INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

WHAT IS LOGIC? Nominal definition: Logic comes from the Greek word logos, which means
thoughts, word, speech or science. Real definition: Logic is the SCIENCE and ART of
CORRECT THINKING.

ELEMENTS IN THE DEFINITION OF LOGIC

*SCIENCE- It is a body of organized method of tried and true knowledge which is concerned with
the rectitude of reasoning.
*ART- Argument in logic is done beautifully with habitual validity, ease, clarity, correctness,
objectivity and certainty.
*CORRECT THINKING- It conforms to the rules of correctness in an argument, premises have
sufficient grounds as basis for conclusion.

THINKING
2 Criteria for mental process to be considered thinking
>WHEN THE OBJECT IS TRUTH
Example: Analysis, definition and classification
>WHEN THE TRUTH WE HAVE BECOMES THE NUCLEUS OF FURTHER KNOWLEDGE
Example: Criticism, comparison and contrast,
synthesis, generalization and the like

CORRECT THINKING
 A process of thinking or reasoning that follows the right procedure.
 However, this reasoning may not always be true. Logic does not investigate the truth as
the certainty of the data but rather focuses on the correct operation of thinking.
 CORRECT THINKING and TRUE KNOWLEDGE are two different things.
 True knowledge deals with knowledge which conforms to reality.

CORRECT THINKING
All men are rational. Christian is a man. Christian is rational. (CORRECT/ TRUE)
All animals are rational. Dogs are animals. Dogs are rational. (CORRECT/ FALSE)
Girls are sweet. Rosette is sweet. Rosette is a girl. (INCORRECT/ TRUE)
Girls are sweet. Christopher is sweet. Christopher is a girl. (INCORRECT/ FALSE)

THE FORMAL OBJECT OF LOGIC

 The first concern of Logic is VALIDITY.
 An Argument is SOUND when it is both VALID and TRUE.
 The formal object of Logic is the CORRECTNESS OR VALIDITY OF REASONING.
It refers to the inner consistency of the reasoning process. For reasoning to
achieve consistency, it should be in accordance with the PRINCIPLES and LAWS which
logic teaches.
EXAMPLE:
All plants need water. All flowers are plants. Therefore, all flowers need water.

Considered the arguments, which follows:

All lawyers are honest. Some defenders of our rights are lawyers.
Therefore, some defenders of our rights are honest.

This inference is not sound, but valid. A VALID ARGUMENT is one whose premises, if they are
assumed to be true, entails this conclusion. Since not all lawyers are honest, the proposition is
not true. A proposition is true when it describes an actual state of affairs. Therefore, even though
the inference is valid, it is not sound, because it is not both valid and true.
In contrast, Logic is generally interested only in the correctness or validity of reasoning. It is not
concerned with the truth or falsity of the premises or of the conclusion.

Examples:
All men are rational beings. Armand is a man. Therefore, Armand is a rational being. (Sound)
All animals are rational. Dogs are rational.
Therefore, dogs are animals. (Undistributed Middle Term)
All plants grow. Ice factory is a plant. Therefore, ice factory grows. (Fallacy of Equivocal)

IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC

TYPES OF LOGIC
BASED ON THE FORMS AND CONTENT
FORMAL LOGIC
• is concerned with the aspect of form, its structure, correctness, sequence and the
following of the rules. It looks at whether there is conformity with the given standards or
with the existing rules of Logic
Example: Peter is a student
From this we can ask:
 What is the subject?
 What is the verb?
What is the predicate?
MATERIAL LOGIC
• is concerned with the subject matter, content or truth. It looks at whether there is
conformity with reality
Example: Peter is a man.
 
 Reasoning is FORMALLY VALID if it is conforms with all the rules of logic; it becomes
formally not valid is one or many of the rules are violated.
 
 Reasoning is MATERIALLY TRUE if there is conformity with reality; it becomes
materially false when there is no conformity with reality.
 
A good and sound reasoning then is one that is FORMALLY VALID and at the same time,
MATERIALLY TRUE.

BASED ON PROCESS OF THINKING

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
• Deductive Logic is one in which the premise flow logically into the conclusion. That is
why it is also called formal deductive logic. It is from universal to particular or from more
to the less universal by way of a middle term.
 
Example: All Filipinos are industrious (General)
Peter is a Filipino. (Particular)
Therefore, Peter is industrious. (Particular)
All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal
If the first two statements are true, then the conclusion must be true. 

INDUCTIVE LOGIC
 
• Inductive Logic is one in which the argument flows from specific to general or particular
to universal. Inductive logic implies a sense of probability. It may provide some evidence
of truth. It is closely allied to the scientific method of inquiry which proves from the
particular to the universal.
 
Example: This chalk falls. This book… this pen… this eraser…
Therefore, bodily objects fall.
 
This cat is black. That cat is black. A third cat is black.
Therefore, all cats are black. 
ACTS OF THE MIND: THE MENTAL OPERATION
 
Three essential operations of the intellect:
Simple Apprehension
 The process through which the mind grasp the objectively reality as it is outside the mind.
When something is grasped, an idea or concept is formed which is then expressed
through the use of terms.
 Example: man: mortal: Peter

Judgment
 The process through which the mind can assert or deny something. This second process
can be achieved only after having ideas because it is the ideas that are put together in
order to come up with judgment. The expression of judgment are called PROPOSITION
 Example of Proposition: Every man is mortal
Peter is a man
Reasoning
 The process through which the mind arrives at a conclusion from previously possessed
judgment. It draws out new propositions from the premises. We also called this
INFERENCE. This is expressed through syllogism
 
Example of a Syllogism: Every man is mortal. But, Peter is a man. Therefore, Peter is mortal.

ACTIVITY NO 1: DEDUCTIVE vs. INDUCTIVE

1. Taking a person’s life is always wrong. Capital punishment involves taking a person’s life.
Therefore, capital punishment is always wrong. D
2. The right to self-determination of minority peoples is a core part of international law.
Therefore, if a majority of Aboriginal Australians vote for self-government, they must be
allowed to do so. D
3. Six in ten children who are allowed to drink at home with their parents become alcoholics
later in life. Therefore, attitudes towards drinking are formed by others near to us. I
4. Human being has rights. John is a human being, therefore, John has rights. D
5. Every time Mr. Jones has taught Contract Law, students have achieved good results on
the exam. This semester, Mr. Jones is teaching Contract Law. Therefore, students will go
well in the exam. I
6. A’s oral contract for sale of land was invalid in Case A. B’s oral contract for sale of land
was invalid in Case B. C’s oral contract for sale of land was invalid in Case C. Therefore,
all oral contracts for the sale of land are invalid. I
7. Red cars go fast. Jenny’s car is red. Therefore, Jenny’s car goes fast. D
8. We all have the right to equal treatment under the law. Therefore, Jane and Mary should
be able to adopt a child, just as John and Mary are able to. D
9. Even numbers are divisible by 2 28 is even Therefore 28 is divisible by 2. D
10. 3,6,9,12,15, The next term is going to be 18 I
11. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Joe ate an apple every day. Dr. Dre stayed away.
12. Jimmy got bitten by a dog . Jimmy is now scared of all dogs. D
13. All Speeders will be slapped. Jimmy sped. Jimmy got slapped. I
14. Two episodes of the Big Bang Theory made me laugh and laugh LOLOLOLOL
Therefore, The Big Bang Theory is always funny. I
 15. Jimmy named his kids Apricot-Mist, Aprocot-Mist Mu, Apricot-Mist Mu Mu,
and Apricot-Mist Mu Mu Mu Jimmy's next will be named Apricot-Mist Mu Mu Mu Mu I
JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION

JUDGMENT
• Judgment is a mental act which affirms or denies something. It produces a mental
proposition or, if expressed, becomes an oral or written proposition.
 
PROPOSITION
• Proposition is a sentence which affirms or denies something
 
LOGICAL STATEMENT
• A Logical Statement or a proposition is a sentence that assert of denies something and
could either be true or false.
 
Example: This is a dog - (An affirmation (true)
This is not a dog - (a denial (but false)

PROPOSITION
• Proposition is a sentence which affirms or denies something

A statement of facts is embodied in a DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. There are three other types of
sentences: INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE and EXCLAMATORY. Regardless of type, a
sentence expresses a complete thought.
 
DECLARATIVE SENTENCE - a statement of fact
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE - ask questions
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE - makes a request
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE - expresses a strong feelings
 
There must be a clear distinction between FORM and FUNCTION of a proposition
 
FORM- (Declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory)
FUNCTION- (informative, expressive and directive)

A PROPOSITION is expressed by a DECLARTIVE SENTENCE for it denies or asserts

something.
 
 Not every DECLARATIVE sentence seeks to inform. Some are ceremonial and
expressive as with gratitude and expressive utterance.
 
Example: -I enjoy your song recital very much
-I had a delightful weekend in your Baguio house
 
 Some grammatical constructions which look like interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory are in reality assertions or denial.

 Example:
1. How can we be expected to study in such a tense atmosphere?
 (This is an interrogative sentence but the function to inform us about an inconvenient place to
study)
 
2. What a beautiful poem!
 (It expressed an appreciation but it also informs us that the poem is beautiful)
 
3. Come again
 (it states a command but at the same time informs us that once again (for parties to be) we are
very much welcome.)
 
According to Aristotle:
A PROPOSITION (logical statement) is a sentence that could either be true of false."

ACTIVITY NO 1: PROPOSITION vs. NOT A PROPOSITION

1. Peter is a man. P
2. Just do it. NP
3. Where in the world is Carmen San Diego? NP
4. Peter is not a man. P
5. There were three thousand purple ducks found on Mars. P
6. Barney (the purple dinosaur) is a man. P
7. Oh wow. NP
8. Hello! NP
9. All dogs go to heaven. P
10. No purple dinosaurs go to heaven. P

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Three basic function of language
1. Informative
2. Expressive
3. Directive

INFORMATIVE
This is the most common function of language wherein we inform about things we known
and ask things we do not know yet.

 Example:
 Textbook and other books in history, Literature, Philosophy and the like provide us with
detailed information about different ideas and principles we have to reflect on and think
about.  
 When a person asks for your name (he wants to be informed) and you tell him: "I am
Peter", then what you used is informative discourse.
EXPRESSIVE
This kind of discourse is best illustrated in poetry where emotions and attitudes are
expressed beautifully.

 Example:
 From Ben Johnson's "Song to Celia" - "Drink to me with thine eyes and I will pledge with
mine or leave a kiss but in the cup and I'll not look for wine."
 
 Common exclamation like "Oh no!", "Right!", "Look out!" and others are expression of
different moods and are mere expressions of feelings and emotions
 
This language, however, does not affirm nor deny. Hence, we cannot say whether this is
true or false.
 
Expressive discourse… is used either to express the speaker's feelings or evoke certain
feelings on the part of the author. Or course, it may do both.

DIRECTIVE
This function of language is most easily seen in commands or request. It is that which
lets go or prevents an actions to be done.
 
Example:
 Kindly arrange all the requirements before leaving
Do not mess with me now.
ACTIVITY NO 2: INFORMATIVE, EXPRESSIVE AND DIRECTIVE

1. Read the textbook DIRECTIVE

2. Logic is the study of correct reasoning INFORMATIVE
3. Friday afternoons are dreary EXPRESSIVE
4. Ouch EXPRESSIVE
5. The fifth of May is a Mexican holiday INFORMATIVE
6. Shut the door EXPRESSIVE
7. Jennifer—555-3769 INFORMATIVE
8. Don't rely so heavily on the passive voice DIRECTIVE
9. Tomorrow is my birthday INFORMATIVE
10. Analyze the sentences properly DIRECTIVE

1. A new car has a distinctive smell, all leather, plastic and vinyl. E
2. You need a new car. When are you going to bite the bullet and go and talk to a car
dealer? D
3. It is essential to maintain a new car to ensure you are not let down by mechanical faults. I
4. When you leave a person you care about, it is reassuring to kiss them goodbye. I
5. I am going now. Give me a kiss and tell me how much you love me. D
6. The airport heaved with people all on their own journey. I was saying goodbye to my
brother perhaps for the last time. The kiss on parting was bittersweet. E
7. Tuesday 2 February is the first day of school for many Australian children. I
8. On the first day of school I watched my vulnerable youngest child look back at me as she
was swallowed up by the bustle and noise of the playground. E
9. Hurry up! You will be late for the first day of school. Have you packed your bag? Lunch is
on the table and don't forget your new hat or else you won't be allowed out to play. D

DEFINITION AND ITS RULES

 NATURE OF DEFINITION
 
DEFINITION
Derived from a Latin word “definire” which means is translated to mean “to assign limits”
 
CONCEPT OF DEFINITION
It refers to a statement which explains the meaning of a term

 Example :  
* Man is a rational animal.
According to Aristotle, this is best explanation that he can attributed to the term “man”.
 
* Book is a published literary material.
The explanation of the term “book” gives proper consideration as to the real nature of the term
and as such is a good definition.

KINDS OF DEFINITION
  Is a definition which speaks about a term but not declaring its major kinds. There are two
fundamental kinds of definition. These two major kinds are Nominal and Real.
 
NOMINAL
It is a definition which speaks about a term but not declaring or explaining about it. This is
done by considering the origin of the term,
• by describing the term,
• by giving the synonyms of the term and
by citing example that represents the term
Classification of Nominal Definition
 
1. Nominal Definition by Etymology
It is attained by tracing the origin of the word.
 
For Example:
- Fraternity is a word which is derived from the Latin word frater which means brother .
 
2. Nominal Definition by Description
It is attained by describing the term to be defined
 
For Example: - Art is a three letter word - Star is a one-syllable word
- Time is a word that rhymes with dime
 
3. Nominal Definition by Synonym
It is attained by giving a word equivalent to the same term to be defined.
 
For Example: - Kindness means goodness - Elastic means stretchy. - Excess means surplus.
 
4. Nominal Definition by Example
It is done by citing anything that will represent the term to be defined.
 
For Example: - A figure is like a triangle. - A senator is represented by Panfilo Lacson.
- A navigator is like Ferdinand Magellan.

REAL
It is a definition which declares or explains something about the term. This kind of
definition serves to distinguish a term to be defined from other terms that are already known or
will be known by the mind.
 
Classification of Real Definition
 
1. Real Definition by Genus and Specific Difference
It is attained by stating the nature of the term to know what makes a term different from
other term. In other words. It explains the essence of a term by considering the intelligible
elements that makes up the term.
 
For Example: - Triangle is tree-sided figure. - Bat is a flying mammal.

2. Real Definition by Description

It is done by stating the genus of a term but alternating the specific difference by giving logical
property which belong to the term to be defined.
 
For Example:
- Tamaraw is a V-shaped horned buffalo found solely in the Philippines
 
 
3. Real Definition by Cause
It is done by stating the genus but alternating the specific difference by tracing its cause (purpose,
use, function reasons for its existence, make up or origin) for its existence.
 
For Example:
- Ring is a piece of jewelry use to decorate a finger.
- Microscope is an instrument used to study microorganism not seen by the human naked eye.
ACTIVITY NO 1: REAL AND NOMINAL
Tell whether the following definitions are REAL or NOMINAL. Write your answer on the space
provided in each number.
 
1. Cat is a word that rhymes with fat. NOMINAL
2. A Christian is like a Catholic. NOMINAL
3. Music is pleasant sound with rhythm. REAL
4. A ruler is a controller. NOMINAL
5. Car is a four-wheel vehicle smaller than a truck. REAL
6. An entrepreneur is a business. NOMINAL
7. Maze is puzzle. NOMINAL
8. A fly is pestering insects. REAL
9. Man is a three-letter word. NOMINAL
10. Man is human. REAL

RULES OF DEFINITION
 
• The definition should explain the term clearly.
• The definition should be brief but precise.
• Definition must be coextensive with the term to be defined.
• The definition should be formulated positively.
• The definition must not contain the term that is to be defined.
ACTIVITY NO 1: RULES OF DEFINITION
Applying the laws of definition, analyze the following definitions and indicate if they are GOOD or
DEFECTIVE. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
1. Social Science is a science of society. D
2. Watch is an instrument that tells time. G
3. Bird is a winged animal with feathers. G
4. Man is thinking animal. G
5. Computer is an electronic data processor. G
6. Printer is an electronic device used for printing purposes. G
7. Fan is something that fans. D
8. Whale is the biggest ocean mammal. G
9. Female is not a male person. D
10. Ruler is person in authority. G

ABSTRACTION
• It is a mental act by which the mind studies the physical characteristics or the
individualizing notes of the particular object with regard to its color, size, style, material,
then goes on to think of the purpose of the object
 Example:
When one goes to the mall to buy a pair of shoes or a
dress, the process of abstraction is used.
 
REFLECTION
• It is a mental act of becoming aware of itself, of its act or of its sate so as to look at these
things objectively. Likewise, it is a mental act of comparing the likeness and differences
between objects belonging to different essences or classes.
 Example:
Leg of a woman and leg of a table

COMPARISON
• It is a mental act by which the mind notices the likeness and differences in the objects
having the same essence or belonging to the same class.
 Example:
Pedro and Pablo
ANALYSIS
• It is a mental act by which the mind gives direct attention to the essentials or the basic
similarities of an idea.
Example:
Man is a living organism who is sentient and rational
 

SYNTHESIS

• It is an act by which the mind puts together two or more ideas to form a single idea.
 
Example:
Blue Water

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPT
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPT

A. FIRST CLASSIFICATION
 
 FIRST INTENTION
A concept by which we know a thing independent of our mind.
Example:
- A dog is an animal.
- Man as rational can think.
- A flower is a thing.
- All things are materials
 
These concepts do not create or introduce new ideas. These concepts are simply known by the
mind before analysis would take place.

 SECOND INTENTION
A concept by which we conceive a thing in reality in so far as the mind understands it.
Example:
- Some flowers are roses.
- Man can be either male or female.
- The Philippines is the Pearl of the Orient Seas.

ACTIVITY: FIRST CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

 Determine the nature of the underlined concepts whether they are first or second
intention according to the manner they have been used

1. S 6. F 11. F
2. F 7. F 12. F
3. F 8. S 13. S

4. S 9. F 14. F

5. F 10. F 15. F
B. SECOND CLASSIFICATION
 
 CONCRETE CONCEPT
It creates a form and subject in the mind. Example: body, spirit, woman
 
 ABSTRACT CONCEPT
It is a concept which expresses form only Example: kindness, holiness, beauty, simplicity

ACTIVITY 2: SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

  Determine whether the following underlined concepts are concrete or abstract.

1. CONCRETE
2. ABSTRACT
3. ABSTRACT
4. CONCRETE
5. ABSTRACT
6. CONCRETE
7. ABSTRACT
8. ABSTRACT
9. CONCRETE
10. ABSTRACT
11. ABSTRACT
12. ABSTRACT
13. CONCRETE
14. ABSTRACT
15. CONCRETE

C. THIRD CLASSIFICATION
 
 ABSOLUTE CONCEPT
A concept that manifests itself to the mind as a substance and as an independent reality.
 
Example: -Man -God -People -Flower -Student
Incidentally, all abstract concepts are also considered absolute like

 CONNOTATIVE CONCEPT
A concept that manifests itself to the mind as an accident connected to a substance.
 
Common examples are adjectives like
Example: Kind Person Beautiful Girl Loving Mother Funny Clown
 
Some Nouns which are considered to be incomplete substance or accidental modifications are
also classified as connotative concepts.
 
Example:
- Communicator
Pertains to a person who communicates
- Narrator
Narrates
- Manager
 the one who does the managing
These concepts manifest accidence connected to the substance.

D. FOURTH CLASSIFICATION
 
 POSITIVE CONCEPT
It signifies the existence or possession of something
 
Example: war, beautiful, happy, love
 
 NEGATIVE CONCEPT
It signifies the nonexistence or non-possession of something
 
Example: non-war, nonbeautiful, unhappy, loveless
 
ACTIVITY: THIRD AND FOURTH CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCEPTS
 
Determine if the following underlined concepts are absolute or connotative. Write your answer on
the first column. Afterwards, determine if they are positive or negative. Write your answer on the
second column.

1. CONNOTATIVE NEGATIVE
2. CONNOTATIVE POSITIVE
3. ABSOLUTE POSITIVE
4. ABSOLUTE NEGATIVE
5. ABSOLUTE POSITIVE
6. CONNOTATIVE NEGATIVE
7. CONNOTATIVE POSITIVE
8. ABSOLUTE POSITIVE
9. CONNOTATIVE NEGATIVE
11. ABSOLUTE POSITIVE
12. ABSOLUTE
13. CONNOTATIVE
14. ABSOLUTE
15. CONNOTATIVE

ACTIVITY 1: SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS