BCS10_C01_F 3/11/08 12:46 PM Page 34

1.2 Ecosystems

The abiotic components of an ecosystem support the life functions of the biotic
components of an ecosystem. Organisms within communities constantly interact to
obtain resources such as food, water, sunlight, or habitat. Examples of these
interactions in ecosystems include commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, competition,
and predation. Every organism has a special role, or niche, within an ecosystem.

Understanding the history of ancient forests can help us manage forest

ecosystems better in the future. Researchers from universities in British
Words to Know Columbia are studying natural records such as soil sedimentation
commensalism patterns, ancient seed piles, tree ring growth, forest fire scars, and ice
competition cores (Figure 1.15). They are also analyzing written materials, maps,
ecosystem land surveys, weather observations, photographs, and newspaper stories.
mutualism This exciting new field of study is called historical ecology.
niche Historical ecology raises important questions about what natural
parasitism ecosystems are. It also helps us determine whether we should restore
predation them to a natural state. In an attempt to answer these questions,
researchers are tracing the effects of human activities and natural events
in forests over time. These records reveal the long-term effect of human
activities such as livestock grazing, fire suppression, and timber
harvesting. They also show how natural events such as drought and
disease can affect forests over time.
Did You Know?
The Tl’azt’en First Nation is
located in north-central British
Columbia. Tl’azt’en peoples
refer to themselves as
“Dakelh,” which means we
travel by water.

Figure 1.15 Researcher measuring the circumference of a tree

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Since there are many gaps in these records, projects have been
undertaken to acquire more information. For example, the Tl’azt’en First
Nation is working with the University of Northern British Columbia at
the John Prince Research Forest near Fort St. John. This community has
vast experience with the boreal spruce forests of the area, acquired over
thousands of years of direct contact. The Tl’azt’en First Nation has also
been involved in timber harvesting and land management. Incorporating
their detailed knowledge of the plants, animals, and natural occurrences
of the forest into the ecological history of the area will help people make
better management decisions in the future. These efforts will help
preserve this valuable forest ecosystem.

1-2A Your Local Environment Find Out ACTIVITY

You have been asked by a local community group to create photographs about your area. Find out what changes
a video about the area in which you live. The video will be have occurred in your area over the last 100 years and
shown to people who have just moved into your area and identify any environmental issues such as damage to
want to know something about the local environment. In natural areas or projects to repair environmental
this activity, you will prepare the script that will be used to damage. If possible, interview family members,
film the video. neighbours, and elders who have lived in your area for
a long time.
What to Do
7. Continue to revise your script based on any new
1. Work with a partner. Review the handout your teacher information you gather or learn as you work through
will give you about the elements of a good video the rest of this unit.
script.
2. Brainstorm a point-form list describing the weather, What Did You Find Out?
landforms, streams, lakes, plants, animals, and other 1. Explain how you organized the information about your
natural features in your area. area in your script and why.
3. Brainstorm another list describing what you know 2. How did your script compare to other students’ scripts?
about the history of your area or how the area has (For example, some scripts may be documentaries;
changed over the last 5 to 10 years. others may be theatre plays.)
4. Decide on the best way to present your information in (a) What information did the scripts have in common?
a video, and write up your script. (b) What information was different?
5. Compare your script with those of other students in 3. Describe one change you made to your script based on
your class. Update your script with any new any new information you gained from the work of your
information. classmates.
6. For the next few weeks, collect Internet, newspaper, or 4. Identify one topic about your area you would like to
magazine articles, maps, weather observations, and research further and explain why.

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Parts of an Ecosystem
Word Connect
At the beginning of section 1.1, you learned that biomes can be
Ecology is a branch of science subdivided into smaller divisions called ecosystems. An ecosystem has
that deals with the abiotic components such as oxygen, water, nutrients, light, and soil that
interactions of organisms and interact with biotic components such as plants, animals, and micro-
their environments. Scientists organisms. Biomes contain many types of ecosystems. Ecosystems can
who study these interactions cover many hectares of land, such as the antelope brush grasslands of the
are called ecologists. “Eco” South Okanagan Valley (shown on page 2) or the coastal Douglas fir
comes from the Greek word ecosystems on Vancouver Island (Figure 1.16). Ecosystems can also be
oikos, which means a dwelling small, such as a tidepool or a rotting log.
place or habitation.

Figure 1.16 Coastal Douglas fir ecosystem

Within ecosystems are habitats. A habitat is the place in which an

organism lives. For example, the sculpin is a well-camouflaged fish that
lives between the rocks at the bottom of a tidepool (Figure 1.17).
Another example is the red-backed salamander, which makes its nest in
the decaying wood of a fallen tree (Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.17 The sculpin blends in with its habitat so Figure 1.18 Red-backed salamander and its nest
well that it is difficult to see.

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Abiotic Interactions in Ecosystems

The abiotic components of terrestrial ecosystems, such as
oxygen, water, nutrients, light, and soil, are just as
important as the organisms that live in them.
Plants and animals cannot survive without oxygen.
Think about how you feel when you are stuck in a
crowded, stuffy room. Without an adequate supply of
oxygen, you may begin to feel dizzy. In wetlands, water
plants such as certain types of grass and algae produce
oxygen, which is used by other organisms that live in
water. If the plant life in a wetland is damaged because of
pollution (Figure 1.19), you may see fish gulping for air.
The cells of most living things contain between 50
and 90 percent water. Without water, no organism
would survive. You can go longer without food than you
can without water. Water also carries nutrients from one
place to another in ecosystems. Nutrients such as Figure 1.19 Gasoline or oil leaking from automobiles can
nitrogen and phosphorus are chemicals that are required reduce the amount of oxygen available to plants and
organisms in a wetland ecosystem.
for plant and animal growth. You will learn more about
nutrients and ecosystems in section 2.2.
Light is required for photosynthesis, a chemical reaction that
converts solar energy into chemical energy usable by plants. Ecosystems
vary in the amount of light they receive. For example, in marine
ecosystems, the amount of light decreases in deeper water, so fewer plants
can grow (Figure 1.20). In the forest canopy, much more light is
available for photosynthesis (Figure 1.21). You will learn more about the
importance of photosynthesis in ecosystems in section 2.2.

Figure 1.20 Marine ecosystems receive very little light for plant Figure 1.21 The forest canopy receives more light than lower layers
growth. of a forest.

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Soil is an important part of terrestrial ecosystems. Soil provides

nutrients for plants and supports many species of small organisms. A
Did You Know? square metre of soil may contain as many as 1000 different species of
invertebrates (animals without backbones). Several thousand species of
Topsoil, the surface layer of soil,
bacteria can be found in one gram of soil (Figure 1.22). Soil anchors
is the richest soil layer in life
plants in one place and absorbs
and nutrients. In this uppermost
and holds water, making it
layer, more oxygen and water
available for both plants and
are available for soil organisms,
animals. Soil organisms maintain
and there is more organic
soil structure. For example,
matter available from dead
plant and animal materials and
earthworms dig tunnels through
animal waste. the soil (Figure 1.23). The tunnels
allow water and nutrients to move
more easily through the soil,
making them available to plants
and other soil organisms. Some
soil organisms, such as bacteria,
break down pollutants, and others,
such as ground beetles, store
carbon by eating insects, because
all living things, including insects, Figure 1.22 One species of soil bacteria
contain carbon.

Figure 1.23 Earthworms in soil

Reading Check
1. What is an ecosystem?
2. What is a habitat?
3. What are three abiotic components of ecosystems necessary for
supporting life?
4. Explain why soil is important to ecosystems.

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Biotic Interactions in Ecosystems

A species is a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce with internet connect
one another. A population refers to all the members of a particular
species within an ecosystem. In the ecosystem of Williams Creek, near You can design your own
Terrace, many populations interact, such as speckled frogs, mosquitoes, ecosystem in a bottle without
grizzly bears, moose, mountain goats, bald eagles, salmon, western red leaving your computer. Find
cedar, western hemlock, and black cottonwood trees. All of these out how to build a virtual
populations form a community. A community is all the populations of ecosphere. Start your search
the different species that interact in a specific area or ecosystem (Figure at www.bcscience10.ca.
1.24). These biotic interactions are sometimes ordered in an ecological
hierarchy of organism, population, community, and ecosystem.

Figure 1.24 The Williams Creek ecosystem

Reading Check
1. What is a species?
2. What is a population?
3. What is a community?

Biotic Interactions in Populations

Within an ecosystem, organisms interact constantly within their species
and with other organisms. Three kinds of interactions in ecosystems are
commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.

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Symbiotic Relationships
Commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism are examples of symbiosis or
symbiotic relationships. Symbiosis refers to the interaction between
members of two different species that live together in a close association.

Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits
and the other species is neither helped nor harmed. Often the host
species provides shelter or transportation for the other species. For
example, in Queen Charlotte Sound, the crimson anemone provides
shelter and protection for the candy-striped shrimp (Figure 1.25). The
colour of the crimson anemone is similar to that of the candy-striped
shrimp. This colouring allows the shrimp to hide from predators, and the
anemone is not harmed. Another example of commensalism is the
relationship between barnacles and whales. Barnacles attach to whales and
are transported to new locations in the ocean (Figure 1.26). Whales are
not harmed in this process, and the barnacles benefit from new food
Figure 1.25 The candy-striped
sources.
shrimp finds shelter on a crimson
anemone.

Figure 1.26 The humpback

whale transports barnacles that
are attached to its pectoral fin.

Spanish moss, which is commonly called old man’s

beard, can be found in the temperate rainforests of British
Columbia (Figure 1.27). Spanish moss and the trees it
grows on are another example of commensalism. Spanish
moss lives on trees in rainforests and has no roots. It is an
epiphyte, like the orchids of tropical rainforests. Epiphytes
are plants that are supported by or anchored on other
plants, but they usually do not obtain water or nutrients
from these hosts. Spanish moss wraps its stem around trees
and grows high into the forest canopy, where more
sunlight, nutrients, and moisture are available. The feathery
structure of Spanish moss captures nutrients and moisture
from the air.
Figure 1.27 Spanish moss

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Mutualism
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms
benefit. In some mutualistic relationships, two species are
unable to survive without each other. The relationship between
certain plants and bees, wasps, bats, or other pollinators
illustrates this dependent relationship. Moth-pollinated plants
often have spurs or tubes that are the exact length of a certain
moth’s feeding tube. Snapdragon flowers open only for
bumblebees that are of a specific mass (Figure 1.28).
Western red squirrels and northern flying squirrels (Figure
1.29) of the boreal forests of British Columbia feed on an
underground fungus that is critical to the trees’ ability to
absorb water and nutrients. After eating the fungus, the
squirrels spread fungal spores in their droppings over the forest
floor. The dispersal and growth of the fungus promotes the
growth of young tree seedlings.
In another type of mutualism, one species defends another
species against attacks in return for food and shelter. For Figure 1.28 A bumblebee collecting the
example, in savanna (tropical grassland) biomes, a species of pollen of a snapdragon

aggressive ant lives in the hollow thorns of the bullhorn acacia

bush. The ants sip nectar from the tips of the bullhorn acacia’s
leaflets (Figure 1.30). In return for food and shelter, the ants
protect the plant by aggressively fighting off other insects and
animals by stinging them.

Figure 1.29 The northern flying squirrel eats

almost nothing else except lichens and fungi.

Figure 1.30 Mutualism is demonstrated in the symbiotic relationship between these

ants and the bullhorn acacia plant.

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The most famous example of mutualism

is that of lichens (Figure 1.31). Over 2500
types of lichens exist, and they can be found
in every biome on Earth. Each lichen has an
alga (plural: algae) and a fungus that live in a
mutualistic relationship with each other. The
alga produces sugars and oxygen for the
fungus through photosynthesis. In return,
the fungus provides carbon dioxide, water,
minerals, and protection from dehydration
for the alga.
Figure 1.31 Lichens are often found on rocks and trees.

1-2B Considering the Interactions Think About It

between Species

Mutualism is an important interaction between species. In 2. Choose an appropriate name for each species.
this activity, you will create two fictional species that 3. Draw and label a diagram that shows the interaction
interact in a mutualistic relationship. of the two species.
Materials 4. Write a paragraph about your diagram describing the
mutualistic relationship of the two species.
• paper
5. Compare your diagram with those of the rest of the
• coloured markers
class.
What to Do
What Did You Find Out?
1. Working with a partner, decide on two imaginary
1. Make a class list of all the types of adaptations shown
species. Brainstorm the characteristics of each species
in the mutualistic relationships of all the imaginary
that allow them to interact in a way that is beneficial
species.
to both species. (Hint: Think about the adaptations
each species has that suit it to the other species.) Your 2. Did any of the groups illustrate a mutual relationship
species can live in water, in the air, or on the land. Try that is actually found in nature? If so, describe it.
to come up with examples that have not been
discussed in class. Be creative.

Parasitism
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and
another is harmed. Parasites are usually much smaller and more numerous
than their hosts. Parasites may live in or on a host and obtain food from
the host’s blood or body tissues. Usually, the host is not killed, but a
parasite can cause a great deal of damage to a host’s body and organs,
weakening it and sometimes causing it to die. Some parasites can live on
different hosts. Other parasites can live on only one host.

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There are about 3200 species of parasites that can infect

humans, and 100 of these species are worms. For example, a type
of worm that infects both humans and dogs is called a
hookworm. Ancylostoma caninum is the species that infects dogs.
Hookworms live in soil and animal feces. When dogs are exposed
to soil or feces contaminated with hookworms, these blood-
sucking microscopic parasites can penetrate their skin. The
hookworm enters the bloodstream and travels to the intestine
where it attaches by its teeth (Figure 1.32) to the intestinal wall.
The mountain pine beetle is a well-known insect parasite that
is devastating the lodgepole pine and white pine forests of British
Columbia. You will learn more about this parasite in Chapter 3.
Not all parasites are small. In the jungles of southeast Asia lives a
type of parasitic flowering plant called Rafflesia arnoldii. This
plant produces the world’s biggest flower, and it lives only on the
tetrastigma vine (Figure 1.33). Rafflesia arnoldii has no leaves or Figure 1.32 Ancylostoma caninum has
pairs of teeth that attach to the wall of a
stem, but it has strands of tissue called filaments that grow into dog’s intestine. The hookworm obtains food
the tetrastigma vine to obtain food, which weakens the vine. from a host’s blood.

internet connect
Another form of parasitism is
called brood parasitism, in
which one species of bird lays
its eggs in the nest of another
species. Cowbirds often lay
their eggs in the nests of
other birds, such as vireos,
which can affect the survival
rate of their hosts’ offspring.
Find out more about brood
parasitism. Start your search
at www.bcscience10.ca.

Figure 1.33 Rafflesia arnoldii grows close to the jungle floor. Its flower has a diameter of 100
cm and a mass of 11 kg.

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Reading Check
1. What is symbiosis?
2. What is commensalism?
3. Give an example of mutualism.
4. Give an example of parasitism.

Niches
Organisms have special roles in the ecosystems in which they live.
The term niche is used to describe these roles. An organism’s niche
includes the way in which the organism contributes to and fits into its
environment. All the physical, chemical, and biological interactions
required for a species to survive, grow, and reproduce are part of the
organism’s niche. Within its niche, an organism interacts with other
individuals of the same species or with individuals of other species. For
example, great blue herons always live near water, where they can fish and
nest in nearby trees and bushes. They often feed alone but will tolerate
the presence of other birds. Because of their long legs, great blue herons
can find food in deeper water, which allows them to occupy a niche that
other heron species with shorter legs cannot (Figure 1.34). Often
interactions involve competitions for food and other resources, such as
water, sunlight, or habitat.

Figure 1.34 Great blue heron

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Competition
Competition is a harmful interaction between two
or more organisms that can occur when organisms
compete for the same resource (such as food) in the
same location at the same time. The health of an
organism and its ability to grow and reproduce is
reduced if the organism expends energy to compete
against other organisms. For this reason, competition
can limit the size of a population.
Some plants have characteristics that make them
successful competitors. For example, spotted knapweed
releases chemicals into the soil, which prevents the
growth of other plants and allows the knapweed to
populate a field quickly (Figure 1.35). This plant
spreads rapidly and is also a successful competitor
because one plant alone can produce 25 000 seeds.
Because of these qualities, spotted knapweed is one
of the worst rangeland weeds in British Columbia.
Animals such as coyotes usually hunt in packs to kill
large animals, such as deer and elk. However, in areas
where only smaller animals, such as rabbits, squirrels,
and mice are available for food, coyotes will hunt on
their own and compete with other coyotes, especially if Figure 1.35 Spotted knapweed
these food sources are scarce (Figure 1.36).

Did You Know?

Some scientists believe that
modern seabirds, such as
pelicans and albatrosses,
occupy the same niche once
occupied by the pterosaur, a
type of prehistoric flying
vertebrate. Although pterosaurs
were long thought to be a type
of reptile, there is evidence that
they may have been warm-
blooded (able to maintain their
own internal body
temperature).

Figure 1.36 Although coyotes often hunt together, they will compete with each other over habitat
or food sources.

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Predation
internet connect In ecology, predation is the term used to describe predator-prey
interactions in which one organism (the predator) eats all or part of
Ecologists use the term another organism (the prey). As a result, one organism benefits and the
“herbivory” to describe the other is harmed. Predation, as you will learn in section 2.1, also moves
predation of plants by energy through an ecosystem.
herbivores (plant eaters). Predatory animals have adaptations that make them effective
Many plants have adap- predators. Predator adaptations may include highly developed senses
tations, such as thorns and such as very good eyesight or a keen sense of smell. The sharp, pointed
toxins, that reduce the impact teeth, or “fangs,” of a cougar (Figure 1.37) are an adaption that make
of these predators. Find out this predator better able to catch its prey.
more about these adaptations.
Start your search at
www.bcscience10.ca.

Figure 1.37 Cougars have long canine teeth. Figure 1.38 Porcupines have sharp spines.

Prey animals also have adaptations that keep them from being eaten.
For example, porcupines have spines (Figure 1.38). Turtles and clams
have hard shells. Newts produce poisonous substances. Other forms of
adaptation, such as camouflage, allow prey animals to hide from
predators. For example, stick bugs, which are eaten by birds, look like
twigs (Figure 1.39). Mimicry is an adaptation in which a prey animal
mimics another species that is dangerous or tastes bad. For example, the
viceroy butterfly looks like the bitter-tasting monarch butterfly and so is
avoided by predators (Figure 1.40).

A B

Figure 1.39 Stick bug

Figure 1.40 Viceroy butterfly (A) and monarch butterfly (B)

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The size of a prey population can be affected by the number of

predators. In Figure 1.41, the lynx is the predator and the snowshoe
hare is the prey. In this example, the prey population grows when there
are few predators. When the predator population is high, the prey
population shrinks.

4000
3000
20
Number of hares

2000

Number of lynx
per 100 km2
per km2

1000
500
300 10
100
25
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Years

Figure 1.41 The predator-

prey relationship between lynx
and snowshoe hares

Suggested Activity
Find Out Activity 1-2C on
page 49

Predator-prey relationships are extremely complex. Many prey

populations are regulated by factors other than predation, such as
availability of food and space and by rates of population growth.

Reading Check
1. What is a niche?
2. What resources do organisms compete for?
3. What is predation?
4. Provide one example of a predator.
5. State two ways in which prey avoid predators.

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Biodiversity in Ecosystems
A land area or water body that has a large variety of organisms, or great
biodiversity, is often an indicator of the health of an ecosystem. Most
The Vancouver Island biodiversity losses are a direct result of habitat loss. Each ecosystem, such
marmot, which lives only as a forest or a wetland, has unique biotic and abiotic components that
on mountain slopes of contribute to the availability of food, water, and nutrients for all
Vancouver Island, is organisms. Forest ecosystems, for example, prevent soil erosion, store
Canada’s most endangered nutrients, control climate, and provide habitat for many species of plants,
animal. Find out more about mammals, birds, fish, and amphibians. Forests also benefit humans by
the marmot’s ecosystem and
providing a source for timber products (Figure 1.42) and medicine.
how efforts are being made
Wetlands purify water and prevent flooding (Figure 1.43).
to save this unique animal.
Start your search at
www.bcscience10.ca.

Figure 1.42 Forests have been an Figure 1.43 Wetlands provide habitat for a
important part of the economy of British variety of water-tolerant plants, for birds such as
Columbia, providing logs for lumber and herons, geese, ducks, and for other animals, such
papermaking. as fish, moose, deer, and beaver.

As humans continue to use and expand into ecosystems in all parts of

the world, maintaining the biodiversity of ecosystems becomes more
difficult. Many places, such as British Columbia, are developing
ecosystem management plans, which try to balance human activities
with the preservation of ecosystem biodiversity. In British Columbia, the
greatest threat to ecosystems is human activity and the expansion of
cities. Preserving enough of an ecosystem to maintain biodiversity will
be an ongoing challenge in our province.

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1-2C Predator-Prey Simulation Find Out ACTIVITY

In this activity, you will simulate predator-prey • The maximum carrying capacity of this forest
relationships and graph your findings. habitat is 200 prey animals. (Carrying capacity is
the ability of an ecosystem to supply enough
Materials resources such as food, water, and shelter for
• 8 textbooks continued survival.)
• 200 small (2 cm) cardboard squares (each represents a 4. Begin the simulation. The prey animal controller tosses
prey animal) three prey animals into the habitat. The predator
• 12 large (8 cm) cardboard squares (each represents a controller then tosses one predator into the habitat at
predator) these prey animals.
• data table 5. Continue the simulation for 20 generations or until all
• graph paper the prey animals are captured. The data controller
• coloured pencils records all data for each generation in the data table
provided by your teacher.
What to Do
6. Construct a graph with two lines using the data from
1. Working in a group of three, decide who will control the “Total Prey Animals” and “Total Predators”
the prey animals, who will control the predators, and columns for each generation. Label the x-axis from
who will be the data recorder. Your teacher will give generations 1 through 20. Label the y-axis
you a data table. “Population Numbers.” Determine the intervals you
2. Clear all other materials off your table. Construct a will use to plot the population numbers.
forest habitat as instructed by your teacher. 7. Use one colour of pencil to plot the points for the
3. Read the following rules. You will need to refer back total prey animals. Use another colour of pencil to plot
to them as you do the simulation. the points for the total predators for each generation.
• Controllers of prey animals and predators must 8. Connect the points to form the prey animals’ graph
stand 0.5 m from the habitat entrance when line. Use another colour of pencil to connect the
tossing the squares. points for the predators’ graph line.
• When one half or more of a prey animal square is
covered by a predator square, the prey animal has
Science Skills
been captured and is removed from the habitat.
Go to Science Skill 5 for information
• In each round, each predator that captures at
on how to construct a graph.
least three prey animals survives.
• If fewer than three prey animals are captured, the
predator dies and is removed from the habitat. What Did You Find Out?
• In each round, each predator that captures at 1. Describe the relationship between the prey and
least three prey animals survives and reproduces predator lines on your graph.
(producing a new generation). Therefore, one
2. Predict what the graph would look like after 12
additional predator will be tossed into the habitat
generations if all the predators were lost to a disease.
for every three prey animals caught.
Sketch this graph.
• If all predators die, then a new predator is tossed
3. Predict what the graph would look like after 12
into the habitat.
generations if all the prey animals were lost to a
• The prey population doubles each generation, so disease. Sketch this graph.
if 10 prey animals survive, the next generation
4. Predict what would happen to the predator and prey
(round) starts with 20 prey animals.
populations if half of the prey animals’ habitat were
destroyed by the construction of a shopping mall.

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Beware the Rough-Skinned the toxin does not paralyze the snake. However, this
ability to resist the toxin also comes at a cost. The more
Newt resistant the snake is to a newt’s neurotoxin, the more
The rough-skinned newt, which is native to British slow moving it becomes. Why? Because the mutated
Columbia, has two remarkable adaptations for defence. protein causes less effective nerve and muscle function
When threatened, the newt flips up to show its bright and makes the snake more vulnerable to its predators.
red-orange belly, and takes on a U shape, which is read In areas where newts produce low levels of toxin,
as a stop sign by predators. If a predator is not frightened garter snakes have a low resistance to the toxin. In areas
away by the defensive posture, the newt then releases a where populations of newts produce intermediate levels
neurotoxin (a chemical that affects the nervous system) of toxin, garter snakes have an intermediate resistance.
that causes nerves to stop functioning, paralyzing the In populations where newts produce very high levels of
predator. The toxin from one newt could kill 100 humans. toxin, garter snakes have high resistance. In these
If a newt produces a lot of toxin, it will have less populations with high toxin levels, there will be fewer
energy to reproduce. If the newt produces too little toxin, newts because they will produce fewer offspring. There
it will be eaten. Today, the only predator of the rough- will also be fewer garter snakes because the toxin makes
skinned newt is the garter snake. Some garter snakes them so slow moving and vulnerable to capture by their
have a genetic mutation that makes them resistant to predators. Thus, the populations of newts and garter
the toxin. Scientists have discovered that this mutation snakes are kept in balance.
changes a protein on nerve cells that bind to the toxin so

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Checking Concepts (c) Tapeworms can live in the intestines of

humans. The tapeworm feeds off the
1. List the following terms in order from smallest
nutrients a human host has ingested,
to largest: biome, biosphere, community,
making the nutrients unavailable to the
ecosystem, single species, population.
host. This can result in malnutrition for
2. How is a habitat different from a niche?
the host.
3. Identify which letter represents a biome, which
(d) A western red cedar seedling and a Sitka
represents a habitat, and which represents an
spruce seedling are both growing in a
ecosystem in the diagram below.
temperate rainforest. Both require
sunlight, nutrients, and water from the
environment.
bA (e) Some flowers are pollinated by bats. In
return, bats receive nectar from the
flowers.
9. Provide several reasons why ecosystems are
important to the survival of humans.
ecosystem
B

Understanding Key Ideas

10. Think about the organisms that live in your
community. Identify one example of each of
the following.
habitat
C (a) a competitive relationship
(b) a predator-prey relationship
(c) a commensal relationship
4. What requirements for life are provided by (d) a mutualisitic relationship
ecosystems? 11. Many people believe that plants are
5. Why is soil important for terrestrial defenceless. Provide an argument to refute
ecosystems? this statement.
6. Why are some organisms in an ecosystem in 12. What will happen when two species compete
competition? for the same resources?
7. Give one example of a plant adaptation and 13. Describe the effect of the following
one example an animal adaptation for: conditions on a population of predators.
(a) mutualism (a) The number of prey animals is low.
(b) predation (b) The number of prey animals is high.
8. Identify each of the following as an example of
commensalism, mutualism, parasitism,
competition, or predation.
(a) Some bacteria live in roots of soybean P ause and R eflect
plants, obtain sugars from the plant, and
provide nitrogen to the plant. Suppose a city official recently told reporters
(b) Orchids grow high in the canopy of “Every type of ecosystem must be preserved.”
tropical rainforests. The trees on which the Consider what you have learned about
orchids grow are not harmed, nor do they ecosystems. Use examples from this section to
benefit from the orchids. support the statement.

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Chapter
1

Prepare Your Own Summary 10. What type of biome might you find at the top
of a mountain? Explain.
In this chapter, you investigated the factors that
11. Identify three abiotic components of an
influence the characteristics and distribution of
ecosystem, and relate their importance to the
biomes and the adaptations of the plants and
plant and animal life in an ecosystem.
animals within them. You have also investigated
12. Explain what is meant by “ecological
the interaction of the biotic and abiotic
hierarchy.”
components within biomes and ecosystems. Create
13. Explain the difference between commensalism
your own summary of the key ideas from this
and mutualism.
chapter. You may include graphic organizers or
14. How is parasitism different from predation?
illustrations with your notes. (See Science Skill 11
15. List three adaptations of prey animals.
for help with using graphic organizers.) Use the
following headings to organize your notes:
1. Factors that Influence the Characteristics of Understanding Key Ideas
Biomes 16. Predict what would happen to a plant if it
2. The Distribution of Biomes were moved from a wetland to a desert.
3. Adaptations and Biomes Explain your prediction.
4. Abiotic Interactions in Ecosystems 17. Why do you think biomes are often classified
5. Biotic Interactions in Ecosystems according to their plant species rather than by
the animals that live in the biomes?
Checking Concepts 18. Explain why hot desert ecosystems can exist
on every continent on Earth except
1. Explain the relationship between the
Antarctica.
biosphere, a biome, and an ecosystem.
19. Are symbiotic relationships part of an
2. (a) Name three factors that influence the
organism’s niche? Explain.
characteristics of biomes.
20. Why are hosts often not killed in parasitic
(b) Describe how each of these factors might
relationships?
influence where a biome is located in the
21. Explain how competition can affect the
world.
health of an organism and its ability to
3. What two factors are the most important for
reproduce.
determining a region’s climate?
22. How can the size of a prey population be
4. What is a climatograph?
affected by the number of predators?
5. Explain the term “adaptation.”
23. Use the world map and the graph on the next
6. Use examples to explain the difference
page to answer this question.
between a structural adaptation and a
(a) Match the numbers of the biomes on the
behavioural adaptation.
world map with the letters on the average
7. Explain why the temperate rainforest biome is
annual temperature and average annual
usually found along the coasts of continents.
precipitation graph.
8. Explain why there are few trees in the
(b) Identify the biome for each match.
grassland biome.
9. What effect does elevation have on the
characteristics of a biome?

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Applying Your Understanding P ause and R eflect

24. The yellow-bellied marmot is found in
British Columbia and southwestern In this chapter, you have learned that soil is an
Alberta. Although the marmot usually lives important part of terrestrial ecosystems.
at elevations of over 3000 m, it is also Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was president of the
found on agricultural land in foothills and United States from 1933 to 1945, said “The
valleys. Like other members of the marmot nation that destroys its soil, destroys itself.”
family, the yellow-bellied marmot is a Think about what you have learned about soil
major hole digger. Many animals, such as and ecosystems in this chapter and support or
raccoons, foxes, rabbits, and snakes, are refute (argue against) this statement.
successful in marmot country because of
the shelter provided by marmot holes. The
300
yellow-bellied marmot primarily eats

Average Annual Precipitation (cm)

plants, such as grasses, and occasionally 250
insects, such as grasshoppers. B A
(a) What type of symbiotic relationship 200
exists between marmots and raccoons?
Explain. 150
(b) Is the marmot primarily a herbivore, a C D
carnivore, or an omnivore? Explain. 100 H

50
F
E G
0
⫺20 ⫺10 0 10 20 30
Average Annual Temperature (°C)

8
7
1
5

4
2

ANTARCTICA

Chapter 1 Biomes and ecosystems are divisions of the biosphere. • MHR 53