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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
GS 2002
Introduction to Logic is a study of applications of reasoning, fallacy,
syllogism, the Deductive Method, the Inductive Method, proof and its values.
Logic is an analytical and critical study of reasoning procedures in
both deductive or syllogistic and inductive methods in order to objectify
or concretize meaningfulness of any kind of informative expression for
convincing one’s self and others through logical structure without any
confusion.
Course Objectives - to enable students to:
• Know and understand radical meaning and function of linguistic
means in English language form;
• Know how to use linguistic means appropriately;
• Differentiate argument forms from those of non-argument;
• Know and conceptualize the relationship of rational procedures
among mental, logical and grammatical sources as well as the
origin of each source;
• Know how to Justify valid and invalid status of arguments
according to logical principles; and
• Apply logical principles for an appropriate decision making in
each particular case and situation.

Basic Understanding of Logic

Objectives
• Students know contextual definition of Logic.
• Students know a structural format of logical information.
• Students can distinguish argumentative information from non-
argumentative one.
What is Logic?
Etymological Meaning:
Λογος (gr.) Logos, word, saying, speech, discourse (communicative
means)
Practical Meaning:
- The science which investigates the principle governing correct or reliable
inference
- The system or principles of reasoning applicable to any branch of knowledge or
study
- A particular method of reasoning or argumentation

Meaning from Academic Views

Aristotle: The study of the thought for which words are signs; it is an attempt to
get truth by analysis of the thought that reflects our apprehension or
understanding of the nature of things according to personal viewpoint under a
theoretical support.
-The study of reasoning processes and structures which focus on a firm
conviction of a person. That conviction is supported by at least one reference
expected as truth. Its lingual details expressed can be identified as an argument.
External Components of Logical information
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Argumentative Components
Premise: A set of information that is used to support one’s conviction
Ex. If a student earns GPA higher than 3.5, he can register 7 subjects.
Matthew earns GPA higher than 3.5.
Conclusion: Ex. A conviction derived from at least one true reference
Matthew can register 7 subjects

Argumentative Examples
-Any two persons who contradict each other cannot both be lying. So the
first and the third natives cannot both be lying, since they contradict each other.
-Any two persons who contradict each other cannot both be lying.
The first and the third natives contradict each other.
They cannot both be lying.
-No any Republican is a Democrat. So no Republicans are big spenders,
since all big spenders are Democrats.
-No any Republican is a Democrat.
All big spenders are Democrats.
So no Republicans are big spenders.
-If a tenth planet exists, then its orbit is perpendicular to that of the other
planets. Either a tenth planet is responsible for the death of the dinosaurs, or its
orbit is not perpendicular to that of the other planets. A tenth planet is not not
responsible for the death of the dinosaurs. Therefore, a tenth planet does not
exist.

Components of argumentative expression

1. At least one of the statements in the details must present evidence
If a tenth planet exists, then its orbit is perpendicular to that of the other
planets. Either a tenth planet is responsible for the death of the dinosaurs, or its
orbit is not perpendicular to that of the other planets. A tenth planet is not
responsible for the death of the dinosaurs.

2. There must be a claim that the evidence supports something.

Therefore, a tenth planet does not exist.
Non-argumentative information
-Don’t rely on strangers. They may hurt you! (Warning)
-I Think people who have authentic culture, as ours are able to improve
our lifestyles for enhancing qualities of life within horrible economic crisis by
merchandizing raw materials of agricultural products. (Opinion Presentation)
-Since Seub Nakasathian was deeply concerned with forest and wild
animal protection, he sacrificed his life by committing suicide as the external
evidence for remarking his intention as the real protector for forest and wild
animals. (Explanation)
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Argumentative Indicators
Premise Indicators: As, because, due to, follow(s) from, for, on account of,
since, in that, seeing that,as indicated by, may be inferred from, for the reason
that, owing to, given that, etc.
Conclusion Indicators: Therefore, Hence, Whence, Wherefore, Thus, So,
Accordingly, Consequently, It follows that, We may conclude, We may infer, It
implies that, It entails that, It must be that, As a result, etc.

The Approach of Logicalization

- Certainty
- Truthfulness

Modified Issues in Logical Pattern

Word (s) Term
Sentence (s) Proposition
Paragraph (s) Argument
Chapter (s) Article
Book (s) Text
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Check Validation status of the argument

Television viewers cannot receive scrambled signals unless they have a
decoder, Whoever receives HBO receives scrambled signals. Therefore, whoever
receives HBO has a decoder.
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• We can conclude that not all kindergarten children pose an immediate

threat to the lives of others because AIDS victims are only those who pose
an immediate threat to the lives of others; and it is true that there are
kindergarten children are AIDS victims.

• All AIDS victims are those who pose an immediate threat to the lives of
others.
• Some kindergarten children are AIDS victims.
• Some kindergarten children are not those who pose an immediate threat
to the lives of others.
This syllogism is invalid because it violates the Five Rules which
claims that the term that is distributed in conclusion must be also
distributed in premise as well. But the term “those who pose an
immediate threat to the lives of others” in major premise is
undistributed while in conclusion is distributed. In addition, it implicitly
violates the fifth rule which claims that if one premise is negative, its
conclusion must also be negative; but the conclusion in this syllogism is
negative which should imply that there must be one negative premise.
Factually, every premise of this syllogism is positive.

History of Logic
1. Classic Period
-Aristotle: Father of Logic
• Syllogistic Logic concerning ‘term’
• The art of constructing persuasive arguments
• Techniques for refuting the arguments of others
Chrysippus Proposition
• A proposition is either true or false.
• Deterministic rules of truth and falsity of a compound proposition.
2. Middle Period (1)
-Peter Aberlard (1079-1142)
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The inventor of the theory of universals that traced the universal

character of general terms to concepts in the mind rather than to natures
existing outside the mind.
-William of Occam (1285-1349)
Model Logic
-A kind of Logic that involves such notions as possibility, necessity, belief,
and doubt.
-Conductor of an exhaustive study of forms of valid and invalid syllogisms.
-Contributor to the development of the concept of meta-language
-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
-The Father of Symbolic Logic
3. Modern Period
-John Stuart Mill
Inductive Argument:
A logical argument that requires experiences as its references.
-Gottlob Frege
Modern Mathematical Logic
4. Contemporary Period
-Kurt Goedel (1906-1978)
Formalization of Logical Systems
Term and Its Applications
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Types of Term
• Distribution status is the indicator to identify a particular type of a term.
• Distribution status is a particular meaningfulness of information
dependent to intention of its composer which clarifies to a particular scope
of numbers of things either all, distributed or some, undistributed but not
both.
Two Types of Term
• Distributed term The expression that signifies to all entities being
mentioned
• Undistributed term The expression that signifies to some entities being
mentioned
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Distribution of term
Literal expressions Figurative imagination
A bird All birds
The bird All things identical to “the bird”
Birds in the sky All/some Birds in the sky
Many birds in the sky Some birds in the sky
Every bird in the sky All birds in the sky
Each bird in the sky All birds in the sky
Few birds in the sky Some birds in the sky
Most birds in the sky Some birds in the sky
Certain birds in forests Some birds in forests

Functions of Term in Proposition

A component of a proposition
- Subject term
- Predicate term
1. Subject Term
The term which human mind primary selects to give a category
Position: At the front part of a sentential proposition before its copula
Quantitative indicator: All or Some
2. Predicate Term
The term which human mind selects to be the category of the subject one
Position At the back part of a sentential proposition after its copula
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Characters of Predicate Term

Distributed Term
Meaning of such a term expanses to every entity that term signifies
Indicator: negative copula
Undistributed Term
Meaning of such a term expanses to some entities that term signifies.
Indicator: positive copula

Copula
A copula, in logical view, is a lingual means which clarifies a relational
status between a subject term and predicate term dependent to a decision of its
composer to claim either that a subject term is a member of a predicate term or
not.
A copula, if it is observed in linguistics, is a verb to be in a present simple
form of positive or negative format dependent to its subject.

C. Function of Term in Deductive Argument

1. Major Term: The predicate term of conclusion and a term in first
premise.
2. Minor Term: The subject term of conclusion and a term of the second
premise.
3. Middle Term: The term that appears in only premise part.

PROPOSITION AND APPLICATIONS

General Views about Proposition
A proposition is a logical expression which clarifies that a subject term is
included in or excluded from a predicated term. The primary source of
proposition is a judgment. A judgment appears whenever an intention of
participation of two terms is initiated. A copula is an expressed form of a
judgment, in either a positive or negative form but not both in present simple
form.

Judgement
An internal consideration of human mind whether the first selected
apprehension participates in the second selected one or not.
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Imaginative Judgment and proposition

Types of Proposition

1. “A” Type
Main Idea
All entities of subject term are included in predicate term totally.
2. “E” Type
Main Idea
All entities of subject term are excluded from predicate term totally.
3. “I” Type
Main Idea
Some entities of subject term are included in predicate term.
4. “O” Type
Main Idea
Some entities of subject term are excluded from predicate term.
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Ordinary Statement And Transformation

Transformation
The process of revealing in concrete literal expression of the judgment
formed by human intention under a grammatical rule for claiming the
participation status between the first and the second selected terms objectively.
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Definition
Definition: A group of words that assigns a meaning to some words.
Term
1. The objective literal determination of intensional meaning that describes the
qualities or attributes the intentional expression connotes.
2. The objective literal determination of extensional meaning that describes the
members of the class that intentional expression denotes.
Types of Definition
1. Stipulative definition - Assignment of meaning to a word for the first time.
EX. Offspring from Female Lion + male tiger = liger or tigon
2. Lexical definition - Meaningful report of the word described in a language in
order to eliminate the ambiguity of meaningfulness which may occur if one of
the meanings were to be confused with another. The ambiguity of meaning is
controlled by contextualization of terminological usage.
Ex. Bank = Financial Institution Or The slope bordering the river
3. Precising Definition
The meaning assigned to be appropriate and legitimate - of the context
within which the term is to be employed.
Ex. A moment of death = The moment the brain stops functioning, as measured
by an electroencephalograph.
4. Theoretical Definition - The description of viewing or conceiving entities
that suggests deductive consequences, further investigation, and whatever else
would be entailed by acceptance of a theory governing these entities.
Ex. Heat means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules
of a substance
5. Persuasive definition - A description that engenders a favorable or
unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the word to be defined
Ex. Abortion
5.1 The ruthless murdering of innocent human being
Or
5.2 A safe and established surgical procedure whereby a woman is relieved
of an unwanted burden.

Ordinary sentence and Transformation

• Literal display of a judgment in a logical proposition