional structures can be sub-classified further; an array of apertures in a reflective
screen are classified as metascreens while separate individual scatterers are called metafilms [1].
However, this classification has not been usually adopted in the published literature. Metasurfaces can
also be defined as a (symmetric or asymmetric) array of sub-wavelength resonant scatterers which
control the electromagnetic response of the surface [16]. The distribution of individual scatterers is
pivotal in determining the response of a surface. This property differentiates the metasurfaces from
traditional frequency selective surfaces (FSS). A traditional FSS has individual elements (periodicity)
which are of the order of the operating wavelength (generally—λ/2). Another difference between
metasurfaces and FSSs is closely related to the sub-wavelength nature of the individual elements of
a metasurface. The sub-wavelength nature of building blocks of metasurfaces allows them to be treated
as a classic homogenous structure, thereby characterising their response with effective parameters.
For a metasurface, the fields and the polarizations must be the average of the surface fields as the
surface is thin. An analytical approach based on the reflection and transmission dyadic is given in [22].
Generalized sheet-transition conditions allow the complex distribution of the meta-elements to be
replaced with boundary conditions by using the electric and magnetic surface susceptibilities [23]. This
homogenization technique has been used to design leaky-wave antennas [24]; fractal metasurfaces [25];
and non-linear metasurfaces [26]. It is pertinent to mention that aperiodic arrangements of elements
have been carried out in the design of reflect-arrays. For a reflected beam to have a specific direction,
each element is designed so that it imparts the desired phase shift. Some examples are given in [27–30].
Since the response of the metasurfaces sheet is dependent on the localized behaviour of each unit,
each individual unit cell is allowed to be spatially varied [16]. Such variations can be used to design
metasurface lenses and shape wavefronts. The applications of the metasurfaces will be discussed in
this paper. The miniaturized individual “meta-atoms” of the metasurfaces allow the sub-wavelength
resolution of the wavefronts ranging from microwave to optical scale. This property of metasurfaces
also allows them to behave like homogeneous or nearly homogenous sheets [31].
Another perspective to define a metasurface goes via Huygen’s principle [32]. Huygen’s principle
states that “each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source”, thus allowing the control of
wavefronts beyond the source. When an electromagnetic wave strikes a surface, it induces electric
and magnetic dipole moments. These moments generate surface currents. According to Schelkunoff’s
principle, these surface currents are equivalent to the tangential electric and magnetic fields which
control the electromagnetic response of a surface [33]. A surface can then be only characterised as
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 4 of 14

a metasurface when its every individual element is polarizable and sub-wavelength. This is achieved
by careful design of the individual element(s) [31].
Metasurfaces have the ability to tailor both the electric and magnetic field component of the
electromagnetic waves. Therefore, metasurfaces can have negligible mismatch losses as their impedance
can be matched by tailoring the electric and magnetic polarizabilities [34,35]. Metasurfaces without
reflection losses are characterised as Huygens metasurfaces [34]. In [34], two-layered metasurfaces were
used to eliminate the reflection losses; the top layer was employed to temper the electric polarizability
while the bottom layer was used to control the magnetic polarizability. An entirely different paradigm
to structure metasurfaces is presented in [36,37]. Highly absorptive dielectrics and metals have been
employed to construct a sub-wavelength thin metasurface. This metasurface achieves the desired
phase shift over a nano-scale and is made with highly absorptive dielectrics and metals with finite
conductivity. Since the reflection from the interface is no longer perfect, the phase can be tailored and
desired phase shifts can be achieved over a much smaller distance. This is in contrast to traditional
optical layers which employed extremely low loss metals and dielectrics, and exploit Fabry-Perot type
interference for the phase shifts. However, unlike metasurfaces, the thickness of such (traditional)
films is comparable to the operating wavelengths [37].

3.2. Phase Jumps and Generalized Law of Refraction

Conventional devices (e.g., lenses, holograms etc.) shape the wavefronts over a distance larger
than the operating wavelength [38,39]. Lenses make use of their shape and the material properties
(refractive index) to focus energy by gradually varying the phase of an electromagnetic wave, holograms
generate images in the far-field through constructive interference [39]. The same is also true in the
case of DNG materials, which also gradually temper the phase over a distance. Metasurfaces
provide a promising alternative to this approach because an electromagnetic wave passing through
a metasurface undergoes a phase jump. This is due to the fact that the phase is discontinuous at
a metasurfaces [40]. This anomalous behaviour decreases the reliance on wave propagation and
allows the shaping of wavefronts and focussing of energy over sub-wavelength distance. Therefore,
metasurfaces can potentially replace the bulky and heavy devices used traditionally for such purposes.
This phase discontinuity (or jump) owes its existence to the resonant behaviour of the miniaturized
(sub-wavelength) metasurface building blocks. When an electromagnetic wave strikes an individual
element of a metasurface, it induces a surface electromagnetic wave. This causes the charge present in
this element to oscillate. This whole phenomenon is known as surface plasmon [16]. The interaction of
the impinging electromagnetic wave and the surface plasmon leads to the phase discontinuity across
the metasurface. Due to this discontinuity, the Snell’s law has been replaced by a “generalized law” for
metasurfaces [41].
The generalized law has been derived on the basis of Fermat’s principle of the least time as
stationary phase [41]. Fermat’s principle states that out of all the possible paths between two points,
light travels on the path which takes the least amount of time [42]. Consider a plane wave at an incidence
angle of θ impinging on a metasurface. Two possible paths that the wave can take are shown in
Figure 1. Since the metasurface causes an abrupt change in the phase (phase discontinuity), this change
at point A is shown by φ, while on A0 is it is represented by φ + dφ. The distance between A and A0 is
assumed to be dx. It is also assumed that φ is a continuous function of x. It is assumed that the two
paths are infinitesimally close such that the phase difference between them to reach point A is zero.
This leads to the generalized refraction law given by the following Equation (1) [41].

λ0 dx
n sin(θ) − n0 sin(θ0 ) = (1)
2π dφ

where λ0 is the free space wavelength, n and n0 are the refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2
as shown in Figure 1.
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
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2019,9,9,x 2727
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof1314

Figure 1. An illustration of generalised law of refraction. Φ and Φ + dΦ are phase discontinuities at A0

and A while dx is the distance between them. Θ0 and θ represent the angles of incidence and refraction
to the normal (dotted line).

Similarly
Figure 1. Anthe generalised
illustration law of reflection
of generalised for metasurfaces
law of refraction. Φ and Φ + is
dΦgiven by Equation
are phase (2). at A’
discontinuities
and A while dx is the distance between them. Θ’ and θ represent the angles of incidence and refraction
to the normal (dotted line).
  λ0  dx 
sin(θ) − sin θre f l =   (2)
2πn  dφ 
Similarly the generalised law of reflection for metasurfaces is given by Equation (2).
where θre f l is the angle of reflection. The non-linear relation between the incidence and the reflection
is worth noting since the angle of incidence and reflection are no longer equal for a metasurface.
sin(θ − sin θ = (2)
Equations (1) and (2) can be easily reduced to the original φ law of refraction and reflection if
2 Snell’s
there is no phase
where discontinuity
is the angle across
of reflection. Thethenon-linear
surface (dφ/dx = 0).
relation The generalised
between laws
the incidence of the
and reflection and
reflection
refraction have been demonstrated by reflectarrays and v-shaped antennas, respectively [41,43,44].
is worth noting since the angle of incidence and reflection are no longer equal for a metasurface.
Equations (1) andof(2)
3.3. Applications can be easily reduced to the original Snell’s law of refraction and reflection if
Metasurfaces
there is no phase discontinuity across the surface (dΦ/dx = 0). The generalised laws of reflection and
The interaction
refraction of surface plasmon
have been demonstrated with the electromagnetic
by reflectarrays wave leadsrespectively
and v-shaped antennas, to a phase discontinuity
[41,43,44].
across the metasurface. Since elements on a metasurface can be spatially varied, this variation can
cause
3.3. the currents
Applications on the surface to lead (or lag) depending on the individual resonant element.
of Metasurfaces
This localized phenomenon allows us to tailor the wavefronts as they pass through a metasurface and
The interaction of surface plasmon with the electromagnetic wave leads to a phase discontinuity
leads to a variety of applications.
across the metasurface. Since elements on a metasurface can be spatially varied, this variation can
cause the currents
3.4. Wavefront on the surface
Control/Shaping to lead
Using (or lag) depending on the individual resonant element. This
Metasurfaces
localized phenomenon allows us to tailor the wavefronts as they pass through a metasurface and
In the past, wavefront shaping in the microwave regime has been achieved with the help of
leads to a variety of applications.
reflect- and transmit-arrays [45,46]. Such arrays have used variable element size and rotation (in case
of reflect-arrays),
3.4. and aperture
Wavefront Control/Shaping coupled
Using miniaturized delay lines (with a patched ground) for the
Metasurfaces
transmit-array, in order to shape the wavefronts [47,48]. Such arrays, however, have a periodicity
In order
of the the past,λ/4 wavefront shaping
− λ/2, therefore, in do
they thenot
microwave regime has been resolution
provide sub-wavelength achieved with the help of
(sub-wavelength
reflect- and transmit-arrays [45,46]. Such arrays have used variable element size
resolution can improve the aperture efficiency of such arrays) [31,49]. Due to large periodicity, and rotation (in case
the
ofinduced
reflect-arrays), and aperture coupled miniaturized delay lines (with a patched
electric and magnetic polarizabilities can no longer completely define their response and ground) for they
the
transmit-array,
cannot be consideredin order‘homogenised’,
to shape the wavefronts
hence they[47,48].
are notSuch arrays,
classified as however, have a periodicity of
metasurfaces.
the order λ/4 − λ/2, therefore, ◦they do not provide sub-wavelength
Metasurfaces allow the 360 control of the phase by introducing anisotropy through resolution (sub-wavelength
its individual
resolution
elements. V-shaped anisotropic elements have been used to obtain full control of theperiodicity,
can improve the aperture efficiency of such arrays) [31,49]. Due to large phase, however,the
induced
reflection electric and magnetic
losses reduce polarizabilities
the efficiency can no
of the structure longer
to 50% andcompletely define
since anisotropy their response
exploits and
the cross-polar
they cannot be considered ‘homogenised’, hence they are not classified as metasurfaces.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 6 of 14

component to achieve a full 360◦ of phase manipulation, the efficiency of the structure is further
halved [16,35]. In order to unlock further potential of metasurface design, multi-layered Huygens
surfaces have been proposed [50]. These surfaces eliminate the reflection losses completely. Huygen’s
metasurfaces with an efficiency of 86% at 10 GHz have been shown in [34]. This design also showed
a wide 3-dB bandwidth of 24%.
The local phase manipulation by metasurfaces has also been used to shape the wavefronts of
the reflected wave. The variation in the dimensions of square patches on a dielectric layer backed
by a ground plane has been shown to tailor the reflected wavefront [51]. By carefully controlling the
size and response of each sub-wavelength inclusion in along both perpendicular axes, a birefringent
metasurface has been successfully constructed in [52]. This metasurface showed an efficiency of
92% with the additional advantage of splitting the incoming non-polarised electromagnetic wave
into two orthogonal linear polarisations. A similar approach using perpendicular strip dipoles in
a triangular lattice in terahertz range has been presented in [53]. Another technique has been developed
to replicate the behaviour of arbitrary materials by using heterogeneous layers [54]. By varying the
weight percentage of polyaniline micro-powder, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers or graphene
nanoplatelets, a series of artificial dielectrics were designed with a range of relative permittivities
and loss tangents at microwave frequencies. Precise combinations of different thickness of these
materials were developed via a mathematical model in conjunction with a particle swarm optimization.
They were used to replicate the phase jumps of the wave going through the composite material over
a frequency range. It was found that these multiple layers of artificial dielectrics could replicate the
reflection coefficient of real materials, frequency selective surfaces, and even complex reflection profiles
of arbitrary bespoke materials [54]. In related work, it was found that layered Cadmium iodide crystals
of different sizes could be used to control the absorption over optical wavelengths [55].

3.5. Metasurface Lenses

Metasurfaces can also be employed to fabricate ultrathin lenses. In order to focus the
electromagnetic energy at a distance d, a metasurface needs to have a phase profile given by
Equation (3) [16].
2π
q
ΦL (x, y) = ( x2 + y2 + d2 − d) (3)
λ
This profile also alters the shape of the wavefront from planar to spherical, a condition necessary
for focussing. High numerical aperture efficiency can be achieved as long as the electromagnetic
wave strikes the surface at normal. However, when the angle of incidence is not perpendicular,
a phenomenon known as ‘coma’ occurs, which can cause significant degradation in the numerical
aperture efficiency. The effects of ‘coma’ can be reduced by placing the surface on a curved piece
of dielectric [16]. Metasurface consisting of v-shaped antennas have been shown to focus energy
at telecom frequencies [56]. Another metasurface lens based on reflect-arrays is presented in [57].
The lens was designed for the near infrared region and was designed on a metal-insulator-metal
structure. Gold bricks were deposited on silicon dioxide and the individual elements were optimized
in order to engineer the desired reflection response. This lens showed a theoretical efficiency of 78%.
A metasurface lens based on rectangular dielectric resonators (RDRs) has been shown to focus energy
at a single focus for three different frequencies. This was made possible by making the sum of the
phase transversed by the wave and the phase jump imparted by the metasurface constant at three
distinct frequencies. The resulting metasurface ended up being completely aperiodic [58].

3.6. Non-Linear Metasurfaces

Non-linear metasurfaces have been deployed to protect sensitive electronics and reduce
interference on a shared platform. Non-linearity was introduced using diodes and capacitors which
were incorporated in the design process and controlled the response of the metasurface. This surface
absorbed the high-powered radio frequency signals while causing a minimal distortion to the low
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 7 of 14

powered ones [9]. In non-linear electrodynamics, metasurfaces and metamaterials can be used to
enhance the magnitude of the non-linearity. They also allow targeting of the magnetic non-linear
phenomenon and can combine it with the electric non-linearity [59]. One of the most important aspects
of non-linearity is the second harmonic generation which is the process where two photons combine
to form a single photon. This new photon has twice the energy and its frequency are also double in
comparison to the original photon(s). This phenomenon happens when two photons interact with
a non-linear material [60,61]. Metasurfaces have been deployed to enhance this process. Using fishnet
metasurfaces in the near infrared region, an enhancement in the resonance of the second harmonic
generation spectrum was observed using spectroscopy [61]. It needs to be noted that if a medium
is inversion symmetric, it cannot generate the second harmonic and thus breaking the symmetry is
imperative in order to observe the second harmonic generation.

4. Frequency Selective Surfaces Based on Metasurfaces

A typical frequency selective surface (FSS) is a periodic structure having each individual element
resonant at the resonance frequency. FSSs typically have periodicity equal to half the wavelength
of the resonant frequency [62]. They have been frequently employed to provide spectral filtering
in signal communications. Moreover, they are also used as diplexers, beam splitters and to make
antenna radomes [63]. Metasurfaces can replace FSS due to the resonant nature of “meta-atoms”. Since
a metasurface’s building blocks are sub-wavelength in nature, they also bring additional advantages in
comparison to a traditional FSS. The sub-wavelength periodicity allows to pack a large number of
unit cells in a constrained space which is highly useful for radomes with limited space [64]. The small
size of the unit cell also allows metasurfaces to have a stable response with respect to the changes in
the angle of incidence of the illuminating electromagnetic wave. Such a structure has been presented
in [65], where a layer of patches is backed by a wire grid on the other side of dielectric. The capacitance
of patches coupled with the inductance of the wire grid formed an LC resonant structure with the
resonant frequency much smaller than the wavelength at the resonant frequency. In addition to
structural design, lumped circuit elements have also been used to miniaturize the size of a unit cell of
periodic metasurfaces [66]. By using capacitors, the size of the individual element presented in [65]
has been successfully decreased [67]. Convoluted elements with a reduced unit cell size have been
presented in [68]. Metamaterials are usually designed with the help of split ring resonators (SRRs) [69].
SRRs have sub-wavelength physical dimensions and their Babinet’s complement has been used to
design and tailor the properties of metasurfaces [70]. Non-reciprocal bianisotropic elements have been
used to design “one-way transparent” metasurfaces [71]. Active spatial filters (FSSs) designed using
PIN and varactor diodes with complementary SRRs as their building blocks have been successfully
employed for tuning and dual-band operation [72].
Once a metasurface is fabricated, its response is fixed. Its reflection and transmission response
cannot be changed. However, since metasurface response is based on localized control, reconfigurable
metasurfaces are very much desired in order to use a single metasurface for a wide range of applications.
This has been addressed by a variety of designs presenting tuneable/reconfigurable metasurfaces.
There are three major ways in which a metasurface can be tuned (i) mechanical tuning (ii) material
state change under a stimulus (iii) use of varactor diodes (in microwave domain) [73]. Mechanical
tuning in all dielectric metasurfaces has been used in [74] and a shift in both resonances was recorded
by rotating the individual elements. MEMS have also been applied for mechanical tuning in [75].
By shifting an engineered ground plane, beam steering from a reflector has also been achieved [76].
The capacitance of varactor diodes can be controlled by varying the voltage across them which make
them an excellent candidate for electrically tuning the metasurfaces [77]. These diodes have been used
for beam steering and switching the states(modes) of metasurfaces [78,79]. A tuneable metasurface
with 1125 varactor diodes in a planar array has used as a steerable reflector [78]. Metasurfaces with
dispersive refractive index have been proposed for THz domain since the modulators at THz frequency
usually work at extremely low (cryogenic) temperatures [80].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 8 of 14

The use of multilayers to improve the response of an FSS has been well documented [62].
Multi-layered FSSs, formed by cascading two or more layers of the periodic structures and carefully
aligning them, has led to an increase in the operational bandwidth of the structure and improve
the filter’s roll-off rate, thus making them available to be used for de-multiplexing in multiband
radiometers [81]. Multi-layered structures have also been demonstrated to reduce the size of the
individual elements of FSSs, an inductive grid of wires fabricated on one side of the substrate
with the other side having a loop grid in which every element is connected to its neighbours with
a capacitor. This structure showed a relatively stable frequency response to the changes in the angle of
incidence [82]. A multi-layered square patch complementary structure has been utilized to improve
the gain of an antenna over a wide bandwidth by using Fabry-Perrot resonance [83]. Multi-layered
periodic structures designed using a genetic algorithm have been used to construct an artificial
magnetic conductor [84]. A similar approach has also been employed in the area of metasurfaces.
A three-layered efficient metasurface for controlling the phase and magnitude of the transmitting beam
using horizontally and vertically aligned split-rings has been presented in [85].

5. Metasurface Antennas
Metasurfaces have been successfully used to design and manufacture high gain holographic
antennas [86,87]. For holographic antennas, the surface wave is the major incident wave. The radiation
for such antennas occurs when phase matching between forward and backward leaky wave occurs.
Forward leaky wave arises from the grating which has a larger periodicity while the smaller period
grating leads to a backward leaky wave. A source with elliptic grating is surrounded by both
periodicities. Both leaky wave modes for such a grating are matched leading to directive radiation [88].
Based on this approach, circularly polarized leaky wave antennas with a 26 dB gain are presented
in [86]. The grating effect was produced by modulating the surface impedance of the metasurface.
A significant advantage of this approach is that instead of changing the antenna shape in order to
design a specific response, the metasurface modulation (i.e., surface impedance) is engineered [89].
A metasurface antenna offering the possibility of both right- and left-hand circular polarization was
presented in [90]. Both TE and TM surface waves were launched and the polarization decoupling of
the two modes was utilized for their independent control. These modes were phase-matched and the
modulated metasurface was rotationally symmetric. The antenna was fed by a circular waveguide
and a corrugated hat was placed on top of the waveguide to suppress the space-wave radiation.
Since phase-matching is critical for leaky-wave metasurface antennas, a bandwidth of such antennas is
limited by the dispersion of the metasurface. The mismatch of phase leads to a decrease in the gain of
structure. A bandwidth gain expression for these antennas is available in [91]. It was shown that this
bandwidth can be increased by designing the modulated metasurface on a low permittivity dielectric
and increasing the antenna size. It has also been shown that metasurface antennas can be designed
for multi-beam operation [92]. Another use of metasurfaces for leaky wave antennas are Non-chiral
bianisotropic metasurfaces called omega metasurfaces. When periodic leaky wave antennas are used
to scan the broadside, Floquet mode coupling deteriorates its radiation performance. Non-chiral
bianisotropic metasurfaces can be employed to solve this problem. Moreover, it has been discovered
that metasurfaces of any period can be used to design such leaky wave antennas. There is no issue of
Floquet mode coupling since only a single mode is excited [93]. The use of multi-layered Huygen’s
metasurfaces to structure a bianisotropic metasurface has been proposed in [94].
In [95], multi-layered metasurfaces with sub-wavelength profile were used as partial reflective
surfaces to design a high gain antenna with an enhanced bandwidth. In [96], Huygen’s metasurfaces
have been proposed to convert a non-directive beam from an arbitrary source to a directive one. Such
metasurfaces have been utilised to construct a low profile antenna with high aperture efficiency by
employing them as a partially reflective surface fed by a cavity [97]. The aid of Babinet’s principle can
be used to develop complementary metasurfaces. A comprehensive treatment of such metasurface
design with an equivalent circuit has been presented in [98]. The complementary metasurfaces have
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2727 9 of 14

been used to design antennas and transmission lines, and offer the possibility of tuneable antennas and
circuits [99]. Metasurfaces can also improve the performance of horn antennas. In [100], a metasurface
designed using a genetic algorithm has been used as an inner surface for a conical horn and the
cross polar levels and the side lobe levels have been improved over the entire Ku band. A similar
approach was applied to improve the performance of a hybrid mode square horn antenna using
metasurfaces [101]. Metasurfaces have been proposed for medical body area networks (MBAN) as
well, by improving the performance of a low-profile monopole antenna. The truncated metasurface, in
contrast to artificial magnetic conductors (AMCs), also contributed to the radiation from the antenna
thus increasing the gain and the front to back ratio [102]. Two-layered metasurfaces loaded with
resistors have been demonstrated to reduce the radar cross section (RCS) of a stacked antenna array
thus offering an alternative to radar absorbing material. The antenna was sandwiched between these
two metasurfaces, the metafilm above the antenna reduced the RCS for out of band frequencies while
the one below reduced the RCS for the in-band frequencies [103].

6. Summary
The purpose of this review paper has been to state a comprehensive suitable definition of
a metasurface and identify its salient features as well as highlight some of the numerous advantages
which can be achieved through the use of metasurfaces. The sub-wavelength nature of building blocks of
metasurfaces allows them to be defined using homogeneous boundary conditions. Another important
characteristic of metasurfaces is the phase discontinuity which occurs when an electromagnetic
wave goes through a metasurface. Both these behaviours can be successfully described by using
generalised refraction and reflection laws. A superior feature of metasurfaces is its low-loss
behaviour (as demonstrated particularly by Huygen’s metasurfaces) in stark contrast to metamaterials.
Thus, metasurfaces allow us to utilise the exotic properties of metamaterials like engineered refraction
and reflection without inducing manufacturing complexity and losses associated with metamaterials.
Metasurfaces also offer spatial filters with a stable frequency response with respect to the incidence angle.
Although considerable successful work has been done on metasurfaces in the microwave regime,
the inclusion of metasurfaces in the design for future communication and imaging devices is still an area
with immense potential for research and growth. Bandwidth is a non-negotiable key requirement for
most RF applications therefore, future challenges will include designing metasurfaces with a stable
phase and frequency response over a wide band. Another important aspect would be switch-able
or active metasurfaces which are cost-effective and relatively simple to fabricate. The addition of
switching components can introduce non-linearities in the metasurface which would merit a sound
theoretical investigation.

Author Contributions: The lead author of this paper is S.S.B. Additional support was provided by W.W. and Y.V.
Funding: This research was funded by EPSRC, grant number EP/S030301/1, “Anisotropic Microwave/Terahertz
Metamaterials for Satellite Applications (ANISAT)”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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