SADII

DATA DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
During the systems analysis phase, you created a logical model of the system (e.g. data
flow diagrams and data dictionaries). Now, you must decide how data will be organized,
stored, and managed. These are important issues that affect data quality and consistency.
This lesson begins with a review of data design concepts and terminology, then discusses
file-based systems and database systems, including Web-based databases. You will learn
how to create entity relationship diagrams that show the relationships among data
elements.

DATA DESIGN CONCEPTS

Systems analysts must understand basic data design concepts, including data structures
and the evolution of the relational database model.

Data Structures
A data structure is a framework for organizing, storing, and managing data. Data
structures consist of files or tables that interact in various ways. Each file or table
contains data about people, places, things, or events. For example, one file or table might
contain data about customers, and other files or tables might store data about products,
orders, suppliers, or employees. Many older, legacy systems were called file-oriented.
Over time, the modern relational database became a standard model for systems
developers. The following example of an auto service shop will compare the two
concepts.

Mario and Danica: A Data Design Example

Imagine two shops that are very similar, but use two different information system
designs. Let's call them Mario's Auto Shop and Danica's Auto Shop. Mario uses two file-
oriented systems, while Danica uses a database management system.

MARIO'S AUTO SHOP Mario relies on two file-oriented systems, sometimes called file
processing systems, to manage his business. The two-systems store data in separate files
that are not connected or linked.
Example of systems:
• The MECHANIC SYSTEM uses the MECHANIC file to store data about shop
employees
• The JOB SYSTEM uses the JOB file to store data about work performed at the shop.
Unfortunately, using two separate systems means that some data is stored in two different
places, and the data might or might not be consistent. For example, three data items
(Mechanic No, Name, and Pay Rate) are stored in both files. This redundancy is a major
disadvantage of file-oriented systems because it threatens data quality and integrity.

DANICA'S AUTO SHOP Danica uses a database management system (DBMS) with two
separate tables that are joined, so they act like one large table.In Danica's SHOP
OPERATIONS SYSTEM, the tables are linked by the Mechanic No field, which is called
a common field because it connects the tables. Notice that except for the common field,
no other data items are duplicated. The DBMS design, also called a relational database or
relational model, was introduced in the 1970s and continues to be the dominant approach
for organizing, storing, and managing business data.
By now, you probably discovered that Mario's file-oriented systems show two different
pay rates for Jim Jones, most likely because of a data entry error in one of them. That
type of error could not occur in Danica's relational database, because an employee's pay
rate is stored in only one place. However, DBMSs are not immune to data entry
problems.

Is File Processing Still Important?

Although file processing is an older approach, some companies still use this method to
handle large volumes of structured data on a regular basis. Many older legacy systems
utilized file processing because it worked well with mainframe hardware and batch input.
Although it has very limited use today, file processing can be cost-effective in certain
situations. For example, consider a credit card company that posts thousands of daily
transactions from a TRANSACTIONS file to account balances stored in a CUSTOMERS
file. For that relatively simple process, file processing might be an option.

The Database Environment

A database provides an overall framework that avoids data redundancy and supports a
real-time, dynamic environment. A database management system (DBMS) is a collection
of tools, features, and interfaces that enables users to add, update, manage, access, and
analyze data. From a user's point of view, the main advantage of a DBMS is that it offers
timely, interactive, and flexible data access. Specific DBMS advantages include the
following:

 Scalability: which means that a system can be expanded, modified, or downsized

easily to meet the rapidly changing needs of a business enterprise. For example, if
a company decides to add data about secondary suppliers of material it uses, a
new table can be added to the relational database and linked with a common field.
 Economy of scale: Database design allows better utilization of hardware. If a
company maintains an enterprise-wide database, processing is less expensive
 using powerful servers and communication networks. The inherent efficiency of
high-volume processing on larger computers is called economy of scale.
 Enterprise-wide application: Typically, a DBMS is managed by a person called
a database administrator (DBA), who assesses overall requirements and maintains
the database for the benefit of the entire organization rather than a single
department or user. Database systems can support enterprise-wide applications
more effectively than file processing systems.
 Stronger standards: Effective database administration helps ensure that
standards for data names, formats: and documentation are followed uniformly
throughout the organization.
 Better security. The DBA can define authorization procedures to ensure that only
legitimate users can access the database and can allow different users to have
different levels of access. Most DBMSs provide sophisticated security support.
 Data independence. Systems that interact with a DBMS are relatively
independent of how the physical data is maintained. That design provides the
DBA flexibility to alter data structures without modifying information systems
that use the data.

DBMS COMPONENTS
A DBMS provides an interface between a database and users who need to access the data.
Although users are concerned primarily with an easy-to-use interface and support for
their business requirements, a systems analyst must understand all of the components of a
DBMS. In addition to interfaces for users, database administrators, and related systems, a
DBMS also has a data manipulation language, a schema and subschemas, and a physical
data repository.
Interfaces for Users, Database Administrators, and Related Systems When users,
database administrators, and related information systems request data and services, the
DBMS processes the request, manipulates the data, and provides a response.

USERS
Users typically work with predefined queries and switchboard commands, but also use
query languages to access stored data. A query language allows a user to specify a task
without specifying how the task will be accomplished. Some query languages use natural
language commands that resemble ordinary English sentences. With a query by example
(QBE) language,
the user provides an example of the data requested. Many database programs also
generate SQL (Structured Query Language), which is a language that allows client
workstations to communicate with servers and mainframe computers.
DATABASE ADMINISTRATORS
A DBA is responsible for DBMS management and support. DBAs are concerned with
data security and integrity, preventing unauthorized access, providing backup and
recovery, audit trails, maintaining the database, and supporting user needs. Most DBMSs
provide utility programs to assist the DBA in creating and updating data structures,
collecting and reporting patterns of database usage, and detecting and reporting database
irregularities.

RELATED INFORMATION SYSTEMS

A DBMS can support several related information systems that provide input to, and
require specific data from, the DBMS. Unlike a user interface, no human intervention is
required for two-way communication between the DBMS and the related systems.

DATA MANIPULAT ION LANGUAGE

A data manipulation language (DML) controls database operations, including storing,
retrieving, updating, and deleting data. Most commercial DBMSs, such as Oracle and
IBM's DB/2, use a DML. Some database products, such as Microsoft Access, also
provide an easy-to-use graphical environment that enables users to control operations
with menu-driven commands.

SCHEMA
The complete definition of a database, including descriptions of all fields, tables, and
relationships, is called a schema. You also can define one or more subschemas. A
subschema is a view of the database used by one or more systems or users. A subschema
defines only those portions of the database that a particular system or user needs or is
allowed to access. For example, to protect individual privacy, you might not want to
allow a project management system to retrieve employee pay rates. In that case, the
project management system subschema would not include the pay rate field. Database
designers also use subschemas to restrict the level of access permitted. For example,
specific users, systems, or locations might be permitted to
create, retrieve, update, or delete data, depending on their needs and the company's
security policies.