ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Electrodynamics is that branch of Physics which deals with the study of the microscopic
behavior of charges in motion and their interaction with matters.

 Scalar and vector fields:

Every physical quantity can be expressed as a continuous function of the position of a point in
a region of space, known as a field. There are two kinds of fields, scalar and vector fields,
depending on nature of quantity concerned.
 The Scalar field is represented by continuous scalar function, giving the value of the
quantity at each point. Example: Region of electric potential.
 A Vector field is represented by continuous vector function, which is specified by a vector
of definite magnitude and direction at each point. Example: Region of Electric field.

 Gradient of Scalar field:

Let ɸ(x,y,z) be a Scalar function in a region of space(Scalar field).The Gradient of Scalar
function is defined as,
𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ
grad ɸ = 𝒊 𝝏𝒙 +𝒋 𝝏𝒚 + 𝒛 𝝏𝒛

where i, j, k are the unit vectors along x ,y , z co-ordinate directions.

𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ 𝝏ɸ
grad ɸ = (𝒊 𝝏𝒙 +𝒋 𝝏𝒚 + 𝒛 𝝏𝒛 ) ɸ = 𝛁ɸ

𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
where 𝛁 = ( 𝒊 𝝏𝒙+ 𝒋 𝝏𝒚 + 𝒛 𝝏𝒛)

Note: The gradient of a scalar function is a vector, whose magnitude is equal to the rate of change
of scalar function ɸ along normal to the level surface.
 For example, the rate of change of electric potential (i.e. vector field) in a region of
space (i.e. scalar field ) gives Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) at that point.
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
E= -( 𝒊 𝝏𝒙 +𝒋 𝝏𝒚 + 𝒛 𝝏𝒛 ) (or)

⃗⃗⃗ = - 𝛁𝐕
𝑬
-ve sign indicates that, the Electric field is directed in the direction of decreasing potential.
 Divergence of a vector field :
The divergence of vector field 𝐴 at a point ‘p’ is defined as the outward flux of the vector field
per unit volume.
Let ∇𝑣 be infinitesimal volume surrounding the point ‘p’, then
divergence of vector field 𝐴 at ‘p’ is,
𝐀 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∯ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐝𝐬
⃗⃗ = lim
𝐝𝐢𝐯 𝐀
∆v→0 ∆𝐯

The divergence of vector 𝐴 in Cartesian co-ordinates is expressed as,

div ⃗𝑨 ⃗ = 𝝏𝑨𝒙 + 𝝏𝑨𝒚 + 𝝏𝑨𝒛

⃗ = 𝛁. ⃗𝑨
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Note: The divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.

 Physical significance of divergence:

⃗ at a point (∇. 𝑉
The divergence of fluid velocity 𝑉 ⃗ ) represents the quantity of fluid flowing out
per second per unit volume at that point.

⃗ ) at a point is –ve, it means that fluid is flowing towards that point. (i.e sink for the
 If (∇. 𝑉
fluid ).
⃗ ) is +ve , then fluid is flowing outwards. (i.e. source for the fluid at that point)
 If (∇. 𝑉
⃗ ) = 0 at a point, then fluid entering towards the point is equal to the fluid leaving the
 If (∇. 𝑉
point. (i.e. no source and sink at that point).
 If ∇. 𝐴 = 0 , then 𝐴 is called solenoidal field.

 Curl of a vector field:

⃗⃗ is
If 𝐴 is a vector field at a point ‘p’ and ‘∆s’ ia an infinesinal area around ‘p’ then curl 𝑨
defined as

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ]𝒎𝒂𝒙
⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
∮ [𝑨.
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆s→0 ∆𝒔

 In Cartesian co-ordinate system, curl ⃗𝑨 is expressed as,

 𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
⃗⃗ = 𝛁 × 𝐀
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 𝐀 ⃗ = || |
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳|
𝐀𝐱 𝐀𝐲 𝐀𝐳

 Curl of a vector field is another vector whose direction is normal to the area around point
‘p’ when the area is oriented to make the circulation maximum.
 The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is that it provides the maximum value
of circulation of the field per unit area, as the area shrinks to zero at the given point.
 For example, when current is passed through a straight conductor, the magnetic field curls
around conductor in the same way as curl ⃗𝑯
⃗ .

 If ∇ × 𝐴 = 0, then the vector field has no circulation or turning effect at the point. Such
fields (whose ∇ × 𝐴 = 0 ), are called conservative or irrotational fields.

 Electric Flux (ɸ) and Flux density (D):

Electric flux (ɸ) is a scalar field, useful in solving certain electrostatic problems.

If an amount of Electric flux (dɸ) crosses a small area ‘ds’, normal to the surface, then the
electric flux density (D) at that point is,

𝒅ɸ
⃗⃗ =
𝑫 ̂𝒏
𝒅𝒔

where ̂𝑛 is a unit vector normal to the surface area ‘ds’.

⃗ ) is vector field.
 Electric flux density (𝐷
Let a charge of volume charge density (𝜌 ) be enclosed by surface ‘S’, as shown in the
figure.

The electric flux density (D) may vary in magnitude and direction from point to point on
the surface ‘S’.
 ⃗ makes an angle ‘𝜃′ with the normal, then electric flux
At the surface element ‘ds’, if 𝐷
crossing ‘ds’ is given by,

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dɸ = D ds 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑫 𝒅𝒔

where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 is the vector surface element of magnitude ‘ds’ and direction along ̂𝑛.

The total Electric flux through any closed surface ‘s’ is given by,

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ɸ =∫ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔
S

 ⃗⃗ ) and Electric field (𝑬

Relation between Electric flux density (𝑫 ⃗ ):

Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) at a point due to a charge configuration is a function of permittivity (𝜀) of the
medium, whereas Electric flux density (D) is independent of the medium.

In general, for an Electric field (𝐸⃗ ) in a medium of permittivity 𝜀, the flux density (𝐷
⃗ )is,

⃗ = 𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
𝐷
or

⃗ = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
𝐷

Where, 𝜀𝑟 → Di-electric constant (or) relative permittivity of the medium.

 Note: Unlike ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 , 𝐷

⃗ is not directly measurable . But, both ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 and ⃗⃗⃗𝐷 vector fields have
exactly the same form.

 Gauss law in Electrostatics :

Gauss law of electrostatics states that “The total electric flux out of the closed surface is equal
to the net charge within the surface”.
This can be written in integral form as,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐐
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∮𝑫
S
OR
𝐐
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∮𝑬 𝛆
S

⃗ = 𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 )
( ‘𝜀’ is the permittivity of the medium. 𝐷

 Gauss law in differential form:

Gauss law in Electrostatics in integral form is given by,

∮𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑸
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 → ①
S
where, Q is the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.
If ‘𝜌’ is the volume charge density (i.e charge per unit volume), then the charge enclosed
in an elemental volume ‘dv’ is 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯. Then the total charge inside the closed surface will be,

𝑸 = ∭ 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯 →②

From eqn ① 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ② , the Gauss law is modified as

∮𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∭ 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 →③
S

Now according to divergence theorem,

∮𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔 ⃗⃗ dv
= ∭ 𝛁. 𝑫 →④
S
∴ From eqn. ③ and ④, we get
⃗⃗ dv =
∭ 𝛁. 𝑫 ∭ 𝛒. 𝐝𝐯

This equation holds good for any volume. Hence,

⃗⃗ = 𝝆
𝛁. 𝑫

This is the statement of Gauss law in differential form.

In terms of ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 , Gauss law is

𝝆
𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 = 𝜺
 𝝆
Note: ⃗⃗ = 𝝆
𝛁. 𝑫 or 𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 =𝜺 This is one of the Maxwell’s equation for static fields.

 Current and current density (J):

Current density is defined as current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane held
normal to the direction of current.
𝒅𝑰
J = ( 𝒅𝒔 )

The total current through the given surface ‘s’ is obtained by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
I =∬ 𝐽.𝑑𝑠

Note: Current density is vector quantity.

 Equation of Continuity :
The divergence of current density (𝐽) at that point (∇. 𝐽) is equal to the quantity of charge
flowing out per second per unit volume, through the small closed surface surrounding that point.
By law of Conservation of charges, (∇. 𝐽) must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge density
(𝜌) at that point.

𝜕𝜌
i.e ∇. 𝐽 = - 𝜕𝑡

or
𝜕𝜌
∇. ⃗𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡

This equation is known as Equation of continuity.

 ⃗⃗⃗ ) and Magnetic flux density(𝑩

Magnetic field intensity (𝑯 ⃗⃗ )
The source for magnetic field is current elements (I . dl). The magnetic field at a point can be
⃗ ) and magnetic flux density (𝐵
described by two vectors, magnetic field intensity (𝐻 ⃗ ).
 ⃗ ) depends only on the source (i.e current element or
 Magnetic field intensity (𝐻
moving charges) and it is independent of the medium, whereas magnetic flux
⃗ ) depends on the medium at that point.
density (𝐵
⃗ and 𝐻
 The two vectors 𝐵 ⃗ are related by

⃗⃗⃗𝐵 =𝜇 𝐻
⃗

OR
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
𝐵 ⃗

where , 𝜇 → permeability of the medium.

𝜇𝑜 → permeability of vacuum. 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1

𝜇𝑟 → Relative permeability of the medium

 ‘H’ is expressed in units of Am-1 whereas ‘B’ is expressed in tesla (T).


 Biot-Savart’s Law:
This law gives the magnetic field intensity at a point due to a current element. Let I be the
current in a conductor XY. Let ‘p’ be a point at a distance of ‘r’ from a differential element of the
conductor of length ‘dl’.

According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at ‘p’ due o ‘dl’ is given by

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑘 𝑟2

where, 𝜃 is the angle between the current element and the line joining the point to the element, and
1
k is the proportionality constant, given by 𝑘 = .
4𝜋

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐻 = .
4𝜋𝑟 2

This field acts perpendicular to the plane containing the element and the point ‘p’.
In vector form, Biot-Savart law is written as,

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂
𝐼 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐻
4𝜋𝑟 2

where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed from the element towards ‘p’.

 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻 is perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟̂ .
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 𝜇 ) 𝐼 𝑑𝑙2×𝑟̂
 𝑑𝐵 4𝜋 𝑟

 Ampere’s law (Integral form):

This law states that, “the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic field
around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by the loop”.

i.e ∮𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙

or ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙

Note: The closed loop to which Ampere’s law is applied is called Ampere loop.

 Ampere’s law (Differential form):

Ampere’s law in integral form is given by

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐻

Let us now consider a rectangular path ABCD of infinitesimal size of area (Δ𝑠1 ) in a plane parallel
to XY-plane. Area of the loop = Δ𝑠1 = (Δx)(Δy). If Jz is the current density along Z-direction, then
the current through the loop is Iz = Jz(Δ𝑠1 ) = Jz (Δx)(Δy).

Therefore from Ampere’s law,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐽𝑧 (𝛥𝑠1 )
⃗ ∙ (𝑑𝑙)
∮𝐻

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ∙𝑑𝑙
∮𝐻
Or = 𝐽𝑧
Δ𝑠1
The assumption that the magnetic field does not vary along the line segment is more valid if we
consider the limits Δx 0 and Δy 0.

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ∙𝑑𝑙
𝐻
∴ lim ∮ = 𝐽𝑧 ---------- (1)
(Δx)(Δy)→0 Δ𝑠1

As per vector calculus, LHS term of (1) represents curl of H, which is vector field acting normal
to 𝛥𝑠1 (i.e. along Z-direction).

⃗ ] = 𝐽𝑧 𝑘̂
∴ [∇ × 𝐻 1

𝑘̂ is unit vector along Z-direction.

Here, [∇ × 𝐻]1 represents that the curl is in a plane parallel to xy-plane.

Similarly, it can be extended to the planes parallel o yz and zx planes as,

⃗ ] = 𝐽𝑥 𝑖̂
[∇ × 𝐻 2

⃗ ] = 𝐽𝑦 𝑗̂
[∇ × 𝐻 3

⃗ ⌉ around the point ‘p’.

Here, [∇ × 𝐻]1 , [∇ × 𝐻]2 and [∇ × 𝐻]3 are the components of ⌈∇ × 𝐻

⃗ = 𝐽𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐽𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐽𝑧 𝑘̂
∴ ∇×𝐻

Or ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱
𝛁×𝑯 ------------ (2)

where 𝐽 is the current density vector having components 𝐽𝑥 , 𝐽𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽𝑧 along the 3 co-ordinates.
Equation (2) is represents Ampere’s law in differential form.

 Note: 𝛁 × ⃗⃗𝑯
⃗ = 𝑱 is one of the Maxwell’s equations for static fields.

 Gauss law in magnetism:

The magnetic field pattern in a region can be visualized in terms of magnetic flux lines.

Magnetic flux through a surface is defined as

𝜑 = ∫ ⃗⃗𝑩. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 where, B  magnetic flux density.
S
 It should be noted that, magnetic flux lines are closed curves, with no starting point or
termination point (This is in contrast with lines of electric flux, which originate on +ve charge and
terminate on –ve charge).

If we consider a closed surface, then, all of the magnetic flux entering the closed surface is
equal to the flux leaving the closed surface.
Thus, “the total magnetic flux over any closed surface is equal to zero”.
i.e. ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜑 = ∫ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒔 = 0
S
This is known as Gauss law in magnetostatics.
Now, as per vector calculus,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∫𝑩
⃗ = lim
∇∙𝐵
(Δv)→0 Δv

∴ 𝛁. ⃗𝑩
⃗ =𝟎

⃗ = 0 is one of the Maxwell’s equations.

 Note: This equation, ∇. 𝐵

 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

It states that “the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through it”.

𝑑𝜑
𝑒= −
𝑑𝑡

-ve sign indicates that the induced emf opposes the change in flux.

⃗⃗⃗ ) gives the work done to move unit +ve charge (+1C) through
{ If 𝐸⃗ is the electric field, then (𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
dl. The total work done to move +1C from a to b is equal to pd or emf between a and b. ∴ 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 . In a closed loop, 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 }

The induced emf in a closed loop is given by

⃗⃗⃗
𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
 𝑑𝜑
∴ ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑑𝑡 ----------- (1)

The magnetic flux 𝜑 through an area ‘S’ enclosed by the loop is,

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
𝜑 = ∫𝑩
S
Where B is magnetic flux density

𝑑𝜑 𝑑
∴ = ∫𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
S

𝑑𝜑 ⃗
𝜕𝐵
= ∫ 𝜕𝑡 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 ----------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
S

From (1) and (2) we get,

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = − ∫ . 𝒅𝒔
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ---------- (3)
𝜕𝑡
S

Equation (3) is the Faraday’s law in integral form.

Now, by Stokes theorem,

⃗⃗⃗ = ∮(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) ∙ 𝑑𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
S

Therefore equation (3) can be written as

⃗
𝜕𝐵
∮(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = − ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔
𝜕𝑡
S S

⃗
𝜕𝐵
or ∮ [(𝛻 × 𝐸⃗ ) + ] ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑡

⃗
𝜕𝐵
Since, ‘ds’ ≠ 0, [(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) + ]=0
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝝏𝑩
Or (𝛁 × ⃗𝑬
⃗)=− -------------(4)
𝝏𝒕
 Equation (4) represents the Faraday’s law in differential form.

⃗
𝜕𝐵
 Note: This equation, (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − is one of the Maxwell’s equations.
𝜕𝑡

 Inconsistency or anomaly in Ampere's law:

Ampere's law in differential form is

⃗ = 𝐽
∇×𝐻

Taking divergence on both sides,

⃗ )= ∇∙𝐽
∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝐻

But, as per the rules of vector analysis, the divergence of curl of a vector field is zero.

∴ ∇∙𝐽 =0

this condition holds good for circuits with current flow under static conditions.

In the circuit shown in the figure, the charge flow into the surface is equal to the charge out flow,
i. e. ∇ ∙ 𝐽 = 0 which means there is no net charge within the surface.

But this relation ∇ ∙ 𝐽 = 0 fails where the fields and currents are
varying with time.

Consider an AC circuit with a capacitor. Consider a closed surface which encloses only one plate
of the capacitor. Here, current flow into the closed surface is not
accompanied by a simultaneous current outflow. (Charges pile up on the
capacitor plate). Thus the condition ∇ ∙ 𝐽 = 0 fails. In other words, there
is an inconsistency in Ampere's law for time varying fields.
 Displacement current (Maxwell-Ampere's law):

In order to make Ampere's law work under time varying field conditions, Maxwell
suggested the following:

We have from Gauss law in electrostatics,

⃗ =𝜌
∇∙𝐷

⃗ --> Electric flux density and 𝜌--> charge density

where 𝐷

⃗ be varying with time.

Let 𝐷

Differentiating with time we have,

𝜕 𝜕𝜌
⃗)=
(∇ ∙ 𝐷
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Or
⃗
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝜌
∇∙ = --------------> (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

But, from the equations of continuity, we have

𝜕𝜌
∇∙𝐽 = - ---------------> (2)
𝜕𝑡

From (1) and (2) we have,

⃗
𝜕𝐷
∇ ∙ 𝐽 = −∇ ∙
𝜕𝑡

or,
⃗
𝜕𝐷
∇ ∙ [𝐽 + ]= 0
𝜕𝑡

⃗
𝜕𝐷
Thus, for time varying field, 𝐽 must be replaced by 𝐽 + .
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
⃗ ) has the dimension of 𝐽 and is called as displacement current density.
The quantity 𝜕𝑡 (𝐷

Therefore, Ampere's law can be written as,

 ⃗⃗
𝝏𝑫
⃗⃗ = 𝑱 +
𝛁×𝑯
𝝏𝒕

This equation is known as Maxwell-Ampere's law.

The right hand side term in the above equation is the total current density consisting of conduction
current and displacement current density generated due to time variation of electric flux density
⃗⃗ ) vector field.
(D

⃗
𝜕𝐷
 Note: Displacement current density is 𝐽𝐷 = .
𝜕𝑡

Hence, displacement current is 𝐼𝐷 = ∫ 𝐽𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒅𝒔
S
⃗
𝜕𝐷
∴ 𝐼𝐷 = ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔
𝜕𝑡
S
 Displacement current in vacuum or in a dielectric is not a current in the sense of any motion
of charges. But it is associated with itself a magnetic field, similar to that of conduction
current.

 Maxwell’s equations:

The differential forms of Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields are given below:

1) ⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss law in electrostatics)

∇∙𝐷
⃗
𝑑𝐵
2) (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − (Faraday’s law)
𝑑𝑡

3) ⃗ = 0 (Gauss law in magnetism)

∇. 𝐵

4) ⃗ = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⃗ (Ampere’s law)

∇×𝐻 𝜕𝑡

In case of static fields, the time dependent factors in equations (2) and (3) vanish. The modified
Maxwell’s equations for static fields are given below:
 1) ⃗ = 𝜌 (Gauss law in electrostatics)
∇∙𝐷
2) (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = 0 (Faraday’s law)

3) ⃗ = 0 (Gauss law in magnetism)

∇. 𝐵
4) ⃗ = 𝐽 (Ampere’s law)
∇×𝐻

 Note: A static electric field 𝐸⃗ can exist in the absence of magnetic field 𝐻
⃗ . For example, a

capacitor with static charge produce only 𝐸⃗ but not 𝐻

⃗ . Likewise, a conductor with constant
⃗ without an electric field 𝐸⃗ . However, when fields are time
current 'I' has magnetic field 𝐻
⃗ can’t exist without 𝐸⃗ and vice versa. i.e. time variable 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
variable, 𝐻 ⃗ fields can’t
exist independently.

 Electromagnetic waves:

⃗ gives rise to an
From Maxwell’s equations, it follows that a time varying magnetic field 𝐻
electric field 𝐸⃗ that varies both in space and time. Similarly, a time varying electric field gives rise
⃗
𝑑𝐵
to magnetic field that varies in space and time. Moreover, from (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − and
𝑑𝑡
⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻 , it follows that 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ must be normal to each other. Thus, no conductor, a loop
𝜕𝑡

of a wire or any other medium is necessary. 𝐸⃗ arises directly from time varying 𝐻
⃗ and vice versa.

These variations propagate as a wave in a direction perpendicular to both 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻

⃗ known as
electromagnetic waves.

 Electromagnetic wave equation in differential form:

From Maxwell’s equations, we have,

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ =𝐽+
∇×𝐻
𝜕𝑡
and
 ⃗
𝑑𝐵
(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −
𝑑𝑡
But, we know that D = εE and B = µH.
⃗ = 𝐽 + 𝜀 𝜕 (𝐸⃗ )
∴ ∇×𝐻 ----------- (1)
𝜕𝑡

⃗
𝑑𝐻
(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −µ ----------- (2)
𝑑𝑡

In order to get the wave equation in terms of electric field vector (𝐸⃗ ), we must obtain an
equation relating the spatial coordinates of 𝐸⃗ to its time coordinate. This is done by eliminating 𝐻
⃗
between the two equations (1) and (2). This is done in the following way:

Take curl for both sides of (2).

𝜕
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 (∇ × 𝐻
⃗) --------- (3)

As per vector analysis,

∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗ ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗
𝜌
Or, ∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗ ) = ∇ ( 𝜀 ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ --------- (4)
𝜌
⃗ =𝜌
( From Maxwell’s equation, ∇ ∙ 𝐷 (or) ∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖 )

From eq. (3) and (4), we get

𝜌 𝜕
∇ ( 𝜀 ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 (∇ × 𝐻
⃗) ----------(5)

From eq. (1) and (5),

𝜌 𝜕 𝜕𝐸⃗
∇ ( ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 (𝐽 + 𝜀 )
𝜀 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜌 𝜕𝐽 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
Or, ∇ ( ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 − 𝜇𝜀
𝜀 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝜕𝐽 𝜌
Or, ∇2 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇 𝜕𝑡 + ∇ ( 𝜀 ) -------- (6)
The LHS of eq. (6) is in the characteristic form of wave equation in terms of 𝐸⃗ , for medium with
constant 𝜇 & 𝜀 values ( homogeneous and isotropic medium).

If we consider a region, where there are no charges and currents (the sources of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ ), then 𝜌 =

0 and 𝐽 = 0.

Then eq. (6) becomes,

𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
∇2 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝜀 =0
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2𝐸⃗
Or, ∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2

Also, wave propagating along X-direction must be independent of y and z. Then,

⃗
𝝏𝟐 𝑬 ⃗
𝝏𝟐 𝑬
= 𝝁𝜺 ----------- (7)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐

Eq. (7) represents a plane EM wave propagating along X-direction.

But the classical wave equation in one dimension in differential form is,

𝝏𝟐 𝒚
⃗ 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚
⃗
= --------------(8)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐

Comparing eq. (7) and (8), we get the velocity of EM waves as

𝟏
𝐯=
√𝛍𝛆

In vacuum, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 Hm-1 and 𝜀 = 𝜀0 = 8.852 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1 .

𝟏
∴𝐯= = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ms-1
√𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎

This is same as velocity of light in vacuum.

⃗ ) in space and time. The associated

 Note: Equation (7) gives the variation of electric field (𝑬
magnetic field variation is invariably there in the perpendicular plane.