Combustion Handbook 2 PDF

North American
COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
North American
COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
A Practical Basic Reference on the

Art and Science of Industrial Heating
with Gaseous and Liquid Fuels
Volume 11: Combustion Equipment, Controls, Systems,

Heat Recovery, Process Control Optimization, Pollution Reduction,
Noise Minimization, Oxygen Enrichment and Oxy-Fuel Firing
Third Edition
NORTH AMERICAN Mfg. Co.

CLEVELAND, OH 44105-5600USA
NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
3rd Edition, Volume I1
COPYRIGHT, 1952, 1965, 1978, 1982, 1986, 1995

BY
All Rights Resewed.

This book nor any part thereof may not be repro-
duced in any form without written permission from
the North American Manufacturing Company.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
First Edition, 1952, 1957, 1965 55 000 copies

Second Edition, 1978 17 562 copies
Second Edition, second printing, 1982 5 154 copies
Third Edition, Volume I, 1986 25 000 copies
Third Edition, Volume 11, 1997 20 000 copies
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Reed, Richard J. [Richard James), 1924-
North American Combustion Handbook.
Includes bibliographies, appendix, glossary.
and index.
1. Combustion engineering --Handbooks, manuals,
etc. 2. Controls -- Handbaoks, manuals, etc.
L North American Mfg. Co. 11. Title. 111. Title:
Combustion Handbook.
ISBN 0-9601596-3-0(v.11)
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The purpose of this handbook is to provide users of combustion equipment with:

a basic explanation of the theory of combustion,
outlines for combustion, heat transfer, and fluid calculations,
charts and data to simplify and speed these calculations, and
a discussion of combustion equipment, its selection and operation.
The first chapter of this handbook is intentionally very elementary. It is
designed specifically for the newcomer to the field of combustion engineering.
Although the stated scope of this handbook is industrid heating with gaseous
and liquid fuels, the reader will find that the book also contains considerable
information applicable to commercial heating and to solid fuels.
We have endeavored to collect enough information under one cover to permit
easy computation of typical combustion problems with a choice of several degrees
of accuracy. Frequent use has been made of analogies and examples in order
to make this handbook as generally useful as possible.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDlTION,Volume II
North American Mfg. Co., is grateful to the users and builders of industrial
'
process heating systems for their widespread acceptance of earlier editions
of this handbook as their "bible." Also appreciated is the fact that many
universities, libraries, and training schools around the world have adopted it
as a textbook andlor reference.
Requests for more copies of this handbook after the first 77 000 copies
encouraged us to enlarge and improve it in this 2-volume edition, which includes
many updates, and five new parts (Heat Recovery, Process Control Optimization,
Pollution Control, Noise Minimization, and Oxygen EnrichmentlOxy-Fuel Firing).
We thank you for your patience and understanding during this major rework.
I and contributors Richard C. Riccardi, Thomas F. Robertson, Robert E.
Schreter, and Hisashi Kobayashi thank North American Mfg. Co, for the free-
dom and assistance granted us in the planning and preparation of this book. The
ideas, experience, and skills of many knowledgeable and loyal North American
employees are embodied in it.
Richard J. Reed, Technical Information Director

March, 1997
vii
CONTENTS
PAGE
preface ............................................................v
.
Part 6 FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT
moduction ........................................................ 1
purposes of a fuel-burning system .................................... 1
primary functions of a burner ....................................... I
Solid fuel-burning equipment ......................................... 1
Burner Characteristics ............................................... 3
Flameshape .................................................... .. 3
Combustion volume ................................................. 6
Stability .......................................................... 6
Drive ............................................................ 8
Turndown ........................................................ 8
Burner Components ..................................................
10
GasBurners ........................................................ 12
Premix gas burners ................................................
12
Nozzle mixing gas burners ...........................................
16
Delayed mixing gas burners .........................................
24
Gas burners with Integral Heat Recovery Devices ........................ 27
Burners for Liquid Fuels .............................................. 29
Low pressure air atomizing oil burners ................................ 29
High pressure air or steam atomizing oil burners .......................
30
Oil pressure atomizing burners ....................................... 32
Centrifugal atomizing (rotary) burners ................................. 32
Sonic and ultrasonic atomizers ....................................... 32
Combination Gas and Oil Burners ...................................... 33
General-purpose dual-fuel burners .................................... 33
Modern special purpose burners ..................................... 35
Burners for use with preheated air ................................... 35
References and Additional Sources ..................................... 42
.
Part 7 COMBUSTION CONTROL
ControlValves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Sliding plug valves ................................................. 44
Rotaryplugvalves ................................................. 45
Butterfly valves .................................................... 46
AirlFuel Ratio Controls ......................... I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Area control of airlfuel ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Pressure balanced control of airlfuel ratio ............................. 49
Flow control of airlfuel ratio ......................................... 53
viii NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
PAGE
Pressure controls .................................................... 58
Pressure regulators ................................................ 58
Pressure controllers ................................................ 58
Automatic furnace pressure controls .................................. 58
Complete Combustion Controls ......................................... 69
Combustion Supervising Controls ....................................... 72
Automatic fuel shutoff valves ........................................ 72
Supervising valve system ............................................ 75
Flame monitoring devices ............................................ 75
Pilots and direct electric igniters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Burner management systems ......................................... 78
Part 8. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Burner Installations .................................................. 83

Refractorytiles .................................................... 83
Observation ports .................................................. 86
Generalpipingpractice ............................................... 86
Burner piping ..................................................... 86
Fuellines ......................................................... 87
Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Piping ............................................................88
Unions.flanges. couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
OiIHandling Systems ................................................. 91
Oil piping recommendations ......................................... 92
Oil storage tanks .................................................. 92
Main oil circulating loop ............................................ 94
Branch circuits for light oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Branch (booster) circuits for heavy oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Large oilsystems ..................................................104
Ratio Control Systems ................................................104
Airlgas ratio control systems ......................................... 106
Airloil ratio control systems .........................................108
Ratio control systems for use with preheated air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Ratio control systems for use with oxygen enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Airlfuel ratio control systems for multiple fuels ......................... 111
Orifice Balancing and Metering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Typical Piping Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
References and Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
.
Part 9 HEAT RECOVERY
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Duct and pipe sizes for hot fluids ..................................... 117
x NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
PAGE
Mechanisms of NOx formation ....................................... 158
LowNOxcombustion ...............................................161
Low NOx strategies and equipment ................................... 163
Modification of operating conditions .................................. 163
Modification of combustion system .................................... 164
Modification of burner internals ...................................... 167
Post combustion cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
On-going NOx reduction ............................................. 169
Carbon Monoxide (CO). Unburned Hydrocarbons. VOCs .......:............ 170
Why CO and other unburned hydrocarbons a r e problems ................. 170
Limiting CO and other unburned hydrocarbon emissions .................. 171
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions .............................................. 171
Why sulfur oxides emissions a r e a problem ............................ 171
Particulate Emissions ................................................. 172
Why particulate emissions a r e a problem .............................. 172
Causes of soot formation ............................................ 172
.
Part 12 NOISE MINIMIZATION
Fundamentalsof Sound ............................................... 177

Frequency ........................................................ 177
Effects of Noise on Humans ........................................... 179
Community response to noise ........................................ 184
Liability for noise reduction .........................................185
The Physics and Math of Sound .......................................
185
Soundpower ......................................................187
dBA = "Aw-weighted network factor ................................. 188
Sound propagation and sound measurements ........................... 189
Noisecontrol ..................................................... 189 $ .
Moving the noise source ............................................189

Absorbingnoise ...................................................190
Blockingthenoisesource ...........................................195
Reducingthenoise source ........................................... 196
Reducingexposuretime ............................................. 197
Noise Sources in Combustion Systems ................................... 198
Fan or blower noise ................................................198
Piping system noise ................................................ 199
Air a n d g a s jetnoise ............................................... 202
Predicting Sound Power Levels of Burners .............................. 207

xii
This is a handbook of engineering practice and

recommendations -all subject to local, state,
and federal codes, and insurance require-
ments,,..and good common sense.
No patent liability is assumed with respect to

the use of information from this book. While
every precaution has been taken in preparing
this handbook, the publisher assumes no re-
sponsibility for errors or omissions; nor is any
liability assumed for damages resulting from
use of this information.
property can develop from incorrect operation of com-

bustion equipment. North American urges compliance
with safety standards and insurance underwriters'
xiii
INTRODUCTION
Fire has been known to man since the dawn of time, but for many ages,
it was only a thing of danger--as forest fires, volcanic eruptions, cooking
accidents -- because man could not control it.
Humans' first step in controlling fire was starting it; and the next was stop-
ping it. After people learned these two procedures, they began to make good use
of fire for heat and light. But many centuries passed before there was any
further progress in the art of burning fuels. A fire was simply a heap of wood,
a pile of coal, or a pot of oil. These all burned slowly -- at nature's own pace.
If man wanted more heat, he simply had to build a bigger fire. It was not
until fairly recent times that man learned to build a faster fire.
This matter of speed in burning was a new element of control that per-
mitted large amounts of heat output within a small space --not a simple trick.
It required a knowledge of the burning process and thoughtful design of burning
equipment: Although burning, or combustion, is really a chemical process,
practical control of it is mainly a matter of fluid dynamics and heat transfer.
In addition to releasing a great quantity of heat (for productivity), man

had to learn how to prevent it from getting away from him unused [energy
conservation, safety). To transfer the heat from the flame to the place where
it was needed (quality control), furnaces or combustion chambers had to be built
to make efficient use of the heat from the fire. It was necessary to design the
fire and the furnace to the job. But good design was not enough. Careful
supervision and control of the fire by someone with a knowledge of combustion
was necessary to assure the most efficient use of the fuel at all times.
The lessons learned through the years still apply. Continuing education is
essential.
As a tiny spark can set a great forest on fire,
the tongue is a small thing, but what damage it can do!
And the tongue is a flame of fire . . .
LIVING BIBLE, James 3:5,6
As the wind blows out a candle

and makes a fire blaze,
Absence lessens ordinary passions
and augments great ones.
LAROUCHEFOUCALD
The fire that's closest kept

burns best of all.
SHAKESPEARE, 1595
Part 6. FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Purposes of a fuel-burning system are: I ) to position flames at areas of

useful heat release, 2) to initiate and maintain ignition, 3) to mix the fuel and
air, 4) to volatilize solid and liquid fuels, 5) to proportion the fuel to air, and
6) to supply fuel and air at the proper rates and pressures to facilitate all five
previous functions with safety at any rate required for the process.
Primary functions of a burner (sometimes called a tip, nozzle, fire-bed) are

flame positioning and shaping, plus continuous ignition maintenance (without a
-
pilot). Many "burners" also perform a variety of other functions among those
listed above for the fuel-burning system.
Solid fuel-burning equipment. Solid fuels, such as coals, lignite, wood,

sintering and pelletizing ore-fuel mixes, and solid waste incineration, require
additional time for the char to burn after all gaseous and liquid compounds have
been driven off. The principal method for hurrying this slow char-burning
process (mass transfer--migration of oxygen into the char and of carbon
monoxide out) is through exposing much surface area by breaking the fuel into
small pieces. (This increases the probability of pollution by particulate carryover.)
The following paragraphs discuss the state of the fast-changing art of solid
fuel burning in broad generalities, progressing in size from small particles to
large chunks, in heat release rates from fast to slow.
Friable fuels such as coals can be pulverized to 100 micron-sized particles

(75% passing through a 200 mesh screen--about the consistency of talcum
powder) so that it can be burned at heat release rates comparable to those often
obtained with liquid and gaseous fuels, using burners fundamentally similar to
gas or oil burners. In pulverized coal burners the conveying air (primary air)
is typically 8 to 20% of the stoichiometric requirement and should be less than
the lower limit of flammability to prevent flashback.
Finely ground particles of solid fuels can be satisfactorily conveyed pneumat-

ically through the gas tube of conventional industrial process burners (such as
shown in Figure 6.3g) in some applications such as kilns for structural clay
products where (a) the product is not harmed by particles of burning char
falling on it, and [b) a system is provided for removing the ash without creating
a pollution or dirt problem.
2 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Crushed and ground particles may be burned in a cyclone combustion

chamber (swirl combustor)or a fluidized bed. The cyclone is used in large steam
generators and consists of a refractory-covered,studded, water-cooled, horizontal
cylinder. Air and fuel are blown in tangentially onto a fluid mass that includes
molten ash, coating the inner walls of the cylinder. Crushed coal (95% passing
through a 4-mesh screen) is used, but bark and some waste materials may be
added. Pieces of char stick to and burn on the surface of fluid mass. Particulate
carryover is minimized and fuels with low melting point ash can be used to
advantage. Heat release rates run from 0.5 to 0.9 million Btulhr ft3.Because
they provide recirculation with long residence times, swirl combustors help burn
difficult fuels such as low quality coal or waste materials. Stratified or staged
entry streams may help reduce noise and emissions of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides.
In a fluidized bed combustor, combustion air fed through a screen under the
solid granules of fuel, causes the whole bed to be fluidized and thus provides
intimate contact of air and fuel. Boiler tubes or pieces of material to be heated
can be immersed in the fluidized bed and thereby subjected to excellent heat
transfer rates. Mixing granular limestone with the fuel bed minimizes SOzand
SO3 pollution from high sulfur fuels.
Small chunks can be thrown onto a burning bed by a spreader stoker* (over-
feed) or deposited from a hopper (crossfeedt)on a traveling grate as in a sinter
bed or a Herreshoff kiln. Figure 6.1 shows coal size ranges for three kinds of
stokers. Larger chunks can be screw-fed or ram-fed (underfeed)into the bottom
of a retort stoker* (Figure 8.20), or gravity fed into a rotary drum, or simply
deposited on a pile to smolder in a big chamber using the starved air principle of
incineration with the smoke and gaseous products of incomplete combustion
being burned off by an additional air supply in a secondary combustion chamber.
Most of these bed-burning arrangements provide underfire air from a windbox
under a metal grate.
Some of the information in the first five parts of this handbook can be applied
or adapted to solid fuel burning situations. Most of the information in this Part 6
and succeeding Parts 7 and 8 is intended for combustion of gaseous and liquid
fuels.
*Up to 50% through a % in. screen. Many of these "fines" burn in flight. Grate heat release
= 1 000 000 Btulhr ft2.A
t Grate heat release = 300 000 Btuhr ft2.A
*Grate heat release = 200 000 Btuhr ft2 for single retort stokers.
300 000 Btulhr ft2 for rnultipIe retort stokers.*
A Rates listed are for comparison. Individual designs vary considerably -- as the Trl-Fuel Boiler,
with a single retort underfeed stoker can be fired a t 400 000 Btu/hr ftz without exceeding
particulate carryover codes when using overfire air jets and at an input rate of 30 000 Btdhr ft3.
FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT 3
Figure 6.1. Coal size ranges for three types of stokers. The recommended limits apply to the
sizes of coal actually delivered to the stoker hopper, not that shipped from the supplier. It is
important to maintain uniform sizing across the hopper. Reproduced with permission from
Ref~rence6.a listed a1 the end of P ~ r 6.
t
U S standard sieve designation--&- ~ o u n dhole screen, in.
BURNER CHARACTERISTICS
Flame Shape. For a given burner, operating variables such as changes in

the mixture pressure or the amount of primary air will affect the flame shape.
For most burner types, an increase in mixture pressure will broaden the flame,
and an increase in the percent primary air will shorten the flame (input rate
remaining the same). Flame thickness is reduced by higher ambient pressure and
higher burning velocity.
Burner design, which determines the relative velocities of the fuel and air
streams, has much more effect upon flame length and shape than either of the
above operating variables. Good mixing, produced by a high degree of turbulence
and high velocities, produces a short bushy flame whereas poor mixing (delayed
mixing) and low velocities result in long, lazy slender flames. Turbulence and
good mixing may be promoted (11 by the use of vanes in the streams to impart
Figure 6.2. Common industrial flame types.
Flame type Gas t Oil t
A conventional forward (feather)

(IFRF* identifies this as "jet flame")'-
B Headpin
(IFRF* Type I)
. C Ball
(IFRF* Type 11)
D Conical
t
E Flat (coanda)
F Long, luminous, lazy -

(IFRF* Type zero) -
G Long, lurn~nous,firehose - -
(IFRFCType zero) - -
H High velocity
t Dark gray represents blue flame; light gray represents yellow flame.
* International Flame Research Foundation. Idmulden, The Netherlands.
FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT
Figure 6.2. (concluded)
Swirl Recirculation Jet description Mixing rate Uses
none, or weak little or none axial moderate to fast all purpose

in center only combustion
chambers
some, between primary primary jet penetrates moderate

swirl number and secondary jets internal reverse flow,
~ 0 . 3 primary jet velocity 2
secondary jet velocity
considerable, hot reverse flow secondary jet intense cubical combustion

swirl number into center, velocity > primary chambers such as
20.6 cold forward flow jet velocity stoker-fired boilers,
at sides under fluidized
beds, in Dutch
ovens
high, cold secondary jet intense

swirl number reverse fIow velocity >> primary
>1 into center jet velocity
-
very high,
swirl number
2
minimal radial or swirled flow
contained by a
refractory shape
fast to avoid flame
impingement; to
enhance wall
radiation; to focus
refractory radiation
none none fuel jet velocity and air delayed, slow, for uniform
jet velocity equally low diffusion coverage in long
[laminar] -- buoyancy chambers; to add
controlled luminous radiation
none none fuel andlor atomizing stretched out for uniform

medium jet velocity >> coverage in long
air jet velocity -- thrust chambers; to add
controlled; fuel directed luminous radiation
low small scale flow contained by fast to drive into loosely-

internally, large refractory shape -- piled loads; to force
scale externally burning inside and flow around back
outside tile sides of loads; to
enhance convection;
to reach long
distances
I
swirl, (2) fuel and air streams crossing one another, (3) fuel and air streams
introduced to the combustion chamber at different velocities, or (4) bluff
bodies that form sheltered zones and back-flows. High pressure may tend to
throw the fuel farther away from the burner nozzle before it can be heated
to its ignition temperature and thus lengthen the flame.
Figure 6.2 illustrates eight common flame types. Types F and G emit more
flame radiation than the others, even when burning gas. Type E uses flame
convection to heat adjacent refractory; so it heats a furnace load primarily
by refractory radiation and is termed a radiant burner, radiation burner, or
an infrared burner. (See Figure 6,14.)
Combustion Volume. The space occupied by the fuel and the intermediate
products of combustion while burning (flame and invisible combustion) varies
considerably with the burner design, the pressures and velocities of the fluid
streams, the fuel, and the application. Gas burners with considerable refractory
surface and operating with very high mixture pressure and thorough mixing
may release as much as forty million gross Btulhr ft3of combustion volume.
The initial and operating costs are less where less compact combustion is
required. The combustion volumes of other types of gas burners range all the
way from the above-mentioned figure down to 100 000 Btulhr ft3.Light oils can
be burned at a rate of 100 000 Btulhr ft3 and heavy oils at 80 000 Btulhr ft3.
(Combustion intensities are discussed on pp 13-14 of Vol. I.)
In some cases, the application itself may limit the rate of heat release. In
applications where long luminous flames are required, the delayed mixing type
of burner probably will not release more than 40 000 Btulhr ft3. In boiler
furnaces, where continuous operation seldom permits time down for replacement
of refractory and boiler tubes, design heat release rates are usually limited to
20 000 to 40 000 Btulhr ft3.
Stability. This characteristic of burners is very important for safe, reliable
operation. A stable burner is one that will maintain ignition, even when cold,
throughout the range of pressures, input rates, and aidfuel ratios ordinarily
used. (No burner is considered stable merely because it is equipped with a pilot.)
Some burners will function satisfactorily under adverse conditions (particu-
larly, cold surroundings) only if the mixture is rich and if the flame is burning
in free air. With such unstable burners, it is necessary to keep the furnace doors
open from light-up until a stabilizing temperature develops in the combustion
chamber. If the doors are not open, the free air in the furnace will be used up
quickly, and an unstable burner flame will be extinguished. It is under these
conditions that the presence of a pilot may be a potential source of danger
because combustible gases will accumulate rapidly after the flame goes out and
they will be ignited explosively by the pilot as soon as a pocket of the mixture
in the combustion chamber enters the range between the flammability limits.
A problem that plagued burner users for years was that of burner instability
in cold and tight combustion chambers. In many cases, the only way to bring
such a furnace up to temperature was to operate at a low firing rate or with
a rich airlfuel ratio until the furnace reached about 1600 F above which
stability was attainable at full firing rate. In tight combustion chambers,
containing no oxygen other than that entering through the burner air connection,
rich operation soon uses up the available oxygen but a stable flame must
continue burning regardless of the surrounding atmosphere.
Tile-stable burners were developed that could maintain ignition in cold
chambers with the aid of nothing more than their own refractory tiles; but
a problem persisted in cold and tight chambers even when burners were
operated at stoichiometric or leaner airlfuel ratios. Cold products of complete
combustion were recirculating back into the burner tile and surrounding the
root of the flame with a cold atmosphere that was low in oxygen. By redesigning
burners to eliminate this peripheral recirculation by completely filling the
tile with air and fuel, combustion engineers were able to develop burners
that were not only tile stable in cold combustion chambers, but also atmosphere-
stable in tight furnaces. The burners of Figures 6.3d and 6.23 exemplify this
ultra-stable feature.
Stability or flame holding may be enhanced by bluff bodies (diffuser plate,
step, or ledge), jet tubes, swirl*, or staged air entry. All of these create
interfaces between streams of different velocities, producing small scale
(fine-grained) turbulence. At every point in a flame front, there is a balance
between the incoming gas velocity and the flame propagation rate. A refractory
tile surrounding the root of a flame helps by reradiating heat to the uncombined
fuel and oxygen. Recirculation of hot products of incomplete combustion
back into the flame center (induced by swirl) also helps provide ignition
temperature and added chemical activity.
On the other hand, cooling may be required with premix burners to prevent
flashback (a form of instability --see Flame Speeds, Part 1, Vol. I). A premix
flame may be positioned by quenching or cooling with a screen across the
mixture stream. To some extent the heat conducted away by the mass of
metal in a premix nozzle performs the same function.
* Swirl improves flame stability by forming toroidal recirculation zones that recirculate heat and
active chemical species to the base of the flame and thereby broaden the range of velocities in
which flame stabilization is possible. These toroidal zones form when the swirl number is greater
than about 0.6 Swirl number. S, is defined as the ratio
(axial flux of the angular momentum) - (Ma x V, x RJ,
-
[axial flux of the linear momentum). x [radius)
. 7 . . x VI) x [Rll'
IM,
which is dimensionless, where M is mass, V is velocity, and R is the radius of the exit port.
Swirl has two added benefits: it shortens combustion time by causing high rates of entrainment
of ambient fluids, and it provides quick mixing in the vicinity of the burner nose and along
the boundaries of recirculation zones.
Stability is achieved by meeting the requirements for combustion, at least on

a localized basis, over a wide range of firing rates and airlfuel ratios regardless
of changing temperatures in the surroundings, changing atmospheres, and cross
drafts, thus holding the root of the flame in close proximity to the burner nose.
Flame stability depends on many variables, but the following layman's
summary explains some of them more specifically. The point of flame initiation
must be sheltered so that: 1) air and fuel can be mixed to a ratio that is within
the flammability limits (Part 1, Vol. I), 2) the air-fuel mix can be raised to the
minimum ignition temperature [Part 1, Vol. I), and 3) the feed speed of the
mixture equals its flame speed (Part 1, Vol. I). Figures 6.3a through 6.3h flus-
trate a number of flame holding arrangements.
Drive. This property of burners relates to the velocity and thrust of the jet
stream of hot gases that they throw into a furnace. Type H of Figure 6.2 is a
burner designed to produce high drive.
When fuel was cheap, excess air was used to aid temperature uniformity
within a furnace load by (1)reducing the hot mix temperature, (2) preventing
stratification, and (3) enhancing convection heat transfer. With high velocity
burners that induce recirculation of furnace gases, the recirculating gases
produce the above three benefits that formerly required excess air and there-
fore wasted fuel. The high velocity burners can push their hot gases into a loosely-
piled load (such as castings, or a hack of bricks) with greater velocities than were
possible with most of the older excess air burners; so forced convection is
improved to the interior of the load. Words such as pierce, punch, scrub, and
stir provide good mental images of the advantageous convection and agitation
from burners with "drive."
Another use for burners with drive is to reach and wrap around parts of a
load located at a distance from the burners. This reduces the heating time for
loads in furnaces with long dimensions parallel to the burner centerlines, and
for large pieces, the back side of which cannot be "seen" well by radiation or
"reached" well by other types of convection burners.
Turndown. The range of input rates within which a burner will operate is
specified by the burner turndown ratio. This is the ratio of the maximum to
minimum heat input rates with which the burner will operate satisfactorily. For
any burner with fixed air orifices, the turndown ratio is also the square root
of the ratio of maximum to minimum pressure drops across the orifice. For
example, if the maximum supply pressure is 13 in. of water and the minimum
is 0.25 in. of water, then the turndown ratio is q m = 7.22 (to 1). Limitations
on the fuel supply pressure may limit the fuel flow before the maximum air
capacity of the burner is reached.
Figure 6.3. Flame holding arrangements. Cases (a) through ( f j are various forms of bluff bodies
creating fine-grained turbulence in their wake. Cases (c) through (g) constitute air jets blasting
through a relatively quiescent volume of raw gas. Case [f) may be cylindrical, like a jet engine
burner, or trough-like.
FUME
RETENTION
BAFFLES
Gas FFUSER PLATE
Air le) flat flame burner

(a) continuous flame line burner
(premix)
(f) air heating induct burner
air or -GRID PLATE

air and fumes -
(c) generalized flow field

for industrial nozzle-mix burner
Fl (g) fume-incinerating burner
Air
partial
premix
JET TUBES
(dl general-purpose burner I (hl radiant tube burner
The maximum input rate is limited by a form of instability known as flame

blow-off (which results from mixture velocity exceeding the flame velocity) and
by the cost of equipment for developing higher pressures. The minimum input
rate is limited by the phenomenon known as flashback (which results from the
flame velocity exceeding the mixture velocity] and by the minimum flow with
which the ratio control equipment and its transducers will function. The former
limitation applies to premixing, but not nozzle-mixing burners. For low pressure
air atomizing oil burners, the minimum firing rate is equivalent to the atomizing
air supply rate. This limits the turndown range of these burners, For example,
if the atomizing air flow for an oil burner is 1260 cfh and the required turndown
ratio is 5 to 1, then the maximum firing rate must be 5 x 1260 = 6300 cfh of
air (combustion and atomizing air combined].
A high turndown ratio is particularly desirable in batch-type furnaces where
a high input rate is needed during the initial heat-up of the furnace or immediately
after charging, but where this high input rate cannot be used during the entire
heating cycle. Considerably less turndown is needed for continuous furnaces
which are seldom started from cold. The cost of an occasional long starting period
may be less than the cost of the larger equipment required for a high turndown
ratio.
In some instances where temperature distribution is not too critical, it is
possible to shut off some burners when on low fire and thus simulate a high
turndown ratio.
BURNER COMPONENTS
The burner nozzle nose, or port may consist of single or multiple openings.
Their varieties are infinite, and will be discussed in more detail in connection
with specific burner types. The nose should be well cooled (a) to protect it from
thermal destruction by radiation from the flame and furnace, and (b)to prevent
flashback in the case of premix burners. Heat-resistant cast iron of generous
cross section assures sufficient cooling by conduction and natural convection
in some cases. Others require high temperature alloys, refractories, and/or
artificial cooling. The mechanical stress on a burner nose is usually low, but
metal scaling due to high temperatures can lead to serious problems.
The burner tile [quarl combustion block, burner refractory) is a refractory
shape with a conical or cylindrical hole (flame tunnel) through its center. The
tile is sold and shipped as part of the burner except for very large burners where
it is either handled separately or cast or rammed in the furnace wall. In addition
to serving as the insulating separator between the hot furnace and the cool burner
parts, the tile radiates heat into the incoming fuel and air, thus helping to
maintain ignition. Flames tend to be more stable over a wide range of inputs if
a burner tile is used. Proper installation of burner tiles is discussed in Part 8.
The major elements of the backworks of a burner are: a) the body or air
plenum, which may incorporate the air or mixture connection, swirl vanes, and
the nose; b) the mounting plate, which holds the body, tile, pilot, and flame-
monitoring device to the furnace shell in proper alignment; c) the gas connection,
gas tube, and gas nozzle often with a flame stabilizer; dl the atomizer, which
includes oil and atomizing medium connections, tubes, vanes, and nozzles.
Burners of the sealed-in or closed type usually supply all of the air for com-
bustion through the burner, whereas the open type may induce air flow into the
combustion space through the opening around the burner. Sealed-in type burners
permil accurate control of the airlfuel ratio, a wide range of furnace operating
pressures, and a wide range of input rates (good turndown]. Open burners,
however, permit greater capacities by virtue of their induced air. This increased
capacity is attainable only i1 a correspondingly larger fuel capacity is also avail-
able. An attempt is sometimes made using an air register shutter to control the
amount of induced air, but these usually track poorly if turndown is required.
A burner pilot is a small burner used to light the larger main flame. Figure 6.4
illustrates a typical gas pilot with spark ignition for ease of lighting. The
functiops of the various pilot accessories are explained later in the section on
gas burners. An interrupted pilot (sometimes called ignition pilot) burns during
the flame-establishing period andlor trial-for-ignition period, and is cut off
(interrupted) at the end of that period. An intermittent pilot burns during
"lighl-off" and the entire period that tho main burner is firing, and is shut off
with the main burner. A continuous pilot (sometimes called constant, standby,
or standing pilot) burns throughout the entire period that the furnace or oven
is in service whether or not the main burner is firing.
Figure 6.4. Pilot arrangement designed to operate with low pressure air and gas. Spark ignition
permits its use as an interrupted pilot. The swivel fitting simplifies piping to the pilot hole in the
burner mounting, which is usually at an odd angle. The pilot tip is a flame retention nozzle.
Observation r Pilot
Air valve
II
-cross-connection
Most pilots are small premix gas burners with flame retention tips, designed
for natural gas or LP gas; but direct electric ignition or spark-ignited light oil
pilots are also used. Pilot systems are discussed in Parts 7 and 8.
Every burner should have an observation port for safety's sake; so that the main
flame, pilot flame, and flame rod (if any) can be seen by the operators. A tiny jet of
air connected to the side of the port will help keep the glass clean. For safety,
and to facilitate burner adjustments, an additional observation port through the
furnace wall, allowing a side profile view of the flame, is strongly recommended.
GAS BURNERS
Industrial gas burners may be classified as premix, nozzle-mix, or delayed mix
burners, according to the position and manner in which the gas and primary
air are brought together.
Premix Gas Burners. In premix gas systems, the primary air and gas are
mixed at same point upstream from the burner ports by an inspirator mixer, an
aspirator mixer, or a mechanical mixer. The burner proper ("nozzle") serves
only as a flame holder, maintaining the flame in the desired location. Theo-
retically, if mixture velocity equals flame velocity, a flame will stand stationary
at any point at which ignition is applied, Actually, a relatively cool burner
nozzle (or port) is needed to serve as a flame stabilizer. If the flame advances
too far into the port as a result of a momentary reduction in mixture velocity,
the cool nozzle tends to quench it to prevent flashback.
Smull Port or Ported Manifold Burners. A great many types of burners may
be used in conjunction with premixers. One of the most common of these
consists of a manifold containing a series of small ports. Most domestic gas
burners are of this type. They are often called atmospheric burners because of
the very low pressure at which they operate and because they rely on a high
percentage of secondary air. Small port or ported manifold burners are usually
quiet. If the flame on one part of the burner is blown out, the flame from the
other part may act as a pilot to re-ignite it if the ports are close together. This
type of burner design purposely spreads the heat input over a wide area, which
is ideal for low temperature processes. Industrial use of this type is limited to
low temperature applications such as make-up air heating, varnish kettle heating,
drying ovens, baking ovens, food roasters, and deep fat vats. Figure 6.5 shows
examples of small port premix burners.
Large port or pressure type gas burners (blast burners, pressure burners)
permit a high rate of heat release within a relatively small space. This type
includes a multitude of designs for special applications, but is generally char-
acterized by a single mixture port (or nozzle)that produces a short, intense flame
(Figure6.6). They are often installed with a separate mixer for each port, although
several burners may be supplied by a single mixer with proper manifolding.
Large port burners may be of the open or sealed-in type. A rich mixture (only
partial aeration) is often supplied to open burners and nozzles, and induced
secondary air provides the balance required for stoichiometric combustion. This
practice saves on required blower capacity, but usually wastes fuel because the
airlfuel ratio cannot be controlled.
When used as a nozzle or open burner without a refractory tile, a large-port
premix burner often includes a flame retaining feature consisting of a number
of small bypass ports feeding into a recessed piloting ring encircling the main
nozzle. See Figure 6.7. These bypass ports have a greater resistance to flow than
the main port; so ihe velocity in their exit ring is lower, and consequently, the
tendency for the flame to blow off is greatly reduced. If any irregularity should
cause the main flame to be blown off, the ring of flame, fed by the bypass
ports, serves as a pilot to relight the main flame, Burners with bypass ports are
therefore referred to as flume retention burners or self-piloting burners. The
mixture jet issuing from the main port entrains some of the surrounding air.
The incoming air bends the pilot flames toward the base of the main mixture
jet. This allows richer primary mixtures, thereby making possible a greater
turndown ratio. Most pilot tips are flame retaining nozzles (Figure 6.41.
Figure 6.5. Small port premix burners. a is a continuous flame hurnor, which is more stable than
a drilled pipe or ribbon burner. A second and third row of ports a r e locaterl under the stainless
steel baffle strips. a is installed in a duct, as for heating make-up air or on a recirculating oven
or dryer. The burnermon b iirld c a r e blast tips.
When sealed-in with a refractory tile, large port burners are often referred
to as tunnel burners. See Figures 6.6 and 6.8. Large port premix burners have
been used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including kilns for por-
celain, tile, and brick, and furnaces for heat treating, forging, and melting.
However, most have been displaced by nozzle-mix burners because (1) premix
burners usually do not have wide range stability characterislics, (2) premix
burners cannot be adapted to dual-fuel configurations as well as noxzle-mix
burners, (3) nozzle-mix burners can be designed for a greater variely of flame
shapes, and (4) large manifolds of premixed air and gas can be dangerous.
Types of Prcmixers. Figure 6.7 shows an inspirator or gas-jet venturi mixer,
which utilizes the energy in Lhe gas to induce primary air in proportion Lo the
gas flow. This is the only type of mixer with which no air blower is required.
A similar mixer is used in the atmospheric burners on most domestic gas burning
appliances. Their percentage of primary air required in these applications is
small enough lo be induced by the low gas pressures available in domeslic lines.
Industrial applicalions usually require greater turndown and greater heal release
per unit volume; so inspiralors are used in induslry only where high pressure
gas is available. Good praclice dictates that industrial inspirators for manufac-
tured gas need at least 5 psi gas pressure, and for natural gas, at least 10 psi
gas pressure. Inspirators can rarely be used with propane or butanc gas in
industries because 25 to 30 volumes of air must be induced by one volume of
gas, requiring an oversized nozzle and undcrsizad spud.
Figure 6.6. Typical largc port premix burner flame such as from the burner of Figure 6.8.
The 12 in. long blue natural gas lla111e is releasing 296 000 Btulhr a1 8?hUwcmixlure pressure.
To obtain proportional air inspiration a t high mixture pressures, the venturi

throat must be smoothly machined and carefully aligned with respect to the gas
orifice. The spud size chosen depends upon the desired capacity, airlfuel ratio,
gas pressure, and gas gravity. For a given throat size, however, the range of
workable spud orifices is limited. Part 5, Vol. I, discusses flow calculations for
gas spuds.
Inspirator mixers may be used on a furnace or oven having a steady combus-
tion chamber pressure, but capacity is materially affected by the installation
and pressure conditions within the combustion space. Negative pressures
increase inspirator capacity and retard flashback. Positive pressures reduce
Figure 6.7. Inspirator (gas-jet) mixer feeding a large port premix nozzle (open burner). High
ve1ot:ity gas from the spud entrains and mixes with air induced in propurtion to the gas flow. Gradual
enlargement converts mixture vclocity to static pressure. The spring-loadcd pl~ingeris for cleaning
the spud orifice (for dirty gases). The lower half of the flamc-retaining nozzle is sectioned to show
the bypass ports that relight the main flame if it is blown out. An aspirator (air-jet] mixer [Figure
6.8) could also be used wilh this burner.
Flame
-
bypass
ports
Clean-out tip of straight p~pe
Figure 6.8. Aspirator (air-jet)mixer feeding a sealed-in large port premix tunnel burner. The step
between the nozzle and the refractory tile provides bluff body turbulence for flame stabilization.
See Figure 6.3b. Blower air enters at lower Icft. Gas from an atmospheric regulator is pulled into
the air stream from the annular space around the venturi throat in proportion to the air flow. A
V-port adjustable gas orifice, at top, is for initial setting of airlgas ratio.
Pilot and flame rod ooeninas

GAS through
adjustable oriifice
1 % Disolacernent rod
inspirator capacity and increase the probability of flashback. Accurate airlfuel

ratio control is difficult because of (I)changing combustion chamber pressure,
(2) changing furnace room pressure, and (3) drafts. The amount of piping be-
tween the inspirator and burnerls) should be kept to a minimum. An inspirator
must induce a large volume of air with a small volume of gas; so the range of
turndown is limited. As a rule of thumb, it may be assumed that flashback
occurs when the mixture pressure drops below 0 . 2 5 " ~ for~natural gas and other
slow burning gases, or below 0 . 4 0 " ~for ~ fast burning gases.
Figure 6.8 is a cut-away view of an aspirator (air-jet) mixer, a mixing and
proporlioning device for low pressure air (3 to 24 osi) and "zero gas" (gas at
atmospheric pressure). Air is pushed through a venturi so that the low pressure
in its throat induces gas into the air slream in proportion to the air flow. Con-
trolling the air flow thus controls the gas flow, giving proper proportioning with
single (air) valve control. The diffuser (downslream section of the venturi)
gradually reconverts the velocity into mixture pressure (about 30% of [he air
supply pressure]. An adjustable gas port permits manual setting of airlgas ratio.
The pilol sel of Figure 6.4 includes an aspirator mixer.
For an aspirator type mixer to function properly, about o 2.5:l ratio must exist
between burner orifice area and mixor throat urea. If the burner orifice is too
large, less mixture pressure will be developed, thus reducing available pressure
for turndown. If the burner orifice is too small more mixture pressure will be
developed but less suction will be available for inducing gas, thus reducing the
capacity. This may be critical for low Btu gases. Since the flow resistance in
the piping beyond the mixer has to be considered, it is not always possible to
establish the best area ratio until after installation of the equipment. The effec-
tive area of the mixer throat may be adjusted after installation by inserting a
displacement rod of different diameter through the mixer throat.
In mechanical mixers, gas is admitted to the air inlet of a compressor, blower,
or fan. Such units may include controls for proportioning the air and gas, often
using zero gas. Any mixer is susceptible to flashback, but it is more detrimental
in a fan mixer system because the blower housing is filled with a combustible
mixture.
Nozzle Mixing Gas Burners. As the name implies, the gas and combustion air
do not mix until they leave the ports of this type of burner. The two fluids are
kept separate within the burner itself, but the nozzle orifices are designed to
provide mixing of the fluids as lhey leave. The principal advantages of nozzle-
mix burners over premix burners are:
1)The flame cannot flash back upstream of the nozzle, because fuel and air
are not premixed. This not only adds to stability, but reduces explosion hazard
with larger burners. Premix delivery pipes and manifolds of schedule 40 pipe
or thinner may rupture in 4" and larger sizes,
FUEL-BURNmC EQUIPMENT 17
2) A wider range of airlfuel ratios is possible. Premix burner must operate

within the flammability limits of the fuel. Only the initial mixing area of a nozzle-
mix burner needs to be within these limits; so excess air or fuel can be "staged"
into the flame downstream, resulting in apparent airlfuel ratios beyond the
flammability limits.
3) Greater flexibility in burnerlflame design is possible with nozzle-mix burners,
which lend themselves to combination (Dual-Fuelm)designs, and to developing
a variety of flame shapes as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figures 6.3d-h show some of the great variety of nozzle-mix configurations in
current use. The burners of Figures 6,3d, 6.9, and 6.10 might be classed as
conventional forward flame burners They simply inject hot combustion gases in
a single jet into a large furnace space, where the heat is transferred to the load by
a combination of convection, hot gas radiation (Cotand KO), flame radiation, and
refractory re-radiation. If the loading is high relative lo the heat input so that the
average temperature remains low (below about 1200 F), convection heating will
probably predominate. At higher temperatures, radiation is usually dominant.
Figure 6.9. Flame of conventional forward nozzle mixing burner [type shown in Figure 6.3d)
operating on correct airlgas ratio at 8 osi air pressure at a 250 000 Btulhr rate. Numerals mark
inches from the face of the rcfractory tile. The fuel is natural gas; the flame is blue.
Convection Burners. No burner transmits heat entirely by convection fo the

exclusion of radiation. Similarly, any "radiation burner" provides some convec-
tion. These names simply describe the greater part of the burners' heat transfer.
Figures 6.1l a and b illustrate nozzle-mix convection burners that have hot gas
velocities at their tile exits on the order of 400 miles per hour. The air wipes
the inside of the tile, keeping it cool (no color) despite the intense high speed
combustion reaction. The high velocity jet not only aids convection heating, but
induces much recirculation of combustion gases within the furnace. This
recirculation aids temperature uniformity and fuel economy by lowering the hot
mix temperature while re-using the gases with several extra passes over the load.
It also prevents stratification (hot lops, cold bottoms).
Figure 6;10. Forward flame nozzle-mix burner on a fire tube steam generator. A choice of mixing
arrangements permits tailoring the flame length to the immersion-tube-like combustion chamber.
Flanged
steam Flue
Insulated flue outlet
collector + i" "'
dual-fuel burn
Large furnace volume - - flame extends

only two-thirds of furnace length
inlet
High velocity burners are designed to increase convection heat transfer,.

regardless of the temperature level or loading in the furnace. This convection
heat transfer may incidently heat the refractory walls as well as the load, result-
ing in considerable radiation heating.
Figure 6.1 1b shows the flame of a high velocity burner such as that of Figure
6.11a, but with the refractory tile replaced by an alloy chamber having the same
internal shape, for use in high temperature air heating or thin-wall furnaces,
where a conventional refractory tile would be cumbersome. In Figure 6.1 l a orb,
the refractory or alloy chamber serves as both mixing and pre-combustion
chamber.
Figure 6.11a. Partial cross section of a high

velocity nozzle-mix burner designed to
produce a jet of hot gases that improves con-
vection heating and induces strong recircu-
lation within a furnace. The flame is the same
as in Figure 6.llb.
Figure 6.11b. Flame of a high velocity burner. The inlernal design is the same a s for the burner
of Figure 6.11a. Use of this alloy mixing chamber instead of a refractory tile is more convenient
for applications such as high temperature air heating and for furnaces with thin-wall ceramic Iiber
linings.
Figures 6.11~ and 6.11d show larger sizes of high velocity burners, such as
used in aluminum melting furnaces and for dryingiprehoating large ladles. As
with the burner of Figure 6.11a, 10 to 60% of the combustion may occur inside
the nozzle, expanding the poc and as-ynt-unburned fuel and ojr, thereby producing
a very high exit velocity. Heat release rates are as high as 418 000 gross Htulhr
for each square inch of nozzle opening.
Figure 6 . 1 1 ~ . High Velocity Dual-FuelTMBurner. Two stage nozzle mixing permits n stable initial
resc:tion between the eight internal nozzles and the single final nozzle, with the balance of combus-
tion occurring in an external ~ieeclle-likeflame of intense pent?t~*atirig capability. See Figure G.lld.
An all metal version, wilhuut the refractory tile, is used for somc lower temperature drying operations.
Figure 6.11d. Flames of the burner of Figure 6 . 1 1 ~Scale

. marks are one Cool spaces.
Figure 6.11d. (concluded]
distillate oil will1 60 F air. 5 million Btulhr (50%) distillate oil with 800 F air, 5 n~illionBtuihr [50%)
distillate oil with BOO F air, 2 million Btulhr [20%]

Another approach to convection heating is by heating large volumes of air

and then circulating that air over the load in recirculating ovens, dryers,
and air heaters. Most of these operate a t lower temperatures (below 1200 F],
often because of potential damage to the load if conveyor stoppage should
expose it to higher temperatures. Figure 6.3f illuslrates a nozzle-mix convection
burner that can be installed as an in-duct air or fume heater (incinerator) or
as a through-the-wall burner on an oven or dryer (rccirculating or once-through
type).
Still another approach to convection heating utilizes the same internal
conslruclion that resulted in the Coanda elfecl in Figure 6.2, type E, causing
a flame and hot gases to swirl along [he wall of an immersion tuba, prr~ducing
a high velocity scrubbing action that results in a high convection heal lransfer
rate. See Figure 6.12. Unlike radiant tubes, disc~issedin thc following section,
immersion tubes can withstand very high heat release rales because their
outside surfaces are well cooled by surrounding liquid. For best fuel cfficicncy,
sealed-in burner mountings are prererred because they prevent the tube from
acting like a chimney lhal could pull in heat-ahsorbing excess air. 'l'his com-
bination of the cold walls, confined space, and sealed-in burner presents what
is termed a cold und light combustion chamber, o most difficult test of a
burner's stability.
Figure 6.12. Immersion Tube Burner. Efficient convectioll heal lrallsfer and very high heal
release rates are made possible because the swirling flame scrubs off the stagnant (insulating)
gas film on the inside of the tube wall.
Radiation Burners. Where penetration or forward drive by the flame and hot
gases is to be avoided*, or when radiation heat transfer is to be
e&ancedt, radiation burners should be used. Figure 6.13 shows the flame of
the radiation Lype nozzle-mix burner of Figure 6.2 type E and Figure 6.14~.
(A few premix burners are also designed to produce similar flame shapes.)
This radiation type of burner actually heats its own refractory tile and the
refractory surface of a surrounding furnace wall or roof by convection from the
high velocity combustion gases thrown sideways from the burner. These hot
refractory surfaces then radiate heat to the furnace load. Figure 6.14 sketches
a variety of commercially available refractory shapes for radiation burners.
~ l but
l "e" utilize the Coanda effect. Where true radiant heating is desired, it
is jmportant that the hot gases have no final velocity in a direction toward the
work to be heated. Mosl of the radiation burners of Figure 6.14 also provide
some convection heating. In fact, the spreading feature of the flat flame type
(Figures 6.13 and 6.14~)has been used to fill more completely a very wide
plenum feeding hot convection gases through multi-tubular loads.
Figure 6.13. Flame of a radiation type nozzie-mix burner. The flame

follows the contoi~rof the refractory tile, turning 90° from the burner center-
line. The burner is used in both sidewalls and roofs of furr~aces.Instead
of impinging on a load, the Coanda type flame heats the surrounding rcfrac-
tory by convection, 811 Ulat it can radiate to the loud.
Figure 6.14. Seven styles of

radiation burners. Styles a, c, f , a b
and g are nozzle-mix; b, d, and e
a r e premix. Burners b and c heat
surrounding refractory a s well a s
their own tiles, and havc almost no
forward gas motion. Style e utilizes
a porous refractory "membrane."
Style g is designed to focus radi-
aiion in a n intentional hot spot.
e
-
* A s when firing in closc proximity to a valuable container or a bank of tubes.
-f Thin, f l ~ tor
, rotatable loads; dry-hearth melting; top-fired liquid holding.
Delayed Mixing Gas Burners. Long luminous flames are created by this
special form of nozzle-mix burner. In some operations, direct flame radiation
over a large area is desirable. This is frequently the case in wide or extremely
long furnaces where poor heat distribution (that is, hot spots and cold spots) would
be obtained from conventional short clear flames, or where all burners must
be located a t one end. The ideal heating arrangement would probably consist
of thousands of tiny clear-flame burners positioned all around the load, but
that would not be practical. Luminous flames have a considerable length and
they can fill a large volume of combustion space with flames having little
temperature variation along their length. The uniform temperature throughout
the combustion space permits more effective use of the hearth area.
Long flames can be produced if the rale of mixing of Llle gas and air is very
low so that the two fluids travel a considerable distance from the burner before
complete mixing and burning. The flame is often termed a diJjusion flame
because tho mixing occurs a s the parallel laminar air and gas streams diffuse
into one another. See Figure 6.15 and flame type F on Figure 6.2.
Strong heating of the gas in the absense of air causes thermal cracking
(polymerization) of the fuel molecules into light and heavier molecules. The laller
become micron-sized soot particles. These opaque particles absorb heat from
the flame, become luminous, and emit radiant energy. Increasing concentrations
of particles radiate more energy.
It is difficult to produce a long gas flame that is not luminous or a luminous
gas flame that is not long. The airlfuel ratio of delayed mix burners cannot
be judged by the appearance of the flame. It is possible to supply considerable
excess air, producing a n undesirably oxidizing atmosphere while maintaining
what appears to be a rich reducing flame.
Figure 6.15. Delayed mixing flame, cross section. Burning is at the air-gas interface. See Figures
6.16 and 6.24.
Another way to create a delayed mix flame is with a fire-hose-like jet of

fuel that streaks far across the furnace before the viscous friction of the
surrounding low velocity air sluffs off its boundary layers, mixing with and
burning all the fuel. See Figure 6.15 and type G on Figure 6.2. This is a form
of fuel directed burner, discussed below.
Rndiant Tube Burners. Radiant tubes are made of expensive alloy or ceramic
material; so it is important that no part of them be damaged by overheating, but
that every inch of their length be utilized to fullest advantage. This requires
that the flame within Uie tube must release its heat at a uniformly high rate
throughout the tube lenglh. A delayed mixing flame accomplishes most of this
requiremenl, except that it is rather slow in getting started. To avoid a wasleful
cool section at the burner end of the lube, a partial premix is incorporated into
the burner. This produces a blue flame for about the first foot of tube length
until the luminous flame dcvelops. (See Figure 6.16.)
Figure fi.16. Flame of a radiant tube burner. A Pyrex radiant tulle used for radial11 lube burner
development illustrates the premix-(hell-luminoi~sflame used to obtain ideal heat distribution for
efficier~lradia111 tube opttrntian. The burner is at the left. The flame is first lllue, then yellow.
Radiant tube burners constitute one of the most difficult design assignments
for combustion engineers. They not only crowd the flame into a very confining
cross section and need a long strung-out heat release, but they are tight
chambers and, on start-up, they are cold chambers. As a result of all these
requirements, their use, operation, and mainlenance are subject to more severe
limitations than with many burners. Doing all this with oil is doubly difficult.
Fuel DirectedmGas Burners. The nozzle-mix gas burners discussed previously
have been "air-directed"; i.e. the energy from the air supply produced the
mixing, stability, and flame shape and character, Very low gas pressure was
required.
A new generation of industrial gas burners utilizes the energy from the
pressure of the fuel gas (3 to 20 psig) to do the mixing, stabilizing, and flame
shaping; so less air pressure is required. No vanes or turbulating discs are
required; so the burner throat is relatively open, the cantilevered gas tube
has fewer weighty objects to support, and there is less exposure of critical
components to damage from flame and furnace heat.
Figure 6.17. Fuel Directede burner flames.
Y
gtm = gas, tangential, modulated
grm = gas, radial, modulated
o = oil
gfm = gas, forward, modulated
gfj = gas, forward, jet
a) Type G flame from gfm and gfj. b) Type G long luminous flame.
c ) Type C flame from grm.
d) Type C prompt heat release flame.
e) Burner with grm modulated t o a low fire f) Type D flame, from gtm.
rate, and with gfj.
On new installations, the first cost of the combustion air blower is decreased
because lower air pressure is required. On retrofit and new jobs, the lower
power needed for low pressure air is a saving. The replacement energy comes
from the pressure in the fuel supply line, which is usually free and already
available with natural gas and with oil atomizers. Some other fuels may
require a pressure booster. In areas where there is to be a mix of furnaces
using high and low pressure fuel, added pressure regulators may be required.
The flame character of Fuel Directedmburners can be changed by adjusting
the fuel pressure, and by supplying the luel through any of several sets of fuel
pork, such as forward, radial, tangential. This allows a start-up setting attuned
to the combustion chamber's needs; or programmed changing of the flame
configuration. The latter may be in response to timers, temperature sensors, load-
ing swings, changes in load configuration [as a scrap pile melting down), or other
parameters.
Figures 6.17a through f show some of many available designs of Fuel Directed
burners. A small jet of un-modulated fuel helps maintain the flame momentum
even when the burner is turned down lo a low input rate. Manipulating solenoids
in the separate fuel supply lines can change flame while operating.
GAS BURNERS WlTH INTEGRAL HEAT RECOVERY DEVICES
Part 9 discusses heat recovery principles and systems; plus the reasons for
using integral burner-recuperators and integral burner-regenerators.
Burners for integral burner-recuperators must have (I) inlernal materials
capable of withstanding the high temperature air that flows through them and
(2) hot face materials that will not be damaged by the higher temperature flame.
High velocity burners are preferred to prevent short circuiting of the flue gases
to the nearby fluelrecuperator. It is best to avoid having a flue [recuperator
entry) directly above a burner because the low fire flame will short circuit to
the flue without transferring much heat in the furnace. In this condition, a
recuperator might be damaged by contact with products of combustion near flame
temperature.
Integral burner-regenerators are best used with Fuel Directed type burners.
(Air-directedtypes would have their vanes or other stabilizing devices overheated
by high tbmperature air, and they add to the weight that must be supported in
the high temperature air stream by the cantilevered gas tube.) It is desirable
to keep the pressure drop across the burner air passage to a minimum, taking
most of the drop through the heat reclaiming matrix.
A compact burner-regenerator is shown in Figures 6.18a and b and discussed
in more detail in Part 9.
Figure 6.18a. Sectional view of an integral gas-burner-regenerator [Heat Reclaimer). Refer to Figure
G.18b to see how air and flue gas alternately flow through this unit. A bottom-dump and top halch
arrangement permits convenient removal of the bed material for cleaning or replacement. The high
surface area of the bed material results in higher heat transfer effectiveness than normally
practical in recuperators.
/o
Reclamation Bed
Combustion airlexhaust
connections
Figure 6.18b. Schematic piping for a pair of direct-fired integral gas-burner-regenerators

{TwinBedm).Regenerative systems always involve moving parts --in this case, air, fuel, and flue gas
valves--but are capablc of developing very high air preheat temperatures without thermal
stresslrupture problems.
BURNERS FOR LIQUID FUELS
Oil and other liquid fuels must be vaporized before they can be burned. Some
small capacity burners accomplish this vaporization in a single step by direcl
heating of the liquid. Such burners are called vaporizing burners, Typical
examples of these are the blowtorch, gasoline stoves, wick-type kerosene
burners, and early domestic burners wherein oil was vaporized from a flame-
heated plate. Most large capacity industrial oil burners use two steps to get the
oil into combustible form -- atomization plus vaporization. By first atomizing the
oil and thus exposing the large surface area of millions of droplets (10 to 1000
microns diameter] to air and to heat, ntomizhg burners are able to vaporize oil
at very high rates.
Requirements for good vaporizalion after alomization are: 1) a large volume
of air musi be intimately mixed with the oil particles, 2) the air must be
turbulent and at high velocity to produce a scrubbing action for rapid mass
transfer from the surfaces of Lhe oil particles, and 3) heat from the flame should
be transferred into the incoming spray. 'This last requirement is the function of
the burner tile and recirculation. Functions (1) and [ 2 )may be accomplished by
blowing air through the oil, the air velocity being high relative to the oil, or by
throwing the oil through calm air at a high velocity relative to the air.
Low pressure air atomizing oil burners are 2-fluid atomizers that utilize air
at 1 to 2 psi as the nil atomizing medium. A well designed atomizing unit
Figure 6.19. Low pressure air atomizing oil burner. The principle of operation is similar to that
of thc gas burner of Figure 6.3d except that light oil is sprayed by the atomizing air in a cone of
vapor so that i t is interccpted by cight air jets. Some designs c ~ flow pressurc air atomizers can
vaporize heavy oils if their viscosity has been reduced to 100 SSU.
Openings for pilot,

flame monitor,
observation port
I ' Main air

may use as little as 10% of the total air requirement for atomization. This is
equivalent to about 150 ftQf atomizing air per gallon of oil. These figures are
only approximate and may be considerably influenced by the design of the
atomizer and the viscosity of the oil. Low pressure air atomizers are usually
designed to handle oil of 100 SSU viscosity. The oil pressure at the burner is
usually 1 to 5 psi -- just enough for positive delivery and flow control. An oil pump
is necessary only to deliver the oil to the burner.
Figure 6.19 illustrates a low pressure air atomizing oil burner. Input through
this type of burner is controlled by a throttling valve in the air line. The
atomizing air must not be throttled, so it is delivered to the burner through a
separate atomizing air connection that by-passes the control valve in the "main"
(or "combustion"] air line. The main air flow may be shut olf completely for low
fire and for starting. The minimum firing rate and the turndown ratio are
determined by the atomizing air flow rate. The atomizing air pressure must
remain constant at all firing rates.
Figure 6.20 is a photograph of a typical flame of a low pressure air atomizing
oil burner. Low pressure air atomizing type oil burners are applicable to a greater
variety of uses than any other single type. Some of their advantages are: no high
pressures involved, relatively large air and oil orifices that minimize maintenance,
no intricate or delicate parts, simplicity of operalion and control, flexibility to
changes in loading or fuel, simplicity of installation, no moving parts, and
economical operation.
High pressure air or steam atomizing oil burners are 2-fluid atomizers that
use steam or compressed air to tear droplets from the oil stream and propel them
into the combustion space. The high velocity of the oil particles relative to the
air produces the scrubbing action required for quick vaporization. These burners
can atomize light to very heavy oils, sludges, pitch, and some tars. They are often
used for incineration of liquid wastes. See Figure 6.21a-d.
Figure 6.20. O i
l flame of a low pressure air atomizing burner firing at 1 785 000 Btulhr with
1 psi atomizing air and 1 psi main air. The white lines on the pipe above the flame indicate 1 foot
intervals. This forward flame (type A, Figure 6.2) is produced by the burner of Figure 6.23.
Figure 6.21a. External mixing oil atomizer uses steam or compressed air. Straight-through oil tube
is easily cleaned. It needs only low ail pressure controlled with a conventional oil regulator.
Burner backdate
Figure 6.21h. Internal mixing or emulsion atomizer has large openings (requires less clean steam)
and holds a backpressure on the oil, preventing vapor lock. It is limited to high firing rates, re-
quires high steam and oil pressure, and consumes mure steam per gallon of oil.
Centering spider
Emulsion tube
Figure 6.21~. Tip emulsion atomizer can be designed for a desired spray angle; it provides better
atomizing with lower steam pressure, and its sleam consumption is low. This model produces a
narrow spray angle lor a conventional forward flame --[type A, Figure 6.2).
Quick Burner
Spring Emulsion nozzle
Oil inlet Steam tube
Steam or
compressed air
Figure 6.21d. Tip emulsion atomizer for a wide spray angle [type C or type D flame of Figure 6.2).
compressed ai
Steam or compressed air at pressures ranging from 5 to 150 psi is used. The
steam consumption may vary from 1 to 5 pounds per gallon of oil and air
consumption from 22 to 100 ft3 of stp air per gallon, depending on the design
and size of the atomizer and the oil viscosity. For the external mixing type, ail I
pressures of 5 to 10 psi are recommended at Lhe burner, but for emulsion Lypes I
(oil and steam or air mix inside the unit), the oil pressure must be about the same
as the steam or air pressure. The slim compact nature of these atomizers makes II
them readily adaptable for converting gas burners to combination gas-oil burners.
I
Oil pressure atomizing burners are 1-fluid atomizers, also referred to as I
mechanical pressure atomizing burners. When oil is permitted to expand through
a small orifice, it tends to break into a spray of fine droplets. Atomizers utilizing
this principle are usually designed to operate with 100 psi oil at viscosilies less
than 50 SSU. In some instances they will operate with pressures as low as
75 psi or with viscosities as high as 100 SSU. See Figure 6.22.
Figure 6.22. Oil Pressure Atnm-

iring Nozzle. This type is used in
~ ~ ~ c c h a n intomizil~g
cal oil hl~rr~tcrs.
It is silllilar in 111~ir1ciplo
to H gtlrden
llose nn77.I~.Arrows show the path
of oil.
Turndown is poor on this type of nozzle, usually limiting its use to on-off
control -- as in domestic furnaces. This type probably has the lowest initial and
operating costs but relatively high maintenance problems and lack of flexibility
restrict its use. Large boilers utilize a number of oil "guns" that work on this
principle, but with hundreds of psi oil pressure. Their steady load, ability to turn
off some of the burners, and very high pressure, obviate the turndown problem.
Centrifugal atomizing (rotary) burners use centrifugal force to throw oil
from the lip of a rotating cup in the form of a conical sheet of Liquid which
quickly breaks into a spray. Low pressure air is admitted through an annular
space around the rotating cup. If the air velocity is high, it tends to blow the
spray into a narrow cone, but if the speed of rotation of the cup is high, this
tends to overcome the effect of the air stream, producing a wide angle spray.
Shape of the spray is also determined by the relative positions of the cup and
air orifice. Horizontal rotary cup burners are still used for boilers but not
for high temperature furnaces, because they have electric motors and other
moving parts immediately adjacent to the burner.
Sonic and ultrasonic atomizers usually use an arrangement similar to a
vibrating reed to produce a fog of minute oil droplets. Burners must be specially
designed to transport the fog to the combustion space and mix a high volume
air stream with it.
FUEL-BURNING EQUIPMENT
COMBINATION GAS AND OIL BURNERS
periodic changes in the fuel supply and price picture may sometimes
necessitate changing fuels. Burners that are capable of burning either gas or
oil are called combination burners.* There are probably as many types of
these burners as there are combinations of the different types of gas and oil
burners, but only the most common ones will be described here.
When a necessity for switching fuels arose in the past, attempts were made
at (a) adding some sort of atomizer lo an existing gas burner, or [b] adding a
gas ring around the nose of an existing oil burner. Either retrofit had to insure
entrainment, mixing, and positive delivery of Ihe fuel to the combustion
chamber by the main air stream.
As flame monitoring controls have been mandated, mosl engineers have con-
cluded that such do-it-yourself efforts should be abandoned in favor of
burners designed and tested for multiple fuel use. Some combination burners
can be purchased as stripped-down models that burn only one fuel; and in such
cases an afler-fit for a second fuel is practical by purchasing the omitted
components.
General-Purpose Dual-FuelIMBurners. The burner of Figure 6.23 is a low
pressure air atomizing duabfuel burner that produces a type A flame (Figure 6.2)
with gas, light oil, or heavy oil.
Figure 6.23. General-purposecombination burner capable of burning heavy oil or any gas. This
burner can be operated over a wide range of airlfuel ratios and firing rates in cold and tight
combustion chambers. The gas tube and gas connection can be omitted and a shorter oil tube
substituted to make a less expensive straight oil burner. The low pressure air atomizer ca11 be
omitted and a blank backplate substituted on the gas connection to make a less expensive straight
gas burner. The metal tile support shown should be used only when the burner is installed in a
thin metal wall -- not when installed in a refractory wall.
Main air
" All North Arncrican comhinalion burners tire identified by the name "Dual-Fu;ucl."
34 NORTH AMEHICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Figure 6.24 shows an integral fan Dual-FuelTM burner which includes burner,
blower, blower motor, control valve, control valve motor, pilot, and atomizer
engineered together as a package. (Gas-only and oil-only models are possible by
omitting some components.) This burner's fuel-directed type internal design I
allows its flame shape to be adjusted to suit combustion chamber requirements.
Such pre-packaged assemblies are popular lor boilers (Figure6.10),dryers, ovens,
air heaters, incinerators, and process heaters, and other applicationswhere the I
purchaser may not have the manpower nor experience to select and assemble I
burner system components. Installation of such units requires only attaching the
burner to a refractory tunnel in the combustion chamber wall, connecting fuel,
electric power, and control lines.
Smaller packaged automatic burners are designed Tor on-off control using gas
or light (distillate) oil. Larger sizes have modulating control (responding to
temperature or steam pressure sensors), and can burn gas, light [distillate)oil,
or heavy (residual)oil. Such packages often include a control panel programmed
for light-up, shut-down, and monitoring procedures to meet the customer's
insurance requirements.
Figure 6.24. Integral Fan Ilual-FuelTM Burner. In addition to the 2 5 rnillicln gross Btdhr unit
shown (12 to 50 foot similar assemblies range from 30 to 200 rnillionBtdlr flame length), fuel-directed
internals permit a chrjice of flame characteristics.
Modern Special Purpose Burners. The days of the "universal," all purpose
furnace are almost gone. The necessity for saving fuel while doing a fast
uniform heating job has resulted in the development of tailor-made furnaces,
heating systems and heating machines. To facilitate these, burner manufacturers
have developed many special purpose burners.
Burners for Use with Preheated Air. Preheating the combustion air broadens
the flammability limits, increases flame velocity, elevates flame temperature,
and raises the available heat. These effectscombine to make burner flames more
stable, and to reduce fuel consumption markedly. Flames are shorter and
brighter.
Depending on the materials of construction, burners intended for use with cold
air can usually be used with air preheated to 500 or 600 F without damage. With
cooling arrangements, a few have been used with 800 F air.
Rising fuel costs have justified smaller sizes of recuperators, regenerators,
and hot air burners (Figure 6.25). A traditional larger size refraclory-linedburner
is pictured in Figure 6.26. Most of the name types from Figure 6.2 are available
in hot air burners of either the fuel-directed or air-directed type. With very high
air preheat, all flame types tend toward higher luminosity because the hot air
polymerizes the fuel molecules before they burn.
Figure 6.25. Small Dual-FuelrM

hot-air burner for use with air preheated as high as 1100 F. Eight
sizes of this burner release from 0.16 to 2.16 million Btulhr with 8 osi air, producing a forward
flame (type A, Figure 6.2). The heat-resistant cast iron body is lined withvacuum-formed refractory
fiber. In keeping with modern safety requirements, it has pilot, flame monitoring, and observation
ports in positions engineered to provide coverage over a wide range of operating conditions.
Figure 6.26. Combination burner for use with air preheated up to 1100 F. The burner body is
lined with refractory. The flame-stabilizing disk that forms the annular air orifice may be refractury-
faced, or of very high alloy to protect it from furnace and flame radiation. By use of a variety of
orifice, disk, and atomizer configurations, it is possible to produce several of the flame types of Figure
6.2. The model shownuses low pressure air (2 psig) as an atomizing medium, but others have atomizers
designed to use compressed air or steam.
Hot air Refractory
Gas lining Refractory-faced
Observation and
lighting ports
With high temperature air passing through a burner, it needs (a) better
materials to withstand the higher air and flame temperature, (b)more capacity
to pass enough weight of oxygen to release available heat equal lo that with cold
air, and (c) temperature compensating airlfuel ratio control to correct for the
ever-changing air slream temperature produced by most air heating equipment.
Reasons (a) and (b) result in hot air burners being much larger than cold air
burners. The hot air piping to burners should be oversized and insulated.
It is not normal practice to preheat atomizing air, natural gas, nor low
viscosity liquid fuels. Compared with the main (modulated) air, they constitute
much smaller quantities; so the fuel saving from heating them would be small
compared to the added piping and equipment costs. However, preheating of the
fluid immediately surrounding a burner's heavy oil tube helps keep the oil
hotter, and therefore may aid atomizalion.
Adjustable heat pattern burners are used to set the heat release pattern in
a furnace upon initial light-up, or to automatically change flame shapes upon
the command of differential pyrometers, as in Figure 6.27, or as directed by a
programmer.
Fuel DirectedBburners, mentioned earlier, are particularly adaptable to such
requirements. Other forms of adjustable heat pattern burners have either a large
number of manually adjustable vanes in the air passage, or a flipiflop valve that
deflects the air through alternate passages.
pisure 6.27. Adjustable flames. Temperature uniformity can be maintained at both ends of a long
one-way-fired soaking pit by using Fuel DirectedQ burners to achieve an adjustable heat pattern,
changing the flame shape from the long luminous type G flame of the top photograph to the shart wide
type C flame of the lower photograph.
Radiation Burners. Most oil burners emit considerably more radiant heat than
their straight gas counterparts. The conventional forward flame types heat by
both radiation and convection. Coanda and centrifugal effects used in many
radiation type burners tend to be counterproductive to thorough atomization,
making such burners more prone to sooting if not well tuned. Dual-fuel versions
of radiation burners are generally available for gas and light oil only.
Figure 6.28 illustrates a light oil or gas-fired radiation burner designed to thaw
hopper cars. It transfers heat to the undersides of the car hoppers by radiation
from lhe refractory trough, radiation from the glowing alloy covers, flame
radiation, and convection.
Figure 6.28. Radiation type hopper car thawing burner utiliziig the principle of most so-called
infrared burners -- venting combustion gases through a grid so that the grid becomes radiant.
Conveclion burners for dual-fuel operations fall into two broad classes -- high
velocity burners and large air-heating burners. Dual-fuel forms of both are
available for gas or distillate oils only.
High velocity (type H) flames can (a) penetrate into loosely-piled loads, such
as a latticework of bricks in a hack in a kiln, stacks of parts in a heat treat
furnace or oven, a load of scrap to be preheated or melted, (b] reach farther
than type A flames and drive hot gases around the back sides of loads or pillars,
and [c) stir furnace gases to provide more uniform heating, beller convection,
and more passes for improved efficiency.
Figure 6.29a. High velocity Dual-FuelTM burner with a spark-ignited pilot (right side) and an air-
cooled ultraviolet flame monitor. The dial-type rotary plug V-port oil valve on the back of the burn-
e r serves d u ~ functions
l -- a s a shutoff and a limiting orifice.
Figure 6.2915. Gas and oil flames of a Dual-FuelTM high velocity burner. Although the combina-
tion burner versions cannot generate as high a flame momentum a s the gas-only models (Figures
6.11b),their velocities are several times higher than those of conventional [type A) burners.
For drying of glass tanks and newly-lined refractory chambers, operators

prefer to use one big burner because it involves preparing only one opening. This
means, however, that the drying burner must have a considerable "throw" to
be effective in reaching all corners of the chamber. High velocity is also helpful
in inducing recirculation and it can be used to inspirate fresh air. The same
applies to drying or preheating of large ladles far molten metals and for rotary
drum dryers for fertilizers and aggregates. All of these are really air healer
applications, requiring very large volumes of air with a very lean ratio for low
hot mix temperature. Fuel only control is used.*
Waste Incinerating Burners --Liquid. Standard Dual-Fuel burners are often
used for this purpose with the liquid waste delivered through the oil tube
and gas burned simultaneously as an auxiliary fuel [for start-up or to sustain
combustion if the waste alone cannot do so). Great care must be exercised to
be sure (a) the waste will burn, (b)the liquid waste can be atomized, and (c)the
products of combustion will not be toxic or polluting. The user must set up a
pilot test. The composition and properties of the waste may change from time
to time. This calls for constant vigilance by the operators.
* Theoretically, such lean, low temperature use of fuel is inefficient. The ideal way to heat such
jobs is with waste gases from higher temperature operations.
Waste Incineruting Burners --Fume. Conventional forward flame burners have

been used for this purpose, but a grid type fume burner (Figure 6-30] assures
burning of all of the fume with less auxiliary fuel, lower peak temperature,
and shorter burning length in the duct (which must be of high temperature
materials). It is impractical to handle oil in the many Liny fuel jets required for
this configuration. Oil has been successfully atomized into the fume stream
upstream of the grid, using the grid as a flame holder only, but such a n
arrangement calls for special engineering and precautions against flashback.
All except warning [b) above apply to planning a fume incinerating operation.
Figure 6.30. Fume incinerating flame grids for use with gas as the auxiliary fuel. Sixcs to span
two duct sizes are shown, the larger with two small sections sel differently to show the adjustability
of the oblong fumc orifices.
Oil Vaporizing Burner Arrangements. The use of heat as well as atomization

to vaporize distillate oils permits combustion of the oil through existing gas
burner systems with a gas-like blue flame. Some burner designs recirculate
hol combustion gases within the burner to transIer heat to the incoming oil.
Oil-to-gas converter systems use a direct-fired air heater, burning a portion
of the fuel oil in that heater, to provide 800 F air through the mixture manifolds
of a premix burner system. See Figures 6.31aand b. The fuel burned in the air
heater is not wasted. It is just released in a different location, but the hot air
lines should be insulated and kept a s short a s possible.
Oil-to-gas converter systems are more expensive to install than conventional

dual-fuel burners. but they are the only solution when oil standby is required
for little burners. (It is not practical to try to build or operate industrial-type
burners at less than about 1.9 gph or ?4 million Btulhr,) Although the
oil-to-ga~ vaporizing systems require attentive operators and maintenance, they
have been used successfully world-wide for many years.
Figure 6.31a. Oil-to-gas converter vaporizing system for burning light distillate oil through
existing small premix gas burners. The resulting flames have essentially the same char~cteristics
as when burning g ~ s .
Compressed air Oil Atmospheric

---
\
-
----
--
- -
. -- ..zyum~L",
Insulated 6-=-=--% -
- - ,-
-- --
-
L, RU I
Blast tips
~ornbusti/onair
nnain
lnsilated hot air air valve
piping to burners
I
Oil-to-gas oil-to-gas small
air heater unit atomizer insert pressure burner
(see Figure below) or tunnel burner
Figure 6.31b. Close-up view showing compressed-air-oil atomizer inserted into the aspirator
mixer of a premix gas burner system for oil standby when gas is unavailable. Hot air aids
vaporization so that the hot-air-and-vapor-mix burns like a gas at the burner ports.
: To burners
Airloil ratio
\
Gas generated here
Burners for Oxygen Enrichment. Oxygen enrichment of the air for com-
bustion elevates the flame temperature and reduces the percentage of nitrogen
passing through the furnace, thereby lowering the slack loss and raising the
thermal efficiency. Whether oxygen enrichment produces any overall energy
saving depends on the cost of the oxygen.
Oxygen may be premixed with the combustion air or nozzle-mixed through the
burner but the higher heat release rales and resultan1 high temperatures may
not be compatible with existing burner materials. If the burner does not have
a connection designed for oxygen, the burner manufacturer should be consulted
to see if i l is practical to admit oxygen through the atomizing air connection,
or unused oil, observation, or flame supcrvisory connoctions. Oxygen must not
be premixed with fuel, There must be no possibility for oxygen back-flowing into
either fuel or air piping.
REFERENCES
6.a Shore, D. E. and McElron, M. W.: "'Tuning Industrial Boilers, I1 --
Establish Excess Air Levels", vol. 121, no. 5, pp. 76-79, POWER,
May, 1977.
6.b Beer, J. M. and Chigier, N.A.: "Combustion Aerodynamics",
pp. 125-127, Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1972.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
Babcock and Wilcox: "Steam --Its Generation and Use", 39th ed., Babcock
and Wilcox Co., Barberton, OH, 1978.
Chiogioji, M. H.: "Industrial Energy Conservation", Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 1979.
IHEA: "Combustion Technology Manual", 4th ed., Industrial Heating
Equipment Association, Arlington, VA, 1988.
Lupton, H. P.: "Industrial Gas Engineering", vols. 1, 2, 3, North Western
Gas Board, London, 1960.
Palmer, H. B. and Beer, J. M.: "Combustion Technology -- Some Modern
Developments", Academic Press, New York, NY, 1974.
Singer, J. G . (ed.): "Combustion--Fossil Power Systems", 3rd ed., Com-
bustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor, CT, 1981.
Stambuleanu, A,: "Flame Combustion Processes in Industry", Abacus
Press, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England, 1976.
Part 7. COMBUSTION CONTROL
The field of combustion control includes a great many specialized subjects --

more than can possibly be treated in this handbook. Combustion engineers are
mainly interested in valves and regulators used in fuel systems, airlfuel ratio
controls (atmosphere control), fuel pressure control, furnace pressure control,
and safety controls, which are covered in detail. Automatic control of [urnace
input as a function of temperature, steam pressure, or steam flow is a field in
itself and will be mentioned only briefly here.
CONTROL VALVES
Valve capacities and pressure drops are discussed in Part 5, Vol. I.

Two important specifications of control valves, particularly those used for
modulating control, are turndown range and characteristic. The characteristic
is the manner in which the flow rate changes with changes in valve handle
position and is described by a plot of flow rate vs. valve handle position.
(See Figure 7.1.) This is often assumed to be the same as the variation of valve
opening area with valvc handle position which is termed the area characteristic.
The flow may not be directly proportional to the valve opening area, because
of the aerodynamic characteristics of the upstream and downstream piping, and
because the pressure drop across the valve proper is reduced as the pressure
drop across the other resistances in the system increases. Because the area and
flow characleristics are not always the same and it is difficult to predict their
divergence accurately, the only sure way to achieve a desired characteristic is
to adjust the characteristic after the system is installed. It is desirable however,
to have some basis for the initial selection; so the following discussion of valve
types describes the area characteristics of each.
To assure uniform control loop stability throughout the anticipated valve
operating ranges, it is important that the valve characterislics be specified so
that the valve response will match the dynamics of the process. A quick opening
valve characlerislic is desirable for on-off control. A linear characteristic (flow
rate directly proportional to valve travel) is good for most flow control and
liquid level control syslems. V-port and modified parabolic type valves give fine
throttling action in the early stages of valve opening, followed by a linear
characteristic for the balance of the valve travel. An equal percentage charac-
teristic (each equal step in valve movement results in the same percent gain in
flow rate above that at the end of the last step) is best suited to pressure conlrol
or flow control systems with wide-swinging pressure drops. Figure 7.1 shows
a range of characteristics that are possible with valves having adjustable ports.
An effect similar to partially closing the port of an adjustable port valve is
achieved with reduced port butterfly valves or by down-rating any valve so that
its 100% rated flow rate corresponds to less than its wide-open position. A
butterfly valve rated for 100% of flow at 90° open might have a characteristic
similar to the quick opening or fixed port curves; but when rated for 100% flow
rate at 60° open, its control characteristic will be similar to the lowest curve
on Figure 7.1. This underscores the folly of always selecting valves on the basis
of C, factor or flow per dollar.
Sliding Plug Valves. Sliding plug valves adjust the valve orifice size by moving
a plug axially along a valve stem as in an ordinary globe valve. The sliding
action may be produced by direct axial motion of a control motor or pneumatic
Figure 7.1. Characteristics of various control valve types. The st~lidlimes on either side of the linear
line suggest Lhe possible range of an ~ d j u s t ~ Mport
e valvc. Curves are based on a constant
pressure drop through each valvc. Valve characteristics that match the process on which they will
b~ used give best control.
"
20 40 60 80 100
Valve position, Oh of rated travel
COMBUSTION CONTROL 45
operator, or it may be produced by rotating a threaded valve stem. The charac-

teristic is determined by the shape of the plug, which may be disk type, V-port,
or any modification of these three basic types. The disk type plug,
such as in an ordinary globe valve, gives equal increments of open area for equal
increments of stem movement: that is, the area characteristic is a straight line.
~lthoughthis straight line characteristic is a desirable feature, the disk type
plug has the disadvantage that its entire turndown range is expired within a
very small range of axial movement. The V-port plugs permit a more gradual
change of valve opening. Figure 7.2 shows a typical V-port valve used for
limiting gas flow. The characteristic of V-port and parabolic plugs approaches
a semi-logarithmic curve; equal increments of valve movement give equal
% increases in open area."
Rotary plug valves consist of a ported sleeve or plug which is rotated past
an opening in the body. The characteristics of such valves depend upon the shape
of the port and the opening in the body. Figure 7.3 shows a rotary plug valve
with a V-shaped opening. which gives a characteristic similar to that of a V-port
sliding plug valve. Figure 7.4 shows another rotary plug with a cylindrical plug
having a straight-through rectangular port, which approaches a straight line
characteristic.
The valves of Figure 7.4 each contain a curtain that can be moved axially,
providing an adjuslable port. These valves therefore have an adjustable
characteristic, or can be characterized, as one can change the valve resistance
relative to the system resistance to match the valve to the system after it is
Figure 7.2 V-port sliding plug gas valve used Figure 7.3. Rotary plug V-port oil valve.+ The
as the limiting orifice that comprises the parts on the left a r e the precision-ground
constant resistance in gas lines in pressure rotary shear plates, the right-hand one of
type airlfuel ratio control systems. The valve which has a V-port that exposes varying areas
of Figure 7.3 is used for the same purpose with of the off-center port in the disk. Internally
oil and a motorized version is for direct oil electrically heated versions o f this valve a r e
input control. used for heavy oil.
* It is sometimes possible to simulate a linear characteristic even thpugh it is not inherent in the
valve by using a linkage with a characteristic such that equal increments of movement of the
control motor will produce equal increments of flow.
t See SonsitrolTMin the Glossary.
installed. This convenience results in some sacrifice of turndown range, but

it is minor in properly sized systems. The straight-through flow minimizes
pressure drop and the consequent undesirable reduction of turndown ratio.
Butterfly Valves. A butterfly valve is a section of straight pipe containing a
rotating vane or disk such as a stovepipe damper. (See Figure 7.5.) The pressure
drop across a wide open butterfly valve is small. (See Table 5.24b.) The amount
of leakage depends upon the tolerances of the disk and valve casing [which often
serves as the valve seat). The characteristic is similar to that of a V-port valve.
Butterfly valves are used principally for low pressure air. For gas, they must
have seals around the shafts.
Reduced port butterfly valves are intended to accomplish the same charac-
terizing effect as an adjustable port valve with its curtain partially closed, but
their fixed ports preclude any final fitting io the system.
Figure 7.4. Adjustable port rotary plug valvcs for low pressure air [left) and gas or oil [right].
An adjustable curtain is used to vary the width of the rectangular opening to producc a deviralile
system characteristic after a valve is installed. (See Figure 7.1.) Closing the curtain permits a n
adjustable port valve to approach a linear or a n equal perce~ltagecharacteristic.
Curtain Control
adjusting
knob -
Rotary plug Port

Rotary plug
opening
AIR1 FUEL RATIO CONTROLS*

The fuel savings from tighter airlfuel ratio control can be evaluated by
using the data from Part 3, Vol. I. In addition to fuel economy, other benefits
of better airlfuel ratio control are less pollution, greater safety, improved
temperature uniformity and product quality.
Area control of airlfuel ratio, also termed valve control of airlfuel ratio or
a proportioning valve (pv) system, is achieved by use of constant pressure
* For a discussion of airlfuel ratio controls for blower mixers and carburetor-type mechanical
mixers, soe Reference 7.a listed at the end of Part 7.
COMBUSTION CONTROL
Figure 7.5a. Threaded manual butterfly

valve. The locking handle can be replaced
with one of a variety of linkages and
2-position or modulating control motors.
Figure 7.5b. Butterfly valve with integral

electric drive for %positioncontrol. This
direct-connected valve with motor has lower
first cost and is easier to install and adjust
&an a separate valve and motor connected
by a bracket and linkage. It has a shaded
pole motor, actuated by a conventional
3-wire controller. Adjustable stops set the
end poiiits of the disk travel.
Figure 7.5d. A 42 in. wafer type butter-

fly air valve. Pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electric operators can he used to turn some
sizes of these valves, but large valves a r e
often operated by cylinders having one end
attached to a rigid structural member.
and variable areas. A simple mechanism can be used to cause the opening areas
of fuel and air valves to vary in proportion to one another. This requires
that the two valves have identical characteristics and that the mechanical
connection between them produce directly proportional movement. In other
words, if one valve is caused to rotate through a 4 5 O angle, then the other must
also rotate through a 45" angle, and if this movement causes a 25% change in
flow rate of one fluid, it must also produce a 25% change in flow rate of the
other fluid. If the valve characteristics are not the same, the fuel and air flows
will match at only a few points throughout the range. If the movement is not
directly proportional, the mixture may be lean at some firing rates and rich at
others.
Two rotary valves on a common shaft may be used for area control, but a
side-by-side arrangement with a parallel arm or Z-type linkage is preferred
because it is sometimes possible to adjust the linkage to correct for different
characteristics in the two valves. One or preferably both of the valves should
embody manual adjustment of its opening (in addition to handle adjustment --
see Figure 7.4) for setting airlfuel ratio.
The valve control system requires an air blower with a constant pressure
characteristic and constant oil or gas pressure regulators ahead of the control
valve because the upstream pressures for both air and fuel must be constant,
In the case of fuel oil, the oil temperature must be constant at the valve because
variations in the oil viscosity would affect the flow rate.
Figure 7.6. Area control of airlfuel ratio on a packaged automatic Dual-FuePMburner. T h e

pneumatic operator (bottom center) actuates the air shutlers [lop center], inlet butterfly air valve.
oil valve, and gas valve (lower left) via a factory-calibratedlinkage.
Even though a pair of proportioning valves may have the same area
it is unlikely that they will have the same flow characteristics
because differences in the density, phase, viscosity, and surface tensions of the
fluids make them aerodynamically dissimilar, causing the airlfuel ratio to veer
off to rich or lean, or some of each, in various parts of the operating range. Some
more expensive arrangements have manually adjusted cams or electronically
adjusted schemes to attempt to correct for these effects. Adjustable linkages,
as shown in Figure 7.6, also facilitate correclion for such effects, but
require much experience on the part of the adjuster.
Area control is usually less expensive to purchase, but more expensive to

operate because it provides less precise ratio control and lherefore uses more
fuel. As energy costs rise, better quality airlfuel ratio control will be justified
on smaller and smaller installatiops.
Pressure control of airlfuel ratio works on the assumption that the resistance
to flow downstream from the control valves is a constant in both the fuel and
air lines of any burner system. From the principles oullined in Part 5, Vol. I, it
is known that the flow through a constant resistance is proportional to the square
root of the pressure differential across that resistance. Therefore, if the fuel
and air pressure are kept equal [or proportional) then the fuel and air flow rates
should be proportional throughout the enlire range of firing rates. Whereas the
previously discussed valve control system worked on the principle of constant
pressures and variable areas, the pressure control syslem works with constant
areas and variable pressures. This is more accurate and adaptable to a wide
variety of arrangements.
In air primary systems (common for < 10 000 000 Btdhr], [Figure 7.7), the main
input control valve is in the air line and a ratio regulator is used in the fuel line,
the regulator being cross-connected to the air line. When burning gas, the ratio
regulator is a device that duplicates the air pressure in the fuel line. It consists
of a globe-type valve in which the plug is attached to and moved by a diaphragm.
The pressure on one side of the diaphragm is that of the air line, conveyed to
the space below the diaphragm by an impulse line (small pipe). The pressure
on the other side of the diaphragm is Lhe feedback pressure in the fuel line
downstream from the regulator. Thus, if the fuel and air pressures are not the
same, an unbalanced force exists on the diaphragm causing it to move. This in
turn moves the valve plug, adjusting the fuel flow, and thereby correcting the
downstream fuel pressure until the difference between Ule fuel and air pressures
is zero.
NOHTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Use a short nipple between
Bleeder the bleeder's "A" connection
set for 50% R and the -controlled air pipe
Figure 7.7. Piping for a balance

pressure type airlgas ratio regu-
lator. When the available gas
prassurc is less than the air pres-
sure, as will1 the sample pressure
shown, a bleeder must be used.
When the combustion cha~llber
pressure fluctuates, double cross-
connections (including that shown
dotted) must be used, l'he pressures
shown a r e typical, but 4 to 32 osi
pressures work well.
10 pipe dia.
s ratio regulator
pring adjustment
Figure 7.8. A n airlgas ratio regulator (pressure type alf ratio control) produces an outlet gas
pressure equal to whatever pressure is exerted under its diaphragm. If the air line pressure is
piped to the lower chamber, gas and air pressures will be equal, and flows proportional. If the
lower chambcr is vented to atmosphere, the outlet gas pressure will always be zero, regardless
of flow demand.
Valve head swivel
Valve plug assembly
Valve sea
Gas i n
Y -Gas out
Balancing diaphragm cup 1
- ~ -
b ~ r e s s u r tube
e
,Balancing diaphragm
Gas diaphragm
\Gas diaphragm cover

\
Spring adjusting plug
Figure 7.8 shows a cutaway view of a ratio regulator used to control gas flow.
Note the small pipe connection below the diaphragm for the impulse line and
the pressure tube leading from the upper chamber to the downstream side of
the valve. If the impulse connection is left open to the atmosphere, the regulator
will produce zero gas for suction type mixers and premixing burners, The spring
below the shafi: counterbalances the weight of the shaft, plug, and diaphragm
assembly so that the diaphragm floats freely. The upstream gas pressure acting
on the underside of the valve plug might lift the plug; so a balancing diaphragm
is attached to Lhe shaft between the valve body and the diaphragm case.
In applications where the maximum available gas pressure is less than the
maximum combustion air pressure, the above system would fail to maintain
proportional fuel and air pressures at higher air flow rates; so it is necessary
to an impulse pressure less than but proporlional to the pressure in the
air line. This is accomplished by use of a bleeder, which permits a
certain amount of leakage from the impulse connection (Figure 7.7). The
opening of the limiting orifice valve may be set to give the desired airlfuel ratio
when the system is first put into operation, and thereafter becomes the constanl
area resistance in the gas line.
Figure 7.9. Air103 ratio regulator.*

This reguliilor produces a down-
slream oil pressure proportional to
the pressure exerted on the top side
of its diaphragm. By piping the air
supply line pressure to this upper
chamber, the oil and air pressures
will be proportional and a constant
airloil ratio will be maintained at all
liring rates.
Air line
impulse
pressure
Cleanout or bypass
down to open)
* Scc RaliotrollMin the Glossary.
When burning oil in low pressure air atomizing burners, it is desirable that
the oil pressure be several times greater than the combustion air pressure, rather
than equal to it. This ratio is maintained by an airloil ratio regulator* such as
shown in Figure 7.9 in which the upper diaphragm has several times the area
of the lower diaphragm. The impulse air pressure pushes down on the upper
diaphragm, tending to move the valve shaft assembly downward (opening the
valve). The downstream oil pressure (feedback)pushes up on the lower diaphragm
(via the clearance space between the shaft and the body) tending to raise the
valve shaft assembly (closing the valve). The space between the diaphragms is
vented to the atmosphere. If the area ratio were 12:1, the oil pressure would
have lo be twelve times greater than the impulse air pressure for the upward
and downward thrusts to be balanced. Any unbalanced force on the diaphragm
moves the oil valvc until the proper pressure ralio is attained.
An adjustable tension spring balances the weight of the diaphragms, shaft,
and valvc plug. The spring can be adjusled for less lension to maintain a
leakage rale when no impulse is applied. This leakage should be equivalenl to
(he minimum air flow rate to the burner (usually the atomizing air rate).
Figure 7.10 shows a typical piping arrangement using such a ratio regulator.
The oil valve at the back end of thc burner can bo uscd for manual individual-
burner adjustmenl Ln scl Lhe airlfuel ralio Tor the desired furnace alrnosphere.
Thereafler it becomes the constant area resistance in the oil line.
Figure 7.10. Schematic piping for an airloil ratio regulator*. When cross-connected to the con-
trtrlled air line, airloil ratio regulators produce an oil outlet pressure that is some fixed multiple of the
impulse pressure (such a s 10 or 1 2 to 1).The manual oil valve on the back of each burner and air
orifices built into each burner constitute the constant resistances in each line that make it possible to
control airlfuel ratio by control of prclss~~rcl in the air and file1 lines. Jf the combustion chamber
pressure is not stcady, double cross-connections (including thc onc shown dottcd] must bc uscd.
for maintenance only)
never above
- - About 10 psi plus spring setting

"
See ~ a t i o t r o l in
' ~ tho g1oss;lry.
COMBUSTION CONTRUL 53
There a r e limitations on the maximum upstream pressure that should be

applied to any ratio regulator. These are the result of a compromise between
ruggedness and accuracy, It is desirable to have diaphragms of high rupture
strength, but this makes them less sensitive. Use of a n upstream pressure-reducing
is recommended to protect the ratio regulator and provide a constant
inlet pressure a t a level that assures its optimum performance.
low control of airlfuel ratio actually measures the air flow and fuel flow and
the flow of one of these fluids accordingly. The flow rates are measured
by pressure taps detecting the pressure differentials across resistances in the
air and fuel lines. These pressure differentials are transmitted to some con-
trolling device that automalically adjusts the flow of the air (or of the fuel) to
maintain the desired ralio.
Pressure impulses from upstream and downstream of a n orifice jn the air line
act on opposite sides of a diaphragm connected to a shaft. Pressure impulses
from upstream and downstream of a Iimiling orifice valve in the fuel line act
on anolher diaphragm connected to the same shalt so a s to oppose the action
of the air diaphragm. The resulting movement of the shaft opens or doses a valve
in the regulator until a balance is reached, providing proportional control of gas
flow.
Figure 7.11. Pneumatic fully-metered or flow-balanced airlgas ratio control system. This 3rd
generation system balances pressure differentials with a &signal regulator whereas the 2nd
generation system balanced pressures with a 2-signal regulator. The upper diaphragm spaces sense
a pressure differential corresponding to the fuel flow; the lowest two diaphragm spaces, t h e air
flow. This is a n air primary arrangement. 'The limiting orifice valve serves dual functions: as the
gas flow metering device, and a s the airlgas ratio adjusting device.
I
I
I
I ,+pressure drop
I J I 2O"wc
f - ~ Valve
-1 10, +a+* -1
A per orifice mfgr's specs.
The preceding paragraph described an air primary system of airlfuel ratio

control. In an air primary system, the input controller (usually temperature,
except pressure in the case of a boiler) adjusts air input, and the airlfuel ratio
control causes fuel input to follow. In a fuel primary system, the input controller
adjusts fuel flow, and the ratio control causes air input to follow.
A basic schematic diagram of a digital electronic version of flow control of
airlfuel ratio is shown in Figure 7.12. Advantages of this are: compactness,
electric lines are substituted for long impulse lines, controller can be remote
in a preferred environment, more actuating power than a regulator type,
adaptabilily lo additions of sophisticated control cascades, usable with systems
that are air primary or fuel primary. (See Glossary.)
Figure 7.12. Schematic diagram of a fully-metered,or flow-balanced,electronic &/fuel ratio con-

trol. (Fuel primary shown.]
Air
Air control
(secondarv)
Burner
I Comparator I
.Gas input control

(primary)
Fully-metered electronic controller systems include a manual ratio adjuster,

usually at the control panel, for setting a desired airlfuel ratio and for precise
trimming. On installations consuming large quantities of fuel, this feature is used
for frequent correction for weather changes and fuel variables, such as shown
in Figure 7.13. This is often accomplished with an oxygen trim system cascaded
to automatically modify the alf ratio setpoint. Similarly, with preheated air
systems, a temperature signal can automatically adjust the alf ratio. Addition
of such a temperature compensating system makes a fully-metered system a mass
flow control system.
The same principles a r e used for large gas mixing stations and for propane-
air mixing controls.
Figure 7.13. Effects of changes in combustion air temperature and humidity and in fuel gas gravity
on stoichiometry.*
1.5
2
0 1.0
P
0.5
- 0
8 2
B
3
0
0
E
;P 5
6
F
Ambient (combustionlair temp
I I I 1 I I I I 1
OC 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80C
gas and air temperatures constant

Fuel: stoichiometric airlgas ratio constant
0.500 0.525 0.550 0.575 0.600 0.625 0.650 0.675 0.700

Fuel gas gravity
*From Reference 7.b listed at the end of Part 7. Other graphs therein show the effects of high
temperature air (recuperator or regenerator outlet) changes, fuel temperature, and fuel
calorific value.
Substitution of alternate fuels simply requires more selector switches and

valves. Addition of multiple fuels (simultaneously)requires the addition of square
root extractors so that pressure differential signals can be added. (From formula
5/37, Vol. I, flow is proportional to the square root of pressure differential.) This
is applicable when a waste fuel stream is added to purchased fuel to fill out
the heat demand, or when air supply to a process is enriched with oxygen.
Figure 7.14. Digital electronic flow type airlfuel ratio controller. This contains the comparator
that determines whether the ratio of air flow to fuel flow is off balance from Lhe setpoint ratio [e.g.
10:l lor typical natural gas), and if so, sends u correction command to n control motor in the air
line if fuel primary, or in the fuel line if air primary. The setpoint can be changed by keying it in
on this console. This unit has several other capahililies, which will he described on later pages.
The inputs to an electronic alf ratio controller can be any variables that can
be converted and transmitted as 4-20 milliamp signals; so flow measurements
are no longer limited to orifice plates which may consume considerable pump-
ing power because of the required pressure drops. They are not even limited
to other inferential (differential pressure) techniques such as annular orifices
and annubars, but can respond to a variety of flow measuring methods, includ-
ing anemometers, Doppler principle devices, magnetic counter systems, positive
displacement flowmeters, sonic and ultrasonic schemes, or vortex flowmeters.
The output of an electronic alf ratio controller can actuate electrically,
pneumatically, or hydraulically operated valves, dampers, eductors, or fan speed
controls.
More accurate and reliable sensors and controls are being developed every
year. As fuel cost and supply problems increase, better airlfuel ratio controls are
needed for smaller sizes of fuel-consuming installations. The use of preheated
air or oxygen enrichment can rarely be justified without first installing accurate
airlfuel ratio control. Then, the addition of preheated air or oxygen enrichment
necessitates compensating corrections in the automatic airlfuel ratio control.
Juslificationfor better airlfuel ratio controls can be calculated using formula
3/37, Vol. I, and available heat data from Parl 3; or by Figure 7.15.
See also the segment on "Complete Combustion Controls" later in this Part 7.
COMBUSTION CONTROL
~i~~~~ 7.15. Required fuel for excess air and preheated air operation. Excess air should be
minimized by automatic aidfuel ratio controls or heal recovery equipment will have to be oversized
to handle the extra air.
PRESSURE CONTROLS
Pressure Regulators. Pressure-reducingregulators or h e pressure regulators

should be used upstream of most airlfuel ratio controls to drop the supply pres-
sure to a practical level and to maintain a constant inlet pressure at all flow
rates. One such regulator may supply a number of ratio regulators.
Figure 7.16a shows a gas pressure-reducing regulator and an oil pressure-

reducing regulator. In both, the downstream (regulated) pressure acts on one
side of a diaphragm whilo a preset-spring is balanced against it on the other
side of the diaphragm. The valve will remain open as long as the downstream
pressure is too low to balance the constant thrust of the spring. The upper
chamber of a gas pressure regulator should be vented to outdoors for safety in
the event of diaphragm rupture. A relief valve vented to outside should be
located downstream from a gas pressure regulator to avoid an excessive pres-
sure build-up against valves and ratio regulators when the burners are off.
Pressure-relievingregulators or relief valves are similar to a pressure-reducing

regulator except that the regulated pressure is the upstream pressure. They are
used to bleed off excess pressure.
Pressure controllers can perform either of the above functions, but use an
external source of power (hydraulic,pneumatic, or electric).Controllers are used
inslead of regulators for dirty gases and for larger line sizes. The furnace
pressure control systems discussed next arc examples of pressure-relieving
controllers.
Automatic furnace pressure controls aid accurate airlfuel ratio control by

providing a constant downstream pressure. Uncontrolled furnace pressure may
affect the airlfuel ratio if the furnace (1) uses natural draft to induce air, (2)
has open burner mountings, (3) uses any but flow-type or double cross-connected
pressure-type airlfuel ratio control, (4) is exposed to strong winds, or (5)has leaks
in its lining or around doors and the hearth. (See also pp 218-227 in Vol. I.]
Maintaining a positive pressure in all parts of the furnace or kiln at all times
prevents cold air infiltration through leaks in the structure. This is important
in any operation where the burners are frequently on low fire while the furnace
is hot, creating a strong chimney effect. Preventing cold air infiltration not only
maintains the desired furnace atmosphere, but also improves temperature
uniformity by avoiding chilling of parts of the load, and saves fuel by not having
to heat infiltrated air,
The section on "flow of flue gases" at the end of Part 5, Vol. I, gives information
on evaluating pressures in furnaces, ducts, and stacks, and discusses the effects
of firing rate and configurations on furnace pressure. The general conclusion
is that a very slight positive pressure (such as + 0 . 0 2 " ~is~ usually
) the better
compromise between (a) and (b):
(a) high positive pressure, which ...causes stingers or fluing at doors and cracks,
blows sand or water from seals, adversely
affects furnace maintenance, and produces
operator discomfort.
(b]negative pressure, which..........induces cold air, adversely affecting furnace
atmosphere, chills the bottom of the load,
causing poor product quality, and costs
fuel to heat the cold air Lo restore desired
uniformity and production rate,
In high temperature furnaces, the cost of cold air infiltration caused by
negative furnace pressure (heating the air and chilling the load] is usually greater
than the cost of hot gas escaping as a result of a slightly positive furnace
pressure. See Figure 7.17.
Figure 7.17. Cost of additional fuel required for non-neutral furnace pressures. Based on: 60 t'
(16 C) ambient air, 1900 F (1038 C) exit gases, $4 per million gross Btu fuel cost. Courtesy 01
G. Rimsky, Loftus Div.. Thermal Electron Corp.
I I I I 1
- 0.03 - 0.02 - 0.01 0 + 0.01 + 0.02 +0.03
Furnace pressure. inches of water column
1 I I I I I I
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 +0.2 +0.4 +0.6
Furnace pressure. mrn of water
Figures 7.18 and 7.19 are helpful in evaluating the extent of the negative
pressure developed within a hot furnace, the air infiltration, and the extra fuel
input required to heat the infiltrated air.
Example 7-1.Find the cost of a ?hin. wide gap all around the charging door of a 1700 F
reverberatory furnace (Figures 7.20a and b) that is 6 ft x 10 ft x 5 ft
above the metal line, operating 6000 hours por year. Fuel cost is $1.75 per million Btu.
Figure 7.18. Negative pressure developed in a hot furnace, and Fuel input required to heat
infiltrated air. "Elevation difference" (left vertical scale) means the height between a cold air inlet
at the bottom (cwck, door opening] and a hot gas outlet at the top (flue,stack top, top of door opening).
;1.00 500
??
m .-
L
t m
0.80 400 2
C
.-
0 Z
+ LC
-2 0.60
0)
300 >
0
.+ z
u
b 0.40
C
0)
200 :
m
E r:
0
0.20 loo 2
m
0, A?
I
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Average temperature, C
- 0.01751 I 4 O
>s
-0.0150 - -120 ,
s,
E
.- -0.0125 -
u
-a - 0.0075- o m
w-
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400

Average Temperature F
Figure 7.19. Cold air infiltration through furnace openings. Use this graph in conjunction with
Figure 7.18 as in Examples 7-1 and 7-2.
0 -0 . 1 0 " ~ C - 0.20 - 0.30 - 0.40

Furnace pressure
The bottom gap has 48 in. x % in. = 24 in.=with a 3 ft height for stack effect. From the
top curve of Figure 7.18 at 1700 F, read 0 . 0 1 1 " ~
per~ ft of furnace height. This creates
a furnace pressure (stack effect suction) at the base of the door of - 0.Oll"wclft x
3 ft = - 0 . 0 3 3 " ~ From
~ . Figure 7.19 a t - 0.033 in., read 250 cfh of air infiltration per
i a z . This x 24 = 6000 cfh.
The side gaps are 2 sides x 36 in. high x '/z in. gap = 36 in.2 with a mean height
of 1% ft. This produces a furnace pressure of - 0 . 0 1 1 " ~x~1'/2 = - 0 . 0 1 6 5 " ~ ~From
.
Figure 7.19, the cold air infiltration at the sides will be about 175 ~ f h l i n . ~x, 36 in.2
= 6300 cfh.
The total infiltrated air is therefore 6000 + 6300 = 12 300 cfh. As the furnace ages,
more and wider cracks will develop because continued fluing through the cracks
aggravates the situation. Considerable judgment is required to evaluate this effect;
but for this sample problem, estimate Lhat the average cold air infiltration over the
remaining life of the furnace lining will be 150% of the above calculated figure for the
present situation. Therefore, 1.50 x 1 2 300 = 18 450 cfh. Much of the infiltrated air
will go up a flue without reaching furnace temperature. In this case, estimate that the
equivalent of lh of the 18 450 cfh i s heated to 1700 F and the other half exits with no
temperature rise.
From the bottom curve of Figure 7.18, the unnecessary heat for infiltrated air is 60
Btu/ft3x 18 450 cfh x ?h= 554 000 Btulhr = 554 cfh gas or 4.1 gph of light oil. If the
flues were properly sized for a slightly positive pressure while the burners operated at
high fire rate, the negative pressure condition calculated above probably would exist only
during about % of the 6000 operating hours; so 554 000 Btdhr x 6000 hr/yr x '/3 x
$1.7511 000 000 Btu = $1939.00 possible fuel waste per year. Most of this money could
be saved by installation of automatic furnace pressure control to minimize air infiltration.
It is conceivable that air to the burners could be cut back to compensate for air
in-leakage. If burners could be adjusted to just the right degree of richness to utilize all
infiltrated air, zero money would be wasted. However, it would be difficult to achieve
such thorough mixing of infiltrated air with excess fuel as to produce a llue gas analysis
of 0% O2 and 0% combustibles at all flues; but use of automatic furnace pressure
control to minimize infiltration is a sure way to reduce the waste of fuel.
Figure 7.20a. Aluminum reverberatory fur- Figure 7.20b. Flow pattern through the % in.
nace of Example 7-1. gap all around the door of Example 7-1.
H o t gas out
Cold air in
Example 7-2. A car hearth forge furnace with dimensions as shown in Figure 7.21,
operates at 2300 F about 80 hours per week; and at an average temperature of 1200 F
(bring-up, cooling, idling) for about 60 hours per week. Fuel cost is 35Flgallon. or
$2.331million Btu. Estimate the fuel saving possible by adding furnace pressure control.
The high fire input will keep the furnace pressurized, but when at 1200 F, Figure
7.18 shows the furnace draft will be - 0.010"wclft x 7 ft = - 0 . 0 7 0 " ~ which,
~ from
~ . this furnace, 360 ~ f h l i n x. ~288 in.2 = 103 700 cfh.
Figure 7.19, induces 360 ~ f h l i n .For
In this configuration, it is estimated that an equivalent of % of the infiltrated air "short
circuits" to the flues without being heated. At 1200 F on the bottom curve of Figure 7.18,
the fuel input required to raise the infiltrated air to flue temperature is 30 Btulft"
1/3 x 103 700 cfh x 60 hrlwk = 62.2 million Btulwk. There will probably be more air
in-leakage around the door, as in Example 7-1.
In addition to the bad effect on product uniformity and the longer bring-up time, the
cold air infiltration could waste up to 62.2 million Btulwk x $2.33/miOion Btu = $145.00
per week.
Figure 7.21. Car hearth furnace of Example 7-2.
% in. wide gap all around car =

% in. x (8 + 8 + 16 + 16) x 12 i n . / f t = 288 in.'
Control Equipment. A downdraft flue arrangement (Figure 5.44c, Vol. I) is an

attempt to minimize the chimney effect, but the hearth-level flues and double wall
construction are very expensive. Updraft fluing with an automatic furnace pres-
sure controller involves lower first cost and provides constant positive
furnace pressure down to the hearth at all times.
Figure 7.22a shows a typical automatic system with a furnace pressure

setpoint adjustable from - 0.05 to + 0 . 1 5 " ~ A
~ .compensating line at the same
level as the pressure tap, but immediately outside the furnace, serves as a
standard for comparison. The pressure is usually controlled -- that is, the tap
is located -- at the hearth level. In cases where hearth scale or splashing metal
might plug a low level sensor, the tap is located at an alternate position and the
setpoint adjusted to maintain the desired hearth-level pressure.
Figure 7.22a. Furnace pressure control system. Better uniformity and constancy of temperature,
atmosphere, and input result from automatic control of furnace pressure. Placement ol the
pressure tap for most effective control at all firing rates is largely a matter of experience. A hydraulic
can be used to amplify the signal to a magnitude capable of moving heavy dampers.
pressure sensor
Wind screen Cappe
Dumpcrs. Furnace pressure is usually controlled by adjusting flue dampers

of which there are endless variations (Figures 7.22b through i). For heavy
dampers, a hydraulic system is desirable.
Bell-crank dampers can be counterwejghted; enabling use of a minimum size
operator. They are often used on small furnaces or with a common shaft
operating dampers on a row of flues.
Barometric dampers admit sufficient cold air to reduce stack effect. They
require careful proportioning and locating of the cold air inlet. Furnace
pressure response is slower than with a damper that throttles flue gas. Stability-
enhancing devices are sometimes required.
Butterfly dampers present no particular control problems, but may require
considerable maintenance. Power required to operate them may be under-
estimated through not allowing for warpage and heat damage to the bearings.
Inclined dampers need cylinders sized to overcome the friction between the
damper and slide frame. These and other cable operated types permit more
convenient location for the operator than with a direct connection. Counter-
weighls can be used to reduce operator size. It is best to provide for alternate
manual damper operation over its normal range of travel. The sheave on the
piston rod in Figure 7.22g works in the bight of the cable; so speed and travel
of the damper are twice that of the piston. A double-ended piston rod with a
counterweight conserves space and minimizes the size of cylinder required. In
Figures 7.22f and g, the counterweight size and cylinder area must be twice those
of counterweighls and cylinders traveling the same speed and distance as
the damper.
Figures 7.22b-i. Dampers, eductors, and variable speed induced draft fans can be used as final
control elements in automatic furnace pressure control.
@) Bell-crank damper (c] Barometric damper
(d) Butterfly damper (el Inclined damper
Rachet
Wrench
Hydraulic
Adjustable Cylinder
Weight A
Damper
(f-g) Cable-operated dampers
(h) Clapper damper (i) Venturi stack

Clapper dampers are often used at the tops of tall stacks. All but one of the
moving parts is out of the hot gas.
Venturi stacks control furnace pressure by modulating flow of a cold air jet,
thereby avoiding moving parts in the hot gas stream. Control characteristics
are similar to those with a variable speed induced draft fan.
Air jet dampers eliminate the maintenance problems of moving mechanisms
in the hot flue gas stream for flues no wider than 18 inches (0.45 metres). The
operating cost of the blower air is minimal, and the first cost of the blower can
sometimes also be negligible if the required capacity can be "piggybacked onto
a combustion system blower. Care must be exercised in designing the air jet
manifold and flue arrangement so as to avoid air injection (back-feeding)into
the furnace, which may produce an excessive oxidizing atmosphere, particularly
when the burners are on low fire. See Figure 7.22a. The automatic furnace pres-
sure control needs to move only a small butterfly valve in the air supply line to
an air jet damper; so a light-duty pneumatic or electric operator can be used.
Electronic Equipment. A problem in the past with furnace pressure controls
has been the need for very large (16 in.) diameter sensing diaphragms necessary
to detect the very small furnace pressure changes. These, in turn necessitated
large pressure tap lines and incurred considerable time delay if the lines were
long. A spinoff from the space program has made available highly sensitive
diaphragm arrangements less than one-fourth the previous size with electronic
detection and amplifying circuitry. See Figure 7.23.
Figure 7.23. Furnace pressure control system -- electronically amplified. The transducer (I]senses
differentials from - 0.05 to + 0 . 1 5 " through
~~ taps (2) and (3), and the demodulator and pre-
amplifier produce a dc current signal that is linearly proportional to the input AP. 'l%isis compared
with the adjustable control point to determine the output control signal.
Differential pressure input Duty cycle
Furnace
pressure ta
tap
Demodulator
Level Motor
HF oscillator detector controller
Pressure
( 1 ) Transducer capsule indicator
* See EPICmin the Glossary.

The output of an electronic pressure indicating controller such as Figure 7.23

is fed to a pair of 110 V ac solid state relays that serve as a bidirectional
motor controller, or they may be used to operate external motor starters,
relays, or electro-hydraulic valves. The electronic controllers are more compact,
easier to install, need only small pressure tap lines, and respond more quickly.
Figure 7.24 shows such an installation. In some cases, there may be a delayed
response in system pressure. A manually adjustable cycle timer is used to
achieve control stability despite this system time lag, by setting the fraction of
each minute during which the motor controller is actuated (from 3 to 60 seconds).
See also the next section.
COMPLETE COMBUSTION CONTROLS
Complete combustion system controls automalically control the 3 major

aspects of combustion, and provide for later addition of many sophisticated
control features.
Integration of several combustion control functions into a single controller can

simplify operation and maintenance for industrial heat processing systems.
Figures 7.14, 7.25a, and 7.25b illustrate such controllers, which can be
configured to control the following: 1)aidfuel ratio, with options for lead-lag,
air preheat compensation (mass flow control), O2trim, 3 fuels simultaneously,
air plus oxygen simultaneously (enrichment); 2) furnace pressure; 3) input (as
sensed by temperature or steam pressure); and 4) communication with higher
level control systems.
For any furnace, process heater, kiln, incinerator, boiler, or oven that will
use (a) more than about 5 million Btdhr of purchased fuel, (b) two or more
fuels simultaneously, (c) preheated air, or [d) oxygen enrichment, a complete
combustion control system will save fuel costs and simplify control. If any of
situations a, b, c, d, or an appreciable rise in fuel cost, are anticipated in the
next few years, a complete combustion control system (such as shown in Figures
7.25a and b) will be a good investment because it will accommodate growing
into more sophisticated control schemes.
Modern combustion control systems incorporate scaling in a variety of

engineering units, and they are adaptable to use with distributed control
systems. They facilitate remote supervision and provide management with
recorded information for review.
Figure 7.25a. Furnace with a typical complete combustion system controller. This type of control
is ready for fulure addition of air preheat, more fuels, or oxygen enrichment.
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
Supply voltage
120 V ac 60 Hz Retransmitted Oxygenlratio trim
Process 0r
temperature
Fuel flows
-1 remote temperature
setpoint
actuator
drive outputs
are 120 V ac time
proportioning
separate inputs)
(up to 2
--
Combustion air temp

Air actuator
[for 1 air input
i f desired) <-bT
--
Furnace
pressure
@A
A,
Controller
station
Furnace pressure
actuator drive
7 Recorder outputs
rl--- (all outputs are 0-10 V dc)
- Process temperature
- Fuel 1
- Sum of fuel
- Ratio
\-=)
Q+-z!
Remote oxygeniratio
Remote temperature
Setpoint source
-
-
Sum of air
Furnace pressure
trim signal
COMBUSTION SUPERVISING CONTROLS

The objective of a combustion supervising system is to stop the flow of fuel
if the flame should happen to be extinguished. If the fuel flow is not stopped,
the combustion chamber (or an entire building) may be filled with an explosive
mixture of fuel and air.
A pilot is not enough protection. It may go out or become inadequate to
relight an extinguished main flame promptly; or a pilot may be unable to
relight the main flame if the airlfuel ratio is too rich or too lean, if the feed
rate is too fast or too slow, or if atomization is poor.
The old idea that a constant pilot was helpful because it was always there
to relight an extinguished flame has fallen into disrepute. Too many pilot
flames have been unable to light a main flame when needed but have later
served to ignite an explosive accumulation of air-fuel mixture. An interrupted
pilot with its programmed trial-for-ignition period is the best way to avoid
a pilot-ignited explosion. To prevent accumulation of unburned fuel in a
combustion chamber, flame monitoring devices should be used to govern
automatic fuel shutoff valves.
Automatic Fuel Shutoff Valves. Any automatic fuel shutoff valve (manual reset
or automatic reset] should be wired to interlocks so as lo close upon failure of
(1) combustion or atomizing air blower, [2] any element of the input control
system (such as temperature limits, steam pressure limits), (3) air pressure at
the burner, (4) fuel pressure at the burner, (51 current from the flame detector,
or (6) current from other safety devices such as low water cutoff and high
pressure cutoff. In special cases there may be additional items connected to the
shutoff valve. The fuel shutoff valve must be connected in series with all of these
elements as shown in Figure 7.26a. Fuel, air, and steam pressure can be
converted to an electrical signal by means of a bellows, Bourdon tube, or
diaphragm operated switch.
The prime requisites of any fuel shutoff valve are that it cannot be manually
locked open, that it shut tightly, and that it be sensitive to any possible failure
in the system. In addition it is desirable to have a manual shutoff arrangement,
high mechanical advantage for easy opening, and an auxiliary switch.
In a typical manual reset fuel shutoff valve installation, interruption of any
interlock circuit cuts off power to an electromagnet that has been holding the
valve open, and a strong spring snaps the valve shut so that fuel flow is stopped
quickly. When the trouble has been eliminated so that the circuit is again
closed, the valve can be opened by the action of a hand lever. If, however, the
trouble has not been satisfactorily corrected, the circuit remains open and
the valve cannot be opened by moving the hand lever because the valve stem
remains disengaged from the handle. This is termed a manual reset fuel
shutoff valve as differentiated from an automatic reset fuel shutoff valve that
automatically "resets" and reopens when power is restored. The manual reset
type is used wherever the presence of an operator is required to assure a safe,
low-firerelighting of the burners. Spring action closes the fuel valve when the
electro magnet is de-energized. Actuating the handle will not reopen a manual
reset valve until the eleclro magnet circuit is energized. When the valve is open,
the handle may be used to close it.
Automatic reset fuel shutoff valves are used only with programmed
relighting cycles that include automatic pre-purge and post-purge and purging
with a timed trial for ignition on a monitored interrupted pilot followed by
a monitored main flame. Except in very small sizes, such as pilot solenoid
valves, automatic reset type valves are designed to open slowly so as not
to damage regdating equipment or blow out pilot flames, and so as Lo provide
a smooth main flame light-up.
Figure 7.26a. Wiring for an automatic fuel shutoff valve. The circuit <:anbe arranged as shown
so that the valve will close upon failure of any of several interlocks of a combustion system.
Other possible interlocks might include such items as a circulating air flow switch, a conveyor
stoppage switch, and emergency pushbuttons at exits.
L, (hot)
(interlocks)
Momentary power interruptions can cause nuisance shutdowns where

manual reset fuel shutoff valves are used. If this is a frequent problem, some
people use an electronic device known as a valve trip delay to maintain power
to the fuel shutoff valve for 1 second, supposedly long enough to span a typical
interruption but not long enough to allow a hazardous fuel accumulation.
With modern flame supervising systems, it is better to use a total battery-backed
power outage system.
Because a fuel shutoff valve affects the final action commanded by a

trouble-detecting system, a leak or failure of such a valve could be extremely
dangerous. For this reason, most insuring authorities insist that in gas systems
there be two fuel shutoff valves in series (redundancy -- main and blocking valves),
plus provision for a periodic leak test of bolh valves. See Figure 7.26b.
All of the leak test methods consist of some sort of shutoff valve immediately
downstream from the fuel shutoff valves with provision for detecting pressure
build-up between the valves (as would occur if a fuel shutoff valve were
leaking). The simplest form of leak test utilizes a petcock with a rubber hose,
the open end of which is immersed in a beaker of waier so that one can observe
bubbles of fuel forming in the water if a leak exists. The most reliable leak
check system is a programmed automatic check device such as a "Double
Checker." It makes an automatic check after each closure of the fuel shutoff
valve, using a pressure switch and alarm.
Figure 7.26b. Gas train component arrangement should be in this order: 1) manual shutoff valve,
2) stepdown gas pressure regulator, 3) low gas pressure switch, 4) main automatic shutoff valvo.
A) leak test cock, 5) vent valve if required, 6) high gas pressure switch, 71 blocking valve, B) leak
test cock, 8) manual shutoff valve, and 9) airlgas ratio regulator if used.
Vent outdoors
to safe location
Drip FLOW
leg
Current national standards do not require the use of a vent valve between
the main and blocking valves, but a few authorities insist that a vent valve be
used. Vent valves have occasionally stuck apen, allowing large volumes of fuel
to vent to atmosphere unnoticed. This could be extremely costly and may create
a hazard. Leak testing devices are not permitted on vent lines; so a more expen-
sive vent valve that contains a "proof-of-closure" switch might be justified.
A vent line pipe must connect the vent valve discharge to the outdoors,
peferably above a roof. The vent pipe cross-sectional area must be equal to
or greater than the venl valve port area. Vent lines must not be manifolded, nor
exceed 40' in length.
Supervising Valve System. When gas furnace explosions occur they often
happen during light-up because someone carelessly left one of the gas burner
valves open after the previous shutdown, thus allowing the furnace to be
filled with unburned fuel as soon as the main fuel valve was opened. The
supervising valve system reduces the probability of such light-up explasions.
A special supervising gas valve at each burner is drilled with a small
secondary passage located so that it is open only when the main passage is
closed. A checking pressure line is connected through the secondary passages
of all the gas valves so that a pressure switch at the end of the line cannot
close a circuit to the fuel shutoff valve unless all of the valves are shut. If
the operator finds that he cannot open the fuel shutoff valve because a
valve has been left open, he must not only close the valve but also he must
understand that the furnace is to be purged before he lights any of the pilots
or burners. Operator intelligence is necessary. The supervising valve system is a
start-permissive concept; whereas flame supervision is a run-permissive concept.
A system equivalent to the supervising valve system can be obtained by use
of end switches on the gas valves. The checking pressure line is thereby replaced
by an electrical circuit that is closed when all fuel valves are turned to the off
position. This method could easily be adapted to oil valves as well as gas valves.
For protection equal to that provided by the checking pressure system, the
checking circuit must be wired through pressure switches on the fuel line and
air lines.
A supervising valve system is not a substitute for a flame supervising system.
Burner management systems with programmed purge cycles will become more
universally used, obviating the need for supervising valve systems.
Flame monitoring devices are sometimes termed flame detectors, scanners,
sensors, eyes. Thermopiles and bimetal warping devices are limited to domestic
and low-input heating applications where fast cooling is assured upon flame
failure. Photocells (cadmium sulfide) are rarely used because they are too easily
"fooled" by light sources other than flames. Lead sulfide (infrared) cells are used
only with circuitry to detect the flicker of a flame.
Flame electrode or flame rod type detectors rely upon the ability of ionized
gases in the flame to rectify a n a c current. The point where the rod intersects
the pilot and main flames must be a point where the pilot can assuredly ignite
the main flame. Either flame alone can then rectify the current between the rod
and a ground. The ground, usually on the burner body, should have at least four
times as much area as the immersed portion of the flame rod. Flame electrodes
a r e used for gas flames only, and usually on smaller installations. Care must be
exercised to keep the electrode and its porcelain insulator clean and dry Lo avoid
nuisance shutdowns. Excessive temperature on the electrode may result in
drooping and system shutdown,
Ultraviolet detector tubes are sensitive to the ultraviolet (UV) radiation

emitted by all flames in small amounts. They are completely insensitive to
infrared and visible radiation; so they cannot be fooled by radiation from hot
refractory. When W radiaiion impinges on the cathode wiLhin h e detector tube,
electrons start to flow toward the anode, ionizing the gas within so that it can
conduct a d-c current a s long a s a voltage is applied to the terminals. To make
such a system fail-safe, an interruptor, such a s a shutter, ensures that the tube
will conduct a current only while receiving the UV radiation that repeatedly
re-establishes its conductivity.
Combustion products and steam are opaque lo ultraviolel radiation; so Lhe

scanning device must be aimed near the root end of a flame, and steam
atomization may require special positioning. However, this assures positive
discrimination from adjacent and opposing burners. The a r c of a spark igniter
emits much uliraviolet radiation; so the scanner must not view such a n igniter
nor its reflection unless it is interrupted. If a UV detector is to sight through a
closed port, the lens must be of a n ultraviolet-transmitting material such as fused
quartz.
Pilots and direct electric igniters should be rigidly positioned so that the
pilot flame or igniting a r c intersects the main burner flame and can light it
a t any rate or airlfuel ratio expected to exist whenever light-up is necessary.
See Figure 7.27a. Similarly, a flame monitoring device should be positioned so
that it can detect the presence of a pilot* andlor the main flame a t any safe rate
or airlfuel ratio expected to be used during the entire period of burner opera-
tion. See Figure 7.27b.
It is usually safer and more practical to program burners {particularly bigger

burners) to be ignited a t low fire. Most modern burners are designed with
built-in pilot and main flame monitor holders that have been proven to meet all
of the above requirements. See Figures 7 . 2 7 ~and 7.27d.
* In a programmed flame supervising system.

Figure 7.27a. Pilot location relative to the main flame. A pilot must be capable of igniting
the main flame whether the feed stream through the burner is a high rate, low rate, rich ratio,
or lean ratio.
Lo fire Lean
Hi fire Rich
Figure 7.27b. Monitor location relative to the main flame. A flame monitoring device must be
positioned so that it will be capable of detecting the main flame regardless of whether the feed
stream issuing from the burner js a t high rate, low rate, rich ratio, or lean ratio.
1 bul
Lo fire
I I
kwl Lean
Hi fire Rich
Figure 7 . 2 7 ~ . Burner-pilot-monitor geometry. Figure 7.27d. High velocity dual-fuel burner

The desirable geometry is with the centerline with spark-ignited pilot and flame monitor
of the pilot* or electric igniter and the flame positioned by the burner manufacturer as a
monitoring device intersecting the flame a t result of extensive testing.
low firing rate; but it is essential that the
arrangement be tested for smooth lighting
~9
characteristics and adequate monitoring signal
a t all anticipated light-up and operating con-
ditions. See also Figure 8.7a.
\#
),\,;/
Pilot I Monitor
Main
flame
* In a programmed flame supervising system.

78 NORTH AMEHICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK I
Interrupted pilots are turned off after a programmed trial-for-ignition period
whether the main flame is established or not. They are required* instead of
constant, standing, or intermittent pilots (which continue to burn after the
main flame is established]. The logic behind this requirement is, if something 1
I
goes wrong causing the main flame to go out, the flame monitor would still
detect a constant pilot, and therefore hold the fuel valve open, causing the cham-
ber to be filled with a n air-fuel mixture. This situation is most likely to happen
when something goes wrong that causes lhe airlfuel ratio Lo go rich, and the main
flame goes out because it is too rich to burn. If someone then either opens a fur-
nace door, turns off the fuel, or does anything that brings the accumulated rnix-
ture back within lhe limits of flammability [explosive limits), the standing pilot
may ignite the whole accumulated air-fuel mixture.
IF YOU EVER COME UPON THIS SITUATION--pilot on, fuel on, main
flame out--TURN OFF ANY SPARK IGNITER, PILOT AIR, and pilot fuel
IMMEDIATELY.+ Many persons' first impulse may be to shut off the fuel, but
that might allow the mix in the chamber to become lean enough to explode. IL
is usually belter to permit ihe rich mix of fuel and air to cool everything well
below the ignition temperature. Then, when you a r e sure there are absolutely
no hot spots or other sources of ignition in the chamber, ventilate the room, open
the furnace doors, and shut off the fuel.
The above-described explosion hazard can occur on a furnace without flame
monitoring equipment if the human monitor fails to turn off the pilot when he
sees or hears the main flame go out. Observation ports should be kept clean and
used for frequent flame surveillance on every furnace.
Burner management systems start and slop the burner(s) upon signals from
the flame monitor, limit control interlocks, and the input controller; assure safe
starts by proper sequencing and by checking their own components before each
start; check for the presence of a n adequate ignition source and monitor the main
flame during burner operation; shul down the burner in proper sequence if an
unsafe condition develops. Some burner management systems are interfaced with
other controllers in a process system.
Nonprogramming flame supervising systems consist of one or more flame
monitoring devices and control circuits which when properly applied provide
the following protection. During light-up they sense the presence of a pilot flame
a t a location where the pilot will reliably ignite the main burner before permit-
ting the main fuel shutoff valve to be energized and opened. Following main flame
ignition it is recommended that the system shut off the pilot flame and monitor
only the main flame. In the event of flame failure, the circuitry causes all fuel
" Per NFPA 86 code, with some exceptions. (Reference 7.c.)

t If at a filling station you saw a stream of leaking gasoline, wouldn'l you put out your cigarette
before attempting to stop the leak?
to be shut off. An operator's attention is necessary before the next pilot flame
establishing period or trial-for-ignition can start. Because of this characteristic,
these systems are also termed nonrecycling flame supervising systems. These
systems must be used with other items to provide minimum standards of
operation.
Programming flame supervising systems are similar to nonprogramming
systems but they can also provide additional functions such as pre-purge,
post-purge, and automatic relight without operator assistance.
Approved flame supervising systems, either programming or nonprogramming,
have nominal flame-failure response times of 2 seconds, maximum of 4 seconds.
They may have flame-failure contacts that can be wired into alarm and signal
circuits. They usually have a built-in safe-start check to prevent light-up if
the flame-sensing relay is in the flame-present position due to component
failure within the flame supervising system, or due to the presence of actual
or simulated flame.
A typical programmed flame supervising system common to both pilot and main
flame and using spark-ignitedpilots, might include the following light-up sequence,
as illustrated in Figure 7.28.
11 Prove air flow; check that air pressure is above low limit; check that gas pres-
sure is above low limit; check that gas pressure is below high limit.
Figure 7.28. Burner lighting sequence. This generalization is for a common flame monitor
supervising either pilot flame or main flame. Different insuring and governing authorities may
require alternate trial-for-ignition times, air changes, and sequences.
"Low
Limits Fim"
complete Pmven
J. Purge
f
Burner safe
Start Start Start Flame
purge1 k?! Signal Check Flame must Failure
1 f be detected *
1
Purge
limits
made
F
-5 ~ir-L(
I IGNITION
PILOT VALVES OPEN[ MAIN FUEL VALVES OPEN
-10-4 F~uel-Lf -+ +Shutdown
Changes* seconds Dependent in
Gas = 10 seconds 3 sec
Burner tight Oil = lo seconds ~ tsec
l
start Heavy Oil = 15 seconds
signal
LOW
fire
-
proven Trme
3.
Combustion
Air Valve
Direct Spark
Safe
start
check
2) Time delay for a minimum purge of 4* standard cubic feet of fresh air or
inert gas per cubic foot of heating chamber volume and flue passage. The
minimum required purge flow must be proven.
3) Energize (open) pilot solenoid(s) and energize electric ignition source.
4) Prove pilot flame and time out electric ignition source, allowing pilot flame
to continue burning. (If pilot is not proven within l o t seconds, de-energize
pilot solenoid and require manual reset before recycling is possible.)
5) Energize circuit to allow manual or automatic opening of the fuel shutoff
valve(s)t and automatic closing of the vent valve (if any) in a block and vent
arrangement.
6) Within lo* seconds after main fuel flow begins, the pilot valve(s) should be
de-energized to interrupt the pilots.
7) Prove the main flame.
8) Release control to the input control system.
Use offlame supervising systems is required on each operating burner on any
furnace, boiler, kiln, heater, or oven when below 1400 F (760 Cj. Even when such
combustion chambers are normally operated above 1400 F (760 C), it must be
remembered that they are not above this temperature level during start-up and
warmup, which is a particularly hazardous time. The above-mentioned 1400 F
furnace temperature level is a generally agreed upon minimum temperature at
which an industrial burner flame will be reliably ignited from the hot furnace
interior. For installations that run continuously above 1400 F for long periods,
it may be desirable to remove the flame supervising equipment to protected
storage, or to electrically bypass it after the furnace is above 1400 F. See
Reference 7.c at the end of Part 7.
The minimum temperature at which accidentally accumulated flammable gas
or vapor input might be ignited by the hot furnace interior, or by a standing pilot
or spark, and thereby cause an explosion, is the ignition temperature of the fuel
(Table 1.10 in Volume I) or of flammable volatiles or combustible niaterial being
heated (Table 5-2 in Reference 7.c at the end of Part 7).
There are innumerable standard and custom-designed wiring systems for
single- and multiple-burner and single- and multiple-zone flame supervising
systems. These simplify installation for the user. For installations having many
burners, where having more than one burner shut down at a time would
jeopardize a costly load, independent burner operation may be required. Such
a system provides separate flame supervision and fuel shutoff valves for each
burner. Thus failure of one burner will not shut down other burners in the zone.
* Some insuring authorities may require different timing or different numbers of air changes.
t Some program sequences automatically turn the input down to low fire rate for the main flame
lighting. If not automatic, it is advisable, and in many cases necessary, to manually turn the
input rate to low fire in order to satisfy a low fire interlock switch before the lighting sequence
* can be started.
10 seconds for gas or light oil; 15 seconds for heavy oil.
Nuisance shutdowns are a frequent complaint about flame supervising

systems. An annunciator simplifies trouble-shooting.
Recent and continuing developments are minimizing many of the objections
to flame supervising systems, such as the time and money required for wiring,
and the time and money involved in trouble-shooting shutdowns. An honest
appraisal of the cost of an explosion or fuel-fed fire will almost always justify
the cost of a flame supervising system. The Industrial Heating Equipment
Association's Combustion Technology Manual (Reference 7.a listed at the end
of Pari 7) states the rationale for flame supervising systems very well:
"The need for f l a ~ n esupervisory and sequence controls h a s been firmly
cstablished by experience. There is u continuing reluctance to use protective
controls becausc of potentiul nuisance problems. Properly installed und
maintained, modern systems a r e reliable and simpIe to operate. An explosir~n
may cuuse extensive property damage, personal injury and business interruptions.
Many companies cnnnul recover from business intmruption as a result of an
explosion. It is, therefore, imperative that all precautions available be taken
to prevent potential hazards."
The irony of safety controls is the fact that they sometimes are used so rarely
that they easily fall into neglect and become unsafe. An essential corollary of
a safety equipment investment is a safety maintenance commitment -- regular
checking of safety circuits and mechanisms to make sure that there has
been no tampering, jumpering, clogging, galling, wearing, corroding, or other
irregularity. If an interlock or valve has not been actuated for months, there is
a chance that it never will be -- even when needed!
REFERENCES
7.a I.H.E.A.: "Combustion Technology Manual", 4th ed., pp. 93-102, 202,
Industrial Heating Equipment Assn., 1901 N. Moore St., Arlington,
VA 22209, 1988.
7.b Marceau, W. D.: "Combustion Systems and Combustion Control",
vol, 36, pp. XLVIII-LI, Canadian Ceramic Society Journal, 1967. [Some
of the data in this paper is through the courtesy of Selas Corporation
and the Glass Container Industry Research Corp. Graphs from this,
plus additional data, a r e available in North American HBS 273.)
7.c N.F.P.A. 86: "Ovens and Furnaces", pp. 47 and 13, National Fire
Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269, 1995.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to combustion control

Bodurtha, F. T.: "Industrial Explosion Prevention and Protection", McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1980.
Factory Mutual Engineering Corporation: "Handbook of Industrial Loss
Prevention", 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1967.
Fisher Controls Company: "Conlrol Valve Handbook", 2nd ed., 4th printing,
Fisher Controls Company, Marshalltown, IA, 1977.
N.F.P.A.: "Prevention of Furnace Explosions in.. .
Fuel Oil & Nal'l Gas-Fired Sgl Burner BlrlPces", NFPA 85A, '87;
Natural Gas-Fired Multiple Burner BoilerIFces", NFPA 85B, '84;
Fuel Oil-Fired Multiple Burner BoilerlFurnaces", NFPA 85D, '84;
Pulverized Coal-Fired Multiple Burner BlrlFces", NFPA 85E, '85;
National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy,
MA 02269
Vervalin, C. H. (ed.): "Fire Protection Manual for Hydrocarbon Processing
Plants", vol. 1 , 3 r d ed., 1985; vol. 2, 1st ed., 1981; Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, TX.
Part 8. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
BURNER INSTALLATION
Refractory Tiles. Major causes of burner and furnace failures are refractory
expansion and leakage of hot combustion products into the supposedly cool areas
around burner mounting and between the furnace shell and refractory, Figures
8.1, 8.2, and 8.6 illustrate typical problems. Expansion joints are particularly
important in tall refractory walls with burners near the top. Figures 8.3, 8.4,
8.5, and 8.6 suggest construction delails for preventing tile damage. Burner tiles
must not be expected to support refractory above them--use spanner tiles or
a cast arch or slab.
Tiles should be supported by the refractory wall. Small lightweight burners
may be supported by their tiles, but the burner piping should have independent
support. In thin walls or walls of low strength materials, a heat-resistant metal
support should surround the tile or high temperature alloy expanded metal may
be cast within the tile, The opening for a burner in a ceramic blanket wall should
Figure 8.1. A tile failure in shear due to Figure 8.2. A tile failure in tension as a
unequal expansion of the refractory and shell result of bowing or buckling of the shell or
or unequal expansion between layers of refrac- brickwork. Prevent this by nsing more rigid
tory. Expansion joints in refractory brickwork sliell, buckstay, and bracing construction. Install
and a matrix arnund the tile can prevent this. a high temperature matrix to prevent "fiuing"
of gases through to the shell.
Burner Burner
Tile / Tile
Mtg.
Plate
be cut undersize and the excess material tucked in tightly around the supported
burner tile. Because of shrinkage after firing, periodic repacking with extra
ceramic fiber is advisable. Treat tiles tenderly -- support, contain, avoid strain.
A gap around a burner tile is not the only means whereby hot furnace gases
may reach and damage lower grade refractory or insulation or the furnace shell.
As shown in Figure 8.6, observation ports and other openings, even doors may
provide the passageway. A very tiny crack can "snowball" into a warped or
molten mass. One never knows when or where some pressure effect may
develop that could cause hot gases to flow within the wall; so it is wise to design
walls and ports to prevent the problem. All refractories should be anchored tightly
against one another and against the furnace shell.
Figure 8.3. Recommended method for installing a burner tile. Elevation section through a
vertical furnace wall.
Insulating refractory or 11lock insulation.
High temperature refractory. All refractory
must he tied securely to furnace shell plate.
Horizontal and vertical expansion joints must
be provided in surrounding refractory to
prevent pressure from being cxerted on the
burner tile.
Horizontal angles welded to furnace shell
plate between buckstays. Vertical anglcs
should also be welded to the shell plate on
each side of the burner.
Burner mounting bolts with heads welded in
place.
Gasket -- may be used to provide better seal
between burner mounting plate and furnace
shell plate.
Anchor tiles tied back to angle {preferred to
- -
Fz), or
Stainless steel bent-rod anchors, mastic-
coated.
Castable refractory all around --minimum
thickness = 9 in. or Yz tile OD, whichever is
greater. Rammed refractory is a n alterna-
tive, but anchors then must be refractory
type. (Castable is preferred because its
entire mass sets up without firing.)
Waterproofing (all around) to prevent sur-
rounding refractory from absorbing water
from the castable refractory. Plastic sheel
is suggcstcd.
Shelf support angle. This and expansion joint
K prevent vertical pressure from being
exerted on burner tile. This construction is
especially helpful when burners are located
high in a wall.
Expansion joint, densely packed with refrac-
tory wool.
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS 85
Figure 8.4. Suggested refractory installation around large burners for which no tile is supplied.
Expansion joints must be provided in surrounding refractory to prevent strain on the cast or rammed
burner tunnel section.
Rammed, cast, or
Plastic sheet t o prevent

water absorption by sur-
rounding refractory from
matrix section.
or % tunnel ID,
whichever is
@pendentlyrammed or
ast matrix section, not
refractory. Burner tunnel

of shape dimensions specified
by burner manufacturer,
Back-up insulation
Furnace shell plate
Figure 8.5. Section through a fiber-lined vertical furnace wall showing the generally recommended
method for installing a burner's refractory tile (2200 P maximum). Standard non-supported or non-
jacketed tiles are not suitable for long life in fiber-lined furnace.
A1 = Ceramic fiber modules. [Does not require

" B if modules a r e tight to burner.)
A2 = Fiber type blanket, block, or board insu-
lation.
B = Blanket insulation wrapped around tile. Use
blanket 1" thick with a t least 8 lb/EtZdensity
and temperature rating equai to furnace
lining.
C = High temperature, air setting refractory
cement -- thin wash coat.
D = Must be burner refractory tile constructed
two wraps of 1" specifically for fiber-lined furnaces, (Non-
blanker supported cast or prefired tiles usually are
not suitable for fiber-lined furnaces.)
E = Non-metallic fastening device (tape, rope,
plastic, cheesecloth, etc.) to compress and
secure wrapped blanket about tile.
F = Gasket: to provide a seal between burner
mounting plate and furnace shell.
G = Burner mounting bolts with heads welded
to inside of furnace shell.
NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTlON HANDBOOK
Figure 8.6. Observation port design is

important near burners with negative tile Hot
pressure. furnace
gases
Observation ports on burners and pilots are useful, and should be kept clean,
but additional and larger ports should be installed through the furnace wall
(a) to view the main flame from a location within reach of the adjusting valve,
and (b) to view into the tile.
GENERAL PIPING PRACTICE
Piping must conform to specifications of insuring authorities and to local, state,

and national codes. See Reference 8.c. For fuel gas lines, the local gas utility's
industrial department may be able to supply information on such codes; and they
may have their own regulations. For propane piping, consult the propane
supplier and Reference 8.d.
All fuel oil systems must be laid out and installed in accordance with rules
of the American Insurance Association (85 John St., NY, NY 10038, tel.
212-669-0400),and Reference 8.b, as well as local and other governmental codes.
Consult local fire officials.
Burner Piping. No pipe weight nor stress should be transmitted to a burner.

(Remember:People may walk on horizontal pipes.) Flexible connections minimize
stress and vibration transmission, but their necessarily thin sections must be
checked frequently for rupture if the vibration is prolonged or severe. Figure
8.7a suggests preferred positions for air and fuel supply manifolds and for pilot
and flame monitoring systems relative to burners.
*
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Always pipe air, gas.

pilot, and flame monitor
Figure 8.7a. Preferred piping positions for horizontally- to top or side of burner
fired burners. Neither steam nor oil should drip into an air
line (where it might burn] nor a gas line (where it could
damage regulator diaphragms, and where its weight on a
diaphragm would upset airigas ratio control). Pilots and
flame monitoring devices have very small openings; so they
should be located above the burner centerline where neither
refractory crumbs, dirt, nor drips can interfere with their
operalion.
oil and steam from
below
Fuel lines should be "black iron pipe" [steel, not coated]. The sulfur in fuels
will react with the zinc in galvanized pipe to form a sludge. Malleable iron or
welding fittings are preferrod for strength and to minimize the possibility of leaks
developing, Welding type fittings or fabricated connections can usually be
designed to offer less flow resistance. Soldered joints should not be used for fuel
lines because they could melt in the event of a fire. Drip legs should be
installed upstream of regulators, valves, and burners to protect them from dirt
and water. (Drip legs are often run all the way to the floor to help support the
piping.) See References 8.c and 8.d at the end of Part 8.
Air lines may be of almost any type of pipe, tubing, or duct material if it is
clean, airtight, and strong enough for the anticipated pressure and temperature.
Workmen often walk on horizontal air pipes; so they may need greater structural
strength than dictated by the flowing fluid. Piping must have its own support
brackets to avoid strain on burners, blowers, and accessories.
Manifolds. To minimize dripping when burners are not in use, oil and steam
headers (manifolds)should be located below the burner centerline. For oil and
dual-fuel systems, air and gas headers should be above the burners or piped so
that the air and gas connections are on top of the burners so that liquids cannot
drip into them. Similarly, for burners in vertical walls, the pilot and flame
monitoring device should be located above the centerline of the burner mounting
plate.
To avoid large pressure drops, care should be exercised to prevent excessive
contraction of fluid streams as they enter pipes of smaller cross section.
Uniform flow dislribution in the downcomers fed by a manifold is usually
enhanced by following the suggestions in Figure 8.7b.
Figure 8.7b. Manifold design suggestions for promoting uniform flow distribution and minimum
pressure loss.
- THlS
end feed
L I
THlS NOT THlS
I
ling
Longitudinal Cross
Section Section
Piping. Many local codes prohibit the use of reducing bushings because they
are more prone to leak than reducing couplings. They also cause more pressure
loss than reducing couplings, Holding the use of elbows and tees to a minimum
will result in less pressure drop. The ends of all pipe should be reamed before
fitting. Pipe should be inspected and blown or flushed out to avoid future
plugging of regulators, valves, and burners. Every section of pipe should be blown
out before and after assembly.*
*The need for frequent inspection of piping during installation cannot be overstressed. Banana
peels, apple cores, pop bottles, cloth, and paper have been found to cause expensive and time-
delaying start-up troubles.
Figure 8.8. Many otherwise sound combustion installations have failed to operate correctly
because of improper piping. Too often, the only cure has been extensive repiping, causing back
charges and lost production time.
Minimum run of straight unobstructed pipe,
LocationlExplanation in pipe diameters
Between mixer or mixture piping and

premix burner nozzlelto insure thorough
mixing and flame stability +
Between impulse tap and upstream control valve
and downstream fitting or valve and on the same
centerline a s the shaft of the butterfly valvclto
avoidJalse signal to (1 rc~lioregdotor or controller.
Bctween control valve and first downstream pipe

branch or manifold downcomer I to achieve equal
Jlow and pressurc distribution to all downstream
branches.
Bctween s u ~ u l velbow or tee

and first downstream branch
or manifold downcomerl to
achieve equal !low und
pressure distribution lo
all downstream branches.
Between pressure gauge or pressurc

switch tap and upstream or downstream
valve or fittinglto avoid false reatlings
becolrse (JJlopsided flow. (Do not use a
valve with a pressurc switch.]
Between gas metering orifice and

upstream or downstream valve or
fitting1because accurate
repeatable measurement
requires undisturbed
flow.t
12" maximum regardless

Between airloil Ratiotrol and burner of pipe size
centerlinelto avoid an error in the oil
pressure and flow a t the atomizer due
to the weight of a column of oil.
.-
t 10 straight unobstructed pipe diameters upstream and 4 downstream a r e sufficient for staying
within 2% flow error with 8697 Metering Orifices. For straight pipe requirements for installation
of orificcs (other than 8697) see Reference 8.a (at the end of Part 8).
Failure to follow the straight, unobstructed pipe requirements outlined in Figure

8.8 may necessitate extensive and expensive repiping. Premix burners should
not be piped to mixers with elbows or short nipples because such a compact
arrangement often results in flame instability at other than closely held airlfuel
ratios. It may also result in mixture pressures having to be held lower than desired
to avoid flame liftoff; or in flames being poorly developed, frequently resulting
in nuisance outages by flame supervisory devices.
Poorly installed impulse lines transmit false pressure signals, defeating the
purpose of the airlfuel ratio control system and causing fuel waste, burner
instability, incorrect furnace atmosphere, and poor temperature uniformity.
Pressure gauges and manometers connected in incorrect locations give false
readings and thereby mislead furnace operators when they are attempting to
set firing rates or airlfuel ratios.
Use of street elbows should be avoided because Lhey constitute a greater
constriction than a standard elbow and nipple of the same nominal size. If
corrugated flexible connectors are needed to minimize transfer of vibration or
stress to other parts of the piping system, the connector should be installed
with little or no bend. Using one size larger helps reduce turbulence and line
pressure loss.
Anti-seize compounds should be used on threaded connections in burners
and mounting plates, which may get hot. Teflon pipe thread sealing paste,
commercial pipe dope compounds, or Teflon tape should be used, but none of
these should be used in excess or over the end of the thread where they will
be sheared off and plug small downstream orifices. There are many compounds
available for the above two purposes. Care should be used in selecting them for
the anticipated temperature, and to make sure that they do not dissolve in or
react with any fluid that may flow in or around the pipe. Slow drying, non-
hardening compounds are usually preferred.
Unions, flanges, or couplings should be installed wherever necessary to
allow easy removal of burners, regulators, valves, or accessories for cleaning,
maintenance, and inspection. ANSI flanges [formerly American Standard) or
flange unions can be used in either fuel or air lines. Lightweight square 4-bolt
flanges are ideal for air lines. Morris or Dresser type couplings are convenient
in place of unions to allow for expansion and some variation in pipe lengths and
alignment.
Accessories. Great caution is necessary in specifying sizes for valves,
strainers, regulators, and the pipe itself. Mere matching of the pipe to the size
of the pipe connection on the accessory or vice versa will often result in
trouble, Every selection should be carefully engineered for flow and pressure
requirements in accordance with the procedures outlined in Part 5, Vol. I. The
accessory manufacturer's data on pressure loss should be consulted. Even
after careful selection of sizes, specifications must be emphatic to avoid the

natural tendency of an unknowing pipe fitter to install pipe of the same size as
the accessory pipe connection.
Gate valves, rotary plug type valves, and blast gates are to be used as shutoff
valves only --not for flow control. Air filters should be installed on all blower
inlets to exclude such foreign matter as lint or dust which might clog burners
and control equipment. Strainers should be located upstream from all oil and
steam control equipment,
OIL HANDLING SYSTEMS
The properties of commercially available fuel oils have become very

changeable because (1) low sulfur requirements have farced blending or
different refining methods and (2) shortages and the resulting changes in supply
sources have brought about changing mixes of base materials. As a result, the
oil user can no longer count on steady pour points and viscosities, and he must
expect problems with separation and degradation in his storage tanks. This
necessitates that he design or revamp his oil handling system to prepare for the
worst oils.
A few problems common to large and small distributing circuits for both light
and heavy oil are outlined below. The warnings of the preceding section
regarding piping should be re-read.
Air in oil lines may result in poor control, irregular burning, and limited
capacity. Removal of air is best accomplished in a system of the recirculating
type, that is where oil is continuously pumped from the tank to the furnace and
back again. "Dead end" systems do not adequately purge themselves of air. The
branch lines from the circulating manifold to the burners should be as short and
straight as possible. Air bubbles will not follow the oil if it is forced to flow
downward, but will collect at a high point in the line. For this reason, oil lines
should not rise over (or drop under) a furnace and should enter the burners
from below. Manual air bleed valves should be installed at high points.
Dripping of oil through burners that are shut down results in an accumulation
of carbon soot in the burner nozzle or tile because the dripping oil "cracks"
upon exposure to the heat remaining in the furnace. This carbon may impair
the operation of the burner when next used. Dripping may be minimized by
installing the oil lines so that they rise to the burners from a manifold located
below the burners, that is, so that less length of pipe can drain through the burner.
Most burners are equipped with a solenoid oil shutoff valve at the oil line con-
nection. Dripping will be minimized if this valve is always closed tightly whether
other upstream oil valves are closed or not. Most dripping occurs shortly
after the oil is shut off; so it is good practice to permit air to blow though the
burner for several minutes after the oil has been turned off. This tends to
remove dripping oil from the burner nozzle and tile to minimize carbon buildup.
Oil expansion in pipelines may seriously damage gauges, regulators, and other
apparatus. After a burner is shut off, heat from the furnace expands the oil more
than the pipe. The normal shutdown procedure ofien leaves a section of pipe
with closed valves at both ends. The expansion of oil in this section causes
a rise in pressure that may burst diaphragms, Bourdon tubes, or bellows.
Accumulators (bellows or bladder type expansion chambers) should be installed
to take up the oil expansion between pairs of valves in sections of line subject
lo heat.
Oil Piping Recommendations. Figures 8.10 through 8.16 are recommended
piping diagrams designed to provide the grealest reliability and convenience
of operation and maintenance. Sizing of the pipe requires use of the tables in
Part 5, Vol. I. Heat loss from pipes may be determined by lhe use of the tables
in Part 4, Vol. I. An oil handling system consists of three parts: 1) the storage
tank and associated equipment, 2) the main circulating loop, and 3) the branch
(booster) circuits.
Oil Storage Tanks. (See Figure 8.10.) Indoor storage is not recommended.
Insurance regulations and local safety codes should be consulted as to the depth
of earth andlor concrete required above an underground tan?., or the dike
arrangement around an aboveground tank. Such codes and regulations also
specify minimum distances from storage tanks to property lines, buildings,
and other tanks. The various elements of the storage tank and associated
equipment are discussed below. Unless otherwise stated, the following applies
to underground and aboveground tanks for light or heavy oil.
Table 8.9. Thermal expansion in 10 ft of pipe for a 10 degree (F) oil temperature rise.
Nominal pipe size, inches 'A "8 3/4 1 1 'A
Cubic inches expansion 0.063 0.115 0.183 0.320 0.519 0.898
In climates where the temperature drops to within 20 degrees Fahrenheit of

the oil pour point, the tank should be insulated and heated. The unpredictable
properties of blended residual oils negate relying on a self-insulatingeffect from
congealed oil clinging to the interior surfaces of cold tank walls, as was possible
in years past.
The suction line inlet should be at least two inches above the bottom of the
lank for light oil and at least four inches above the tank bottom for heavy oil
to avoid drawing water, dirt, and sediment into the piping system. There should
be an accessible shutoff valve in the suction line close to the tank. The suction
line should pitch toward the tank. Suction lines should be kept short, preferably
with no more than 15 feet of lifl,
Figure 8.10. Oil storage tank and main circulating loop. A circulating system similar to this is recommended for all installations regard-
less of size. The accompanying text discusses each element of the system.
Supply and return lines

for any number of boosters
The return line should contain a trap (liquid seal such as in any sewage drain)
so that it cannot act as a vent for oil vapors when the oil level in the tank is
low. The return line to an overhead tank should be fitted with a check valve and
a manual shutoff valve so that oil will not siphon out of the tank when the line
is opened.
The fill pipe should either extend below the level of the suction inlet or it should
contain a trap so that it cannot act as a vent. Fill terminals should not be located
inside buildings. They should be tamperproof, waterproof, and dirtproof. The
fill pipe should never be cross-connected to the vent.
Vent pipes should be arranged to drain to the tank. The lower end of the vent
pipe should not extend more than one inch below the uppermost point of the tank.
Vent pipes should not be cross-connected with fill lines, return lines, or other
vent pipes. They should be visible from the filling connection, weatherproof,
clogproof, and filtered, with flame arresters. If the tank is to be filled through
tight connections by means of a pump, the vent pipe size must be at least as large
as the pump discharge.
Manholes. Tanks of more than one thousand gallons capacity should be

provided with bolted and gasketed manholes, which should not be used for
gauging, return lines, or any purpose other than inspection and repair.
Tank Heaters. Heaters and insulation should be installed to keep all of the
oil in a Lank at least 20°F above the pour point to avoid separation of blends
or sludge formation. Thermoslatically controlled heaters are usually located
in the suction bell or thimble to assure pumpability. The temperature to which
the oil is heated in the tank depends upon the type of oil, the pump, and the
length and diameter of the delivery line, but heating to more than about 150 F
may result in distillation of lighter ends. See Figures 2.8 (Vol. I), 8.11, and 8.16;
Tables 2.9, and 2.10 (Vol. I).
Main Oil Circulating Loop. The main oil circulating loop is the section of the
oil handling system that delivers the oil from storage to the branch booster
circuit or (in small systems) to the furnace, the boiler, or the point at which
it is to be used. (See Figure 8.10.) It may be a large oil header supplying all
of the furnaces in an entire plant, or it may exist solely for the purpose of
transporting oil to a single boiler or furnace. Regardless of the size of the
system, this delivery loop should be a closed circuit, returning to the tank.
The use of a closed circuit facilitates quick air elimination, permits future
load additions to the line, and minimizes pressure fluctuations in the line
due to load changes. The various items of equipment in the main circulating
loop are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Figure 8.11. Bell arrangement for oil suction and return through the top of a horizontal
cylindrical tank. Small vent holes in the bell permit escape of returned air bubbles or accumulated
vapor. Returning the hot oil to a bell speeds warmup, minimizes oil heater energy consumption, and
minimizes distillation. Steam heaters a r e preferred for in-tank heating. If electric heater must be
used, redundant safety switches should be used to prevent a slicking contact from causing
overheating problems.
The oil filtcr or strainer prevents dirt, scale or other foreign matter from
entering the system. This filter usually contains a 20 mesh (about in.
perforation) or 30 mesh basket but finer ones may be used for light oil. The basket
is easily removed for cleaning. This provides an opportunity for observing the
foreign material in the system. For systems in continuous operation, use of two
filters in parallel permits one basket to be serviced while using the other. By
observing the growing difference in readings of gauges upstream and downstream
of the filter, maintenance personnel can develop an experience factor for
determining when the baskets need cleaning. Duplex strainers may be more prone
to letting air bubbles leak into the oil system than two simplex strainers, each
with upstream and downstream shutoff valves.
Piping. Suction line difficulties outnumber all other oil system problems. Air
in-leakage can cause burners to sputter and go out; or it can lodge in a down-
turning elbow and restricl oil flow capacity. Type K copper tubing may be used
for light oil suction lines. It is available in long lengths (minimizing joints) and
is less liable to be flattened. To protect it from dents, it is desirable to run it
inside protective conduit or tile. Wrought iron, steel, or brass pipe and their
standard fittings may be used, but must conform to all codes. Cast iron fittings
are not allowed.
Suction piping must be tested for leaks before connection to the pump. Tank
suction must be tested with 100 psi air pressure and not drop below 90 psi for
24 hours. (An alternate test consists of subjecting the suction line to a vacuum
of not less than 20" Hg for 24 hours without a noticeable drop.)
The pumps should be the positive displacement type. They deliver an
approximately constant volume of oil at all times and will develop whatever
pressure is necessary to accomplish this delivery. Spring-loaded relief valves
are usually built integral with the pumps to prevent the development of
excessive pressures in the system if all of the outlets are closed. The relief
valves act as short circuits around the pumps. They are for pump protection
only and are not suitable for loop pressure control. Duplicate pumps are
recommended to prevent shutdown when one pump needs servicing. Shutoff
valves should be located on each side of each purnp to permit its complete
isolation from the system. The pump lift (vertical distance through which the
pump must pull the oil on the suction side) should be as short as possible.
The vertical distance from the pump to the open end of the suction line plus
pipe and fitting loss in psi x

( oil specific weight in iblft3
should not exceed 15 feet,
Although some pumps may be capable of developing a lift of almost 1 atmosphere,

more than the 15' lift is not recommended because of the possibility of vapor
binding, noisy operation, and excessive wear.
The pump capacity may be approximated by one of the following rules of
thumb: maximum oil burning rate plus 0.8 to 1.0 gph [depending upon the
effectiveness of the tracing and insulation) for each foot of loop length; or 1%
times the maximum burning rate. Use whichever is smaller. The heaters should
be sized for the purnp capacity and an oil temperature high enough for a
pumpable viscosity. The method is illustrated in Example 8-1 and Figure 8.12.
Example 8-1. As a general rule, the oil temperature at a burner should not vary more
than 1o0F or the viscosity will vary more than 25 SSU, affecting the quality of
atomization, and making it impossible to maintain a constant airlfuel ratio at all
firing rates. Figure 8.12 shows the burner spacing and piping for feeding 1 4 O API oil to
3 widely separated burners with a 1 in. oil circulating line insulated with 1 in. of
calcium silicate insulation. The lowest expected ambient temperature is 50 F and h,
is predicted to be 4 Btulft2hr O F . If burner B is to be turned on and off, will it be possible
to use a 90 gph circulating pump without causing more than 10°F change at burner C,
or will it be necessary to use the next larger (150 gph) pump?
The temperature drop in each section can be calculated by use of formula 4/6e, Vol. I.
From Table 2.3, Vol. I, a 14' API oil has 0.973 sp gr and weighs 8.106 lblgal. Evaluate
specific heat from formula 2/12 (Vol. I) using an estimated average oil temperature
of 230 F: c = [0.388 + (0.000 45 x 2 3 0 ) ] 1 =~ 0.498. ~ From Table 4.22, Vol. I,
Ar = 0.8668 and X = 1.532. From Figure 4.20b, Vol. I, k = 0.4. Ri is assumed to be

negligible in this case, and there is no X2/k2; SO
1
R=-+-=- + - = 4.08. For section AB with burner B on,
k h, 0.4 4
I - M -
- 240 - 50
D = 0.498 x (224 gph x 8.106) x 4.08
= 15.007.
c x p x R
L x Af
+% 350 ft x 0.8668
+ %
Using this procedure, follow the method of solution by reading each horizontal line of
the following tabulalion consecutjvely.
pump B on, sec- L, drop,

O F temperature at end
gph off tion ft flow, gph by 416e of section
- - " - -
90 on AB 350 90 + 95 + 39 = 224 15.01 240 - 15.0 = 225.0

90 on BC 180 90 + 39 = 129 12.40 225 - 12.4 = 212.6
90 off AB 350 90 i- 39 = 129 25.32 240 - 25.32 = 214.7
90 off BC 180 90+39 =129 11.66 214.7 - 11.66 = 203.0
150 on AB 350 1 5 0 + 9 5 + 3 9 = 2 8 4 11.93 240 -11.93=228.1
150 on BC 180 150+39=189 8.71 228.1 - 8.71 = 219.4
150 off AB 350 150 + 39 = 189 17.6fi 240 - 17.66 = 222.3
150 off BC 180 150 + 39 = 189 8.43 222.3 - 8.43 = 213.9
A 150 gph pump is preferred because it allows only 219.4 - 213.9 = 5.5OF variation
a s oppnsed to 212.6 - 203.0 = 9.6OF variation with the 90 gph pump.
Figure 8.12. Schematic piping for Example 8-1.
Booster heater A C
240 F outlet
All pipe is 1 in, size and has 1 in. of calcium

silicate insulation
mbient temperature = 50 F
Shutoff Switches. Provision should be made for stopping the flow of fuel in
the event of a main oil line break. Even small leaks, which are difficult to
detect by pressure switches, may spray fuel and feed a fire. T h s may best
be minimized by locating a number of manual electric switches [in series] at
convenient spots about the plant. These switches should close electric fuel
shutoff valves and stop pumps. Pressure gauges facilitate adjustment of relief
valve settings and location of trouble.
The diaphragm relief valve at the extreme point nf the main circulating loop
serves to maintain a constant pressure in the high pressure side of the loop. The
setting should be as high as possible without opening the bypass relief valve on
the pump. To make this setting, gradually raise the opening pressure of the
diaphragm relief valve. The reading of the pressure gauge will gradually rise
until the pump bypass relief valve opens, When the pressure gauge reading slops
rising, reduce the opening pressure of the diaphragm relief valve until the gauge
reading drops slightly below its previous maximum reading. This selting should
be made when all of the oil is being recirculaled to the tank; that is, when none
is being drawn off for use in the branch lines.
Take-off lines lo the branch circuits lead from tees in the high pressure
side of the main circulating loop. Figures 8.13a and b suggest configurations
for these take-off points. Return lines from Lhe branch circuits deliver to the
low pressure side of the main circulating loop. These relurn lines are not
necessary in light oil systems.
Figure 8.13b. Bottom take-off (downcomer]

from an oil circulating loop minimizes air
entry into the take-off Line, but permits dirt
and water to enter the take-off line. To
minimizc water and dirt problems, install a
vertical dirt-pipe with a drain valve and
Air collection chamber L-diverter so that regular maintenance can
same pipe size Branch allow flow into a bucket until the oil stream
as loop pipe ake-off line ,r clean,
Oil
circulating loop
circulating loop
Figure 8.13a. Top take-off from an oil cir- Dirt and water
culating loop minimizes dirt entry into the
take-off line, but permits air to enter the same pipe size
take-off lie. To minimize air problems.
install a vertical standpipe with an air
bleed valve and a U-diverter so that regular Cap supporting
maintenance can tap off accumulated air piping from f
and catch the first slug of oil in a bucket.
To initiate circulation in the main circulating loop; (I) Turn on the steam
or hot water to the tank heater and tracers adjacent to oil lines. (2) Open
the shutoff valves on the suction and return lines to the tank. (3) Open the
valve to bypass the diaphragm relief valve. (4) Set the valves for one of the
two pumps and start that pump. (5) When warm oil is flowing through the
return line to the tank, close the valve that bypasses the diaphragm relief valve
and set the diaphragm relief valve inlet pressure to the desired value, as
described 2 paragraphs previously. This procedure may consume considerable
time if the lines are full of air or if the oil is very cold. After oil is flowing
through the main circulating loop, the branch circuits may be opened and
started.
Much time is required to start up a heavy oil system; so it is suggested
that this be done early every autumn and that the system be left running until
late spring. This assures that lhe standby fuel system is truly standing by.
Later in this Part 8, schemes are suggested for substituting light oil, steam,
or air in heavy oil systems during summer shutdown in order to facilitate
faster start-up by eliminating heavy oil that would otherwise congeal in
the lines.
Branch Circuits for Light Oil. Figure 8.14 is a schematic piping diagram
for a light oil system with two control zones.
A main return line to the storage tank is important to flush dirt and air
bubbles back to the tank so they do not go through burners nor accumulale
within the oil delivery system.
A shutoff valve should be located at each branch circuit inlet so that it
may be isolated from the main circulating loop.
An oil filter should be located immediately upstream of each pressure
regulator to prevent clogging of the burner oil valve or excessive leakage
pressure due to dirt on the valve seat of the regulator. This oil filter should
contain a 40 mesh basket.
A pressure regulator reduces the pressure from that of the circulating
loop to the required inlet pressure for the ratio control system (25-30 psi for
an AirlOil Ratiotrol).
A pressure gauge should be installed for checking outlet pressure of the
pressure regulator.
A manual reset fuel shutoff valve should be used to prevent further admission
of oil to the branch circuit in the event of failure of flame, blower, or controls.
(See Part 7.) In the fuel trains, the components and their relative positions must
be approved by insuring authorities. Figure 8.22 shows a typical dual-fuel
combustion system with gas, pilot, and light oil trains.
Figure 8.14. Light oil system piping. Problems with air bubble elimination will be minimized if the non-recircdating sections (dead ends
to oil trains and burners) are kept short.
At least one ratio regulator (AirlOil Ratiotrol] should be used for each control
zone.? A control zone may contain one or more burners [and one or more ratio
regulators), but the capacity of each regulator must be equal to or greater than
the sum of the capacities of all pf the burners it supplies. If a control zone
contains burners on more than one level (more than one foot difference in
elevation), separate ratio regulators must be used for each level. Airloil ratio
regulators must not be above nor more than one foot below the centerline of the
burners they serve. The length of piping to the control zones should be kept to
a minimum to reduce the total length of dead end piping from which air must
be eliminated.
Startup return lines to the low pressure side of the main circulating loop are
used to facilitate air removal from long branch circuits. The shutoff valves
in such startup return lines should be closed as soon as the air has been
eliminated from the circuit. A 30 psi pressure gauge should be located on the
downstream side of the ratio regulator for the purpose of checking its adjustment.
An expansion chamber or accumulator is necessary to protect the ratio
regulator against pressure build-up due to thermal expansion of the oil in the
dead end of the line.
Each burner should have a shutoff valve, and an oil limiting orifice valve (for
setting airlfuel ratio).
To start flow through a light oil system: (1) start lhe pump and open valves
to allow circulation through the main loop and back to the tank; (2) open each
air and drain valve, one at a time, until a clean, bubble-free oil stream flows
into a bucket, then close the valves; (3) open one branch circuit shutoff valve;
(4) provide a downstream outlet by opening the line at a point near its extreme
end [or by opening the startup return line, if any) and providing a collecting bucket
for the oil; (5)permit oil to run through this outlet until all foreign matter is flushed
out, and until the flow is no longer interrupted by air bubbles, then close it;
(6) light one burner on low fire, watching it carefully until all air is forced out
of the dead end of the line; (7) light the other burners in the same manner, one
at a time, and set all burners at the desired rates and ratios; (8)repeat steps
3 through 8 until all branches are operating.
Branch [Booster) Circuits for Heavy Oil. Branch circuits for heavy oil differ
from those for light oil in that the oil must be heated and circulated within the
branch or booster circuit. For most burners, heavy oil must be heated enough
to reduce its viscosity to 100 SSU for atomization. If the oil were not continually
circulated past the burner, its temperature at the burner would change with the
burner firing rate, and the consequent variation of oil viscosity would have an
adverse effect upon the control apparatus and the degree of atomization.
t Or see manufacturer's literalure for specific cases.

Part 2 of Volume I lists the preheating temperature required to obtain

suitably low viscosities for pumping and atomizing. Heating can be by steam,
hot water, heat transfer fluid, or electricity, but should be thermostatically
controlled. Steam heating is preferred, because oil temperature will not exceed
the saturation temperature of the steam; so a steam pressure control avoids
overheating. (See the example of steam pressure determination under "Heat
tracing and insulation", below.)
If electric heating must be used, redundant cutoff switches in series should

be used to prevent a slicking contact from causing overheating problems. A
maximum of 1 0 watts per square inch of electric element surface is recommended
because of danger of vapor lock or coke formation, either of which can result
in inadequate cooling of the element. Because electric power continues to flow
into the element, it burns out quickly. Air accumulation in electric heaters will
cause overheating for the same reason. For systems where air is a problem, or
for oils containing light ends (such as crudes), even 12 watts per square inch
is too much; so a lower watt density electric heater or a steam heater should
be used.
Excessive temperature will cause vaporization and coking, leading to quick

burnout of an electric heating element, particularly if the oil should stop flowing.
A typical design figure is based on
[fill] required watts heater capacity = circulating pump capacity in gph x

required temperature rise in degrees I?.
This formula is based on an oil density of 7.5 poundslgallon, a specific heat of

0.455 Btullb OF, and a conversion factor of 1 watt = 3.413 Btulhr. A safety
factor of 1.3 is often applied.
Heat tracing and insulation should be applied to all heavy oil lines. Part 4
(Vol. I) deals with insulation. The purpose of heat tracing is to balance heat
loss from the line between the heater and the point of use. Heat tracing
cannot be expected to "melt out" heavy oil that has been allowed to get cold.
Heat tracing may be done electrically, or with steam. Figure 8.15 shows a
cross section of a steam-traced oil Line. The maximum steam pressure should
be the saturation pressure from the steam tables (Table A.4 in the Appendix)
corresponding to a saturation temperature equal to the design outlet temperature
from the oil heater. For example if it is determined from viscosity requirements
that 240 F oil is required at an atomizer inlet, the steam pressure regulator
for the booster loop heater and the steam trace lines should be set for about
1 0 psig maximum.
Figure 8.15. Suggested method for steam tracing heavy oil lines. Heavy oil must be traced,
insulated, and rccirculated to maintain temperature up to the burners and to help in starting up
a cold system.
Protective covering
The steam pressure is best conlrolled by a pressure-reducing regulator.

Throtlling the steam through such a regulator may produce some temporary
superheat. If the pressure drop through Lhe regulator is expected to be more
than 10 or 15 psi, it would be advisable to leave a few feel of steam pipe
uninsulaled before it contacts the oi1,pipe. 'This will desuperheat the steam and
prevent coking when the oil flow rate happens to be low. (To avoid wasting the
heal from lhis uninsulaled section, make sure that it is indoors so that it will
help with space heating, but provide protection against persons being burned
by the hot pipe.) Vapor lock, formation of oil vapor bubbles that may inhibit full
flow capacity, can be prevented by maintaining at least 30 psig pressure in all
oil supply lines.
Electric heat tracing has been done by induction and by using the pipe itself
as an electrical resistor. If electric tracing is to be used, control convenience
is achieved by a wrap-around resistor tape, the resistance of which rises as
its temperature rises so that it automatically throttles its heat input as the
temperature rises.
Heavy oil line pumps, heaters, and tracing should be turned on before cold
weather and allowed to run continuously until warm weather. If this is not
done, a standby oil system will not be '(standing by" ready to go when needed.
Start-up in cold weather will be tedious, costly, and sometimes impossible.
At shutdown, it is advisable to pump light oil, steam, or compressed air into
an oil system to displace the heavy oil. This greatly facilitates the next start-up.
Even with light oil, it is a good policy to blow out atomizers after the oil is shut
off. Some installations incorporate a %way solenoid valve to shut off the oil and
immediately blow steam or compressed air through the atomizer.
The oil volume circulated in any loop depends on the heat loss, but in general,
recirculating pumps, piping and heaters may be sized to handle the total
capacity of all ratio regulators in the circuit plus about 0.8 to 1.0 gph for each
foot of circuit length. See Example 8-1 and Figure 8.12. When circulating oil
through several regulator bodies, ihe required pipe size will be grealer than the
regulator connection. Reducing couplings should be used -- not bushings.
Figure 8.16 shows a heavy oil piping diagram with two possible control
schemes. The top left scheme uses individual ratio regulators for each burner.
Each regulator could supply several burners, but that would increase the length
of dead end line. Heavy oil is actually circulated through the body of each i
regulator to minimize the length of dead end piping.
To start the burners of Figure 8.16, (1)turn on the steam to the tank heater
and main loop tracer lines: (2) close the light oil tank and crossover valves, open
the heavy oil return valve, start the main loop pump; (3) when heated oil is
circulating in the main circulating loop, open the warmup valves and set the 3-way
valves for the shortest possible circuit so that warm oil can force out air and
cold oil; (4) after a period of Lime sufficient to eliminate air from the branch
circuit, turn on the booster heater; [5) when hol oil starts to flow through the
return line, start the branch circulating pump and close the pump bypass valve;
( 6 )set the pressure regulator to produce an outlet pressure of 30 psi on the gauge
immediately downstream from the regulator (a pressure relief valve preveAts
the development of excessive pressure in the branch circuit due to heating of
the oil as it circulates in the closed circuitl; (7) as the system warms up,
gradually close the warmup valves, one a1 a time, and circulate warm oil into
the farthest sections of the system; (8) when the thermometer at the return to
the booster heater indicates the oil in the branch loop is up to atomizing
temperature, open the shutoff valve of the burner nearest the ratio controller
and light that burner; (9) light the other burners, and set all of the burners at
the desired rates and ratios.
Large oil systems supplied from a single storage area often need inter-
mediate circulating loops between the main and branch loops. A pumping and
heating unit at the tank(s] might heal the oil to 125 F and circulate it to a
number of buildings. An intermediate loop in each building might boost the oil
to 180 F and circulate it past branch circuits at each furnace, each with a
recirculating pump and heater for heating the oil to final atomizing temperature.
RATIO CONTROL SYSTEMS

The operation of airlgas and airloil ratio regulators was described in
Part 7. Regulators should always be installed in horizontal lines unless the
manufacturer's instructions specifically state that it is permissible to do
otherwise. They must not be tipped or the spring may not properly balance the
weight of the diaphragm assembly.
Each control zone (that is, each manual or motorized air control valve)
requires a separate ratio regulator. One regulator per burner provides greatest
flexibility, but several burners may be controlled by a single regulator if the
capacities are properly matched. If the sum of the pressure drop across a
regulalor and the applied impulse pressure exceeds the upstream fuel pressure,
the regulator cannot function properly. Use a bleeder--Figure 8.17d.
Figure 8.16. Heavy oil system piping. The shaded areas indicate the three major sections--tank, main loop, and branch loop.
Innumerable designs are in use and the experienced oil system engineer may have good reasons for adding to or altering this system,
but the inexperienced can save himself many headaches by employing an experienced consultant or incorporating all the details of
this system. Two possible control schemes [(A) and (B)] are shown at top left.
-Pressure
0
0
5
2
chambers =!
0
Distance between loops Z
lheavier lines) should G'?
c:
G'?
2
E
G'?
return valve
-t Warmup valves -- open for warmup only,

then close.
106 NORTH AMERlCAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Ratio regulators should be located as dose to the burners as possible without

overheating, so as to minimize the variable downstream pipe friction. Each oil
ratio regulator should be at the same elevation as the burner atomizer(s)that
it serves. A ratio regulator requires a constant downstream resistance.
Impulse line connections to the main combustion air line should be at least
five pipe diameters downstream from the control valve and three diameters
upstream from the next fitting so that the impulse pressure will not be adversely
affected by turbulence [uneven pressure distribution) in the pipe. Impulse taps
should be flush with the pipe's internal surface, and parallel to the axis of the
control valve. Taps should not be located on the bottom side of the air line, where
they may become plugged with dirt, water, or oil. Atmospheric vents should be
shielded from wind, water, and dirt.
AirlGas Ratio Control Systems. Premix gas burner systems usually require
"zero" gas; that is, gas at atmospheric pressure, Figure 8.17a shows a ratio
regulator used for this purpose. In applications involving a furnace pressure
different from atmospheric pressure or a fluctuating furnace pressure, it
is necessary to vent the diaphragm chamber to the furnace chamber as in
Figure 8.17b.
Nozzle mixing burners (Figure 8 . 1 7 ~require
) gas supplied upstream of the
ratio regulator at a pressure greater than the sum of (a] the furnace pressure,
(b) the maximum modulated air pressure, and (c) the pressure drop expected
across the ratio regulator at maximum flow rate. As shown in Figure 8.17c, an
impulse line is used to convey the air pressure set by the air control. valve
to the gas ratio regulator, which then automatically produces an outlet gas
pressure equal to the air impulse pressure. Thus the pressure drop between the
air control valve and the furnace is the same as the pressure drop between
the gas regulator and the furnace. By adjustment of the limiting orifice valve
in the gas line it is possible to establish the desired ratio of gas to air flow. This
ratio will then be maintained at all rates of firing because the regulator will
always maintain equal pressure drops across the orifices in the air passages
of the burner and the limiting orifice gas valve. This is true, of course, only if
all of the air for combustion is being supplied through the burner (100% primary
air). Fluctuations of furnace pressure have equal effect on both air and gas
flow; so there is no need for any other connection between this system and the
combustion chamber pressure.
For any nozzle mixing burner system wherein the available gas pressure is
less than the sum of the air pressure and the regulator pressure drop, it is
necessary to use a bleeder as shown in Figure 8.17d. A bleeder is simply a
constant impulse line leak that reduces the impulse applied to the regulator to
a proportionally lower value. This means that the regulator outlet pressure will
be less than, but proportional to, the air line pressure. The limiting orifice valve
would necessarily be wider open in Figure 8.17d than in Figure 8.17~.
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Figure 8.17. Airlgas ratio regulator hookups.

Control Valve
a. Premix burner (gas suction

proportional to air flow).
Combustion chamber pressure
steady at zero.
Air/Gas Ratio Regulator

-.....-.
Control Valve
b. Premix burner [gas suction

Premix Burner proportional Lo air flow).
Combustion chamber pressure
fluctuating.
AirlGas Ratio Regulator
c . Nozzle mixing burner. Gas pres-

sure equal or greater than air
pressure.
shutoff ,, Orifice Valve ., ,,, ,,, Combustion chamber pressure
steady or fluctuating.
Nozzle Mixing
Burner
v/A
-Y----Y-
AiriGas Ratio Regulator
d. Nozzle mixing burner. Gas pres-

sure less than air pressure.
Combustion chamber p r e s s u r e
fluctuating.
Motor-operated air input control
valve and gas metering orifice
shown here could also be used in
a, b, and c. A bleeder could be used
in c.
108 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK 1
AirIOil Ratio Control Systems. Elevation is a critical factor in the installation 1
of ratio regulators for oil because a column of oil one foot high may be heavy
enough to create a "head" or pressure which would affect the fuel flow. For
this reason, regulators should be located on the same level as the burners or
no more than 12 in. below the burners. Burners which are more than 1 2 in. above
or below one another require a separate regulator for each level. A strainer
(40 mesh or equivalent) should be located immediately upstream from every
ratio regulator to prevent foreign material, such as pipe scale, from lodging on
the valve seat. In dead end systems, an expansion chamber or accumulator should
be installed immediately downstream from each regulator to prevent rupture
of the diaphragm as a result of oil expansion after shutdown. Figure 7.12
illustrates a combination airloil and airlgas ratio control system utilizing
flow-type ratio control.
Ratio control systems for use with preheated air are many and diverse.+
If there is only one zone of control for each air preheater, and if there is no
hot air bleed or leak, the air metering orifice can be located upstream of the
air heater and any flow-type ratio conlroller can be used. Otherwise, the
control systems become quite complex as shown by the examples in Figures 8.18
and 8.19. Other aspects using preheated combustion air for heat recovery are
discussed on pages 69-76 of Volume I,and in Part 6 of this volume.
Ratio control system for use with oxygen enrichment. The oxygen, air, and
fuel should bc mixed and controlled in such a way that the oxygen could never
back up into either the air or fuel pipes if there should be a loss of pressure
in either of those lines. Oxygen and fuel should never be on opposing sides of
diaphragms because a leak or break in a diaphragm would result in dangerous
premixing. See also pages 76-78 in Volume I and Parts 7 and 1 3 in this volume.
When using oxygen to achieve high temperatures, il is costly to turn on the
oxygen in the lower temperature range where air alone will do. It has therefore
been common practice to use air to bring the furnace to as high a temperature
as possible, or until the rate of temperature climb has slowed to an impractical
rate. At that point, when the air control valve is wide open and there is still a
demand for higher temperatures that is not being met, the temperature controller
should be switched over so that it actuates an oxygen control valve, with
the air valve still at its maximum rate, an "oxygen additive system". This
procedure also prolongs burner life. If oxygen is used to reduce NOx pallution
(oxy-fuel firing) or to lower poc volume, this oxygen additive system will
probably not be satisfactory.
For larger furnaces and for continuous furnaces with oxygen enrichment, it
is generally best to use an electronic airlfuel ratio control system with square
root extractors that permit addition of the air and oxygen flow rate signals. This
was described in Part 7.
t Any preheated air installation should incorporate provision for protecting the recupcrator or
regenerator from uverheating.
Figure 8.18. Airlfuel ratio control and recuperator protection systems for multiple zones of burners using preheated combustion air.
This is not necessarily a design suitable for general use -- each application should be reviewed by an experienced combustion control engineer.
Firing rsls demand

s i ~ n a from
l furnace- -4
oritice plate I F U ~ I I D;P~OCBSS temp~atU
Fuel ;r; I con~roller

k3
Fuel control valve
Figure 8.19. Airlfuel ratio control for integral regenerator burners [described in Parts 6 and 9)reclaiming their o m exhaust heat in CL
CL
the form of preheated combustion air. These burner-regenerator units must be installed in pairs, but o n l ~
the
~ firing burner is s h o w in 0
this simplified schematic diagram. Its "twin" (exhausting) burner would have all three cycling valves in opposite positions.
A fully metered pneumatic airlfuel ratio control system is shorn. This is not necessarily a design suitable for general use -- each
application should be reviewed by a n experienced combustion control engineer.
gas Differential
Position when burner is
firing exhausting
Solid Line Pressurizsd

Dashed Line - - - - - - vented
Airlfuel ratio control systems for multiple fuels. Figure 8.20 is a photograph
of a tri-fuel boiler that is base-loaded with coal burned on an underfeed retort
stoker while a packaged automatic dual-fuel burner takes the load swings with
either gas or oil. Relatively simple controls can be used for this arrangement
because the changes are not wide nor fast. For larger inputs, it is advisable to
use an electronic airlfuel ratio control system with square root extractors so
that the impulse signals from the various fuels can be added and a resultant
air control signal generated. This was described in Part 7.
Figure 8.20. A tri-fuel fire tube boiler with underfeed retort stoker at left and combination
gis-oil burner at right. Overfire air jets and the gas or mil flame assure low parliculate emission.
An induced draft fan and electric draft regulator are at the upper right.
ORIFICE BALANCING AND METERING SYSTEMS
It is usually desirable to fire all burners in one zone at the same firing rate
so as to produce a uniform temperature throughout tho zone. A reliable method
for assuring equal flow to all burners in a zone utilizes an inexpensive but
accurate orifice in each burner gas line with pressure taps and a portable
manometer for measuring the pressure drop across that orifice. Figure 8.21 shows
the piping for gas and air metering orifices for multiple burners. The orifice plates
are calibrated; so measuring the pressure drop tells the operator the actual flow
to each burner. A limiting orifice valve in each burner fuel line can be adjusted
until the manometer indicates equal fuel flow to all burners.
Figure 8.21. Schematic piping for gas and air metering orifices for balanciag or graduating
burner firing rates. A singlo portable manometer can be used to check tho flow at each orifice.
If the gas flow or airlgas ratio at any burner needs to be corrected, the limiting orifice valve can
be adjusted until the manometer shows the desired flow. See Rcference 8.a [ai the end of Part 8).
Error may be as low as 2 % on North American Series 8697 Orifices with only 10D straight clean
pipe upstream and 4 D downstream.
A similar but larger set of metering orifices can be installed in each burner
air line for use with the same portable manometer.
For distillate oils of constant viscosity, variable-area, constant-head flow-
meters (rotameters) can be used to accomplish the same purposes for oil.
(See Figure 8.22.)
The orifice metering system has several advantages in addition to its
accuracy. It provides an actual measure of fuel consumed. It shows whether the
airlfuel ratio is rich, lean or stoichiometrically correct, and it makes it possible
to set the desired ratio. It provides a means for setting a graduated firing rate
down the length of a firing zone when that is desired.
Figure 8-22. Generalized schematic piping for a dual-fuel combustion system using natural gas and distillate oil. Specific installations
may req,re additional features and repositioning of components to comply with insurance regulations and applicable govermental codes.
Symbols used are those preferred by Industrial Risk Insurers.
pressure switch
Automatic air control valve
Flexible connection
Atomizing air
Main high pressure
Pilot air
reduc~ngregulator
Manual air valves
Pilot sol. valve
Oil pressure regulator burner
Oil strainer
* See Figure 8.8.
Vaporization. Mixing. Ignition.

FUNCTION: Oxygen supply Fuel supply Proponioning Flame holding.
Gas traln Airigas ratio reg.. m&ngAim. orif. Gas burner
EQUIPMENT: Blower Oil train Airtoil ratio, rotameter. Sensitml Atomizer Oil burner
TYPICAL PIPING ARRANGEMENTS
Figures 8.22 and 8 . 2 3 illustrate typical piping arrangements lor a number of

applications. Each of these diagrams represents only one of several possible ways
in which the piping may be arranged.
Atomizing air lines and pi101 air lines must be connecied with the air supply
line a t a point upstream from all control valves. Shutoff valves should be placed
wherever necessary to permit complete isolation of any particular burner from
the rest of the system. Unions should be used liberally to permit easy removal
of regulators or equipment requiring periodic maintenance.
Figure 8.22 shows a typical piping arrangement for a single dual-fuel burner
with a premix pilot and with metering orifices. Insurance regulations and gas
supply pressure determine the specific equipment to be included in the gas train.
The airlgas ratio regulator for the pilots should be preceded by a pressure
regulator if the supply pressure is greater than the allowable inlet pressure for
the pilot ratio rcgdator. A manual air valve may be used in each pilot air line
for shutoff purposes, or to aid in lighting the pilot. It should not be used a s a
permanent air pressure reducing valve. If Lhe air pressure is too high for
Figure 8.23. Typical piping for a multi-burner dual-fuel system [gas and light oil). The two hum-
ers at Lhe left constitute one control zone; the burner a t the right, H second xonc.
good pilot operation, use either an air pressure-reducing regulator, separate

limiting air valve, or the air throttling adjustment built into many pilot air-gas
mixers. Figure 8.23 illustrates a typical piping arrangement for combination
(dual-fuel]burners having separate atomizing air and gas inlets and using light
oil. The airloil ralio regulators (Ratiotrols) are at the same elevation as the
burners.
The oil line is of the "dead end" type which is permissible only when using
light oil. An expansion chamber should be placed immediately downstream of
the airloil ratio regulator to protect it from thermal expansion of the oil after
shutdown.
The number of burners to be supplied by one airlfuel ratio regulator depends
on the length of piping involved and the relative capacity and cost of regulators
and piping. Where long runs of pipe are involved, iL may be cheaper to use several
small regulators, but where there are many burners in one zone located close
to one another, use of one or two large regulators is usually more economical.
Light-up and servicing is easier with individual regulators.
Figures 8.24a and 8.24b are photographs of packaged fuel trains, gas and oil
respectively. For a dual-fuel train, the oil train components would be mounted
on the back side of the same frame that supports the gas train components. The
many sizes and combinations of these trains can save the installer much
engineering and assembly time.
Figure 8.24a. A prepiped and pre-wired gas train. Gas enters at lower right through a pressure-
reducing regulator; then flows through main and blocking fuel shutoff valves, rises and turns to
the right through a pneumatic fully-metered airlfuel ratio control system [Figure 7.1 1). The ilerns
on the top rack [left to right: flame monitor cabinet, pressure switches for interlocks, and EPICm
furnace pressure control) were custom enginoered into this unit, but are not normally considered
part of a packaged fuel train.
Figure 8.24b. Pre-piped, pre-wired oil train, NEMA 4. Flow is right to left. Top line is for oil; mid-
dle line is for atomizing medium (steam or compressed air); lowest line is for pilot gas. This special,
non-catalog train is shown to illustrate the great variety of combinations that a r e possible. A
dual-fuel train would consist of a gas train and an oil train back-tmback on a common mounting frame.
REFERENCES
8.a Miller, R. W.: "Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook", McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1983.
8.b NFPA: "Installation of Oil Burning Equipmcnt" [NFPA 31), National
Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.
8.c NFPA: "National Fuel Gas Code" (NFPA 54, ANSI Z223.1), National
Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.
8.d Walls, W. L.: "Liquified Petroleum Gases Handbook" (includes
NFPA 58 Standard for Storage and Handling Liquified Petroleum
Gases), National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, MA 02269.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to combustion systems
Gill, J. H., and Quiel, J. M.: "Incineration of Hazardous, Toxic, and Mixed
Wastes", North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH, 1993
Momot, G.: "Principles of Turbulent Fired Heat", Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX, 1985.
Remmy, G . Bickley Jr.: "Firing Ceramics", World Scientific Publ. Co.,
River Edge, NJ, 1994.
Thring, M. W.: "The Science of Flames and Furnaces", 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1962.
Trinks, W. and Mawhinney, M. H.: "Industrial Furnaces", vol. 1, 5th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1961.
Trinks, W. and Mawhinney, M. H.: "Industrial Furnaces", vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Part 9. HEAT RECOVERY
INTRODUCTION
The exhaust gases from most industrial heating processes contain con-
siderable heat. To conserve energy. it is important to try Lo recover as much as
possible of this "waste" heat, or, in other words, to usefully lower the final
exhaust temperature at which the products of combustion (poc) are released to
the atmosphere.
Heat Loss Reduction. An important aspect of a11heat recovery systems is the

minimization of: a) loss of heat from the products of combustion (poc] to the
surroundings while the products of combustion are on their way to the heat
recovery equipment, and b) loss of recovered heat from preheated combustion
air, preheated load, or steam while on its way lo its point of utilizalion.
Actions to be taken as a result of these admonitions are: keep pipes and ducts
short and straight, and maintain very good insulation on them. The short, straight
lines will also help keep pressure loss to a minimum, which will save both first
costs and operating costs. If there is any choice in the matter, it is usually
preferable to minimize pressure losses on the hot flue gas part of the system
and make up for this by providing extra pumping power in the cold part of the
system.
Insulation in hot poc ducts, hot air pipes, and hot air burners should be on
the inside because the insulation must not only reduce heat loss, but also keep
the containing wall cool enough that it will still have strength to support itself.
(Adding insulation to the outside of a hot pipe or duct increases its metal
temperature. Where it is not practical to insulate on the inside, it is usually
necessary to invest in more expensive duct and pipe materials that can
withstand higher temperatures.) Valves or other apparatus in the hot gas or air
lines must likewise be made of higher quality materials.
Duct and Pipe Sizes for Hot Fluids. The furnace heat input is proportional
to the weight of air, fuel, and poc -- not to their volume. Less weight of air and
fuel should be required, because the whole object of the heat recovery exercise
is to conserve fuel, but the ducts and pipes must be larger to convey the same
weight of less dense hot fluids.
Pipes and ducts will have much larger outside dimensions because of the
above-mentioned density effect combined with the necessity for insulation on
the inside.
Pumping Power. Extraction of heat energy from a waste gas stream neces-
sitates passing the gas over a heat transfer surface, and that requires pumping
power to create the pressure head to force the hot gases to flow over the
surfaces, such as the surface of the load being preheated, the surface of the
waste heat boiler tubes, the surface of the recuperator heat exchanger, or the
surface of the regenerator heat storage. Those few instances that recover heat
without added pumping power utilize existing available pressure drop, but they
may have minimal heat recovery effectiveness.
Condensation. When the higher or gross heating value [calorific value) of a
fuel is measured, the products of combustion are cooled to the temperature of
the air and fuel supplied to the burner. Heat recovery processes slrive to reach
this goal (lowest possible final poc temperature). As the final poc temperature
is lowered, it reaches the dew point of some of its component gases (vapors at
that condition].
As vapors condense to liquid, the latent heat of condensation is released to
the heat recovery device, making an appreciable increase in the heat recovered
(about 1096 with natural gas). That added heat recovery (the difference between
net and gross healing value) is very desirable, but it is always accompanied by
liquid condensate, which may be undesirable because of corrosion problems or
stream pollution. Even if there were no sulfur or other acid-forming ingredient
in the fuel, the condensate could be troublesome if heat recovery were done by
preheating a powdery load that might become pastelike, as in a lime kiln.
Dew points vary with the amount of 02,COz,Sot, SOs, NOx, F1, or C1 in the
poc, as shown in Figure 9.1. Figure 9.2 shows the effect of sulfur from a fuel
oil. The excess air curves are not equally spaced, because the extra oxygen tends
to produce more SOa,which has a catalyst-like effect in raising the dew point.
For example, in a case where the HzO dew point was only 110 F, 2 ppm SOs
resulted in dew points of 126 to 250 F, depending on measurement method. See
Reference 9.i.
In actual practice, most condensation appears to occur about 80 to 100
degrees (F)below the dew point. However, engineers usually apply some safety
factor, often designing for iinal poc temperature somewhat above the dew point,
especially where gases in slow-moving inside corners could encounter more
cooling than the bulk of the stream.
With the development of better corrosion-resistant materials, some heat
recovery devices are now intentionally designed to recover the heat of con-
densation. This may transfer some pollution problems from the stack gases to
the drain liquids.
HEAT RECOVERY
Figure 9.1. Dew points of products of combustion of natural gas, adapted from data courtesy
of B.C. Hydro. Acid dew points may be appreciably higher.
Percent C 0 2 in dry flue gas (lean combustion - - excess air1
Figure 9.2. Effect of sulfur and excess air on acid dew points fnr 10.12 degree API crude oil. Adapted
from C-E Natco. Even small collcentrations of SO3 in stack gas raise the dew point considerably.
I I I
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Weight % sulfur in fuel oil
Reduced Cleanup Costs. First costs and operating costs of cleanup equipment
to remove pollutants from stack gases will be less if heat recovery has been used,
because the poc temperature at the cleanup point will be lower. The lower
temperature means that the gases will be less voluminous (more dense) and
therefore can be handled with smaller equipment (baghouses or scrubbers,
for example)and with smaller fans and piping. The smaller fans will also reduce
operating costs.
A secondary effect of heat recovery on the cleanup operation is that the
lower temperature will often allow purchase of less expensive components,
such as fans, bags, and piping.
PREHEATING THE LOAD

On continuous furnaces, an added unfired preheat vestibule can preheat the
load with free heat that would otherwise have been discharged up the stack.
Examples: charging pigs, gates, and sprues down lhe stack of a die casting melter;
a longer inlet tunnel on a conveyor furnace (Figure 9.3); an economizer on
a boiler; a convection section on a petrochem heater.
Figure 9.3. Adding an unfired preheat vestibule and lengthening the conveyor on any tunnel-like
continuous furnace is an easy way to recover heat. No burners are added. No fuel is added. In
fact, less fuel will be used. The poc are prevented from exiting through the old flue; so must pass
over the cold load, thereby lowering their final exit temperalurc.
New flue Old flue closed
I +/ n u n
~@@@@00000i)OC)0030000000C000000O .-)
Burners
6recovery
Added heat A
section
Old furnace \
Less fuel is required to heat the same amount of load. The final exit poc tem-
perature is lowered. This is a logical extension of the furnace, making it more
efficient.
On batch furnaces, load preheating can be done, but it might be better to first
consider malung the process continuous. Figure 9.4 shows a preheating oven built
next to an aluminum melter, from which the preheated loads must be transferred
to the rnelter quickly to minimize cooling. Another way is to use a pair of batch
furnaces, with A's flue gases preheating the load in B; then B's flue gases pre-
heating the new cold load in A.
HEAT RECOVERY 121
Figure 9.4. Aluminum sow preheater beside the melter. To eliminate the heat losses belween these
two units, it would be ideal to feed the cold sows through a long narrow insulated chute directly
into the melter - - a special form of dry hearth.
heater
Furnace burner
cut out
The load-related scheduling is perfect with heat recovery by load preheating.

Care musl be exercised to assure no condensation on the load if that would
affect product quality.
GENERATING STEAM, HEATING WATER OR MAKEUP AIR
Recovered heat can be used to supply needed utilities within a short distance --
steam, hot water, makeup air. There must be good load-related scheduling, i.e.
a double match between the time and extent of the need for the utilities and the
time and extent of the availability of the waste heat from process furnaces.
Waste heat boilers, either steam or hot water, or makeup air heat exchangers
can get their heat input from hot poc from the process furnaces; so they need
no burners, no fuel. See Figure 9.5. The interdepartmental accounting may be
more complex than if the heat recovery savings were fed directly back into the
furnace Lhal generated the hot poc (as with load or combustion air preheating).
Waste heat boilers are very safe because they are water-backed heat
exchangers; so are less likely to suffer from thermal expansion or internal fires
(and subsequent leaking) than are gas-to-gas heat exchangers. As with all forms
of heat recovery, hot waste gas ducts and steam, hot water, or makeup air pipes
must be short and well insulated.
Figure 9.5. Waste heat boiler installed above a bank of heat treating furnaces. An induced draft
fan provides pumping power, but uses f a r less energy than the boiler saves. This idea has been
used for many years with both fire tubc and water tubc boilers in the chemical process industries.
Steam pressure control
Feedwater
lar
T ~ F u r n a c pressure
Furnace
s
control
-1
Blowers
PREHEATING COMBUSTION AIR
When preheating combustion air in industrial heating processes, the waste

flue gases may be as hot as 2800 F, depending on the process, and the preheated
air may be at 1000 F to 2500 F; so minimizing heat losses from the conveying
duct and pipe walls is especially critical. Waste gas ducts and combustion air
pipes must be insulated and kept short, or the investment in heat recovery
equipment may not be justified.
The other warnings and considerations discussed in the Introduction to this
Part 9 must be heeded.
Benefits. Available heat. When the combustion air has been preheated,
less of the chemical energy from the fuel is required to raise the temperature
of the input ingredients (fuel and air) to the furnace temperature; so more
chemical energy is available to do useful heating in the furnace. The percent
available heat concept was discussed in Part 3 of Volume I. It is often looked
upon as "best possible efficiency" (for a furnace with no significant losses other
than flue loss). Refer to the Sankey diagrams, Figures 9.6a and 9.6b.
HEAT RECOVERY 123
Figure 9.6a. Sankey diagram before addition of heat recovery equipment. Best possible
efficiency = 100% (available heat)l[gross heat input). Heat recovery reduces the required gross
heat input, a s shown in Figure 9.6b.
Flue losses
water loss
and/or conveyor
Figure 9.6b. Sankey diagram after heat recovery by preheating the combustion air or the load.
Energy extracted from the flue gas is recycled into the combustion chamber, reducing the amount
of gross heat input [fuel) required. Because this gross input i s less, the percent availal~leheat
(formula 9/31 is greater.
Flue losses
-----------
Formulas 911 through 913 review the significance of "available heat," which
can be seen in the Sankey diagram. In these formulas, the units can be per unit
of time, per unit of fuel, or per unit of load; but they must be consistent. Gross
heat is derived from the gross or higher heating value of the fuel, which may
be measured or calculated, but is usually available from the fuel supplier.
[911] Net heat = gross heat - latent flue loss.

[9/2] Available heat -. net heat - sensible flue loss.
[9/3] % Available heat = 100% x (available heatlgross heat).
Net heat can be derived from the net or lower heating value of the fuel; or
from Formula 911 where the latent heat content of the flue gases, "latent flue
loss," is calculated by multiplying the weight of water vapor from combustion
of hydrogen in the fuel by the latent heat of vaporization (or condensation)oI
water at the partial pressure of water vapor in the Clue.
The sensible heat content of the dry flue gases is the summation of the heat
contents of all of the flue gas constituents except the water vapor. These heat
contents are tabulated in Table 3.7 in Volume I, or they can be derived from
polynomial expressions for specific heat of the flue gas components.
Formulas 911, 912, and 913 are generalizations applicable to a wide variety
of conditions, including excess air, hot air, oxygen-enriched air, and oxy-fuel.
Using subscripts "c" for cold air [assumed 60 F or 15.6 C), "p" for preheated
air, and "ow for oxygen-enriched air or oxy-fuel,
[914] % Available heat, = 100% x (available heat,:lgross heat,),

[915] O/u Available heatp = 100% x (available heatplgross heat,),
[9/6] Available heatp = available heat, + preheated air heat content,
where preheated air heat content can be determined from a polynomial formula
for the specific heat of air, or from Table 3.7 in Volume I. See Figure 9.7, which
is based on recent data and supersedes Figure 3.15 in Volume I.
The % fuel saved by preheating combustion air can be calculated using read-
ings from Figure 9.7 via formula 917a.
[9/7a] % fuel saved = 100% x [I - (available ht,lavailable htP)]
Tables 3.16a, b, and c in Volume I list percents fuel saved for natural gas,
No. 2 fuel oil, and No. 6 fuel oil. These tables, Figure 9.7, and STOIC program
printouts relate to Figure 9.8. It is necessary to know (a) the fuel, (b) the flue
(not stack) gas exit temperature ts leaving the furnace, and (c)the air preheat
temperature t2 entering the burner. If the fuel andlor combustion air temper-
atures, tl, are appreciably different from 60 F (15.6 C), the results should be
modified accordingly.
Similarly, the % fuel saved by oxygen-enriched combustion can be calculated
using readings from Figure 13.4a or Table 13.4b via formula 9/7b, or consult
North American Mfg. Co.'s Handbook Supplement 276.
[9/7b] % fuel saved = 100% x [I - (available ht,lavailable ht,)]
Figure 9.8. Schematic diagram of a furnace with an air preheater (~ecuperntoror regenerator).
If t6 is the maximum safe inlet gas temperature for the preheater, the minimum required weight
flow rate of dilution air = (weight flow rate of combustion products) x [hPOCB - hpOI:5]-;
~ ] , hd, = dilution air heat content per unit weight, and h,,,, = poc heat c:cn~tent
- h ~ l ~where
per unit weight.
YIIY,IUII P.II
Exhaust Gas,
I
Furnace
Combustion
Air. t,
.... PRFHFATFR
.AIR . ..-, .-.. -, .
Fuel, t, ---)
Example 9-la. US units. For a furnace with 2250 F flue gas exit temperature, burning
natural gas with 5% excess air, find (a) the fuel saving with 1850 F preheated air,
compared with 60 F air, and (b)the impact on NOx pollution if the burner emits 0.1 pounds
NOxlmillion Btu with 60 F air and 0.57 pounds NOx per million Btu with 1850 F air.
(a] Enter the bottom scale of Figure 9.7 at 2250 F flue gas exit temperature. Move
vertically to the 60 F combustion air curve for 5% excess air, thenleft to read 37% avail-
able heat with 60 F air.
Again, from the bottom 2250 F exit flue temperature, go up to 1850 F combustion air
preheat temperature; then left to interpolate 73% available with 1850 F air.
% fuel saved = 100 [l - (cold available heatlhot available heat)]
= 100 [I - 37/73)] = 100 - 50.7 = 49.3%.
This is 50.7% as much fuel and scf air.
(b) Comparing cold vs. hot emission rates, with cold air, (O.l#NOx) (100% input rate)
= 0.1 pounds NOxlunit time: with hot air, (0.57#NOx](50.7% input rate) = 0.29 pounds
NOxlunit time. (Lower firing rates because of higher flame temperature, and the heat
exchange effect will lower the net NOx effect even furlher.)
Example 9-lb. SI units. For a furnace with 1230 C flue gas exit temperature, burning
natural gas with 5% excess air, find (a) the fuel saving with 1000 C preheated air,
compared with 15.6 C air, and (b) the impact on NOx pollution if the burner emits 430
x lo-' kg NOxlMJ with 15.6 C air, and 2450 x lo-' kg NOxIMJ with 1000 C air.
HEAT RECOVERY 127
(a) Enter the bottom scale of Figure 9.7 a t 1230 C flue gas exit temperature. Move
vertically to the 15.6 C combustion air curve for 5 % excess air, then left to read
37% available heat with 15.6 C air.
Again, from the bottom 1230 C exit flue temperature, go up to the 1000 C combustion
air preheat temperature; then left to read 73% available with 1000 C air.
% fuel saved = 100 [ l - (cold available heatihot available heat)]
= 100 [I - (37/73)] = 100 - 50.7 = 49.3%.
This is 50.7% as much fuel and scf air.
(b) Comparing cold vs, hot omission rates, with cold air, (430 x lou7 kg NOX/MJ)
(100% input rate) = 430 x lo-' kg NOxlunit time: with hot air, (2450 x lo4 kg NOxlMJ)
(50.7 input rate) = 1242 x 10" kg NOxlunit time. While this is not good, it is not a s
bad a s the initial 2450 x figure might have appeared. (Lower firing rates because
olhigher flame temperature, and the heat exchange effect will lower the net NOx effect
eve11 further.)
AirlFuel Ratio Control. The proportioning of air to fuel is often more critical
in situations wherc heat recovery is used. Above all, excursions into soot-
producing rich conditions must he avoided so as not to foul the heat transfer
surfaces.
Before heat recovery is even considered, i l is wise to upgrade airlfuel
proportioning controls, as a less expensive, quicker fuel-saving measure. The
range of acceptable lean-side airlfuel ratios should be narrower when using
preheated air. If one chose to stay at 25% excess air instead of, say, lo%, the
heat recovery equipment would have to be 1.2511.10 = 1.136 times larger.
If the combustion chamber pressure remains constant, any of the 3 generations
of airlfuel ratio control discussed in Part 7 [area control, pressure control, or
flow control) may be used with heat recovery equipment. However, if air
preheating is used as the heat recovery method, the rising air temperature in
the recuperator or regenerator will have a "choking" effect, adding resistance
to the air flow. This effect will change with throughput rate, upsetting airlfuel
ratio. If the air flow sensor, usually a pair of pressure taps on an orifice plate,
is located on the cold (upstream) side of the air preheater, the reduced air flow
caused by choking will be detected and the ratio of air weight to fuel weight
will not be changed by fluctuating downstream temperatures. See Figure 9.9.
With fully metered airlfuel ratio controls, all of the flow through the air flow
meter must be delivered to the burner and combustion chamber. If there is any
loss or diversion of a part of the measured air stream, the airlfuel ratio
controller will be "deceived" and unable to correct for the change. Unfortunately,
it is common for recuperators to leak because of thermal stresses; it is common
to install an intentional bleed to try to protect recuperators from overheating
during turndown conditions; and it is common to try to economize by using one
recuperator for several zones of control.
Figure 9.9. Cold side air metering for airlfuel ratio control when an air preheater is used. This
arrangement can be used only if there are no leaks and no bleeds between the air measuring orifice
and the hurner, and if there is only one control zone fed by the air heater.
Fuel
secondary
1'1 -
Fuel metering devices
0--; I I Burner
1
I I
I I zone 1
I I
I I
i
T controller
e m p e r 2 I I i
I
I Air
I
I
preheater
\
I
Air
Air metering To other burners
primary
device zone 1
If it is impossible to guarantee that all of the metered air will be delivered
to the burner, the air flow meter should be moved to the hot side of the
recuperator, and temperature compensation must be added. Most air flow meters
are volumetric; but the important flow factor for proper alf ratio control is the
weight rate of flow (actually mass rate of oxygen delivery Lo the burner).
'I'emperature compensation on a volumelric flow meter converts a fully metered
alf ratio control into "mass flow control." This is easily done with digital
electronic controllers. (See Figure 9.10.) If fuel-primary control were preferred
over the air-primary control shown, positions (or functions) of the ratio-acluating
valve and the temperature-actuating valve would be interchanged.
Figure 9.10. Hot side air metering for airlfuel ratio control when an air preheater is used. Air
temperature compensation Iiases air flow volume to maintain the samc ratio of air mass flow rate
to gas flow rate as when the air was at standard temperature.
T o other burners
Fuel
secondary
Burner
r
t-\
zone 1
Ratio
controller ,-.--.
Temperature
controller
Air
primary
device
To other burners
zone 1
To other zones
HEAT RECOVERY 329
Recuperators are heat exchangers, generally gas-to-gas. In combustion

systems, they extract heat from hot poc ("waste gas") and transfer it to cold
combustion air, They are built in about as many forms as are heat
exchangers...double pipe, shell and tube, plate type ...with parallel flow, counter-
flow, cross flow, and many combinations.
By and large, recuperators are convection devices; so their effectiveness
increases with higher Reynolds Number (more turbulence, more velocity, lower
viscosity). Some large double pipe recuperators that simply replace a section
of stack are named "stack" or "radiation" recuperators, the latter because their
large cross section permits enough beam thickness that gas radiation may be a
significant factor. Except for those recuperators specifically designed to utilize
radiation, direct radiation from the furnace should be avoided because it may
damage the heat exchanger.
For preheating air, the common policy is to take a minimum pressure drop
on the poc side, and let a forced dralt blower provide the greater pressure drop
on the air side.
Ideally, recuperators are steady state devices, but must be able to handle
changes in throughput to accommodate the turndown requirements of the process
to which they are connected. However, they must never be turned to zero flow,
i.e. on-off control should not be used. Strict compliance with the manufacturer's
warnings regarding minimum flow is absolutely necessary to avoid overheating,
warping, leaking, or burning out.
Parallel flow vs. counterflow. Figure 9.11 shows some LypicaI temperatures
for a double pipe (stack, radiation)type recuperator typical of those used on steel
mill reheat furnaces, except that these normally vertical recuperators have been
laid on their sides for easier graphics. Both of the selected cases start with the
same 60 F combustion air and the same 2100 F poc entering the recuperator.
There would be little gain from lengthening the parallel flow unit, because
the temperature difference at the exit end is approaching zero. The wider the
temperature difference between the heat source and heat receiver (hot waste
gas and cold combustion air) the greater the heat transfer rate. In contrast,
lengthening the counterflow unit would achieve higher air preheat temperature
and lower waste gas throwaway temperature. (This throwaway temperature is
the T, for which the available heat charts show a lower number to be desirable
for better fuel efficiency.)
The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) has a major effect upon the
total heat transfer. This was discussed in Part 4 of Volume I. Values of LMTD
are shown at the top of Figure 9.11, illustrating the efficiency advantage of
counterflow over parallel flow. If the recuperator were lengthened, the advan-
tage of counterflow would increase. A quick approximate comparison is possible
130 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDDOOK
0
o 8 o
o j 'dual o
o o
m 0 LO 0 0
N N r c LO 0
5
P
X
C
YI
D
-4-
5m
C
4
t
0
5
P
E
2
ln
m
+
50 7
s
-L
0
t
0 0
8 0
3
N
0
0
N
g j'duel 8
0 0
LO
HEAT RECOVERY 131
by visually comparing the integrated areas between the temperature curves.

Counterflow units are more compact, thus reducing the capital investment; and
they can develop higher air preheat temperatures.
For natural gas, the poc passages of a recuperator handle about 11 volumes
per unit of time, while the air passages handle about 10 volumes. Because the
specific heats of bolh the air and poc streams are almost the same [both largely
nitrogen), the mean temperature of the dividing wall between air and poc
passages will be approximately half way between the temperatures of the two
streams (dashed lines in Figure 9.111.
The dividing wall temperalure of the parallel flow recuperator is constant and
well below the counterflow recuperator's maximum; so parallel flow units can
safely be built with less expensive materials. The high temperature danger point
is always near the hot poc inlet. The only coolant for a recuperalor is the air
[hat is to be heated; and in a counterflow unit, that air is already hot at the danger
point [poc inlet). Figure 9.12 shows a practical compromise--a counterflow
unit stacked on Lop of a parallel flow unit, providing temperature protection
at the danger spot, but taking advantage of the counlerflow efficiency and
compactness after the poc have been partially conled.
Figure B.12. Two-stage recuperators combine the advantages of parallel flow (lower maximum
wall temperature at poc entrance) with the advantage nf counterflow (better heat transfer
efficiency). The flow pattern at left provides more hot air volume for the same pressure drop with
the same arnou111 of heat transfer surface; the flow pattern at right produc:cls higher air preheat
temperature (but more pressure loss, or less hot air volume) for the same amount of heat transfer
surface.
T
Counter-
flow
Cold
air
air,
"Ot t + Hot
air
F I U gas
~ Flue gas
The principles of counterflow vs. parallel flow apply to all recuperator

configurations. Figure 9.13 is a schematic flaw diagram showing application
to a shell-and-tube convection type recuperator (also termed canal type or
channel Lype).
Figure 9.13. Cross-flow convection recuperator with inlet air stream split to utilize advantages
of both parallel and counterflow. Air stream a to c is cross-flowlparallel flow; air stream b to c
is cross-flowlcounterflow.Flue duct walls, W, and triatomic gases, G, radiate against recuperator
shock tubes, S, creating thermal expansion and leak problems.
Protecting recuperators from overheating. See Reference 9.1. Figure 9.13

illustrates another problem with recuperators. The wall sections labeled "W"
will probably be hot enough to radiate considerable extra heat against the front
faces of the first row of convection surfaces ("shock tubes"), causing them to
expand in inordinate proportion to downstream surfaces. If dimension "L" is
more than about 3 feet or a meter, the gas beam will be sufficient to bombard
the shock tubes with an additional dose of radiation -- gas radiation as well as
wall radiation. It is therefore advisable to keep the poc approach connection
as short as possible.
A recuperator's waste gas approach connection should also include at least
one elbow so that furnace radiation cannot "see" directly into the recuperator
and further overheat it. If straight-line radiation occurs between the furnace
interior and the recuperator's surfaces, it may also chill the load in the furnace,
resulting in product nonuniformity. Such a configuration also violates the
objective of all heat recovery systems -- to utilize heat that would otherwise have
--
been thrown away by stealing heal directly from the furnace and thereby neces-
sitating more fuel input.
HEAT RECOVERY 133
Uneven thermal expansion is the bane of recuperators, often stressing the

materials to the point of failure. The resulting leaks either diminish valuable hot
air supply or dilute the air stream with inert poc. Either way, the LMTD is reduced
through the rest of the recuperator. Most systems are engineered so that the
pressure on the air side of a recuperator is higher than on the poc side so that
any leaks will be air into waste gas. Leakage of waste gas into the air stream
could upset the airlfuel ratio and affect burner stability.
Reducing (fuel rich) furnace atmospheres are not generally friendly to heat
recovery equipment, because of (a) fouling of heat transfer surfaces by pic
(products of incomplete combustion, including soot), (b) possible fire in the
recuperator, and (c)eventual loss of some recuperator materials from alternate
exposures to reducing and oxidizing atmospheres. It is better to first incinerate
the rich pic and then recover heat. ('Shis, by the way, is also the philosophy of
"starved air" multistage incinerators.) For all the above reasons, il is wise lo
incorporate a "lead-lag" (or crossover network] feature into the airtfuel ratio
control system when adding a recuperator. Refer to Part 7.
Integral Air-preheaterlBurners. Because of the problems cited above, and

because hol air piping usually has to be larger than cold air piping for the same
furnace production rate, it is highly desirable to use integral burner-recuperators
or integral burner-regenerators,eliminating hot waste gas ducts and hot air pipes.
These compact units combine the heat recovery device and the hot air burner
in a l-on-1 arrangement connected directly to the flue, with no piping between.
Integral burner-recuperators are limited in capacity because of the space
required for the heat exchanger.
For integral burner-recuperators, the furnace exhaust port must be adjacent
to the firing port (tile outlet). If the burner is turned down to a low firing rate
without adequate control of the exhaust extraction rate (affectingfurnace pres-
sure), it is possible for hot products of combustion to short circuit to the exhaust
and damage the recuperator section. This problem can be minimized by use of
higher velocity burners, because the high momentum of the flame and poc stream
prevents short circuiting.
Regenerators. Large checkerwork (refractory)regenerators have been in use

since the middle of the 19th century -- originally to raise flame temperature with
fuel gases of low calorific value, but coincidentally saving fuel. With the demise
of open hearth furnaces, only large glass melting tanks still use checkerworks
(which are usually larger than the furnace). Some incinerators now use several
large silos filled with refractory "stones" or shapes to alternately collect waste
heat from flue gases and return it to combustion air by use of sequentially
programmed valve arrangements.
Integral burner-regenerators or regenerative burners eliminate hot poc ducting

and hot air piping, while retaining the regenerator's advantages --very high air
preheat temperatures, with resultant high fuel efficiency.They are designed to
be installed in pairs, each of the twin units being timed to alternately serve as
burner, then flue. Because of space limitations, the small size of the heat
recovering matrix necessitates a short time cycle, such as 20 seconds.
Whereas the traditional refractory checkerworks had a surface-to-volume ratio
of about 4.5 ft'lft3 (or 14.76 m21rn3),the small refractory balls used in the twin
"beds" of the units described below have a ratio of about 300 ftzlft3(or 984 m21m3);
thus greatly multiplying their heal transfer capability.
Figures 9.14 and 9.15 explain how integral burner-regenerator systems work.
An electronic sequencer opens and closes the 2 air inlets, 2 fuel valves, and two
exhaust passages. The system includes provision for piloting, flame monitoring.
and brief purging of the beds. Low or medium velocity flames are possible. To
lower the NOx emissions, direct injection of fuel into the furnace chamber or
llue gas recirculation is used. Special bed-dumping arrangements are built into
the units when the process necessitates frequent bed cleaning or changing.
Figure 9.14. Direct-firingintegral burner-regenerators. l'hese units arc used in pairs, one firing
while the other serves as flue and heat recovcry device. They nccd not be opposite one another --
many burner arrangements a r e possible for either two- or multiple-burner furnaces.
FIRST HALF OF CYCLE
-- SECOND HALF OF CYCLE

exhaust
reclaims stored
heat A Exh
60 closed
air
HEAT RECOVERY 135
--
Figure 9.15. Indirect-firingintegral burner-regenerators one pair of burners on opposite ends
of one U-type radiant tube. 'These can also be applied to straight and "W" (4-pass) radiant tubes.
Heat recovery makes up for the inherent inefficiency of indirect-fired operations. Only two pairs
of cycling valves are used in this arrangement because the clapper valve that shuts off the eductor
forces combustion air through the heat recovery bed and out the burner air nozzle.
FIRST HALF
OF CYCLE
SECOND HALF
OF CYCLE
Cross-connected
Regenerative burners have several advantages over integral burner-

recuperator arrangements:
1) much higher air preheat temperatures are achieved;
2) final throw-away poc gas temperature is lower, usually about 300 F
(150 C) at 80% extraction rate, permitting use of relatively low temper-
ature exhauslers (induced draft fans or eductors) and piping;
3) leaks and physical damage from thermal expansion and stress are
minimized; and
4) the burners of a pair can be located to give good circulation and longer
poc residence time in the furnace, and avoid poc short-circuiting.
Figure 9.16 shows some typical performance characteristics of integral
burner-regenerators and recuperators. It also compares the "Heat Recovery
Effectiveness" of the two devices -- an evaluator for comparing the performance
of different types of heat exchangers with the same set of flow conditions. It
is defined as "the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate to the maximum possible
heat transfer rate".
The maximum possible heat transfer rate, q, in any heat exchanger will be
defined by the product of the lower of the two heat carrying capacities, h, of
the flowing fluids (the product of the mass, m, and specific heat, c , of the fluid)
and the temperature difference between the maximum temperature to which
the cold fluid might be heated and the cold fluid inlet temperature.
[9/8a,b,c] q = h x (temperature difference); hh = mh x ch; h, = mc x c ,

[9/9] Heat Recovery Effecliveness,
Figure 9.16. Regenerators have higher heat recovery effectiveness than recuperators.
m r preneat temp., C
0 200 400 son 800 loo0 1200 1400
Integral burner-regenerators
/#980 c (1800 F)
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600

Air preheat temp., F
HEAT RECOVERY 137
In a heat exchanger preheating combustion air with the combustion products

of that air and a fuel, the heat carrying capacity of the air will always be lower
than that of the combustion products (the mass is air, not air plus fuel] and the
specific heat of air is lower than that of the combustion products, e.g. hM,
= h, = m, x c,. Therefore,
In a regenerator, the maximum temperature to which the air can be heated

will always be close to the temperature of the combustion products entering the
regenerator because that is the temperature to which the leading edge of the
packing is heated, whereas that for a recuperator will be the maximum temper-
ature reached by the partition between the air and the combustion products
(which will never be close to the incoming combustion product temperature as
the partition is continuously cooled). For this reason, a regenerator will always
have better heat recovery performance than a recuperator in typical industrial
furnace applications.
Direct-fired compact burner-regeneratorshave greatly improved fuel efficiency
and production when retrofitted to: aluminum melters (References9.a and 9.b);
barrel, box, and car-hearth forge and heat treat furnaces (References 9.e and
9.p); glass melters (Reference 9.d); ladle preheater-dryers (References 9.k,9.m
and 9.n); metal diffusion reactors; pit retort annealers; periodic kilns for
ceramics (Reference 9.j); reheat furnaces (billet, slab) [References 9.i and 9.p);
strip annealers (Reference 9.g).
Indirect-fired (radiant tube, immersion tube, or retort) integral burner-
regenerators have been used to retrofit: chemical retorts, continuous steel strip
annealing and galvanizing lines (Reference 9.f), and crude oil heater-treaters.
Compact burner-regenerators allow high efficiency fuel-fired furnaces to be
constructed without heat recovery means such as counterflow preheat sections
and external heat exchangers. Burner-regenerators effect considerable
economies in size and cost. See Reference 9.0.
Many burner-regenerator-fired steel reheat furnaces have been built without
conventional unfired preheat sections, i.e. fired "door-to-door". These provide
more production per unit of floor space, with the regenerative burners recover-
ing heat from the flue gases to give the same specific fuel consumption as
traditional furnace designs. See Reference 9.q.
HEAT RECOVERY, OXYGEN ENRICHMENT, and OXY-FUEL

are compared in Part 13.
REFERENCES
9.a Bowers, J. D.: "Heat Reclamation on Aluminum Melters", Die Casting
Engineer, JulyIAugust 1988. Available as North American Handbook
Supplement 240.
9.b Bowers, J. D.: "New Savings from Heat Recovery...in Aluminum Melting
Furnaces", North American Handbook Supplement 246.
9.c Chemical Engineering magazine: "Process Heat Exchange", Section X.
Waste Heat Recovery, McGraw-Hill Publications Co., New York, 1979,
9.d Corneck, R. H.: "Compact Regenerative Burners on a Unit Melter", Glass
International, June 1987. Available as North American Application
Report R-G-1GA.
9.e Ellwood City Forge: "Car Bottom Forge Furnace...". North American
Application Report R-Fge-96.
9.f KiraIy, T. E. and Bugyis, E. J.: "Application of Regenerative Burners to
a Continuous Galvanizing Line", Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1989.
Available a s North American Application Report R-H-129.
9 .g Kondziela, James: "Catenary Furnace Annealing Stainless SLeel Strip",
North American Application Report R-H-128,
9.h Martin, R. R., Manning, F. S., and Reed, E. D.: "Watch for Elevated Dew
Points in SOs-BearingStack Gases", Hydrocarbon Processing, June 1974,
pp. 143-4.
9.i Maynard, Mitchell: "Twin Regenerative Burners Increase Energy
Efficiency on New Reheat Furnace at Marion Steel", Industrial Heating,
Dec., 1989. Available a s North American Handbook Supplement 252.
9.j McMam, F. C.: "Regenerative Heat Recovery Applied to Periodic Kilns".
Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Jan-Feb 1988.
9.k North American Mf g. Co.: "Application Report R-Steel-74".
9.1 North American Mfg. Co.: "Sheet 8480-2 --Recuperator Considerations7'.
9.m Poe, L. G.: "Ladle Preheaters --TwinBede vs. OxytFuel and Oxy Enrich-
ment". North American Handbook Supplement 241.
9.n Poe, L. G.: "Today's Ladle Preheaters and Dryers", North American
Handbook Supplement 25 1.
9.0 Reed, R. J.: "Future Consequences of Compact, Highly Effective Heat
Recovery Devices" in "Heat Transfer in Furnaces", ASME Heat
Transfer Div. Vol. 74, Book H00393. Available as North American
Handbook Supplement 235.
9.p Whipple, D. F.: "Barrel Furnace" [for heating steel billets). North
American Application Report R-Fge-99.
9.q Newby, J. N.: "TwinBedm Regenerative Burners", North American
Handbook Supplement 254.
HEAT RECOVERY 139
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to heat recovery

Hayes, A. J. et a1 (ed.): "Industrial Heat Exchangers", ASM International,
Metals Park, OH 44073; 1985.
Karlekar, B. V. and Desmond, R. M.: "Heat Transfer", 2nd Edition, Published
by West Publishing Co., Box 3526, St. Paul, MN 55165; 1982.
Kays, W. M. and London, A. L.: "Compact Heat Exchangers", McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, New York; 1964.
Lukasiewicz, M. A. [ed.): "Industrial Combustion Technologies", ASM Inter-
national, Metals Park, OH 44073; 1986.
Reay, D. A.: "Heat Recovery Systems", E. and F. N. Spun, Ltd., London, 1979.
Siege], R. and Howell, J. R.: "Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer", Third
Edilion, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., (c/o Taylor and Francis), Washington,
DC 20005-3521; 1992.
Thomas, Lindon C.: "Heal Transfer" (Professional Version); Published by
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632; 1993.
Part 10. PROCESS CONTROL OPTIMIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Process control has moved from single loop analog controllers to digital,
software-based, instrumentation. This transition has resulted in low cost, easy-
to-use equipment that requires little maintenance. But the greatest benefit of
microprocessor-based equipment is the power to allow system designers to
focus on process interactions and optimization. The era of Personal Computers
is here, and is causing another change in the control world.
BASIC PROCESS CONTROL
Much of our current control practice is based upon the process loop. The
process is monitored by a sensor [thermocouple for example) which reports to
a device (loop controller) that compares the actual value (process variable, PV)
to the desired value (setpoint).Any resulting error is processed to determine the
adjustment needed to bring the actual value to the desired value.
A control equation establishes the equipment response to an error signal. The
proportionallintegrallderivative (PID) algorithm is the mosl commonly used.
Equipment suppliers identify this equipment as "Three Mode", "PID", and "Gain,
Reset, and Rate". These names identify the three elements of the equation used
to establish controller output based on the setpoint and the process variable:
Output = Proportional + Integral + Derivative
where Error = Setpoint - Process Variable.
Proportional, = Error x Gain, is:
an output that is the product of error and gain and occurs with no time delay.
Large errors result in large outputs, and small errors result in small outputs.
Thus, as the error nears zero, the output nears zero, and the controller cannot
reach the setpoint.
Integral, = (Integration of Error) x Reset, is:
an output that increases in proportion to the time that the error is not zero; so,
while proportional control cannot reach setpoint, the integral term adds small
adjustments until the error is zero.
Derivative, = (Derivative of Error) x Rate, is:
an output proportional to the rate of change of the process variable. Therefore,
for rapid changes, the rate term increases the output, causing faster response
of the loop.
This is one of many loop implementations, but all share the common form of
including P, I, and D terms with a user adjustable factor for tuning the loop
response.
PID TUNING
Proper loop tuning is essential to system operation. While intuitive methods
can work, a more formalized process gives better results.
Several methods can be used to calculate the P, I, and D parameters. Each
method gives somewhat different results. Two of the methods are described here:
the Ultimate Period and the Process Reaction Curve. The parameters calculated
using these methods may be used as a starting point for further tuning, as
briefly described later in this section.
Both methods calculate parameters that produce a Quarter Decay Ratio, which
gives an initial overshoot to input changes, followed by decaying oscillation
around the control point (Figure 10.1). The decay rate is such that each cycle
of oscillation has an amplitude of one quarter that of the previous cycle.
Figure 10.1. Quarter decay ratio response.
Time
There is no single perfect set of tuning parameters, just as there is no single

ideal response. Each system requires tuning for its specific application. A system
set for fast response generally exhibits considerable overshoot, and a critically
damped system may respond slowly. Changes in the process, loading, or setpoinl
cause some alteration in system response.
Ultimate Period Method. The Ultimate Period Method is also known as the
Ziegler and Nicholls method. It is a closed loop procedure, where Rate and Reset
are set to zero and the system gain increases until the system oscillates at
constant amplitude (Figure 10.2). The period of oscillation is called the Ultimate
Period (P,), and the gain at which it occurs is the Ultimate Gain (K,). Table 10.3
provides formulas for calculating the tuning parameters from this information.
PROCESS CONTROL OPTIMIZATION
Figure 10.2. Ultimate period oscillation.
Ultimate period
~ O ' : ; ; I I I I I : ~ ~ ; : ; ~ ~ :
1 5 10 15 20
Time. minutes
Procedure:
1) Stabilize the system at its normal operating temperature.
2) Set Rate and Reset to zero.
3) Set Gain to an arbitrary initial value.
4) Manually introduce an upset to the system by changing the setpoint.
5) Put the system into automatic.
6) Record the system response to the upset with a chart recorder. Adjust Gain
until the system oscillates at constant amplitude. If, after an upset, the
oscillation decays, increase Gain. If it grows, reduce Gain.
7) Use Table 10.3 to calculate the tuning parameters.
Table 10.3. Ultimate period test (closed loop)

Algorithm type ( Gain Reset Rate
Proportional only 0.5Ku - -
PI 0.45Ku 1.21Pu -
PID 0.6Ku 21Pu 0.2 P,
(Where KU is the ultimate gain, and
pu is the ultimate period.)
Process Reaction Curve Method. The preceding Ultimate Period Method may
require a number of test cycles to determine the values of K, and P, and it may
be undesirable to allow the system to oscillate as required to establish the
period. The Reaction Curve method may be used in these cases.
Process response to an input step change establishes the Process Reaction
Curve. It measures the open loop (without feedback) response of the process.
Procedure:
1) Stabilize the system at a temperature about 5% below the average oper-
ating point.
2) Place the actuator in manual, holding last position established by the

controller.
3) Manually increase the controlled variable by approximately 10% (AM].
Record system reaction until a stable operating point is reached,
4) The recorded process reaction curve should resemble the curve in Figure
10.4.
5) Use the curve to calculate the reaction parameters R, and L,. The
reaction rate of the system, R,, is determined by drawing a line tangent
to reaction curve at its point of maximum slope. The slope of this line
is the reaction rate R, in % per minute.
6) L, is the process lag time, defined as the period (in minutes) from the
introduction of the step change to the time at which the tangent line of
the reaction rate crosses the temperature baseline.
7) AM is the amplitude of the controlled variable step change in units of
percent (as established in step 3).
8) Calculate the tuning parameters using Table 10.5,
Figure 10.4. Process reaction curve.
80 --
Slope R, (%/min) =
reaction rate
c
70 --
m
P
U1
v-
0
E
$ 60--
w
;
P
Step change started
5
I-
---- -- -- -Baseline
I I
I I
- ! ! ! ! ! ! ! : : ! ! ! ! : : : ! : : : : : : ! :
5 10 15 20 25
Time, minutes
Table 10.5. Process reaction rate test (open loop)

Algorithm type ( Gain Reset Rate
Proportional only AM1 (L, .R,] + -
PI 0.9AMI(Lr*R,) 0.31Lr -
PID l.ZAMI(Lr.R,) 0.51L, 0.5 L,
This method requires only one cycle to gather data and compule values.
However, in systems with shorl lag times, the measurement of L, may be difficult,
requiring a high chart speed to delermine lag time accurately.
Further Tuning. Although both methods described give Quarter Decay Ratio
Response (Figure 10.l], each provides different tuning parameters. Since the
response dcsired may be different from the theoretical, additional guidelinesmay
be useful in fine Luning the system.
When less overshoot than the Quarter Decay Ralio is desired, either Gain or
Reset may be lowered. However, reduced gain is the preferred method of over-
shoot reduclion.
Increasing Gain or Reset increases system response and overshoot, while
decreasing them slows response and increases stability. Adjust each for oplimum
control.
In fast responding systems, Rate can be used to limit overshoot and increase
stability by allowing lower gain setlings. However, care must be used, since Rate
magnifies the effect of minor system fluctuations. Slowly responding syslems can
be operated with Rate set to zero.
Caution is advised in systems with large lag times. The effect of Rate may be
delayed and become out of phase with the system response, causing oscillation.
Both self-tuning controllers and external loop tuning software packages exist
and simplify the process.
ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL

The single loop controllers of Loday are accurate, stable, and easy to use.
They can also communicate with other equipment. Instead of independently
controlling each process variable, these conlrollers interact to coordinate multi-
variable process applications.
Digital Era. Introduction of the microprocessor to loop control has changed
the control world. We have shifted from "hardware" driven systems to software
based systems. Whether in the form of a simple loop controller, a PLC, or a Dis-
tributed system, )he process is operated by software. System architecture is
driven by Lhe flow of information, with networks connecting all parts of the
process.
Figure 10.6. A dedicated ratio controller with extra circuits for process temperature control, Oz trim, multiple air and fuel streams,
furnace pressure control, and control of flue gas recirculation for NOx reduction.
I Prooess Temp
-
Optional
Air Valve Motor
Controller Control Signal

(4-20 mA)
PROCESS CONTROL OPTIMIZATION 147
Because of differences between the continuous nature of analog equipment

and the discrete function of digital designs, the process engineer must consider
new factors when applying digital controls. For example, digital controllers
calculate new output values at intervals that range from many times per second
to once in several seconds. Slow variables such as temperature in a large
furnace may be updated infrequently with no impact on control quality, while
flow should be updated every second or faster. Ratio systems demand even faster
response; dedicated ratio controllers (Figure 10.6) operate at 10 updates per
second.
Cascade Control. Many applications have a long process lag time, where the
measured variable responds slowly to a change in system input. Such systems
often require heating a large mass to a closely controlled temperature. Conven-
tional single loop control places a sensor on the work to control the furnace heat
input. Since the load responds slowly to a change in heat input, the long lag time
between an input change and detection at the work produces control overshoot.
This lag makes tuning of the loop difficult, because it may be easy to overheat
the work. Often maximum input must be limited during part of lhe heating
cycle, to prevent damage to the furnace, resulting in longer cycle times. Better
control can be achieved by using two loops in cascade (Figure 10.7).
The slower primary loop consists of a work temperature sensor that is
compared to the target work setpoint, with the controller output connected as
the remote setpoint of the faster second loop. The second loop monitors the fur-
nace heat input and compares it to the output of the primary loop, establishing
the furnace heat input. The result of this system is a self-limiting furnace input
that maximizes the rate of heat transfer to the work.
Figure 10.7. Cascade control loop.
Setpoint 1
Controller Controller
Furnace temperature
n
I
Furnace
rz=z-l lsecondarvl
I Work temperature
* Work
When the output of the primary loop is large, indicating a large deviation
between setpoint and actual work temperature, the secondary loop setpoint is
near its maximum. This provides the greatest heat input. As the primary
deviation decreases, indicating that the work is approaching desired tempera-
ture, the lower secondary setpoint reduces the heat input. This declining
temperature difference between the furnace and the work reduces the possibility
of overshoot, allowing closer work temperature control.
Cascade control is effective only when the inner or secondary process response
is faster than the outer or primary process response.
Programmable Logic Controllers. As computing power became less expensive,

dedicated industrially-hardened computers were designed for shop-floor use.
These systems replaced large hard-wired relay systems, and were built for easy
configuration by using a relay-like ladder language. Initially designed to replace
inflexible relay logic, PLCs now include loop capability and higher-level language
support. The PLC is a powerful tool that integrates sequential logic and prucess
control in a single package.
Sometimes, because of their universal nature, PLCs are used for tasks that
are better accomplished by other equipment. Proper application of a PLC to
industrial combustion systems requires understanding limitations of the control
equipment, experience with lhe process, and a working knowledge of industry
and national standards. It is not possible to convert a relay-based ladder
diagram direclly to a PLC system without understanding the inherent difference
between the technologies. Easy configuration (the major PLC feature) is a double
edged sword where security is important, such as in systems that control
hazardous equipment.
Distributed Control Systems (DCSs). The trend to the lower cost computing
power (that encouraged the growth of PLCs) allowed designers to distribute com-
puting power throughout the system. The controller is placed close to the process
and transmits information via a network to other controllers and operator inter-
face equipment.
This allows a building block concept where each element is installed and
debugged without affecting the remaining process elements. Tasks are con-
centrated at the lowest possible system level minimizing network communication,
and reducing the impact of catastrophic failure. Local devices can operate in
a "fall-back" mode that keeps the process running while repairs are made. The
elements located at the process provide stand-alone basic control, while com-
munication with a computer provides advanced strategies. This isolates the mini-
mum day-today control operation from the complex. Computer intensive activities
such as process graphics and data storage are focused at the top of this hierarchy.
PROCESS CONTROL OPTIMIZATION 149
Distributed control is moving even closer to the process with the advent of
"Intelligent" transmitters. Intelligent field devices can improve sensor perfor-
mance by correcting for temperature variations and linearizing transducer data.
Corrected data can then be transmitted to the control equipment. Industry
standard bus systems allow many field devices to transfor information over a
single cable [wire or optical), eliminating separate wiring between the control
equipment and each field device.
Personal Computers. Personal computers are common in the factory. High
production volumes, standardized hardware and availability of robust operating
systems have moved the PC from the office to the factory floor. With a graphical
interface package, they are ideal as supervisors in distributed control systems.
Standard configurable software allows manufacturing managers to gather and
analyze process data using factory floor personal computers. Industrially-
hardened personal computers are replacing PLCs in control applications.
FEATURES OF ADVANCED CONTROL
Systems generally are hierarchical in nature, including levels of equipment

reaching from the process controller to a supervisory computer. Multiple levels
are possible because these systems are software based. This software is often
hidden from the user and designer by a configuration language, which frees the
designer from complex programming tasks.
In addition lo basic loop control, systems acquire data to display process trends.
This information can be stored for analysis and used to establish performance
benchmarks, or document batch history. Historical data can establish process
capability, and highlight degradation from standards caused by equipment
deterioration, process variation, or procedural change. Plant-wide information
and product tracking is possible with systems equipped for network operation.
The objective is consistent system performance.
Alarm logs, batch history, equipment performance reports, and maintenance
records help diagnose equipment, process, or operator problems. Early warn-
ing can expedite maintenance and ensure uniform product quality. Computer
supplied messages help service or operate the equipment. Step-by-step start-up
and maintenance instructions are available, guiding operators through infre-
quently used procedures.
System-wide availability of information, coupled with distributed computing
power allows alternatives to conventional PID control. For example, in a multi-
variable process, the system could attempt to optimize desired conditions
while operating within specified constraints. By monitoring the effect of small
variations, the system could self-learn and continuously improve its operation.
Complex process systems are often described by a mathematical model to

predict performance based on measured conditions. These predictions are
compared to actual performance, or can run in "real-time," adjusting operation
to keep performance at the calculated level.
Batch operations benefit from "on-line" storage of recipes, allowing quick

change-over from one product to another. The system can calculate required
adjustments to recipes based on measured conditions.
Often the method of communicating with a process operator is improved by

computer technology. Visual displays using graphics and color compress large
amounts of information into small, easy to undersiand formats. Computing
power is used to simplify information and reduce language barriers.
Solid-state equipment is very reliable, and techniques of redundancy or fault-

tolerant design result in systems with small probability of downtime. These
specialized techniques increase system cost, and require detailed knowledge of
both the process and the equipment selected. System performance is improved
by designing in-fault tolerance and error trapping so that the equipment
can recover from a fault or failure by accepting a degree of ambiguity and
attempting to correct for it. "What-if" type logic tries to identify conditions that
are inconsistent by comparing many variables and other system resources such
as the action that the controller is requesting.
At its simplest level, error analysis recognizes deviations from the expected
activity of a process. The deviation can contain clues to the problem and allow
the system to identify the potential cause. The system then attempts to bring the
process back into control or force it to a known safe state. For example, a
system can verify that the magnitude and rate of change detected in a process
variable is within reasonable limits, and within the physical ability of the
process. Digital circuits can be equipped with error correction algorithms, and
operator entry controls can check and limit entries to reasonable values.
Process safety considerations established by national standards limit and guide

the application of control equipment to prevent hazardous conditions. Most
vendors provide application notes to assist in proper use of their equipment in
critical systems, but this is best handled by working with a supplier knowledge-
able about the process, the control equipment, and applicable standards.
INTEGRATED PROCESS CONTROL
In all cases, proper system design begins with a detailed understanding of the
process, While many procedures are available, most include the following basic
steps:
I) Study the Process --This includes monitoring and recording actual or

simulated process data. Observations should include operating practices
and manual actions that affect system performance. This study must
determine safe process limits, and appropriate industry safety standards.
2) Evaluate results -- Use data and observations to graphically establish the
correlation of process variables with desired process operation.
3) Consider available technologies -- Many system types are available to solve
process control problems. Each system represents a mix of features
that should be considered.
How is the system configured? Is custom software required, or can

a process engineer configure the hardware? Is the language "self-
documenting", or must complex manuals be maintained? Are key process
functions built into the system, or must the designer start from the
beginning? Can information be presented in engineering units and common
language, or must the user interpret cryptic codes?
How reliable is the system? Is the equipment intended for shop-floor or

control room installation? What are the failure modes, and are they
predictable? Does the system accommodate mandated safety equipment?
Is the equipment easy to use and maintain?
Is the equipment flexible enough for future needs?
What are all costs associated with this equipment? Cost includes initial
purchase, maintenance, and repair.
Application-specific control systems are often available. The manufacturer

has completed the process study, evaluation and system engineeringphase, and
can offer a complete solution. Since the effort is spread over several systems,
the cost is usually lower, and the technology is proven so that risk is reduced.
Systems have been designed for many industrial applications, such as:
Kilns --Innovative use of existing sensor and control technology allows

improvement in performance, product uniformity, and efficiency in tunnel
kilns, shuttle kilns, and rotary calciners.
Steel Reheat Furnaces -- Normal operation involves frequent load changes

due to delays and product changes. By looking at the furnace as a system, a
control package was developed to use the input of one zone to adjust the
operation of an upstream zone. This cascaded control heats the steel as
late as possible in the furnace, maximizing heat utilization without risking
inadequately heated steel while preventing overheating and minimizing
scaling.
Aluminum Melters -- Melter efficiency and performance is improved by

controlling system input from different points in the melter at different times
in the cycle. The control point and setpoints are changed, accommodating
the differing heat transfer rates of aluminum as its phase changes, and
taking advantage of energy stored in the furnace refractory to minimize
fuel input and reduce dross formation and hydrogen absorption.
IMPLEMENTATION
When building on a base of loop control and using application-specific

hardware, PLCs, and Personal Computers, successful system implementation
requires experience with both the process and control equipment. The designer
must integrate process understanding, control experience, and knowledge of
industry standards to build a functional system.
ADDlTIONAL SOURCES of information relative to process control optimization

Anderson, Norman A.: "Instrumentation for Process Measurement and
Control", 3rd ed., Chilton Company, Radnor, PA, 1980.
Bibbero, Robert J.: "Microprocessors in Instruments and Control", Wiley-
Interscience, New York, NY, 1977.
Cornforth, J. R. (ed.): "Combustion Engineering and Gas Utilization",
3rd ed., Chapter 11, British Gas and Chapman & Hall, 1992.
Murril, Paul W.: "Fundamentals of Process Control Theory", Instrument
Society of America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1981.
Ogata, Katsuhiko: "Discrete-time Control Systems", Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987,
Shinskey, F. G.: "Process-Control Systems", 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Inc.,
New York, NY, 1979.
Part 11. POLLUTION CONTROL
REDUCTION OF NOx POLLUTION FROM INDUSTRIAL COMF5USTION

Although the media and the general public think of pollution control as a
single problem, most engineers have learned that control of each of the several
types of polluting emissions is really a chain of complex problems. The
problerris of the industrial heat processing industries are very different from
the much-talked-about approaches for automobiles or for boilers and large power
plants, each of which far exceeds the total emissions of industrial hcnting equip-
ment.
TRACE SPECIES REPORTING

The primary products of combustion are carbon dioxide (CO,), water vapor
(H,O), oxygen (O,), and nitrogen IN,). Percentages of these gases in the poc
(products of combustion) are determined by simple chemical calculations, based
on the composition of the fuel streams and stoichiometric ratio.
The concentrations of the trace compounds, or species, in the poc, measured
in parts per million (ppm) instead of percentages, are path dependent. That is,
the degree of their formation is determined by temperature and the concentra-
tions of other species in the flame and in the burned mixture of fuel, oxidant,
and poc. The small concentrations of the trace species do not significantly
impact the larger concentrations of the primary products. Part 11 is primarily
concerned with the trace species that are harmful pollutants, such as nitric
oxide (NO),nitrogen dioxide (NO,), carbon monoxide (CO),sulfur dioxide (SO,),
and particulates.
Trace Measurement Units. Table 11.1 lists the units of measurement of trace
emission rates.
Correction for Dilution of Concentration Measurements. Concelltration
measurements arc subject to dilution errors if excess air is increased in the
combustion process. If a specified ppm emission level were not required to be
corrected to a base oxygen level (such as 3% 0, in the USA), any system could
add dilution air to reduce the pollutant level and claim to be in compliance.
Old time boiler operators thought they could fool the "smoke inspector" by
turning up the excess air, but dilution is not the solution to pollulion. Figure
11.2 compares generation vs. coxlcerltralio~lmcasurcmcnts.
154 NORTH AlMERICAN COMB USTION HANDBOOK
Table 11.1. Units ofmeasurement of emission rates for trace species fall into 3 classes.
(See Appendix Tahle C.6 or the Glossary for equivalent units.)
US units Metric Units Explanations and comments
1) tonslyear tonneslyr POLLUTANT GENERATION rate. Primary

permit value. Total annual allowed or maa-
surcd mass flow rate.
pounds/br mg/h POLLUTANT GENERATION rate. Total
hourly allowable, or mcasured, mass flow
rate.
2) pounds/million Btu grams/gigajoule POLLUTING "EFFICIENCY". Factors out the
size of the combustion system. Generally
masu/hr divided by gross input/hr.
PPmv POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION. Vo~umcfrac-
tion of a given pollutant cuutained in an exhaust
stream. The ppm,d(dry) is reported by most trace
gas analyzers
mg/nms* POLLUTANT CONCENTKATION. Weight bac-
tion of a given pollutant contained i n an exhaust
stream.
Figure 11.2. A concentration measurement loses its meaning unless corrected to a standard-
ized % 0,.A generation measurement is not affected by oxcess 02.
\ \\
Dilution
Furnace New
exhaust exhaust
1000 scfh 4000 scfh

---b 100 ppm NO 25 ppm NO ---+
3% 0, dry 16.45% 0,dry
0.012 Ib NOlhr 0.012 Ib NOlhr
Within any given enforcement jurisdiction, all specified trace emission

allowances and all measured actual trace emissions must be referenced to the
same base bxygen level. (3% O, which is about 15% excess air, within the U.S.
EPA's jurisdiction.)
An actual trace measurement in ppmvd (parts per million, by volume, dry
basis] can be converted to the reference level as follows:
20.9% - OZTcf
[ l l / l a I ~ p m v dref O, ' X PPmvd act 0,
20.9% - o,,,,
* normal cubic metre. See Glossary.
POLLUTION CONTROL 155
For areas where the enforcement base is 3% O,, the above becomes:
[ ~ l / l b l ppmvd ref 0, = 7'9% x ppmvd act O,

20.9% - O,,,,
Table 11.3 provides factors based on Forinulas I l l l a and l l / l b . T h e use of

those factors is illustrated in Example 11.1.It is important to remember that the
base oxygen correction does not imply a ratio condition within a furnace. Data
recorded at any excess air level must be corrected to the same oxygen basis for
comparison of the total cmission level.
Example 11-1.If a reading of 80 ppm, NOx is measured while operating with 4%

oxygen by volurne, dry, i n the flue gas, find the standardized base equivalent ppmv at
3% 0, dry.
Solution;The corrected ppm NOx (dry basis by volume) = 80 pprnvd x

= 80 x 1.059 = 84.7 ppm,.
20.9 -4
Implementation Standards, Units. In the United States to date, enforcement

has been left to the statcs or local agencies, but they must set up standards that
are within U.S. federal guidelines.
Space considerations prevent publication here of legal limits or1 pollution

emissions of various enforcing jurisdictions. Such rulings and allowable
exceptions thereto may change at any time. It is thc equipment owner's respon-
sibility to keep abreast of applicable regulations. See Reference 1l.a at the end
of this Part 11.Information on US EPA standards for measurement can be found
in Appendix A of 40 CFR 60.
The basic specification is for ambient conditions: e.g. on the sidewalk, where
people are exposed--at 0.053 ppm (by volume) NOx, or 100 micrograms per
cubic metre of air. This is an allowed average over a 24-hour period, not to be
exceeded more than once per year. [U.S. Natl. Ambient Air Quality Standard,
1992.)
Relating ambient standards to "source" (in stack) values is complex. Source

review programs include:
(a) new source performance standards
(b) prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) i n the environment i n attain-
ment areas--no more than 40 tons NOx per year; and
(c) non-attainment area bubbles, offsets, tradings, or banking.
Table 11.3. Converting wet %0,, dry %0,, and % excess air; and multiplicrs* for
correcting NOx flue gas analysis readings to a 3% oxygen basis (per example 11-1) for
a typical natural gas.
% Excess oxygen OO
/ Excess air
dry wet Oh XSAir Multiplier
0 0 a 0.86
3 0.82 4.53 0.90
1.10 0.90 5 0.90
1.22 1 5.57 0.91
2 1.66 9.54 0.95
2.09 1.73 10 0.95
2.41 2 11.7 0.97
2.98 2.49 15 1.00
3 2.51 15.1 1.00
3.57 3 111 8 1.03
3.80 3.20 20 1.05
4 3.38 21.4 1.06
4.54 3.85 25 1.09
4.71 4 26.2 1.10
5 4.2fi 28.4 1.13
5.22 5.02 30 1.14
5.83 5 34.0 1.19
5.85 5.02 35 1.19
6 5.16 36.3 1.20
6.43 5.55 40 1.24
6.92 6 44.6 1.28
7.46 6.50 50 1.33
8 7.01 55.9 1.38
8.38 7.35 60 1.43
9.04 8 68.7 1.51
9.83 8.77 80 1.61
10 8.93 82.6 1.64
11 9.92 I 100 1.81
11.1 10 102 1.83
12 10.9 121 2.01
13 12.0 148 2.26
13.1 12.0 150 2.29
13.8 12.8 175 2.52
14 13.0
14.4 13.5
15 14.1
"These multiplicrs may he used to correct any volumetric gas concentration reading to a 3%
oxygen basis. They correct for dilution only, not for the effects of excess air on the chemical
kinetics phenomena.
Example 11-2.If the specified PSD level is 40 tons NOx per year, that is equivalent to
If you were considering adding heating equipment that emit 1 lb NOx per million Btu,
the maximum input that could be adcled would be:
9.13 Ib NOx/hr
= 9.13 million ~ t u l h r .
1 lb NOx/million Btu
But if a unit that emits only 0.25 Ib NOx/million Btu becomes available, then units
totaling 4 (9.13)or 36.5 million Btu/hr coulcl be added.
The last two columns of Appendix Table C.6 (Pollutant Concentration) give
conversion factors for six typical fuels, for changing ppm to lh NOx per million
Btu and for changing lb NOx per million Btu to ppm. All these conversion
factors are for ppmvd (of NO,, CEI,, CO, or SO,, at 3% 0, by volume dry); and
per million gross Btu.
If it should be necessary to determine such collversion factors for specific
fuels, North American Mfg. Company's Ha~lrlbookSupplement 248 and STOIC
Computer Prograrn provide help in making the calculations. It is first necessary
to ascertain the following from the fuel supplier: the analysis of the fuel
(volumetric for gases, by weight for liquids and solids), and the gross heating
value of the fuel. In some parts of the world, the lb NOx per million Btu is
based on net or lower heating value. When making comparisons, both should
be on the gross basis or both on the net basis.
NOx EMISSIONS
Why NOx Emissions are a Problem. Nitrogen oxides, or NOx, emissions are
generated by combustion systems where nitrogen and oxygen are present within
a locally high temperature region of the flame. The abbreviation NOx is
chemical shorthand for the combined species of NO and NO,. These species of
emissions pose a significant health hazard in ambient air. Other detrimental
environmental effects of NOx emissions are photochemical smog and acid rain,
both found in industrial areas around the world.
In the lower atmosphere, NO reacts with oxygen in the air to form both NO,
and ozone, 0,. Ground level ozone is a health hazard, blocking air passages
and impairing respiratory performance. As a pollutant, ozone is far more wide-
spread than NOx, with over one hundred U.S. counties measured as out of
compliance by the EPA ambient air guidelines. In 1991, only Los Angeles county
was out of compliance for NOx emissions.
158 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTlON HANDBOOK
Mechanisms of NOx Formation.NOx can be formed in three distinct ways in

combustion systems, the most common of which is the thermal NOx pathway.
The elementary reactions responsible for this type of NOx generation are
frequently called the "Zeldovich Mechanism" after Y. B. Zeldovich who
detailed their contribution in a 1946 paper (Reference 1l.b). The reactions are
A fifth reaction for nitrogen dissociation is often includcd, but is not a

significant contributor lo the N atom pool at norrnal air-based combustion tem-
peratures.
The equilibrium concentration of NO is strong1 temperature-dependent.
Figure 11.4 shows the exponential relationship %elween temperature and
equilibrium levels oPNO for three mixtures: air with 20.9% O,, and products of
combustion with both 2% and 5 % oxygen hy dry volume. These three are
typical gas analyses that occur in industrial combustion applications.
An equilibrium analysis of thc global reaction,
shows that the collcentratiori of NO is proportional to Kp(T),the equilibrium

constant for this reaction at constant pressure, and thc square root of both the
oxygen and nitrogen concentrations at equilibrium,
[NO] = Kp(T) d m .
Glass~nan(Reference 1l.c) has also shown by an analysis of the thermal NOx
mechanism that the rate of NO growth with time is proportional to the square
root of the oxygen concentration,
diNOl/ dt = dm4
[N21es.
Therefore to minimize equilibrium concentration and the rate of growth of NO,
both the temperature and oxygen concentration need to be controlled.
An examination of the reaction kinetics of the thermal NOx mechanism shows
that the growth of NO is much slower than the completion of the other hydro-
carbon reactions. In a shock tube study of the CH,-0,-N, reaction system,
Rowman and Seery [Ref. 1 l . d j found that hydrocarbon reactions were com-
plete in less than 0.0001 seconds. NO growth was found to be much slower. In
Figure 11.4. Equilibrium NOx emissiuns vs. gas temperature (poc = products nf combustion).
16 000
14 000
- Air, 20.9% O2
-..-..- poc, 2% 4
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Temperature, F
fact, at a time of 0.01 seconds, concentrations were still far short of equilihrium.
The extended times required for equilibrium indicate that NOx can be con-
trolled by reducing residence time.
'l'he slow reaction rates, low concentrations, and small effect on overall
product temperatures and concentrations allow the problem of NOx generation
to be decoupled from the other chemical reactions. Researchers such as Bracco
(Ref. 1l.e) and Williams (Ref. 1l.f)have used this fact to numerically model the
production of NO in flames. These same factors are extremely important in the
creation of a low NOx emission burner.
The two other pathways that can produce NOx emissions are the chemical
(or fuel) mechanisms, and the "Prompt" or "Fenimore" NOx mechanism.
Chemical NOx is created when nitrogen atoms are located in bonds within the
Iuel molecule, commonly referred to as "fuel-bound nitrogen." C-N and N-1-1
bonds are common in liquid and solid fuels and can produce significant
contributions to the total NOx emission level. During the reaction of these
compounds additional N atoms are released into the radical pool, i'ncreasing
NO formation. Prompt NOx is in some ways similar to chemical NOx, except
that the C-N bonds are created through the reaction
The HCN is then oxidized, potentially leading to increased NOx levels i n the
product gases. HCN generation in flames is strongly ratio-dependent, with peak
concentrations formed at sub-stoichiornetric or fuel-rich conditions where there
is reduced oxygen availability.
Figure 11.5. Conversion of chemical NOx (from N).
-
(z) x XXN x 10"
x conversion factor
- (0.2707) X %N X 10"
- x conversion factor
POLLUTION CONTROL
Figure 11.6. Fuel bound nitrogen (wt %) for #2 fuel oil.
Fuel bound nitrogen, wt %

#2 fuel oil
Low NOx Cnmbustion. The prcccding section described how NOx is formed
in conlbustion systems. Ilowevcr, the real issue is: How can the overall NOx
emission from a combustion process be controlled? When a fuel and air mixt~xcc
at a given ratio is burned, it produces prcdictahle levels of water vapor and
carbon dioxidc. 'This mixture must always have the same adiabatic flame
tc~nperature,primary product concentrations, and equilibrium NOx concen-
trations.
Why should the NOx emissir~nlevel be different for flames with the same
fuel and airffuel ratio? All product levels would be the same if combustion
were an equilibrium process. Hut fortunately for equipment designers,
industrial combustion is governed by nun-equilibrium and kinetic effects. In
industrial applications the primary goal of combustion is to heat some product
Figure 11.7. Equilibrium NOx production vs. equivalence ratio.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Equivalence ratio
or load. The furnace where this heating takes place is maintained at a tempera-
ture significantly below the adiabatic flame temperature of the fired airlfuel
mixture. When chemical reaction takes place, products are both formed and
rapidly released into this "reduced" temperature environment. This allows the
NOx forming reactions to be qucnchcd, essentially "freezing" their concentra-
tions at levels far below equilibrium at flame temperature.
Reduced temperature greatly inhibits the rate of NOx fvrrnation. While the
time to equilibrium is short at flamo temperature, the time to the lower equilib-
rium concentrations at typical furnace temperatures can be hours, days, or even
years. The total gas residence time in an industrial furnace is only a few
seconds, after which gascs are released to the ambient atmosphere. 'I'hcrefore
the NOx producing mt:chanisms never reach oquilihrium, and concentrations
arc frozen at a much lower lovcl.
Figure 11.8. Actual NO corlcentration profile in a furnace environment.
Time
Combustion equipment manufacturers take advantage of these non-equilih-

rium effects in designing low NOx burners. These effects can be maximized by
using combustion strategies that limit peak flame temperatures, limit localized
in-flame oxygen concentraiions, and reduce residence time at peak tempera-
ture.
In combustion systems, water vapor and carbon dioxide can be considered

as "state" variables. If the fuel composition and airlfuel ratio are known, then
the concentrations of these products after combustion is also known. NOx pro-
duction in a flame behaves as a "path" variable, To determine the final NOx
concentration, the time, temperature, and local concentration profiles must be
known. The optimization of one or more of these three factors gives low NOx
equipment manufaclurers flexibility in designing low emission systems.
P01,LIJTION CONTROL 163
Low NOx Strategies and Equipment. NOx production from combustion

sources is strongly dependent on four primary variables: temperature, concentra-
tions of oxygen and nitrogen, C-N bonds within thc chosen fuel, and residence
time. If any one or more of these variables are properly controlled, NOx
production will be reduced. When evaluating the following NOx reduction
techniques on a given combustion system, the most important constraint must
be thc process itself. Low emission burners can havc significantly different
flame patterns and internal chemistry; so a plant engineer must examine these
features and determine their effects on the fired process.
NOx reduction techniques developed over the last two decades fall into four
basic calegorics:
Modification of Operating Conditions
Modification of Combustion Syslern
Modification of Burner Internals
Post Conlbustion Cleanup
Modification of Operating Conditions. The first step in achieving reduced

NOx emissions in a given combustion installation is to examine the current
operating conditions. If a small reduction is required, on the order of 5-15"/0,
proper burner tuning and furnace operation may be sufficient.
The NOx emission rates of many burners are sensitive to airffucl ratio. As
excess air is decreased toward stoichiometric firing, less oxygen is available for
conversion to NO, despite increased flame temperatures. Equilibrium NOx
calculations (Figure 11.7) show that the maximum emission rate occurs at 20-
30% excess air. Whilc the rate of air-fuel mixing may move this peak in either
direction, the rrlajority of burners have reduced emissions at 10% excess air.
Infiltration of air into a furnace can also have a noticeable impact on system
NOx emissions. Recently, an industrial furnace was found to emit 50% more
NOx than a laboratory furnace equipped with the same identical burner. The
burner was re-tested in the lab furnace where the original measurements were
found to be correct. A thorough investigation of this mysterious chain of events
showed that the lab furnace was in good condition, sealed tightly, whereas the
industrial furnace had leaks allowing infiltration of considerable "tramp air"
(excess air), which made much more oxygen available for production of NOx.
When areas of negative furnace pressure occur, cold air is drawn in through
furnace ports and doors, leaky seals, and other openings. If this infiltrated air
mixes with the flame envelope it can create locally high oxygen concentrations
in the highest temperature flame zones. This can result in higher levels of NOx
emissions at any burner airlfuel ratio. Proper furnace pressure control can be a
very effective techniquc for not only limiting furnace NOx production but also
increasing furnace efficiency (see Part 7 of this book).
When chemical NOx is a problem, fuel switching can be a viable option.

Different fuels contain different levels of atomic nitrogen (N). A switch to a
similar fuel with lower %N can greatly reduce NOx emissions. When operating
condition adjustments are not sufficient to achieve the desired emission rate,
further steps must be taken.
Modification of Combustion System. Further reduction of NOx emissions

can be achieved with changes to the combustion system. A common combus-
tion modification is the addition of flue gas recircula~ion(FGR). FGR systoms
bring cooled products of combustion from the exhaust stack back into the
combustion zone. This flue gas can be added to either the air or fuel streams or
supplied through its own burnor connection. Thc method of introduction can
change the NOxreducing effectiveness of a given quantity of flue gas.
The addition of Ilue gas to a burner will reduce both peak flame temperature
and local oxygen concentration. Typical NOx reductions achieved with FGR
are shown in Figure 11.9. FGR is most effective in combustion systems thal
have both a low flue gas exit ter~lperatureand a low oxygen level, maximizing
both NOx reduction mechanisms.
PGR rate can be specified in many difhrent ways, such as O/o of stoichiometric
air volume, % of total flue gas volume, and % of total oxidanl. When comparing
two FGR systems it is important to put them on the same dilution basis. When
FGR is added through the combustion air blower, the best measurement of FGR
rate is the burner inlet oxygen concentration. This measurement is indicative
of the NOx, reducing mechanism and provides an easy checkpoint during
combustion system tune-ups.
Figure 11.9. NOx reduction in natural gas flames for varying oxidant oxygen levels.
21 20 19 18 17 16 15
Oxidant oxygen, %
Unfortunately, the NOx reduction achieved with FGR is not without cost.
Quite often the addition of an FGR system will require larger burners, inlet air
piping, and combustion air blowers to accommodate the increase in oxidant
volume. Operating and maintenance costs typically increase when FGR is added
to a combustion system. Changes to the combustion air blower, or the use of a
separate FGR fan, increase power consumption and flue gas exit temperatures.
This results in a reduction of the system's thermal efficiency and increases
operating costs. Water condensation in the recirculation system can be corro-
sive, reducing the operating life of piping, valves, and burner internals. Also,
operation of thc combustion system with high levcls of FGR tends to reduce the
stability of the burner, potentially resulting in control difficulty and increasing
frequency of burner outages.
Many hidden costs of FGR can be avoided by using the largest "free" source
of FCR available, the furnace itself. Many types of burners develop in-furnace
recirculation zones that bring low oxygen, low* temperature gases directly into
the flame envelope. These gases again reduce peak flame temperature and
reduce local oxygen levels. High swirl burners, flat flame burners, and high
velocity burners typically have lower NOx emissions than other flame types
because of their ability to pull furnace gases into the flame.
Recently developed techniques extended this type of NOx reduction. Sepa-

rated high velocity air and gas jets can reduce the combustion system NOx
emissions by as much as 90%. Operation of such a system on a furnace involves
heating with standard burner air and fuel flows to a safe autoignition tempera-
ture (typically above 1450 F) to satisfy flame supervision requirements. At that
time, fuel flow is diverted from the burner internals to raw gas injectors located
outside the burner tile, as shown in Figure 11.10. Fuel and air streams mix
thoroughly with furnace gascs, becoming extremely dilute before combining in
front of the burner tile. The streams autoignite achieving complete combustion
within the furnace environment. This technique is particularly effective i n
reducing emissions from preheated air burners. Careful consideration of
furnace geometry, desired flame pattern, a n d emissions requirements is
required before conversion to a dilute gas injection system, because injector
placement is critical for optimum performance.
* Altl~oughfurnace gases are not low temperature, they are significantly lower than typical flame
temperatures.
Figure 11.10. Schematic of dilute jet burner system.
air air
Figure 11.11. Equilibrium NOx production vs. oxygen concentration and temperature.
12 000
10 000
E,
.................,. 2000 F oxidant
f 8 000 -.n-qn--- 2400 F oxidant
V)
c
0
'i
.-
6 000
E 4 000
0
z
2 000
0
25 20 15 10 5 0
Oxidant oxygen, %
Modification of Burner Internals. Another very effective combustion modi-

fication is the addition of staging to the burner internals. The term "staged"
applies to burners or systems that split one of the reactants, either fuel or air,
into two streams. The first of the two streams is combined with the entirety of
the second reactant and burned under design conditions in the "primary zone".
The second stream is mixed with both the products of the primary zone and the
furnace gases to complcte combustion. See Figure 11.12.
When the air stream is split, the resulting syslerxi is referred to as air-staged.
Air-staged systems fire fuel-rich in the primary zone. Since little oxygen is
available there, very little NOx production occurs. The secondary air stream
completes combustion, burning out all the rich products horn the first stage.
Peak flame temperatures are avoided in both stages, again limiting NOx ernis-
sions. Air-staging is onc of the best lecliniques to reduce chemical NOx since
little oxygen is present when atomic nitrogen is liberated from the fuel.
Thc main drawback to air-staged con~bustionis the complexity of the burner

installation. Most systems require an extended tile or burner quarl to allow for
complete reaction in the primary zone. If the secondary air is nlixcd with the
first stage products before reaction is complcte, many of the emission benefits
can be lost. In many systems, the tile must contain complex refractory baffles
to divert the secondary air stream; these baffles car1 be difficult to install or
replace and can be prone Lo failure.
Figure 11.12. Schematic of staged colnbustion systems.
A. Air-staging Air supply1 -
7
Primary ' ' Secondary
Fuel supply combustion ) combustion
zone L zone
Fuel supply 7
' '
'
Air supply
Primary
combustion
zone
- +
Secondary
combustion
zone
I \
168 NORTH AMERICAN, COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
In fuel-staging, the fuel is split into two streams, resulting in a fuel-lean

primary zone. Even though the oxygen concentration is high, fuel-lean combus-
tion zones produce relatively low flame temperatures, greatly limiting NOx
production. The combustion products from the primary zone behave as an air-
FGR mix, helping to minimize NOx emissions in the second combustion zone.
Fuel-staged systems do not generally have the drawbacks associated with

air-staging. The first stage uses lean combustion, where a high level of excess
air is present, that occurs much faster than the rich combustion found in air-
staging. This permits a tile geometry similar to conventional combustio,n
systems. Bypass fuel passages tend to be small, as only one-twentieth of the
total reactant volume must bypass the primary zone when using natural gas.
The only disadvantages are secondary fuel injector integrity and the potential
requirement of two distinct gas connections on each burner.
Further improvement can be made to fuel-staged systems by changing the

mixing in the combustion zones. Fully premixing the reactants in the primary
stage produces an extremely uniform flame with no high temperature zones
(Figure 11.13). An ernission analysis of a lean premixed flame may show
NOx levels below 5 ppm (on a 3% oxygen basis). Mixing improvements in the
secondary zone may reap benefits as well. [Reference 1Z.g.l
The addition of dilute gas injection techniques to a lean premix primary core
can produce NOx emission levels below 15 ppm (on a 3% oxygen basis) for
burners firing at 10% excess air. Such a system provides NOx emissions below
nearly all regulated levels without any additional operating expense or combus-
tion system compromises. /
Figure 11.13. Schematic of a partially premixed fuel-staged burner.

Combustion
air inlet
......- .........- .
Prima
gas in
elements gas inlet reaction region
Post Combustion Cleanup. When use of the previously described techniques

fail to produce an acceptable NOx emission rate, post combustion cleanup is
the final alternative. The two most common techniques are selective non-
catalytic reduction (SNCR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
SNCR relies on the injection of ammonia, urea, or other nitrogen-containing

compounds into the flue gas stream. The flue gas must be within a specified
temperature window at the poi111 of injection and injection systems must be
carefully designed to fully mix the NOx reducing agent and the flue gas stream,
When proper conditions are achieved the agent will break down the NOx present
in the flue gas stream, converting the N back to molecular nitrogen, N,, with
water vapor as the other product. Many case studies show NOx emissions can
be reduced by 50% to 80% using SNCR. In some installations, it is possible to
move the temperature window wilh srriall quantities of olIier gases, such as
hydrogen.
SCR is similar to SNCR, but uses a catalytic material such as platinum or

palladium Lo make the reaction proceed more coknpletely at a lower flue gas
temperature. A predetermined amount of ammonia is mixed thoroughly with
the flue gas upstream of the catalyst monolith. This results in as much as 95%
NOx reduction in the exit gas. Catalyst life is typically 3-5 years but may be
shortened by a variety of factors.
While both are extremely effective in reducing the total NOx emissions,
several factors must be taken into account when weighing a decision to use
either SNCR or SCR. These systems tend to have extremely high capital and
maintenance costs. Good control is required to match reagent injection rate to
combustion system firing rate through all turndown conditions. Reagent "slip
streams" are regulated down to extremely low levels and improper injector
placement or deviation in the temperature window can cause NOx emission
increases. In addition to the high capital cost of catalysts, disposal questions
and potential catalyst poisoning by the fired process must also be addressed. A
complete economic analysis focusing on the cost of NOx reduction per pound
of NOx reduced should always be undertaken before implementing any NOx
reducing system on a particular furnace or application.
On-going NOx Reduction. This is not the end of NOx reduction technique
development. New methods, as well as combinations of the above techniques
and improved burner tuning, will provide continued reduction of NOx emis-
sions. Much attention is being paid to individual applications for simultaneous
improvement of process efficiencies and NOx emission levels. It is hoped that
these will meld into a general solution to the problems raised by combustion in
every industry.
170 NORTH AfilERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
The incident described in the preceding section on "Modification of Operat-

ing Conditions" shows that a burner manufacturer may be able to guarantee
burner performance, but cannot often guarantee furnace performance, which
must be conditioned upon very specific circumstances. Not just burners, but
furnace temperature, pressure, and configuration--design, construction, main-
tenance, the whole combustion ellvironment and process--affect NO formation.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO),

UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS, VOCs
Why CO and Othcr Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC) are ProbIcms. Carbon

monoxide or aldehydes may result Irom a rich airlfucl ratio, poor mixing, or
flame quenching. Quenching or cooling can cause aldehyde formation as a
result of the temperature reducing effects of too much cold excess air.
Carbon monoxide, GO, is odorless, invisible, and it car1 cause death by
asphyxiation. Aldehydes cause eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches,
andlor nausea. They scrve as a precursor of CO troubles.
Off-gases from incineration c ~ fgaseous, liquid, or solid wastes may include
volatile organic compounds [voc),poly-nuclear aromatics (pna), and inorganic
compounds. Any of these may be pollutants. Most result from a rich ratio of the
waste bcing incinerated to air, although an interruption of the c:ombustion pro-
cess may also produce these pollutants. An intcrruption might also bc caused
by an excess of cold air that (a) cools the mixlure* below its minimum ignition
temperature, (b) dilutes the mixture below the lowcr limit of flammability, or
(c) increases the mixture velocity above its flame speed. Obviously, too rich or
too lean an airlfuel ratio may cause these forms of pollution.
The occurrence of any of these events presents a no-win situation for the
operator of an incinerator that is not equipped with modern burners and
controls. To prevent smoke and gaseous pollutant formation, he avoids operat-
ing on the rich side. But if he swings very far to the lean side, he may again
produce gaseous pollutants because of the cooling effect of the excess air.
Unless the charged waste flows very steadily and is of constant calorific value
and density, there will be sudden changes in the stoichiometric air require-
ment, which may be difficult to track.
* ot. vaporized
waste material with air. (Most liquid and solid wastes must be vaporized i n an
incinerator before they can bc burned.)
Limiting CO and Other Unburned Hydrocarbon (UHC) Emissions. CO and

UHC emissions can be limited by controlling the same three basic factors that
influence NOx emissions: temperature, oxygen concentration, and residence
time at elevated temperatures. Unfortunately, each of these must be controlled
in the opposite direction from that of NOx reduction. If all three factors are
increased (higher temperature, oxygen concentration, longcr residence time),
CO production can essentially be eliminated. CO oxidation can take place in
the furnace atmosphere where NO concentrations are already frozen. This
distinction can be very important since CO emission levels can rarely be
sacrificed for reduced NOx. A low emission system must keep both pollutants
to a minimurn.
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Why Sulfur Oxides Emissions are a Problem. Sulfur dioxide, SO,, and sulfur
trioxide, SO, [collectively "SOX"), will be preserit in the products of combus-
tion of any fucl containing sulfur or sulfur compounds. When such fuels are
burned, they are oxidized to sulfur dioxide, and to a much lesser extent, to
sulfur trioxide. Both contribute to smog and to acid rain.
The final production of SOX by the comnbustion process cannot be altered.
All sulfur bound within the fuel will be convcrtcd to SOX,unless the combus-
tion process is somehow bypassed. Condensation of sulfur-bearing product
streams can cause serious corrosion problems within the flue system of any
combustion process. Applications that use heat recovery systems should avoid
fuels with any appreciable sulfur content.
Table 11.14. Calculation of final sulfur content

172 NORTH AMERICAN COMB USTION HANDBOOK
SOXlevels can be reduced by post combustion treatment, such as wet or dry

scrubbers, limestone injection, and new membrane technologies. Large power
plants that combust coal as their primary fuel frequently use two or more of
these techniques to limit their SOX emission levels.
PARTICULA'I'E EMISSIONS
Why Particulate Emissions arc a Problem. Soot from flarrles is made up uf

particles c ~ carbon
f and heavy hydrocarbon particulate (sometimes called "coke"
and "char"). Smoke and some phlrncs consist of concentrations of lhese soot
particles. 'l'hey most ollen rcsult from soIrle form of incomplete combustion.
They may combine with otllcr pollutants to make smog. Thcy are not only dirty
but harmful to plant and animal life, including humans.
Causes of Soot Formation. Kich aidfuel ratio (excess fuel, rerlucing atrnos-
phere) combined with high temperature is the most common cause of soot
formation. Some processes, particularly metallurgical, require a reducing
atmosphere to protect the required metallurgical reaction from the efIccts of
oxidation. In such cases, an afterburner, scrubber, or other after-treatment may
be necessary.
Delayed mixing* is a technique used in some burners to form soot intention-

ally for the purpose of increasing flame radiation--from the luminosity of the
soot particles. The rich mixture (from delayed mixing, a form of staged air
addition), plus the high temperature to raise the soot particles to glowing con-
dition (above about 1400 F, 760 C), provide just thc combination that creates a
luminous flame. It also happens to create a long flame. The same luminosity
effcct is achieved with the very high air preheat that is possible with modern
regenerative burners, but without the long flame--that is, with less mixing
delay.
* Air and gas parallel, laminar, and at equal velocities (type Y flame, see Figure , air and
f i . ~ )or
gas parallel with one fluid at much higher velocity than the other (type G flame). A more
cnmmon problem occurs when burners are turned down lo such low firing rates that their fuel
and air streams lack sufficient flow energy to accomplish reasonalilt: mixing.
In all the delayed mixing situations, regardless of degree of mixing, it is

important to assure incineration of the luminous soot particles so that insig-
nificant particulate pollution results. Incineration is accomplished by provid-
ing:
co-annular fuel and air supplies through the burner;
temperature above the ignition temperature of the soot particles; and
sufficient combustion chamber space (residence time) for the slow soot
combustion to go to completion.
Poor mixing [incomplete mixing) is not excusable. It fails to follow through

with the requirements for complete combustion. A revamp of the system is
required to assure complete combustion. Overfiring of a furnace may result in
pushing air and fuel through a furnace in such large quantities that they do not
have time (or space) in which to mix thoroughly.
Quenched flames are an example of a situation in which adequate tempera-

ture is not maintained for enough time or until enough air is mixed with the
rich mix. The resultant cooling of the flame below its minimum ignition energy
results in "freezing" the soot particles; so the soot formation becomes irrevers-
ible without further heat addition, such as with an afterburner.
Two common examples of quenched flames are: those that impinge on boiler
tubes, coating them with soot, and those in direct-fired air heaters where
relatively cool duct air chills the flame, producing pic (products of incomplete
combustion), usually aldehydes, and (rare) soot particles.
The solution for quenched flames is faster mixing. Prompt combustion pro-
vides more residence (burnout) time; and also raises the flame temperature,
thus minimizing the likelihood of locking in the soot particles.
Unsaturated fuels are often prone to soot formation because of their molecular
structure, which may have a higher CIH (carbon to hydrogen) ratio than that of
the saturated fuel. LP (liquefied petroleum) gas from a refinery source, rather
than from a natural gas source, may contain higher percentages of propylene
and butylene mixed with the propane and butane, and therefore produce a
sooty, smoky flame. This seemingly innocent substitution may present burner/
flame performance problems in some critical situations such as radiant tube
burners, some direct-fired air heater burners, raw gas fume incineration burners,
and atmosphere generator burners for special atmosphere heat treat furnaces.
'174 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTlON HANDBOOK
Table 11.15. General conversion factors (relating to air pollution control]
a) 100 tons per year of flue gas results from z8 YOO Btulhr input (natural gas)
b) 1megawatt of power output corresponds roughly to 8-11 million Btulhr fuel. input;
1MW = 3.414 million Btulhr
C) 1% sulfur in heavy fuel oil yields 700 pprn SO, in the dry stoichiumetric products
of combustion
d) 20% opacity = Density HI - Kingleman tt1
40%
60%
: = Densily
=
#2
Density #3
-
- "
"
#2
#3
80%) I,
= Density #4 - " #4
100%) " = Density #5 - " #5
c) zoo ppm = 0.02%
I0 000 pprn = 1%
fl 10 000 pprnv = 1.0% by volumo

1ppm, NO, = I948 pg/sm3
1ppmv NO = 1 2 7 2 pg/smn3
1 ppm, CH, = 676 pg/sm3
1 ppmv CO = 1183 pg/sm3
3. ppmv SO, = 2707 yg/sm3
g) 0.2 to 2.0% N in fuel may yield 60 to 2100 pprn NO
h) 1g/fP (gram per cubic foot) = 35.3 x l o Gpg/m3
1 pg/ft3 (micrograrrr per cubic foot) = 35.3 pg/m3
1lb/ft3 (pound per cubic foot) = 16 x lo9 pg/m3
1pg/m3 = 4.37 x grains/ft3
1 microgram per liter = 1 milligram/m3
i) For US EPA, NOx is always calculated as NO, even though it may be largely NO.
Similarly, combustibles are figured as though CH,.
POLLUTION CONTROL
REFERENCES
1 l . a US National Archives and Records Administration: "Code of Federal
Regulations 40, Protection of Environment, Parts 1-799.5055 and
1500-1517.7", Washington, DC, 1989.
1 l . b Zeldovich, Ya. B.: Acta Physecochem USSR 21,557,1946.
1 l . c Glassman, I.: "Combustion", pp. 318-382, Academic Press, 1987.
l1.d Bowman, C. T. and Seery, D. V: "Emissions from Continuolls Com-
bustion SystemsJ', pg. 123, Plenum Press, New York, 1972.
1l.e Bracco, F.: "Nitric Oxide Formation i n Droplet Diffusion P'lames",
Fourleonth Combustion Symposium, pp. 831-842, The Cornbustion
Institute, 1972.
1l.f Williams, A. et al: "Predir:lion of NOx Emissions from Oxygen-Enriched
Low NOx Burners", International Co~lferenceon Environmental
Control of Colnbustion Processes, AFRC, 1991.
1l.g Johnson, Gregory L.: "Premixed High Velocity Fuel Jet Low NOx
Burner". Patent #5201650, April 13, 1993.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to pollution control

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists: "Industrial
Ventilation", Committee on IndusLrial Ventilation, Cincinnati, OH,
1990.
American Gas Association: "Natural Gas Application for Air Pollution
Control", Prentice-IIall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987.
Brunner, C. R.: "Incineration Systems--Selection and Design", Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 1984.
Cheremisinoff, P.: "Waste Incineration Pocket Handbook", Pudvan
Publishing Company, Northbrook, IL, 1987.
Gas Research Institute: "Analytical Models for Industrial Gas Burner
Design", US National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA,
1983.
Gill, J. H. a n d Quiel, J. M.: "Incineration of Hazardous, Toxic, and
Mixed Wastes", North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH, 44105,1993.
Hawksley, Badzioch, and Blackett: "Measurement of Solids in Flue Gases",
The Institute of Fuel, London, 1977.
Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District: "Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, AP-40", 2nd cd., US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, 1973.
Niessen, W. R.: "Combustion and Incineration Processes, Applications i n

Environmental Engineering", Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1978.
Rich and Cherry: "Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies", Pudvan
Publishing Company, Nortllbrook, IL, 1987.
Robertson, Thomas F: "Development of a Partially Premixed Low NOx
Burner" O Master's Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, 1996.
Shell Development Company: "Afterburner Systems Study, PB-212 5Fll",
US National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, 1972.
Singer, Cook, Harris, Rowe, and Grumer: "Flame Characteristics causing
Air Pollution Production of Oxides of Nitrogen and Carbon Monoxide",
US Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1967.
US Environmental Protection Agency: "Compilation of Air Pollutant
Emission Factors, AP-42", 4th ed., Environmental Protcctioil Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, 1985.
US Environmental Protection Agency: "Glossary of Environmental Terms
and Acronym List, OPA-87-017", Office of Public Affairs (A-1071,
Part 12. NOISE MINIMlZATION
by Robert E. Schreter, Schreter Associates, Roswell, GA 30075
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND
To control noise or sound, it is important to comprehend ils basic characteris-

tics. Sound is any cyclical pressure variation in an elastic medium (gas, liquid,
or solid) that is perceived and interpreted by the ear. Unlike electromagnetic
waves, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound may be useful or useless;
wanted or unwanted.
Noise is generally considered to be unwanted sound. Another distinction

is that sound carries desirable information, such as speech, music, or even
the warning of an aulomobile horn. It is ofien difficult to differentiate between
Ihe two -- to decide whether a sound carries information or is just noise. As
an example of both, a machine with a screeching dry bearing carries a message
to the operator of an impending bearing failure; but to a neighbor, it is dis-
turbing and he would rather not be exposed to the noise. What is "noise" to one
person may be a desirable "sound," or at least an understandable message, lo
another.
Sound is generated whenever the molecules of an elastic medium are disturbed

and are caused to vibrate in a cyclical fashion. Such a disturbance may be created
by the motion of a solid object, such as the beating of a fly's wings, an oscillating
piston, the vibration of a loud speaker diaphragm (Figure 12.la); by the motion
of a liquid, such as a crashing liquid wave; or by the motion of a gas, such
as the sudden expansion and contraction of hot gas in an oscillating flame
envelope (Figure 12.lb) or a clap of thunder. If the pressure does not fluctuate,
sound will not be produced. (But the pressure fluctuations that make sounds are
very small, relative to the ambient pressure.)
Sounds have characteristics that permit us to recognize their sources. The

general characteristics of individual sounds must be completely understood in
order lo be able to control them. The sound of a pipe organ is quite different
from a wailing siren, yet both are generated by a jet of air, and can even have
identical frequency and intensity. In the organ pipe (Figure 1 2 . 1 ~ 1 the
, air causes
a column of air in the pipe to vibrate at a characteristic tone or overtone. In
the siren (Figure 12.ld), the air jet is separated into individual pulses by a
rotating perforated wheel.
Figure 12.1. Sounds generated by (a) a loud speaker, (b] an oscillating flame front, (c) an organ
pipe, and (d) a siren.
(a)
To understand and develop a mental picture of a sound wave, consider (Figure

12.2) a piston being driven by a crank running at constant speed. As the piston
moves to the right, it compresses air. This is represented by the positive loop
of a sine wave, or by the closely spaced lines illustrating air compression. As
the piston moves to the left, it creates a low pressure, often called a rarefaction,
illustrated by the negative loop of the sine wave, or by sparsely spaced lines.
This sound wave moves to the right at a uniform speed, the velocity of sound,
and will have a constant rms [root mean square) pressure, Once out of the tube,
the wave will expand, and the pressure dissipate.
NOISE MINIMIZATION 179
Figure 12.2. Compression and rarefaction waves in an elastic medium (usually air) generated by
a moving piston or a vibrating surface, such as a speaker diaphragm or a flame.
Wavelength
-. .
.. . ,....
. .......
,:
. .:..
,.,,..
? ....
....
. . . - .:
.
.. ..
. .
....
.. .. .. ... . ,.... .
.a.
Rarefaction Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance traveled by a sound as the pressure varies through

one complete cycle. See Figure 12.2.
[1211] X = Vlf
where X = wavelength, ft
V = velocity of sound, ftlsec
f = frequency, Hz
Low frequency sounds have long wavelengths; high frequency sounds have
short wavelengths. Understanding wavelength is important when making sound
measurements and in the design of noise suppression systems and attenuators.
Frequency of a sound is the speed with which its cyclical pressure variation
occurs, dpldt (the differential of pressure relative to time). It is simpler to
recognize the characteristic frequency of a pure tone such as the pure musical
"A" tone shown in Figure 12.3a, which has a frequency of 440 cycles per
second, or 440 Hz. (Most standards organizations have agreed on using "hertz"
or "Hz" in place of "cycles per second,") Many terms are used for frequency,
but the most common in acoustics is kHz or kilohertz, meaning thousand hertz.
180 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HA.VDBOOK
Figure 12.3a. A pure sound wave, such as might be generated by a carefully-made tuning fork
struck lightly on a rubber block. The A tone, in the middle of a piano keyhoard, has a frequency
of 440 IIz and a period of 0.00227 second. At 60 F, the speed of sound in air is about 1117 ftlsec:
so the wavelength, A, is (1117 ftl~cc)1(440cycleslsec) = 2.538 ftlcycle, or 0.7742 metres.
-- 0.7742 metres
The time for the pressure to go through one cycle is called the period, or
periodic time, which is Lhe reciprocal of the frequency.
where T = periodic time, seconds

f = frequency, Hz (cycles per second)
The frequency is often the result of a complex wave or waves made up of a com-
posite of different waves. An oscilloscope depiction of such a sound might look
like Figure 12.3b.
Low-frequency sound is classified as having a wavelength longer than 5 feet,

or a frequency below 240 Hz. It radiates in all directions; travels around
barriers, partitions, and corners; and easily penetrates holes, continuing to travel
freely in all directions. Low-frequency sound is difficult to attenuate. Human hear-
ing is less sensitive to low-frequency noise and can tolerate much greater inten-
sity without ear damage. At midlife, humans can hear sounds down to about 1 5
Hz,although they can perceive, through feeling, music andlow frequency vibra-
tions with frequencies as low as 1 or 2 Hz.
NOISE M I N ~ I V ~ Z A T I O N 183
Figure 12.3b. Real sound waves are complex composites of a variety of frequencies andintensities.
Medium-frequencysounds, "mid-frequency," are those having a wavelength

from 5 feet to 1 foot, or frequencies from 240 Hz to 1200 Hz. They are more
directional than low-frequencies, yet they disburse more than high frequencies.
Mid-frequency sounds are relatively easy to attenuate, using absorptive tech-
niques. Because they are within the normal range of speech sounds, medium-
frequency noises are extremely important considerations in noise control. The
ear is most susceptible to permanent damage at the upper part of this range.
High-frequency sounds are those with wavelengths of less than one foot and
frequencies of 1200 Hz to 20 000 Hz. These sounds travel in straight lines and
can be reflected much like light. They do not easily go around corners nor change
direction. High frequency sound is relatively easy to attenuate, especially through
air.
High frequency sounds are included in the upper part of speech frequencies,
so loss in these areas can be significant to good hearing. Humans in midlife rarely
hear sounds above about 15 000 Hz.
Sound pressure [intensity)is measured in microbars. One microbar [or pbar)

= one millionth of the normal barometric pressure. One microbar equals 1.45 x
lo-=psi, or 1.02 x lo-' micropascals.
182 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTIOlV HAlVDBOOK
Sound pressure level, Lp, is measured by most sound and noise instruments
in decibels, which are ratios, and are always relative to some base pressure
or pnwer, using a logarithmic function to reduce an otherwise burdensome long
scale. The current accepted base pressure for Lp is the threshold of human
hearing at 1000 Hz, which is 20 micronewtons per square metre (20 pN/rn2,or
20 micropascals (20 pPaj, or 0.0002 microbars (20 ,u-bars).This is discussed in
more detail two sections later, under "The Physics and Math of Sound."
Velocity of sound (or speed of sound] varies with the medium through which
the sound travels, and depends on the temperature and density of the medium
[unlike particle velocity, which varies with frequency). The speed of sound in
standard air (60 F, 14.696 psia) is 1130 ftlsec, or 344.4 mls. However, sound
velocity may be considerably different from this when dealing with combustion,
where the composition, temperature, and density of the gases are significantly
different from those of standard air, and change rapidly.
EFFECTS OF NOISE ON HUMANS
Physiological and psychological aspects. Sound has an enormous effect on our

lives -- our moods, our attitudes, our health, our job performance. When we lose
our hearing, it has a profound effect on every aspect of our lives.
The ear is the sensory organ that permits us to detect the air pressure
variations called sound. The ear is the most sensitive organ in the human body.
It has the ability to detect microscopic pressure changes. On the low end of the
hearing range, the threshold of sound for humans is 20 micropascals, which is
equal to a sound pressure of 2.9 x 10- psi, which is far less than that created
by a fly landing on a sheet of paper.
The highest sound that the human ear can hear is unknown, primarily because
it would result in permanent ear damage, but the maximum level is assusmed
to be about 150 dB. The human ear's resolution of range of sensitivity is in
excess of 31 600 000 to 1 on a pressure basis. Any organ that sensitive can be
damaged easily without proper care and protection. The human ear has the ability
to detect an enormous range of sound intensities, and at the same time, it can
also discern a wide range of frequencies.. ,from as low as 10 Hz to greater than
16 000 Hz.
The human ear, coupled with the brain, has the amazing ability to discern tiny
changes in sound patterns that permit picking out one voice or sound from
thousands of similar sounds.
Burner and furnace operating personnel may incur selective hearing damage
from high sound intensity in the range from 100 to about 400 Hz, which is quite
broad and normally affects speech recognition. The hearing loss is permanent.
Even hoaring aids do not alleviate the condition.
Most hearing damage is the result of repeated exposure to:

a) loud noise,
b) intense pure tone sound,
c) long exposure duration at intensities above 85 dBA,
d) loud impulse noise, such as from gunfire, andlor
e) loud repetitious noises in narrow frequency bands.
The ear can tolerate more intense low frequency noise. It is most susceptible
to damage in the range above 3500 Hz.
Noise afflictions. Hearing loss is common in most industrialized countries. In

the United States of America, one out of five people has sustained a significant
hearing loss. One out of Len people are deaf or have a severe hearing loss. The
incidence of occupational hearing loss started to decline in the 1960s and 1970s,
when OSHA, MSHA, and EPA were having an impact on industrial noise
exposure. The relaxation of occupational noise standards in the 1980s has
resulted in increased hearing loss.
The physical effects of intense sound or noise are not to be ignored. Exposure
to intense sound fields tends to cause increased blood pressure, headaches due
to dilation of blood vessels in the brain, dilation of the pupils of the eyes, increased
secretion of stomach acid, confusion, and the inability to think. It has been known
for years that watch makers or persons doing precise, delicate work, cannot
function in intense noise. People report problems relating to noise ranging from
inability to focus their eyes to difficulty concentrating on complex tasks.
The problems associated with not being able to communicate or hear also lead
to physical problems and danger. Failure to hear warning signals, machines
running, alarm horns, or vocal warnings by co-workers, all too frequently result
in accidents, and even loss of life.
Ironically, the psychological effects of deafness are far worse than the
physiological ones. As far back as recorded history, there has been a stigma
attached to being deaf.
184 NORTH AMERICAN COMB US TION HANDBOOK
The newly deaf person, or one who becomes hard of hearing, experiences
profound changes in his life, which frequently result in loss of friends and
social contact. Because he has difficultyhearing, he frequently misunderstands
or misinterprets what people are saying; so he tends to withdraw, become
suspicious, and associate only with those having the same disability (unless he
is able to correct his hearing disability). It is said that the deaf suffer even greater
impairment in life than do the blind,
Community response to noise. How do our neighbors and the community in
general respond to noise? What are the factors that cause the community to react
negatively toward noise and to those responsible for its production? The answers
to these important questions will show us exactly what must be done to avoid
a negative community or employee response to our projects. It is well known that
paying attention to a noise will often saiisfy the person complaining, but when
it is allowed to go unattended, a complaint to a public agency is far more difficult
to correct.
Some of the characteristic noise factors that play an important role in the way
the community responds to noise are:
1. Discrete frequencies and pure tones stand out from background noise,
These tones may even be of a lower intensity than the accepted back-
ground, yet they may be the primary cause of complaints.
2. High intensity noises.
3. Warbling noises -- fluctuating intensity. Beating noise with cyclical
intensity variations.
4. Sudden noises, such as blowoff of a high pressure relief valve.
5. Noise that would normally be acceptable in a metropolitan area will be
offensive in a secluded rural area where the ambient noise is low.
6. Low frequency noises or vibrations that cause resonant effects such as
rattling windows in local structures, or that communicate feeling to an
observer.
7. Noise of a frequency distribution that interferes with verbal communi-
cation.
8. Visual effects that convey to the viewer the idea that a plant or piece
of equipment is noisy, even though the noise level is at an acceptable level.
9. Other negative characteristics of the plant or equipment, such as appear-
ance, odor, or dust, which call attention to the equipment and to the noise,
will frequently result in a noise complaint even though they may not be
truly responsible for a noise problem.
Liability for noise reduction. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) is not concerned with ambient noise, but with the
exposure of workers to that noise. Their present standard limits an employee's
noise exposure to 90 dB as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA). Employee
exposure to noise above the permissible exposure limit (PEL) must be reduced
by feasible engineering controls or administrative controls. Where such controls
cannot reduce employee exposure to within permissible limits, employees are
to be furnished with personal protection equipment.
The OSHA noise standard also requires that the employer administer a
continuing effective hearing conservation program if exposure exceeds the PEL
(85 dB). OSHA has interpreted this to require employers to provide audiometric:
lesting for those employees exposed above the PEL without regard to the use
of personal protective equipment.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines Mine Safety and Health Adminislration has powers
similar lo OSHA. Although their activities are generally limited to mining opera-
tions, they may, in some cases involve themselves in operations not directly
connected with mining. Details of current regulations should be checked with
local OSHA or Bureau of Mines offices to ensure compliance with the latest
rulings.
The U.S. EPA is concerned with noise transcending property lines; not with
worker exposure to noise. The EPA has been active in writing model legislation,
and encourages the individual states to adopt, adapt, or write their own regula-
tions. Many states, cities, and towns have taken up the challenge, writing their
own versions of noise legislation. Some states have relegated the responsibility
for writing noise legislation to municipalities.
Municipal ordinances cover a wide variety of environmental noise topics. They

vary from very comprehensive to copy-cat or one-up legislation. Some are so
confining that they are not enforceable. Such legislation is so widely varied that
it is impossible to summarize. Local noise ordinances should be consulted on a
job-by-job basis to avoid conflict with ever-changing legislation.
THE PHYSICS AND MATH OF SOUND
Sound pressure. Units commonly used in making sound measurements are

not generally encountered in engineering; so require some explanation. To
establish a perspective from which lo study sound measurements, a range of
representative values is shown in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4. Typical sound pressure levels, Lp, or SPL

(2.9-E9 = 2.9 x lo-' = 0.000 000 0029 psi)
Source microbars psi micropascals
Reference level 2.9 - E9 20
Sound studio 2.9 - E8 200
Quiet office 2.9 -E7 2 000
Conversation, 3 feet 2.9 - E6 20 000
Noisy restaurant 2.9 - E5 200 000
Printing press 2.9 - E4 2 000 000
50 hp siren, 100 feet 2.9 - E3 20 000 000
Jet plane 2.9 - E2 200 000 000
Table 12.4 shows a huge variation in sound pressure -- ten million to one. Few,
if any, scientific instruments are capable of linearly measuring seven orders of
magnilude, and it is difficult for the human mind to perceive such a broad span.
To obtain a manageable range of figures, acoustic engineers take the base 10
logarithm of the ratio of the actual sound pressure to some arbitrary standard
pressure. The formula for performing this mathematical manipulation is
[12/3a] dB = l ~ g , ~ ( A l B )
where dB = decibels
A, B = sound pressures (actual, base) with consistent units
A modified form of the dB relationship is used to represent sound power as well

as sound pressure.
Sound Pressure Level, Lp, or SPL, which is what will actually be measured
by a microphone at a specified distance, r, from the sound source, may be
expressed in decibels, dB. The equation relating sound pressure in micropas-
cals to dB is
[12/3b] Lp = 20 [loglo [plpo)] = 20 [loglo (pl20)l

where Lp = SPL = sound pressure level, dB
p = actual sound pressure in micropascals.
p, = reference sound pressure = 20 micropascals
The notations for sound readings have changed over the years. Because both
old and new forms appear in current literature, it is well to be aware of both,
as shown in Table 12.5.
Table 12.5. Notations for sound terms

Term Old form New form
Sound Pressure, dB SPL LP
Sound Power, dB PWL Lw
Equivalent Sound Pressure, dB Le,
Day-Night Sound Pressure, dB Ldn
NOISE MINIlMIZATION 187
Sound power, L, or PWL, is the total acoustic energy rate radiating from a
point source of origin of a sound, in watts. It may be thought of as the source
energy required to produce a sound.
IL is helpful Lo think of sound pressure level as the pressure, Lp, measured
at a distance "13" from a source of L, watts power. Sound pressure is whal is
actually measured by a microphone and sound level meter. See Tables 12.6a,
12.6b, and 12.9.
Table 12.6a. Combining decibels from multiple sound sources
dB difference dB increment dB difference dB increment

between two to be added between two to be added
source levels to the source levels to the
being added higher level being added higher level
Ambient noise is treated as another source, and should be added to the equip-
ment sound level. If the difference between the ambient level and the equipment
level is zero, then the total noise level is 3 dB higher than either.
Table 12.6b. Ambient noise correction for sound level measurements. For a given dB
difference, subtract the dB error from tho total noise.
dB difference dB error dB difference dB error
0.6 10 6 1.25
1 6.75 7 0.93
2 4.25 8 0.72
3 . 2.95 9 0.55
4 2.17 10 0.46
5 1.65
When the total sound at a point has been measured, and L i is desirable to
isolate the sound level for specific equipment, this "dB error" is to be subtracted
from the measured total noise.
When the sound source is nondireclional and there are no reflections or
disturbances, the sound will propagate in a spherical pattern. All the energy
is radiated outward, so the intensity at any distance can be calculated by
dividing the watts of energy by the total surface of the sphere enclosing the sound
source.
[12/4] I = w/s
where I = intensity, in wattslftZ
W = sound power, in walls
S = surface area of the sphere, in ftz
The intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source
[12/5] I? = I, (rl/r,)
where r, = original distance from sound source
r1 = new distance from sound source
To bring this into more manageable numbers, it is expressed as a logarithmic

ratio. The sound power level, or L,, or PWL (also expressed in decibels, as refer-
enced to 10-12 watts) is
dBA = "Aw-weightednetwork factor. The human ear can detect frequen-

cies from about 10 to 16 000 Hz. Unfortunately, it is not equally sensitive to all
frequencies; so it gives a distorted impression of actual sound intensity. To
correct this misimpression, acoustics engineers developed electronic networks
that enable representation of sounds as humans hear them.
Figure 12.8 depicts the weighting characteristic, which represents human
perception of sounds at low loudness by the "A" network (or scale]; at medium
loudness by the "B" network; and at high loudness by the "C" network. Distor-
tion is greatest in the lower frequencies, especially at low and medium loudness.
Sound level meters have been designed to take into account lhese idio-
syncrasies, so as to give an indication of how the human ear perceived sound.
Figure 12.8. Response characteristicsof standard frequencyweighting scales for sound load meters
and of the human ear at threshold.
"-
o rn
u -
r n .
z
rn c
E'm
:5 .30
.-
w man ear "response" at threshold
I
-u .40. A I
K .501 I l l - J r J~~~~ a I , a a n t ,
I I 1 1 , 1 1 1 1
100 lo00 10,000

Frequency, HZ
NOISE MINILMIZATION 189
Tests have indicated that the human ear is less likely to be permanently
damaged by low frequency high intensities than by high frequency high inten-
sities. This damage risk is quite similar to the "A" network. Figure 12.8 shows
that the ear is less likely to sustain damage from a sound level 30 dB higher at
50 Hz than at 1000 Hz. Because of the similarity of the "A" network and the
damage risk criterion, agencies such as OSHA and NIOSH use the "A" network
for most sound testing.
SOUND PROPAGATION, AND SOUND MEASUREMENT
These topics are too complex for thorough coverage in this handbook.
Readers are referred to vendors' literature.
High frequency sound travels in straight lines. It can be reflected much like
light and does no1 easily change direction, nor go around corners. It is relatively
easy to attenuate, and is attenuated by air. High frequency sound is the
principal offender in hearing loss.
Low frequency sound travels in all directions -- around barriers, partitions,

and corners. It easily penetrates holes, continuing to travel in all directions. Low
frequency sound is difficult to attenuate. Human hearing is less sensitive to low
frequency noise and can tolerate much more intensity without ear damage.
NOISE CONTROL
After the noise source is identified and after its intensity at various wavelengths
is determined, the remaining task is to reduce the noise intensity to acceptable
limits. Numerous methods and combinations of methods can be used. There are
five basic methods for controlling noise. It can be: MOVED, ABSORBED,
BLOCKED, REDUCED, or SHORTENED IN EXPOSURE TIME.
Determination of the best method(s)required weighing one method against the

others by comparing their effectiveness and the ratio af attenuation to cost (in
dBAI$).
Moving the noise source. The most obvious but most frequently overlooked
solution is to eliminate the noise source, or to move it. Table 12.8 shows how
the sound pressure level can be diminished by increasing the distance
between the source and the receiver.
Table 12.9. Reduction in dB with increasing distance (based on hemispherical radiation)
Distance,feet 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 1280 2560

Distance, metres 3 6.1 12.2 24.4 48.8 97.5 195 390 780
Reduction, dB 17.5 23.5 29.5 35.6 41.6 47.6 53.6 59.6 65.7
Sound pressure level drops by 6 dB each time the distance is doubled,

as shown in Table 12.9. This provides a convenient way to estimate the eflect
of moving the noise source and receiver farther apart.
The same goal can be accomplished by one or more of the following:

a) eliminating the most intense noise source,
b) moving the noise source to another area,
c] increasing the distance from receiving location to source,
d) relocating the receiver, or
e) installing walls or partitions that increase the effective distance
between source and receiver.
These methods often prove more economical than use of attenuators.
Absorbing noise. Materials such as fiber glass, mineral wool, or cork felt
are good sound absorbers -- effectively reduce sound passing through them or
passing over their surfaces. Much of the incident sound energy is converted to
heat energy. Only a small percentage is reflected.
Sound barriers, reflectors, and enclosures must be designed for Lhe frequen-
cies to he controlled. A barrier that resonates in sympathy with the sound source
will act as a loudspeaker, retransmitting the sound energy that was to be blocked.
Similarly, reflector walls must effectively reduce the transmission of sound
through the reflector.
When sound passes through walls or barriers, its sound pressure level is
reduced. This type of sound reduction, "transmission loss," specified in dB, is
generally proportional to the barrier weight and density.
Porous silencers utilize the absorption of mid-frequency and high frequency

sound waves as they pass through permeable materials.
Resonators use a time delay to cause phase reversal and cancellation of all
or part of the original wave, A resonator acts like a capacitor, storing pressure,
then releasing it 180 degrees out of phase .with the original wave, thus causing
its cancellation. An application of lhis idea is the 114 wave tube, shown in Figures
12.10a and 12.10b.
A s the peak pressure passes the mouth of a quarter wave tube, the pressure
pulse travels 114 wave down the tube and reflects up the tube (another 114 wave
length), emerging lrom the mouth of the tube 180 degrees out of phase with the
original wave; so the resultant sound pressure is largely negated. Resonators
and reflectors use this phase displacement principle.
Figure 12.10a. Quarter wave tube ("Sprrok tube") applied to a radiant tube fired with a comprosscd
air and propane burner, wherein a n oscillating flame front may drive the tube into violent osc:ill;c-
tion a t a discrc:te frequency unique for an organ pipe of that configuration and length.
Figure 12.10b. Wave cancellation in a quarter wave tube, showing [from lup lo bottom) the
original wave, the reflected wave, and llle resultant wave.
192 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUS TION HANDBOOK
A volumetric device such as a Helmholtz resonator, ar an "apple jug," can

be used to replace the 114 wave tube with the same effect. See Figure 12.11.
Phase reversal may be accomplished by varying the impedance of the restrict-
ing neck, or by changing the volume of the jug. The resonator can be tuned on
the job by simply varying the chamber volume.
Figure 12.11. Helmholtz resonator can be tuned by filling the jug with water until anti-resonance
occurs, or by replacing the bottom of the jug with a movable piston.
\ c = velocity of sound in pipe gas, fps )

0 f = frequency of noise in pipe, Hz h
L = neck length,
A = cross sectional
area of neck, ft2
I V = gas volume of
chamber, ft3 I
Helmholtz resonators can result in maximum reduction over a narrow range of

frequencies, but they can be arranged to overlap so as to attenuate over a wider
range.
Reflectors, somewhat similar to Quincke tube reactive mufflers, Reference

12.a, achieve attenuation by phase reversal. Figure 12.12 illustrates an arrange-
ment for silencing a duct burner, where the duct oscillates as an open ended
pipe. The reflected wave travels 1.5 wavelengths; so it is 180 degrees out of phase
with the original wave, thereby canceling, or at least attenuating, the original
wave.
NOISE MINIMIZAT'ION
Figure 12.12. Reflecting tube silencing a duct burner
- 7 % -I
Detuning is the best way to silence or reduce Helmholtz or organ pipe noise.. .in
much the same way that ac electrical resonant circuits are detuned. Resonance
occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal and resistance
is negligible. The impedance of the circuit approaches zero; so the current
approaches infinity.
[12/7] current = electromotive forcelimpedance
[I2181 impedance = [(resistancej2 + (inductive reactance -

capacitive r e a c t a n ~ e ) ~
To reduce the current, make a change that will give the impedance a finite
value, which will reduce the current. The easiest way to do this is to add
resistance to the circuit. Similarly, to reduce the sound intensity of a tuned
resonator, add impedance to the acoustic circuit. For example, n gas-fired
rudiant tube oscillating at its nuturul frequency can be detuned by simply
adding a restricting orifice (impedance) at either end of the tube or pipe. These
same theories can be applied to long air piping that tends to oscillate.
Reactive silencers, Figure 12.13, are among the most commonly used in air
flow systems. They are highly effective, relatively inexpensive, and readily
available in many sizes and shapes. They can be designed to filter out discrete
frequencies as well as broad band noise. They are most effective in the medium
to high frequency ranges. Although some are designed for low frequencies, they
are quite large and heavy.
The inner part of a reactive silencer consists of walls of perforated metal

backed by mineral wool or fiber glass insulation. Actual silencing occurs by
absorption in the mineral wool and by reactive silencing. The volume behind
the perforated plates acts like the volume in a Helmholtz resonator, and the
perforations act like the throat of the bottle. Silencers of this type can contain
multiple tuned sections. Tuning is generally done by varying the volume of the
cavity and Ihe diameter of the holes in the perforated plate.
-
Figure 12.13. Reactive silencers redut:t? noise by absorbent filler mnlcrial and by many miniature
IIelmholtx-like resonators.
(High
Expansion chambers, Figure 12.14, make the sound pressure wave expand,
thereby reducing its intensity. The muffler shown also acts as a reflective silencer.
Figure 12.14. Expansion chambers [mufflers] allow sound pressure waves to expand and dissi-
pate their energy.
I 1. The diameter
+I
-)
-- -- -- ---- -- -7 - --
of the chamber
determines the
@ extent of noise
control
1
2
I- The length of the chamber
determines which frequencies
are controlled
NOlSE iM1NIMIZATION 105
Blocking the noise source. This method, Figure 12.15 encompasses anything
that would impede or eliminate the passage of noise from Lhe source to the
receiver.. .a source enclosure, a wall, or a receiver enclosure.
Figure 12.15. Blocking sound can be accomplished by a source enclosure, a barrier wall, or a
receiver enclosnra.
If an enclosure cannot be sealed, as with a molor or compressor thal requires

cooling air or process air, sound absorbing attenuators should be applied to all
intake and discharge pipes and ducts. See Figure 12.16. Flexible connections
should be used in pipes, ducts, and conduits passing through source and receiver
enclosure walls to prevent transmission of vibration to Lhe enclosure. Otherwise,
the enclosure may act as a sounding board, actually amplifying the noise. Any
noise source must be isolated from the floor and structural supports to prevent
transmission through the floor and supports, thus bypassing the sound-containing
effectiveness of the enclosure.
Figure 12.16. Flexible connections are necessary to isolate any sound transmitted by pipes, ducts.
or conduits passing through sound enclosures. Ventilation openings without connecting ducts should
be fitted with stub ducts to reduce direct sound radiation through the openings.
Cooling air
Stub ducts
reduce sound
radiation
196 NORTH AMERICAN COMB USTlON HANDBOOK
Enclosures should be lined with absorptive material. Transmission loss through

the wall should be maximized. Openings or leaks in the enclosure defeat the
purpose of an otherwise well-designed enclosure.
The use of earplugs, or better yet, earphones, to block sound from workers'
ears is a variation on the receiver enclosure principle. This is a less desirable
solution, but it is acceptable when other solutions have been exhausted.
Reducing the noise source is the preferred method for abating noise. Some
methods of reducing noise a l its source include:
1. Substituting low-noise-level motors or machines for standard motors
or machines.
2. Balancing a machine to eliminate vibration, or installing vibration
mounts to prevent transmitting vibration in10 large surfaces that act
as sounding boards.
3. Redesigning air nozzles and jets to include a boundary layer (Figure
12.171, which will greatly reduce shear effects and turbulence with
ambient air, thereby reducing turbulence-generated noise.
Turbulence
I
Figure 12.17a. A high velocity jet

4 - _ _ _ - --
/- -
shooting into slower moving surround-
ing gases can create viscous shear and
turbulence.
Nozzle Air jet
Figure 12.17b. A flow inducer reduces

shear velocity and turbulence.
Flow inducer 1
4. Introducing various mutes and silencers at the noise source can reduce
the transmitted noise.
5. Changing the size or length of resonating cavities and pipes to eliminate
or reduce resonant noises.
6. Separating large, high speed jets into a number of smaller jets can
significantly reduce gas jet noise.
7. Breaking large, high speed jets into a number of smaller jets to shift
the generated frequencies to higher frequencies, which are easier to
attenuate.
8. Adding damping material and web plates to large surfaces to increase
resonant frequency, making it much easier to attenuate the remaining
sound.
9, Reducing the size or reshaping rotating cavities can reduce siren-induced
types of noise.
10. Equipping large cylindrical surfaces, like chimneys, classically associated
with air-flow-generatedmoaning sounds, with an uneven spiral or other
eddy generators.
Whatever the method, every effort should be expended to stop the noise at
the source; or at least to shift its frequency to a range where it can be attenuated.
Reducing exposure time. In severe cases where it is impractical or ineffective

to use the methods previously described, reduction of exposure time can prove
helpful. This is a viable option as long as managers enforce the regulations and
limit exposure to the prescribed levels and times.
In the USA, OSHA permits exposure to sound levels in excess of 90 dBA, but
the time must be reduced in accordance with Table 12.18.
Table 12.18. USA OSHA-allowed exposure of persons
Lp = SPL, dBA at the Time duration,

person's ear in hours
Equation 1219 is the source for Table 12.18, and can be used to calculate
exposure times at other sound pressure levels.
[12/9] Time, hours = 8/2(sPL - 90115

Alternating personnel is another approach to reducing exposure time. Each

operator works in the higher intensity area for a portion of his work shift.
NOISE SOURCES TN COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

Fan or blower noise can be quite significant in itself, or it can drive other
acoustic systems such as chambers, cavities, ducts, or pipes to high noise levels.
The varieties of fans and blowers on the market make it difficulk to accurately
estimate noise levels. Each has its own characteristic noise, and they range from
crude home-made fans to sophisticated high efficiency machines.
Sound power levels for fans are normally slated at full load. This level
varies considerably depending on the machine's efficiency. For most fans,
the efficiency curve shows wide variation from the rating point. Because sound
power level depends on efficiency, one would expect the level to depend on the
operating point as well as the rating point. One can assume that the sound
power level will remain reasonably constant within 10 to 15% of the fan's
full load rating because efficiency varies little in that range. Below that, sound
power levels can be expected to increase.
When the manufacturer's data is not available, sound power level can be
estimated by:
a) using sound data for a machine of similar design produced by the same
manufacturer,
b) a mathematical method developed by J. Barrie Graham, consulting engineer
(Reference 12.a), or
c) using homologous fan information, compensating for different operating
parameters.
Method b is detailed, with examples, in References 12.c and 12.f. Method c is

detailed, with examples in Reference 12.f.
Fan noise is directional. The following individual components contribute to total

fan noise:
a) intake noise d) shaft seal leakage noise
b) outlet noise e) motor or engine noise
c) casing noise f) vibration noise (balance, mounting).
If noise from other sources is transmitted through inlet and outlel ducts, it
may contribute to the noise radiated by the fan or blower housing.
Open fan intake and exhaust noise levels are equal for all practical purposes.
The individual sound power level of the intake or discharge will be about 3 dB
less than the sound power level of the machine.
[12110] L,, open intake or outlet = L,, total - 3 dB
Radiated fan casing noise is generally low compared to levels emitted by

the inlet or outlet. The casing noise may become a significant consideration,
however, if the inlet and outlet are ducted or provided with silencers. If the
noise transmitted through the fan casing is less than 10 dB below that of the
open intake and discharge, it will have no effect on the overall sound level. In
the absence 01 actual casing radiation readings or data, the casing radiation
may be estimated as the overall sound power level at the inlet or outlet minus
the correction dB from Table 12.19.
[12111] L,, radiated = L,, fa, - Correctionfro, ~ , b l , 12.19
Table 12.19. Correction for casing radiation ,L or PWL (from Reference 12.c)
Casing thickness, gauge 14 12 10 8

Casing thickness, inches 114 318 112 314
Correction, - dB 16 18 19 20 22 25 27 30
Example 12-1.The total sound power of a blower fabricated with 10 gauge steel is 1 2 4
dB. The inlet and outlet arc connected to sound-insulated ducts. Using Table 12.19, the
sound power radiated by the casing will bc 124 - 19 = 105 dB.
Piping system noise. Resonance in fans, pipes, ducts. Acoustic surge, pulsing,
puffing, and pumping are terms frequently used to describe a phenomenon that
occurs in air systems. The rhythmic puffing generally happens in Iarge air
systems with long air conduits.
The magnitude of the surge may consist of barely perceptible pulsing that
creates little more than an annoyance. It may attain levels of such intensity that
it is difficult for workers to safely or legally remain in the area. Surging can
reach an intensity severe enough to flex the fan casing violently, causing fatigue
failure. The pressure pulsations can cause flexing and additional stress on the
wheel and blades, resulting in damage and failure.
In combustion applications, the pressure excursions caused by the surging,

can create burner instability that results in flame-holding problems. 'The
phenomenon is dangerous and should be avoided.
200 NORTII AMERICAN COMB USTlON HANDBOOK
The basic causes of surge in air systems are: a) blower or fan instability, and
b) duct, pipe, or cavity resonance.
Fan instability is a function of the pressure/volume characteristic of the fan,

and it is usually not a problem if operation is confined to the portion of the curve
where pressure rises with decreased flow, points A to B in Figure 12.20a.
However, instability becomes inherent when flow is further reduced to a point
of operation on the back side of the curve, points C to D in Figure 12.20b, where
pressure decreases with decreased flow. The problem is generally magnified
when the ducts are long and large in diameter.
Figures 12.20a and 12.20b show how pulsations happen in blowers as they are turned down to
lower flows. As the operating point moves from A to B to C to D, the downstream pressure in the
duct i s suddenly greater than the pressure at the blower c~ullet,causing a backflow. Thcn the
operating condition jumps hack to 3 or A. Pulsation is oscillation between the high flow and low
flow sides of the curve's peek.
7 D
0, cfm Q, cfm
The basic difficulty is not acoustic in nature, but one related to proper fan
selection or design. For details on fan design, see texts on that subject.
Pipe resonance, sometimes termed an "organ pipe effect," was discussed

briefly in the previous section under "Reflectors" in connection with Figure 12.1 2.
More detail on this subject will be covered in Reference 12.f.
Simple textbook-type pipes are rarely encountered in actual practice. The more
complicated systems consist of many parallel or series branches with takeoffs
at many places. These complex systems can be handled much as one does the
computations in complex ac electrical circuits, by merely breaking the system
into a number of simple series and parallel circuits.
Oscillation occurs when a susceptible pipe or cavity is excited by a periodic

disturbance or driving force such as the pulses of fan blades passing the
fan housing cutoff, the motion of an unstable air or gas jet, the fluttering of a
valve or even a loose inlet guard on a blower. The magnitude of the sound or
oscillation can be quite small, or it can reach levels capable of creating intense
noise problems, severe pressure pulsations, or even structural damage. In
severe cases with long ducts, standing waves can cause varying pressure along
the length of the duct. This, in turn, can result in non-uniform burner capacities,
depending on the positions of the burners relative to the standing waves.
Pipe systems obey the same physical laws as musical wind instruments, and
resonance can be predicted based on those relationships. Several factors can
affect the frequency and intensity of oscillations.
The simplest way to detune a resonating burner piping system is to increase

its impedance, by adding some resistance (an orifice or sliding plate) across the
exit end. Computations of the resistance size are difficult, but simple trial and
error provides a quick, practical solution. The pressure loss across the outlet
of a combustion system can be estimated by formulas [12112a] and [12/12b].
[lzllza] Pressure loss, Irwc = (1658.5

acfh
K a)
where a = open area of the orifice, in square inches
acfh = actual flow of all products of combustion, including excess
air, at the exit gas temperature
G = the gas gravity of the exit flue gases at temperature t,
relative to air = 5201(460 + t)
K = flow coefficient of the added resistance (orifice)
A convenient way to figure the acfh of the poc (products of combustion) when
using natural gas is
[12112b] acfh = Btdhr x [lo (1+ %XSAir/100)]

1000 Btulcf gas
acfh = 0.010 x (Btulhr) x [I + [%XSAir1100)]
where Btulhr = actual gross heat release of the burner(s) with exit resistance
in place
%XSAir = percent excess air
202 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION IIANUBOOK
Example 12-2. A 3" ID tube is fired with 1000 Btulcf natural gas at 100% excess air.
The exit gas temperature is 410 F. By trial and error, the resonance was found to be
minimized when the exit was restricted to 3.60 square inches of open area (2.14" diameter
orifice, assume K = 0.7). If the burner input rate a t this new condition is 164 000 gross
Btdhr, what will be the pressure drop across the exit restriction?
By formula [12112b], acfh = 0.010 x 1164 0001 x (I + 1001100) = 3280 acfh.
By formula [12112a], "wc = [328011658.5 (0.7) (3.60)y x [5201(410 + 460)] = 0 . 3 7 " ~ ~ .
This exit restriction may have actually reduced the flow capacity of the system, so care
must be taken to use an acfh in formula [12112a] that actually represents the new
restricted flow.
Immersion and radiant tubes present unique problems when a tube becomes
resonant. Because of its length, the tube can easily fall into low-frequency oscil-
lation. The heat at each oscillation drives the excursion, increasing its intensity.
The resulting pressure antinode, which occurs at the burner, can become so high
that it exceeds the gas pressure at the burner, momentarily shutting off the
supply of gas, and reducing or extinguishing the flame.
As the reflected wave subsides, gas flow is re-established. Because of the valve
inertia in the gas regulator, that flow may exceed the normal rate. The air-gas
mixture then re-ignites (from a continuous ignition system or the hot tube),
creating an explosion. Then the cycle repeals. The &be is usually strong enough
to contain the explosion, but exhaust systems, usually of lighter construction,
may not.
Air and gas jet noise is significant in most applications where medium or
high pressure gases are discharged into stagnant air. Jet noise is often a problem
in combustion applications using atomizers, inspirators, inductors, or high
velocity burners.
The higher frequencies of jet noise are generally caused by the shearing
action of a high velocity air or gas jet as it exits from the solid boundary of the
nozzle, creating turbulence in the adjacent low velocity gases. (Figure 12.17a
shows turbulence by an unconfined jet.) Buffeting large scale turbulence, gener-
ally further downstream of the primary jet, creates lower frequency sound.
Formula [12113] is useful in estimating a jet's sound power level dB. For other
than circular nozzles, the noise will increase in proportion to ratio of actual
periphery to the round periphery because the noise increases with the surface
area of the jet.
NOISE MINI121IZATION
where L, = PWL, sound power level, dB

e = a constant, about I x
M = Mach number = Vlspeed of sound, in ftlsec, at jet
temperature and pressure
p = jet gas density, poundslft3
V = mean jet velocity, ftlsec
A = nozzle area, ftz
Pa = perimeter of actual nozzle, same units as P,
P, = perimeter of round nozzle of same A, same units as Pa
A free air or gas jet impinging on a solid surface increases the above normal
jet noise by an additional 7 dB. (See Reference 12.h.)
COMBUSTION NOISE
Combuslion noise and the previously-discussed combustion system noises are

often difficult to distinguish from one another, as each can seem to come from
the other's source. They may be excited by, or resonating in sympathy with,
combustion reactions. Noises around combustion processes may come from flows
or equipment such as blowers, motors, valves, dampers, regulators, furnaces,
and general mechanical equipment.
Figure 12.21 depicts the typical spectrum of combustion noise. The authors
of Reference 12.a classify four overlapping combustion noise sources in com-
bustion systems: 1)direct flame noise, 2) furnace response, 3) burner tile response,
and 4) flow noise amplification.
Figure 12.21. A combustion system noise spectrum, illustrating the complexity of identifying
combustion system noise sources.
Combustion chamber response

100
Furnace response or
roar spectrum \
60 /
25 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5MM 10 000
Frequency, Hz
Combustion noise is an inclusive term, including sounds lhat can be attributed

directly or indirectly to the fuel-burning process. Its intensity ranges from
barely perceptihle to power levels in excess of 150 dB. Freqencies vary from
1 or 2 Hz to greater than 15 kHz. "Combustion roar" seems to imply noises in
the low frequency range, but generally means the sounds attributable direclly
to the flame, such as the parabola in Figure 12.21 extending from about 25 to
2500 Hz and reaching a peak near 300 Hz. This spectrum includes burners of
all sizes. However, intensities vary widely and the peak intensity shifts to lower
frequencies as burner size increases.
Furnace response (left end of the combustion noise spectrum shown in Figure
12.21) can be predicted in the same way as room response or room resonance,
which will be covered in Reference 12.f.
Burner tile response, or combustion chamber resonance [Figure 12.21), is
usually a high dB mid-frequency noise. For example, a 1 2 " diameler x 18" long
ignition tile for a 1000 000 Btdhr burner has a nalural (fundamental) frequency
of 620 Hz, with its first two harmonic frequencies at 1240 and 1860 Hz. For larger
burner sizes, the size of the tile also increases, in turn lowering the nalural
frequency and the harmonics, but never lo the low frequencies associated with
room response.
Flow noise (right, high frequency, end of the combustion noise spectrum shown
in Figure 12.21) can originate in air, gas, and flue gas lines, and is transmitted
through the burner and flame. It may be either amplified or suppressed by the
burner and flame, depending on when heat is added. (See Reference 12.i.)If heat
is added at the point of greatest compression of the flow sound waves, or
abstracted at the point of grealest rarefaction, the vibration will be amplified.
The converse is also true.
Flame flow noises (due to turbulence in the flame itself and the shear turbu-
lence that occurs at the interface between the high velocity gases leaving the
burner tile and the stagnant gases in the furnace] are generally at higher
frequencies and of moderate intensity.
The principal factors that affect combustion noise and combustion-driven noise
are discussed below.
a) The type of fuel greatly affects the sound power generated by a flame.
Faster burning fuels generate higher noise levels, so flame velocity or rate
of flame propagation is a good indicator of the possible noise level. Natural
gas (1.0 fps = 0.3 m/s) and fossil fuels are slower burning. Man-made fuels
usually contain fast burning carbon monoxide and hydrogen. (See Table
1.10 of Volume I of the North American Combustion Handbook.) However,
fuels with large percentages of inerts [such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
water vapor) have their burning velocities slowed by the diluent.
b) Reduced particle size increases combustion intensity, therefore noise

intensity. Liquid fuel droplet size affects the rate of evaporation. Vapori-
zation speed is inversely proportional to droplet size, and burning speed
depends on this evaporation rate. For solid fuels, noise level is similarly
related to particle size.
c) Firing rate is probably the most important factor in noise generation. It
is logical that a higher energy liberation rate will have a greater tendency
to produce noise.
d] Burner size. Because of the assumed proportionality between burner size
and firing rate, combustion intensity has been thought to have little effect
on noise level (other than the firing rate previously discussed).The author
has found that the proportionality between burner size and noise generated
holds reasanably true for small burners in the 100 000 Btulhr to 1 000 000
Btulhr range (105.5 to 1055 MJlhr or 0.0293 to 0.2929 MW range). For
burners in the 10 000 000 to 200 000 000 Btulhr (10 550 to 211 000 MJIhr
or 2.929 to 58.58 MW), the proportionality did not apply-- considerably
reduced from that predicted by equations for smaller burners. The reduced
noise generation appears to be tied to reduced mixedness, lower turbulence,
and lower combustion intensity associated with the larger geometry. [See
"Predicting sound power levels of burners" and Figure 12.22, later in this
Part 12.1
e) Pressure drop across a burner. The air and fuel pressure drops across
a burner are known Lo affect the sound power emitted from the burner.
They control the velocities of the air and fuel streams that affect turbu-
lence, and ultimately, mixing of air and fuel as well as the distribution of
hot gases within the flame, all of which control the rate of reaction. The
effect of burner pressure drop will be quantified under "Predicting sound
power levels of burners".
f) Flame shape and size. The relationship of a flame envelope shape, size,
and motion to the production of noise is similar to the functioning of a loud-
speaker. The flame envelope (or "surface") acts as the diaphragm of a loud-
speaker, and the flame motion as the excursion of the diaphragm. See
Figures 12.la and 12.lb. For a speaker, the sound power generated is a
function of the area of the diaphragm and the amplitude of its excursion.
For the flame, the sound power is associated with the surface area of the
flame and the motion of the flame envelope.
Flame size also is related to heat release and combustion intensity (Btdft3hr
or MJlm3h).Because noise is related to surface area, it follows that the rela-
tionship between flame surface and combustion intensity is significant in
understanding noise generation. If one thinks of the flame volume and sur-
face area as being spherical, it is obvious that the ratio of surface area
to volume decreases as the diameter increases, so the sound intensity of
larger flames will increase at less than a 1:l proportionality to their
volumes.
g] Combustion intensity, or rate at which heat is liberated within a given

volume, along with firing rate and burner size, influences the sound
power generated. The more energy liberated in a unil volume, the grealer
will be the pressure, and in an oscillating system, the greater the oscillat-
ing pressure or the acoustic power.
High-intensity combustion generates intense sound fields. About the only
thing that can be done to reduce this noise is to change the spectrum,
making it easier lo attenuate the noise. For example, use of multiple, smaller
high-intensity nozzles will shift the spectrum to a higher frequency and make
it easier Lo attenuate.
h) Airlfuel ratio also affects sound power level, the highest level being gener-
ated when alf ratio is slightly on the rich side of sloichiometric. The noise
level drops dramatically a s the flame is turned richer, gets longer and more
stable. On the lean side, as excess air increases above stoichiometric,noise
drops off slowly until lhe flame becomes unstable, and then the noise
increases.
i) Fuel-air mixedness. Mixing of fuel and air plays an important role in flame-
generated noise, as well as luel-burning rates. Poorly mixed fuel and air
tend to burn more slowly, producing less noise.
Burners lhat introduce Lhe fuel concentrically and in the center of an
annular ring of air inevitably have lower noise levels than those that
introduce the gas peripherally, either concentrically or in multi-jet fashion.
Factors that tend to reduce mixing will definitely reduce combustion noise.
An illustration of this principle is the radiant tube burner or immersion
tube burner that swirls secondary air as it enters the lube, with gas
injected axially down lhe center of the air stream. The centrifugal force
of the air causes it to hug the tube's interior wall, and the gas lazily stays
within the core of the tube. There is little interface turbulence, and conse-
quently mixing is reduced to a minimum. The combustion resembles a closely
controlled, long, lazy, slow-burning diffusion flame that produces little noise.
j) Type of fuel and air mixing system. Fuel and air mixedness also relates
to this. The emitted sound power will be affected directly or indirectly by:
The mixing or combining zone, and the combustion zone, which determine
the mixedness of the fuel and air.
The design of the air and fuel ports (their shape, size, velocity, velocity
relative to one another, proximity to one another, and physical boundaries
relative to the individual streams.
The aerodynamic considerations are beyond this handbook, but the follow-
ing guidelines illustrate the factors involved.
NOISE MIIVIMIZATION 20 7
Designers of low noise burners should strive for slow mixing, approaching
that of a diffusion flame. Air and fuel passages must be designed with
little difference between their fluid velocities. Gas should be introduced
in the center of the burner to reduce its surface or mixing area. The
combining zone must have solid boundaries. To avoid creating vortices at
the interface of the streams and the ambient gas, the combining cone must
not permit jetting into a stagnant area. The burner designer's goal should
be orderly and complete mixing of air and fuel.
k) Aerodynamics of the ignition port and combustion chamber. The ignition
port (flame holder, burner nozzle), and combustion chamber have enormous
effects on the noise produced by a burner. Also to be considered is noise
generated by resonation in response to burner excitation.
The ignition port and combustion chamber, if used, are the primary means
for stabilizing the flame and providing the necessary reradiation to bring
the air-fuel mixture to the reaction temperature critical for complete
combustion. The shape of the refractory tile [quarl), or port provides the
aerodynamics that stabilize a portion of the mixture in a relatively quies-
cent zone, where feed speed is slowed down to equal flame speed, This
environment allows the mixture in that zone to come up to temperature
and provide piloting to the main stream. Other tile shapes cause toroidal
recirculation zones within the tile, thereby creating the necessary temper-
ature and piloting function. The combination of burner port and tile shapes
provides the basic piloting and stabilizing functions.
For low noise level considerations, the tile design must have stabilizing
regions that aerodynamically avoid zones of high or large scale turbulence.
Furthermore, the stabilizing region must itself be stationary, with little or
no movement. The tile and the combustion chamber must provide an
environment where the flame, beyond its stabilizers, does not tear or
separate from the main flame or main stream. The interface between the
stabilizing zones and the main stream must be such that the resultant flame
does not shed periodically. If shedding does occur, a periodic noise will
be generated having the same, or a multiple of, the shedding frequency.
PREDICTJNG SOUND POWER LEVELS OF BURNERS
Most of the many theories proposed for predicting sound power levels were
developed for specific types of burners and for a limited capacity range. When
one looks at the number of factors that affect sound power, it is not surprising
that no single formula or procedure permits computation of sound power levels
over a broad range of burner types, fuels, and capacities.
In the hope of finding a better way to predict sound power level, an analysis
was done of a large data base of information on low pressure air burners of
different sizes and types. The data was obtained from six different types of
burners, and four to five sizes of burners of each type, using oil, gas, or pulver-
ized coal as fuels. Burner capacities ranged from 100 000 Btulhr to 110 000 000
Btulhr (105.5 to 116 050 MJlh, or 32.2 to 32 230 kW). Noise levels were measured
for 100% and 30% firing rates.
Figure 12.22, Average sound power level data for a number of types and sizes of gaseous, liquid,
and solid fuel burners over two broad ranges of q' (corrected) firing rates.
100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000

Corrected firing rate q', Btu/hr
Figure 12.22 is a semi-log plot of the results of the above-mentioned analysis.

The horizontal scale is q' = (gross heat release rate, in Btu/hr) x (pressure drop
across burner)/ [abs. air pressure).
Individual data points have been replaced with bands for clarity. It is not
possible to find one formula to cover all cases, but an approximation is possible
for nozzle-mix, low-pressure-air burners.
Two distinct groupings of points were apparent. A curve-fittingprocedure gives

the approximate formulae of equations 12114a and 12/14b, which might be
usable for modeling purposes.
NOISE MINIMIZATION
For Group I, heat release range up to q' = 4 000 000 Btulhr:
For Group 11, heat release from q' = 18 000 000 to 110 000 000:
where In q' means the natural logarithm of the value of q'. {Thenatural logarithm
is the log to the base e as opposed to common log, base 10, used in all prior sound
formulae in this Part 12.)
The geometry and types of flame holding, among other factors, arc distinctly
different for the small and large groups of burners. For any givon burner, noise
levels during turndown followed a slope parallel to the lines shown in Figure
12.22.
Some other conclusions can be drawn from the data:
a) The slope of the turndown lines was similar for all burners within a homolo-
gous series.
b) For the four series of burners tcstcd, the slopes of the turndown lines were
reasonably consistent.
c) The individual burners were all operated through the same range of pres-
sure drops for the Group I burners, and at 1.5 times lhat drop for the Group
I1 burners. The flame patterns and flame characteristics and shapes were
different for each series oI burner.
d) Burners operating on natural gas were at 5% excess air.
e) Burners operating on distillate (#2) fuel oil were at 20% excess air.
f) Burncrs operating on powered coal were at 50% excess air.
g) Within a group, burners firing on natural gas generally had sound intensi-
ties 3 to 5 dB higher than when firing oil. Those operating on pulverized coal
had noise levels 2 to 3 dB lower than those on oil. In general, a higher
combustion intensity (shorter flame) resulted in a higher noise level.
h) The frequency of the combustion roar and the burner tile response shifted
downward as the burner capacity was increased.
i) Flow noise seemed relatively constant for different capacities, burner sizes,
and burner types. There were only minor variations from type to type. The
empirical data of Figure 12.22 is far from definitive, but it can provide an
approximation of sound power levels for use when precise data is not avail-
able, provided it is used with full understanding of its limitations.
Example 12-3. Estimate noise level for a moderate-to-high-intensity distillate fuel oil flame
from a nozzle-mix burner operating at 5 000 000 Btulhr capacity with 16 osig (1 psig)
air pressure drop and 14.7 psia + 1 psig = 15.7 psia air line pressure.
Calculate q' = 5 000 000 x [16/16)/15.7 = 318 500. This value of q' classifies the
burner in Group I. Enter Figure 12.21 at 318 500 on the scale across the bottom. Moving
vertically, one would normally turn left at the centerline of Group I because it is being
fired with fuel oil, but its moderate-to-high flame intensity suggests interpolating about
2 dB higher, a t a sound power level of 118 dB.
REFERENCES
12.a Diehl, G. M.: "Machinery Acoustics", John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York, NY, 1973.
12.b Giammar, R. D. and Putnam, A. A.: "Guide for the Design of Low
Noise-Level Combustion Systems", American Gas Association Basic
Research Project BR-3-5, pg. 9, January, 1971.
12.c Harris, C. M.: "Handbook of Acoustic Measurement and Noise
Control", Chapter 41, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 3rd ed., 1991.
12.d Jorgensen, R. (ed.): "Fan Engineering", Chapters 4 and 16; Buffalo
Forge Co., Buffalo, NY, 1983.
12.e Putnam, A. A.: "Combustion-Driven Oscillations in Industry",
American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY, 1971.
12.f Thurmann, A. and Miller, R. K.: "Fundamentals of Noise Control
Engineering", pp. 73-75; Fairmont PressIPrentice-Hall, Lilburn, GA,
1990.
12.g Vincent, S., Mills, J. S., and Petersen, A. C.: "Industrial Noise
Control Manual"; US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare;
Printing Office, Washington DC, Stock -017-033-00073, Catalog
-1975.HE20.7108:N69.
1Z.h Rayleigh, B. and Strutt, J. W.: "The Theory of Sound"; vol. 2, pg. 322;
Dover Publications, New York, NY, 1982.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to noise

Beranek, L. L. and Ver, I. L.: "Noise and Vibration Control Engineering",
Berger, E. H. et al: "Noise & Hearing Conservation Manual", 4th ed.,
American Industrial Hygiene Assn., Fairfax, VA, 1986.
Blevins, R. D.: "Flow-Induced Vibration", 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, NY, 1990.
Peterson, A. P. G . (GenRad, Inc.): "Handbook of Noise Measurement",
9th ed., 1980; QuadTech, Inc., Bolton, MA 01740-1107.
Part 13. OXYGEN ENRICHMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING
largely contributed by Hisashi Kobayashi, Praxair, Inc.
Air contains only about 20.9% oxygen, and the balance is primarily nitrogen.
See Table 13.1, repeated from Part 1 of Volume I of this handbook.
Table 13.1. Composition of air1

Dry Bulb Temperature (db) and Relative Humidity [rh)
0 F db 90 F db 90 F db
0% rh 80% rh 100°/o rh
20.62 20.79 20.19 19.99

23.00 22.94 23.06 22.63 22.50
* Nitrogen, N,
f I 78.03
75.46
76.94
74.86
76.67
74.63
77.29
75.01
75.06
73.61
74.32
73.18
In combustion systems that use blower air a s their oxygen source, the large
nitrogen content of the air absorbs heat and increases the volume of the
furnace and flue gases. Oxygen enrichment, oxygen lancing, or oxy-fuel firing
is often used to improve combustion characteristics.
In oxygen enrichment, the oxygen concentration is increased above that of
normal air by blending commercial oxygen with the blower air to raise the
oxygen content of the mixed air-oxygen stream to 22% to 35%.
In oxygen lancing, a special form of oxygen enrichment, commercial oxygen
(typically 90% to 100% purity) is injected near a n air-fuel flame to improve the
combustion characteristics --higher flame temperature, and higher % available
heat. The most common reason for using oxygen enrichment is to increase the
available heat input to the load in the furnace. This can improve productivity
or fuel economy, or both.
' For easy computation, it is convenient to remember these ratios:

Air102 = 100/20.99 = 4.76by volume (mols); Air102 = 100/23.20 = 4.31by weight
NzlOz ;3.76 by volume (mols); Nz/Oz = 3.31 by weight.
From International Critical Tables; all other columns calculated from I.C.T. data and from
Reference 13.r a t the ond of this Part 13.
COz (about 0.03%), HZ(about O.Ol%], Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon.
212 IVORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HAIVDBOOI;
In oxy-fuelfiring, no blower air is used. Fuel is mixed with commercial oxygen

and burned. The use of oxy-fuel firing is increasing in glass melting and in metal-
lurgical furnaces to save fuel for higher productivity, to reduce NOx emissions,
and to lower the volumes of furnace and flue gases.
This Part 13 discusses the commercial sources of oxygen, calculation of the
oxygen requirement, changes in combustion characteristics, and methods of
combustion with oxygen.
OXYGEN SOURCES
The oxygen required for combustion can be delivered as cryogenic liquid, or

generated on site from an air separation system. Oxygen supply systems range
in size from less than one ton per day (1000 scfh) to over one thousand tons per
day, The purity of the oxygen ranges from better than 99.9% with cryogenic
processes, to 90-95% with adsorption processes, to 28-35 % with membrane units.
The most economic supply system depends on the volume, purity, and pres-
sure required for the oxygen combustion process. Table 13.2 compares various
oxygen sources.
Cryogenic System. Cryogenic air separation plants produce most of the
commercially used gaseous and liquid oxygen. Air is liquefied al a very low
temperature, and then distilled to separate the oxygen from the nitrogen. Purity
may range from 70% to 99.5 + %. Regional facilities produce liquid oxygen for
local distribution by truck or rail. Large volume users may have plants built on
their sites, typically for oxygen requirements greater than 100 000 scfh.
Bulk Liquid Supply System. For relatively small oxygen requirements, such
as 1000 to 10 000 scfh, delivered liquid oxygen is often the most economic
supply option. High purity (99.5 + %) liquid oxygen produced in a regional air
separation plant can be delivered and stored at users' sites in special tanks
designed for cryogenic liquids. A vaporizer can then change the liquid oxygen
to gaseous oxygen at about 100 to 200 psig pressure, and it can then be piped
to points of use.
Adsorption Systems. For oxygen requirements from 10 000 to 200 000 scfh,
an adsorption system is often the most economic supply. Pressure Swing Adsorp-
tion (PSA)or Vacuum Swing Adsorption (VSAJprocesses are used to separate
oxygen from air on a user's site. In a typical PSA or VSA process, nitrogen from
air is preferentially adsorbed in a bed of synthetic zeolites and removed by
cyclic fluctuation, or "swing," of pressure. The oxygen product slream typically
has an oxygen purity ranging from 90 to 95%, about 5 % argon and some
nitrogen.
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 2 13
Membrane System. Air is passed through a thin film or membrane material

through which oxygen permeates faster than nitrogen. Oxygen enriched air with
28 to 35% oxygen content is typically produced from a single stage separation.
Commercial membrane systems have been available since the 1980s. Further
improvements in their technology are expected. A blower or compressor is
required for most applications.
Because of their small size, simplicity, and modular design, membrane
systems are attractive for producing low purity oxygen products in the 1000 to
15 000 scfh equivalent pure oxygen flow rate range.
Tonslday*
-
Table 13.2. Comparisons of Oxygen Sources [Adapted from Reference 13.i at the end
of this Part 13.) (1 ton per day 1000 scfh for pure oxygen.]
O/o psig kwhlton*
typical oxygen dlvry power
Source capacity purity press reqd
Cryogenic 50-2000+ 70-99.5+ 3 230-250 Low cost for large
plant 250 350-400 volume users. Maybe
use of co-products.
Bulk 0-50 99.5+ 2501 700-800 Tank and vaporizer
liquid required. Best use
flexibility.
Pressure- 10-100 80-95 3-20 230-600 Generally more
swing economical than low
adsorption capacity cyrogenic.
Membrane 1-15 28-35 1 350-600 Limited purity. Very
simple process.
Calculating Equivalent Pure Oxygen. In comparing oxygen products of different

purities, the content of the excess pure oxygen above that contained in air
becomes an important measure, and is termed "equivalent pure oxygen." An
oxygen-enriched stream is assumed to be a mixture of normal air and pure
oxygen.
When a fuel is burned with an oxygen-enriched stream, the overall combus-
tion characteristics can be viewed as combined effects of normal air combustion
and pure oxygen combustion. Because the enhanced characteristics of oxygen-
enriched combustion are due to the excess pure oxygen, the costs of oxygen
products need to be compared by their contents of equivalent pure oxygen.
* Ton of equivalent pure oxygen.

t Typical gas pressure obtained by vaporizing liquid oxygen.
Formula [1311] gives the portion of the equivalent pure oxygen in the total
oxygen contained in a n oxygen-enriched stream.
[13/1] 5%) Equivalent pure oxygen =

%02 - 20.9
79.1 x %02
Example 13-1.A 35% purity oxygen product from a membrane system would be valued at
(35 - 20.91 x 100 = 50.9% equivaleni pure oxygen.

(79.1 x 35)
If pure oxygen cost $3lscf, the membrane oxygen would be worth (50.91100) x $3
= $1.5271scf.
EFFECTS OF OXYGEN ON COMBUSTION
Oxygen and air requirements, poc volumes. Formula [I3121 calculates the
required fuel flow rate, Ff, in scfh or m"1h.
[I3121 Ff = reqd gross heat input rate + gross heat value per unit fuel
= reqd gross Btulhr s gross Btulscf fuel, or
= reqd gross GJ/h i gross GJ/m3 fuel.
Formula [I3131 gives the % fuel saved by situation 2 over situation 1, using
% available heat figures, %AH, from Figure 13.4a.
[I3131 % fuel saved = 100 x (1 - s).

Formula [13/4a]determines the volume of pure oxygen required per unit volume
of fuel for stoichiometric (perfect) combustion, from the volumetric (molal]
analysis of a gaseous fuel:
Formula [13/4b] tells how to evaluate Frpo, the required volume flow rate of
pure oxygen, in scfh or m31h.
[13/4b] Frpo = Ff x volume pure oxygen reqdlvolume fuel

= Ff x V,,,/Vf,,~.
OXYGEN ENRICHMEIVT AIND OXY-FUEL I;IRING 215
Formula [13/5] shows the volume flow rate of air-oxygen mixture, F,,.
[13/5] Faom = Frp0l(%e/loo), where e = desired volume concentration of pure

oxygen in the total enriched mixture.
By definition, %e, the volume concentration of pure oxygen in the tolal volume
of enriched mixture is
The 0.209 in this formula is the decimal equivalent of 20.9% oxygen in normal
air. Fa is the volume flow rale of blower air; F,, is the volume flow rate of
commercial oxygen. A prior engineering decision has usually been made as to
the desired value of e; so it is possible to solve formula [13/6a] for the ratios,
F,/FoC and Fao,/F,,, as follows:
and the flow of enriched air-oxygen mix is
[13/6c: 13/6d] Faom = Fa + Foci SO FaomIFOc= (Fa/Foc) + 1; and
The volume of the poc (products of combustion) is often important for sizing
stack gas cleanup equipment, or for determining adequate in-furnace circula-
tion for fast, uniform heat transfer. Formulas [I3171 and [I3181 calculate this.
The volume of stoichiometric poc, per unit volume of fuel,
..from [3/13 of Volume I]

[I 3/71 VpoclVfuel = VCOz/Vfuel.
+ VH,OIVfuel...from 13/15 of Volume I]
+ VN1/Vfuel.... from [13/8]. ..where this last term may be
read from the inset graph of Figure 13.3.
[3113 of Volume I] Vco,/Vfu,l = (%CO x 0.01) + (%CH, x 0.01) + (%C2Hsx

0.02) + (%CaH, x 0.03) + (%C4Hlo x 0.04) + (%GO? x 0.01).
[3/15 of Volume I] VHzO/Vfuel= (%Hz X 0.01) + (%CH4 x 0.02) + (%CZHe X

0.03) + (%C3H, x 0.04) + (%C4H10 x 0.05) + (%Hz0 x 0.01).
[I3181 VN, in poc/Vfuel = (%Nzin fue11100) -I- [I + (equivalent % excess

airllOO)] x [(I - e1100)l(e1100)]x (VrpolVfuel)], where the last term
may be from Formula 1314a.
Figure 13.3 is a plot of some of the above flue gas components for a range
of e-values from 20.9% to 100% for "average natural gas." When adding
these gas volumes, it is important to remember that if a total volume is being
determined for a flow downstream of a scrubber, the water vapor should be
omitted.
Figure 13.3. Products of combustion for various percents of oxygen concentration in air-oxygen
mixes for Average Natural Gas -- plotted on both Cartesian and log-log coordinates. A curve fit for
the top left portion of the log-log plots (e = 20.9 to 50%] gives the approximate empirical formulas:
cf N,lcf fuel, with equiv. 10% excess air = 6501e1.433.
cf NJcf fuel, sloichiomctric (0% excess air] = 5601e1.4".
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -
Upper curve is volumes N,/vol. fuel wlequiv. 10% excess air
'Lower curve is volumes N,lvol. fuel wlequiv. 0% excess air '
"
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
e = % oxygen concentration in air-oxygen mix
Figure 13.4a. Available heat, expressed as a percentage of the gross heating value, for an "average natural gas," 1025 Btulft3,
5 % excess oxidant, with standard air, and with various degrees of oxygen enrichment. This data is applicable only if there is no unburned
fuel in the products of combustion.
Example 13-2.A furnace with a flue gas exit temperature of 1800 F requires 1 000 000
available Btulhr with an average natural gas (Vrp0lV~,,l = 2.025) and air (case a).
Consideration is being given to enriching the air to e = 35% (by volume)
concehtration of pure oxygen in the total volume of enriched mix (case b], or to all com-
mercial oxygen, no blower air (case c). The commercial oxygen available is 95% pure
oxygen.
FIND, for each of the three modes of operation:
i O/u available heat
ii required gross heat input rate, gross Btulhr (kk = million)
iii required fuel volume flow rate, scfh, Ff = [13/2]
iv % fuel savings (b over a , c over b, c ovor a )
v reqd pure oxygen volume flow, Frpo = [1314b]
vi resultant volume flow rate of enriched mixture, Faom = (13151
vii ratio of k', to Foc = [13/6b]
viii ratio of F,,,, to F,, = [1316d]
ix required commercial oxygen volume flow rate, F,,: = [13/6e]
x required air volume flow rate, P, = [1316fl
xi resultant poc volume flow rate, FpOc, = Nz + HzO + GOz[from Figure 13.31.
RESULTS of these example calculations are listed in the following table in US units:
Step Case a [e = 20.91 Case b [e = 351 Case c [e = 951
i 62.8 75.3
ll 1.59kk 1.33kk
iii 1550 1296
iv 100% x [I - (49.0/62.8)] c over b, 16.6%
= 22.0 for b over a ' c over a, 34.9%
[Fig. 13.41 1550 x 2.025 1296 x 2.025
= 3140 = 2624
vi [I3151 31401.35 = 8970 26941.95 = 2762
vii (.95-.35)1(.35-.209)
... [13.6b] = 4.255
Vlll [13/6d] 4.255 + 1 = 5.255
ix [13/6e] 879015.255 = 1710
1991 x 9.68 = 19273 [13/6fl4.255 x 1710 = 7280

1991 x 10.71 (3.800 + 1.990 + 1.030) x Ff
= 21324 = 6.82 x 1522 = 10380
* kk = million t NA = not applicable
Available Heat and Fuel Savings. The significance of "% Available Heat" is
explained in Chapter 3 of Volume I. Figure 13.4a is a % available heat chart
for an average natural gas, with various degrees of oxygen enrichment -- all the
way to 100% oxygen, which is termed oxy-fuel firing. Table 13.4b provides the
same data in a form that can be read more accurately for a limited number of
points. These recent data, computer-calculated with corrections for variable
specific heats and for dissociation, supersede that of Figure 3.17 in Volume I.
Table 13.4b. Available heat, expressed as a percentage of the gross heating value, for an "average natural gas,"
1025 Btulft3, 5 % excess oxidant, with standard air, and with various degrees of oxygen enrichment. This data is applicable
only if there is no unburned fuel in the products of combustion. Derived from "Computer Program for Cdculation of Complex
Chemical Equilibrium Compositions..." by Gordon and McBride, NASA SP-273.
% available heat relative to I

gross heating value
Adiabatic flame
Equivalence % excess % oxygen Flue gas exit temperature, F temperature
ratio, 0 oxidant in50[0J,-02-airmix 1500 2100 2800 3500 Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit
0.95 5 20.9 81.03 56.95 41.16 21.59 - 2178 1905 3460
0.95 5 35 84.21 68.15 57.54 44.30 28.22 2606 2333 4231
0.95 5 50 85.60 73.12 64.81 54.38 41.49 2798 2525 4576
0.95 5 75 86.70 76.98 70.46 62.23 51.88 2957 2684 4863
0.95 5 100 87.25 78.91 73.29 66.17 57.14 3045 2772 5021
The first three steps of Example 13-2 illustrate one of the many uses of the
available heat concept -- sizing combustion equipment. Another important use
of the available heat concept is for preliminary comparisons of a variety of ways
to achieve better fuel efficiency and better flame temperature. Such compari-
sons might be between cold combustion air with various percents of excess air,
or hot combustion air with various degrees of preheat, or oxygen-enriched air
with any amount of oxygen enrichment, or any combination of these. See Tables
13.5a, b, and c.
Formula 1313 can be used to derive % fuel savings for any pair of operating
conditions, using the ?havailable heat figures for that pair of conditions. The
derivation of formula 1313 is in Reference 13.m. Comparisons of fuel savings with
preheated air and with oxygen enrichment are tabulated inReference 13.1-1.Fuel
saved is only one of many factors that must be considered when comparing pac
and oec.
Table 13.5a. Comparisons of 010 available heat and adiabatic flame temperatures for
an average natural gas* with selected amounts of excess air, air preheat, and oxygen
enrichment.
phi = p = preheat e = % % Available heat+ Adiabatic
% XS O/O XS equiv temp, OZin 500F 1500F 2100F flame temp*
air O2 ratio F C a-0 260C 816C 1149C F C
- - - - - - - - - - -
5 1 0.95 60 16 20.9 61.03 56.95 41.16 3460 1905
5 1 0.95 60 16 35 84.21 68.15 57.54 4231 2333
5 1 0.95 60 16 100 87.25 78.91 73.29 5021 2772
5 1 0.95 1200 649 20.9 78.88 63.12 3946 2175
5 1 0.95 1600 871 20.9 71.48 4093 2257
5 1 0.95 2000 1093 20.9 80.07 4231 2333
10 2 0.909 60 16 20.9 80.67 55.68 39.31 3381 1861
10 2 0.909 60 16 35 83.99 67.38 56.43 4195 2313
10 2 0.909 60 16 100 87.17 78.63 72.88 5010 2766
10 2 0.909 1200 649 20.9 78.61 62.26 3905 2152
10 2 0.909 1600 871 20.9 71.01 4134 2279
10 2 0.909 2000 1093 20.9 79.98 4205 2318
25 4.55 0.80 60 16 20.9 79.52 51.66 33.41 3111 1711
25 4.55 0.80 60 16 35 83.30 64.98 52.88 4054 2235
25 4.55 0.80 60 16 100 86.93 77.76 71.61 4967 2742
25 4.55 0.80 1200 649 20.9 77.72 59.50 3748 2065
25 4.55 0.80 1600 871 20.9 69.44 3938 2170
25 4.55 0.80 2000 1063 20.9 79.64 4107 2264
* AVERAGE NATURAL GAS = 90% CI-14, 5% CzHa, 1%63Ne,4% Nz; 1025 gross Btulscf: 9.68 ft3
air/ft3fuel, 10.71 ft3poc/ft3fuel (with air); 2.025 ft3air/f13Iuel, 3.06 ft3poclft3fuel [with oxygen).
t with an assumed furnace exit gas temperature of.. .
*Flame temperatures for #2 and #6 oils are calculated using a n older program than used for
natural gas. 'I'emperatures from Tables 13.5b and 1 3 . 5 ~should not be compared with Table
13.5a. Comparisons within Table 13.5b and 1 3 . 5 ~a r e still useful.
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT A N D OXY-FUEL FIRING 221
Table 13.5b. Comparisons of % available heat and adiabatic flame temperatures for a #2
distillate fuel oil* with selected amounts of excess air, air preheat, and oxygen enrichment.
phi = p = preheat e = % O/o Available heat? Adiabatic
O/OXS % X S equiv temp, 0, in 500F 1500F 2100F flame temp*
- - - - - - - - - - -
5 1 0.95 60 16 20.9 84.2 59.9 43.9 3443 1895
5 1 0.95 60 16 35 87.7 69.9 61.0 4081 2249
5 1 0.95 60 16 100 83.0 77.6 4615 2546
Table 1 3 . 5 ~ . Comparisons of O/o available heat and adiabatic flamo temperatures for a #6
residual fuel oil* with selected amounts of excess air, air preheat, and oxygen enrichment.
phi = p = preheat e = "10 % Available heatt Adiabatic
XS O/O XS equiv temp, O2 in 500F 1500F 2100F flame temp#
- - - - - - - - - - -
5 1 0.95 60 16 20.9 85.9 62.3 46.9 3544 1951
5 1 0.95 60 16 35 89.2 73.7 63.6 4156 2291
5 1 0.95 60 16 100 84.8 79.7 4676 2580
5 1 0.95 1200 649 20.9 84.8 69.3 3934 2168
5 1 0.95 1800 982 20.9 82.2 4094 2257
10 2 0.909 60 16 20.9 83.2 60.9 44.9 3468 1909
10 2 0.909 60 16 35 89.0 72.9 62.4 4123 2273
10 2 0.909 60 16 100 84.5 79.3 4668 2575
10 2 0.909 1200 649 20.9 84.5 68.4 3891 2144
10 2 0.909 1800 982 20.9 79.0 4065 2240
25 4.54 0.80 60 16 20.9 84.3 56.8 38.9 3231 1777
25 4.54 0.80 60 16 35 88.3 70.5 58.8 4012 2211
25 4.54 0.80 60 16 100 83.6 78.0 4643 2561
25 4.54 0.80 1200 649 20.9 83.5 65.6 3761 2072
25 4.54 0.80 1800 982 20.9 80.9 3977 2191
* per specifications on pages 16 and 1 7 of Volume I.

t with an assumed furnace exit gas temperature of.. .
+Flame temperatures for #2 and #6 oils are calculated using an older program than used for
natural gas. Temperatures from Tablcs 13.5b and 1 3 . 5 ~should not be compared with Table
13.5a. Comparisons within Table 13.5b and 13.5~are still useful.
Flame Temperature. Adiabatic flame temperatures may be read from an

available heat chart, such as Figure 13.4a, where the appropriate curve meets
the zero available heat line (x-intercept).These are theoretical, calculated flame
temperatures representing cases where the flame has not yet given off any heat
to its surroundings (adiabatic conditions).These flame temperatures are there-
fore applicable only for comparison of various conditions, all determined by the
same mathematical procedure. See Tables 13.5a, b, and c.
Actual measurement of flame temperatures is very difficult [a) because any
intrusive sensor immediately becomes a radiator, cooling itself below the
temperature of the flame it was to measure, and (b) because every segment of
a flame immediately disperses heat to its surroundings,making even non-intrusive
measurements variable with the nature of the surroundings.
Theoretical (adiabatic) flame temperature increases sharply with oxygen
enrichment, and exceeds 5000 F (2760 C) with 100% pure oxygen (oxy-fuel)at
stoichiometric ratio (phi = 1,0),
At low levels of oxygen enrichment, flame temperature increases as much
as 100 degrees F (56 degrees C) with each 1% increase in oxygen con-
centration ("en). At high concentrations [el, the rate of increase of flame
temperature is diminished as dissociation of the combustion products consumes
more energy. Similar changes occur with other fuels. Flame temperatures of a
variety 01 fuels are compared in Table 1.10 of Volume I.
When oxygen enrichment is used in industrial burners designed for normal
air combustion, the flame tends to become shorter, hotter, and more luminous
as the flame temperature is increased andlor the flame momentum is reduced.
Care must be exercised to prevent overheating of burner parts, tiles, and
refraclory walls.
Factors affecting flame stability are listed in detail in Table 1.10 in Volume I,
including data for combustion of many fuels in air and in pure oxygen. The
factors most specifically affecting burner flame stability* are discussed below.
1. Minimum Ignition Temperature is a measure of the minimum ignition energy
level required to initiate a combustion reaction. Without a pilot flame or spark
igniter to raise the incoming fuel and air to this level, a cold main burner or
a cold combustion chamber cannot be started.
After a minimum trial-for-ignition period (usually specified by insuring or
safety authorities), the pilot or spark is timed out, and burner is expected to
continue operating with its own continuous self-sustained re-ignition. This may
be from heat built up in a refractory tile (quarl) or from the thermal and
chemical energy of hot poc back-flowing to the root of the burner flame.
* Flame stability means reliability: easy lighting, staying continuously burning without a pilot and
without pulsing or sputtering -- aver the whole range of expected operuting conditions.
OXYGEN ENRICFIMBNT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 223
Ignition temperature also has a bearing on flammability limits, as explained

below. Table 13.6 lists minimum ignition temperatures for a few gaseous fuels
in air and in oxygen.
Table 13.6. Ignition temperatures in air and oxygen for some gaseous fuels. [See also
Table 1.10 in Volume I.)
IGNITION
TEMPERATURE In Am (e = 21% O,] In Oxygen [e = 100% OZ)
Acetylene 612F(q) 350C[q) 565F(q) 296C[q)
(CxHz)
Carbon monoxide 1128 F (dl 609 C (d) 1090F(l) 588C(I]
(CO)
Ethane 882F(q) 472C[q) 842F(q) 450C(q)
( CzHs)
Ethylene 914F(q) 490C(q] 905 F (q) 485 C (9)
(ca,)
Hydrogen 1062F(d) 572C(d) 1040F(l) 560C[1)
[Hz)
Methane 1170F(d) 632C(d) 1033 F (1) 556 C [I)
W4)
Propane 919I;(l) 493C(l) 874F(l) 468C[l]
[C~HII)
Letters in parentheses relate to References at the end of Part 13.
2. Flammability Limits. With both premix and nozzle-mix (diffusion) flames,

the mixture at the root of the flame must be within the flammability limits
for a flame to be initiated. (Many nozzle-mix burners appear to operate
beyond the flammability limits on a macro basis because extra air or oxygen
is added downstream of the point where the flame root is established.)
Table 13.7 lists flammability limits in air and in oxygen for a few fuels.
Flammability limits are also explosive limits.*
Figure 13.9, later in this Part 13, compares the effects of Oz enrichment
and of air preheating on flammability limits of methane. The upper (rich)
flammability limit increases substantially with oxygen enrichment, but the
lower (lean) limit changes very little.. .because the excess oxygen acts as a
heat sink, just as nitrogen does under the lean conditions.
* An explosion is a detonation; normal combustian or burning is termed deflagration. [See Glossary.)

Flammability limits really relate to minimum ignition temperature and the heat
absorbing capability of inert molecules between "sets" of fuel and oxidant
molecules that are stoichiometrically proportioned so that they are ready to
burn. Higher concentrations of intervening inert material may absorb so
much heat that they prevent transfer of sufficient heat to the next eligible
"set" so it cannot be heated to its minimum ignition temperature. The inert
materials may be:
(a) excess air or oxygen, unaccompanied by fuel molecules;
[b) excess fuel, unaccompanied by air or oxygen molecules;
(c) products of complete combustion, such as COz, K O ; or
(d) intentional extinguishing (inert) gases such as nitrogen, steam, C02.
Flammability limits are measures of the magnitude of the heat absorbing
capability of the intervening inert materials relative to the minimum ignition
energies of the sets.
Flammability limits are also influenced by other factors such as the ease with
which molecular bonds can be broken.
Table 13.7. Flammability limits in air and oxygen for some gaseous fuels. (See also
Table 1.10 in Volume I.)
FLAMMABILITY In Air (e = 21% 02) In Oxygen (e = 100% Oz)

LIMITS* lower (lean) upper (rich) lower (lean) upper (rich]
Butane 1.9 [b) 8.5 (b) 1.8 [fj 49 (f)
(n-CaHlo)
Carbon monoxide 12.5 (f) 74.2 (f) 15.5 (f)? 94 (f)
(CO)
Hydrogen 4.0 (0) 74.2 (0) 4 (g) 94 (€!I
(Hz)
Methane 5.3 [b] 14 (b) 5.1 (f) 61 (f)
W 4 )
Propane 2.2 [b) 9.5 (b) 2.3 (f) 55 [f)

(C3Hs)
Letters in parentheses relate to references a t the end of Part 13.
* % fuel in a n air-fuel mix or in a n oxygen-fuel mix. Example: For methane burning in air, the
lower explosive limit [LEL) = 5.3%, or 94.7 volumes airl5.3 volumes gas = 17.87:,1 airlgas
ratio. From page 5 of Volume I, the stoichiometric airlgas ratio for methane is 9.531. There-
fore excess air is 17.87 - 9.53 = 8.34 ft3 air/ft3 gas; so % excess air = 100% x 8.3419.53
= 87.5% excess air; which is a n equivalence ratio [+] of 0.5333...Appendix Table C.12.
t The lower flammability limit (LELJ for CO with oxygen is significantly higher whereas LEL with
oxygen is generally unchanged or slightly lower for other fuels. This is due to the catalytic
effects of Hz0 in CO combustion, which also affect the LEL of CO with humid air.
OXYGEN ENRlCHMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 225
3. Flame Speed is also termed burning velocity, ignition velocity, flame propa-
gation velocity. Most references list maximum burning velocity and specify
the airlfuel ratio a t which the maximum occurs (usually at stoichiometric or
slightly fuel rich). The bell-shaped curves of flame speed variation with airlfuel
ratio are discussed in Reference 13.r a t the end of this Part 13. Table 13.8
lists velocity ranges and most probable flame speeds for a few fuels.
Table 13.8. Burning velocities in air and in oxygen for five gaseous fuels. (From
Reference 13.d at the end of Part 13.)
In Air (e = 21% 04 In Oxygen (e = 100Yo 02)
Most Range, Most Range,
probable, / of probable,
Oo probable, Oo/ "/a
Fuel ftlsec mls min , max ftlsec mls under over
Hydrogen 9.19 2.80 0.89 1.30 38.55 11.75 0.76 1.01
Methane 1.24 0.38 0.87 1.16 12.96 3.95 0.82 1.22
Propane 1.41 0.43 0.93 1.09 12.30 3.75 0.96 1.07
Butane 1.35 0.41 0.92 1.12 11.65 3.55 0.94 1.00
Acetylene 5.25 1.60 0.69 1.13 37.08 11.30 0.84 1.13
Example 13-3. From Table 13.8, the range of burning velocities fnr hydrogen in air is
C9.19 ftlsec x 0.891 to [9.19 x 1.301 = 8.18 to 11.9 fllsec, or
[2.80 mls x 0.891 to [2.80 x 1.301 = 2.49 to 3.64 mls.
Figure 13.9 gives a comparison of the effects of oxygen enrichment and air
preheat on flame velocity and flammability limits for methane gas. [Most natural
gases contain about 90% methane.) Flame velocity increases from about 1 to
11 ftisec a s the oxygen concentration increases from e = 20.9% to e = 100%.
For a flame to be stable, the feed speed of the oxidant-fuel mixture must equal
the flame speed. If feed speed exceeds flame speed, the flame will be pushed
away from the burner, causing a lift-off or blow-off, or moving the flame to a
new "detached" position, i.e. not in contact with the burner nozzle, and there-
fore more subject to instability caused by furnace currents.
If flame speed exceeds feed speed, the flame will move upstream. This may
cause a nozzle-mix flame to go out, or a premix flame to flash back, with
possible damage. See Part 1, Volume I. Many burners are designed to minimize
flashback by the quenching effect of the mass of a relatively cold nozzle and
a steep velocity gradient in the mixture's boundary layer.
The combination of higher flame velocity and wider flammability limits with
oxygen-enriched combustion improves flame stability and tends to create short
intense flames. The stability of a premixed flame is usually measured in terms
of the critical velocity gradients a t flashback and blowoff limits. As much as
100-fold to 1000-fold increases in flashback and blowoff velocity gradients a r e
measured with pure oxygen. With oxygen enrichment, the gradients are less,
but substantially more than with air. Extreme caution must be exercised when
oxygen enrichment is considered for premix combustion systems.
226 NORTH AMERICAN COMBITSTION HANDBOOK
Figure 13.9. Effects of oxygen enrichment and air preheating on methane gas ftame velocity and
flammability limits. (From Reference 13.q at the end of Part 13.)
The flame speeds or velocities usually listed (including Table 13.8 and Figure
13.9) are for laminar flow, which exists in only a few industrial burners.
Turbulent flame speeds vary with temperature, Reynolds Number, and flame
configuration; but are estimated to be 6 to 8 times the listed laminar speeds.
Even these higher turbulent flame speeds are not enough to satisfy industrial
needs for high bulk throughput velocity across the nozzle. The feed speed = flame
speed requirement is met by creating recirculaling flows or low velocity
boundary flows or by flames stretching out like long cones, thus satisfying the
feed speed = flame speed requirement at right angles to the flame "surface."
As input changes, or flame speed changes (due to temperature changes, for
example], the cone length stretches or contracts.
High speed photography shows that most flame surfaces, particularly with
large burners, are not smooth cones, but consist of myriad small spurs of
flame (each a little cone) because of localized variable velocities, equivalence
ratios, and temperatures within the unburned feed. Liquid fuel flames
especially exhibit this characteristic because unvaporized fuel droplets behave
as tiny projectiles. For all of these reasons, burner design aerodynamics can be
very complex if a burner is to be flexible enough to operate with a variety of
input rates (turndown ratios), equivalence ratios, oxidants, and fuels.
OXYGEN ENHlCHMBhr7' AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 227
NOx emissions can be formed in combustion reactions above about 2000 F

(1090 C). NOx means NO and NOz, the NO transforming to NOz in the presence
of ozone (03)
and oxygen (Oz]and faster with sunlight and VOCs. NOz is a cause
of smog and acid rain, and is therefore a crileria pollutant subject to control.
The amount of NO produced in combustion is greater at higher temperatures

that break the bonds in O2and N2molecules, producing reactive atoms and
radicals. Both oec [oxygen-enriched combustion) and pac (preheated air
combustion) generale higher flame temperatures than cold air combustion; so
they both tend to aggravate the NOx emission problem, but modern nec and pac
burners incorporate fealures that reduce ihis effecl.
The amount of NO also increases with higher concentrations of oxygen and

nitrogen as found with excess air or oxygen enrichment.* The opposite effect
(lower NOx emissions) can be achieved by lowering the oxygen and nitrogen
concentrations through dilution with inert gases such as COz and H20,which
a r e readily available in the poc [products of combustion). External flue gas
recirculation [FGR) and furnace poc recirculation with peripheral gas injectors
a r e used to accomplish this effect, with concurrent lowering of flame tem-
perature.
Conventional wisdom is that oxygen enrichment would increase NOx. Actually,

oxygen enrichment, if applied properly, provides additional design flexibility for
NOx reduction. The peak flame temperatures of some specifically designed Iow-
flame-temperature oxy-fuel burners are lower than those of some low NOx air
burners. Very good temperature uniformity has been demonstrated in f d scale
furnaces. Tests in a 2000 F furnace with 100% oxygen showed peak flame
temperatures only 300 to 1000 degrees F above the furnace temperature. Flame
momentum was maintained equivalent to that with air burners by use of small
volumes of oxygen at high velocity. [See Reference 13.a.)
Also available to industry are low NOx oxy-fuel burners using staged
combustion, or off-stoichiometric firing (fuel rich or oxygen rich], a s discussed
in Part 11.
* Theoretically, NO formation peaks in mid-rang0 between air and pure oxygen (as encountered in
some cases of oxygen enrichment), and NO formation falls to zero with 10010 oxygednitrogen
(as with oxy-he1 firing).
Dilute oxygen combustion burners avoid high flame temperatures by utilizing

some of the same recirculation principles found in high velocity burners (or in
direct gas injection), but using the high velocity of low volume, high pressure
oxygen streams to induce mixing of inert poc with the oxygen before it mixes
with the fuel. See Figure 13.10. If no air is used, and no tramp air has infiltrated,
the induced inert poc (diluent) will contain zero or very low nitrogen; so NOx
formation will be minimal.
Figure 13.10a. Conventional air-gas burner.
FUEL
AIR FLAME
low velocity, high volume low temp. high momentum
Figure 13.10b. Conventional oxygen-gas burner.
OXYGENN b F L A M E
low velocity, low volume high temp. low momentum
Figure 13.10~. Dilute oxygen combustion (doc) gas burner.
ASPIRATED POC GASES
OXYGEN L > ~ ~ ~
high velocity
D
low velocity low temp
low volume high volume high momentum
The ultimate design goal of the doc method is to react fuel with an oxidant
stream containing the lowest possible oxygen concentration. Wet flue gas or
furnace gases are recirculated so as to dilute pure oxygen or air and thereby
provide an "oxidant" that is diluted with inert gases (preferably other than
nitrogen).
As the recirculation (dilution)is increased, the oxygen concentration and the
flame temperature are slowly lowered (from the theoretical adiabatic flame
temperature with 100% oxygen]. With further increase in poc recirculation, as
O2concentration goes below about 40%, flame temperature falls off more and
more rapidly. For example: 3100 F at 25% oxygen and 2100 F at 15% oxygen,
for methane-oxygen combustion. Similar but (surprisingly] higher flame
temperatures occur with methanelair combustion.
OXYGEN ENRIGHIWENT AND 0x1'-FUEL FIRING 229
A minimum adiabatic flame temperature of 1800-2000F is thought to be

required for a stable flame in a practical furnace environment. That would say
limit the lowest practical doc to 12-13% oxygen for methane-oxygen combus-
tion, and 10-11% oxygen for methane-air. However, preheating the oxidant
overcomes this limitation.
At low oxygen concentrations,the increases in flame temperature become close
to the increases in oxidant temperature. At 5% Oz,adiabatic flame temperatures
are only 300-500degrees F above the preheat temperatures; so the use of a very
dilute preheated oxygen stream offerspotential for stable low NOx combustion.
The volume of oxidant (oxygen-inert mix) required is approximately inversely
proportional to the required concentration of oxygen in the oxidant, A huge
amount of oxidant is required for dilute oxygen combustion. High fuel and
oxygen jet momentums are important. Small high velocity jets can be used to
entrain large volumes of furnace gas rapidly.
NOx emission figures presented in this book are burner-specific and furnace-
specific. They are offered only as general indications of the levels of NOx that
might: be found in a process, and to shaw the magnitude of change that various
factors and modifications might have on these levels. Consideration must be given
to the specific furnace's operating characteristics, such as:
type of burner and heat release pattern;
heat release per unit of chamber volume;
retention time for the poc;
arrangement of the load relative to the flame;
type of refractory construction; and
air leakage through and around car, doors, seals, and ports.
METHODS FOR COMBUSTION WITH OXYGEN
Techniques available for applying oxygen combustion in industrial furnaces

include oxygen enrichment, oxygen lancing, and oxy-fuel firing. They have
different retrofit requirements and offer different flexibilities in changing the
thermal conditions in a furnace.
The overall furnace productivity and fuel efficiency improvements are
largely determined by the amount of equivalent pure oxygen used, and are little
influenced by the methods for combustion with oxygen.
Direct oxygen enrichment of combustion air is the simplest technique for

applying oxygen using burners designed for normal air combustion. Oxygen
is typically injected through a special sparger into combustion air in the
combustion air supply pipe near the burner. The sparger should be designed for
rapid dispersion and uniform mixing with the air. It should be made of an
oxygen-compatible material; and direct impingement of oxygen jets on the

combustion air pipe must be avoided to prevent possible oxygen fire in the steel
pipes. In addition, it is recommended that dirt and combustible materials be
cleaned from the combustion air pipes and from burner parts prior to oxygen
service, especially for high oxygen enrichment levels. See Reference 13.s.
02-airupstream-mixing, shown in Figure 13.11, mixes oxygen with the com-
bustion air just upstream of the burner. GREAT CARE MUST BE TAKEN to
assure that, in the event of blower air flow reduction, an interlock will prevent
oxygen from backing out through the blower where it might contact grease or oil.
Flame tempera.lure increases sharply with oxygen enrichment, as discussed
in the third sub-topic of the preceding section on "Effects of Oxygen on
Combustion." If the fuel input is kept the same after addition of oxygen enrich-
ment, the volume flow rate of the enriched air-oxygen mixture will be reduced
compared with the base case of air combustion; so the momentum of the flame
will be reduced. Both of these faclors (higher flame temperature and lower flame
momentum) tend to increase the tempera lure near the burner port. The highest
enrichment level (e) is often limited t o less than 30% oxygen by the maximum
service temperatures of the burner block and the refractory walls near the flame.
The principal advantage of this direct enrichment method is the relatively
simple modification required Lo retrofit existing burners. It is well suiled to small
increases in net furnace heat input (approximately 10-20%), which can be
accomplished by a small percent increase in oxygen concentration. This method
must be applied with caution for furnaces in which uniform temperature
distribution is critical.
02-airnozzle-mixing is a relatively simple way to add oxygen to an existing
burner, piping it through the burner in the manner of nozzle-mixing. This is most
conveniently accomplished with a gas burner for which a dual-fuel retrofit is
available as a standard add-on atomizer for oil. The oil tube or the atomizing
air tube may be used for delivery of oxygen to the center of the flame if (a) the
% oxygen in the total oxidant through the burner is very low, e.g. 30-35%, und
if (b) the atomizer has never been used with oil, is thoroughly cleaned, and
complies with all material requirements of Reference 13.s.
Figure 13.11. Oz-air upstream-mixing is a simple and popular method for oxygen-enriching
for higher flame temperature and improved fuel efficiency, but it is not very flexible and the
enrichment level is limited. Some sort of directional air flow sensor should be used upstream of
the mixing point a s a safety interlock.
Fuel I, Air burner
PI
Air I,
Oxygen ---I
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 231
Oxygen lancing is usually installed through a furnace wall near a conventional

burner, shooting oxygen angularly into a side of the conventional flame, as shown
in Figure 13.12. The extent of flame modification by this technique is strongly
dependent on the location, direction, and momentum of the oxygen jet relative
to the fuel and air streams of the main burner.
Figure 13.12. Undershot lancing of oxygen beneath a conventional burner flame.
Air
In the so-called "undershot" method, an oxygen jet is injected upward toward

a main burner flame to create a hotter oxygen flame on the lower side of
the main flame. The higher temperature of the lower side of the flame and
its closer proximity to the load enhance local heat transfer, while minimizing
overheating of the furnace roof. This arrangement has been popular in rever-
beratory melting furnaces.
Reference 13.h reports the following results of a study of oxygen injected
parallel to an oil burner:
a. Much higher peak temperature with oxygen enrichment.
b. Peak temperature zone shifted from the axis of the main burner to the
axis of the oxygen jet.
c. Significant change in flame radiation because of changes in carbon
concentration and in gas temperature profile.
d. Local heat flux rates were modified by the above changes.
e. Only small differences were observed in overall fuel efficiency by different
oxygen injection methods tested.
The principal advantages of the oxygen lancing method are the low cost of
retrofit, and some flexibility in modifying the flame characteristics of the main
air burner.
Oxy-fuel burners may be used to supplement conventional air burners, or to

replace some of the air burners. In the supplemental case, additional oxy-fuel
burners are placed where more heat is desirable. In the replacement case, one
or more air burners are replaced with oxy-fuel burners to increase the overall
available heat [efficiency) for the furnace.
232 NUKTH AMEEICAN COiMBUSTION HANDBOOK
The main advantage of oxy-fuel burners is the high flexibility in influencing

heat flux distribution within the furnace. Auxiliary oxy-fuel burners can be
positioned to improve the temperature distribution within the furnace, or high
temperature oxygen flames can be directly applied to furnace load, as in glass
furnaces to accelerate melting.
Traditional oxy-fuel burners have used intense mixing of oxygen and fuel to
create high temperature flames. Many specialized oxy-fuel burners have been
designed for specific industrial applications. New burners are available with
adjustable flame temperatures.
Low NOx emissions have been achieved by using staged combustion or flue
gas recirculation (with in-furnace aspirating of furnace gases) to reduce peak
flame temperature.
Impinging flames are sometimes used to achieve very high convective heat
transfer rates, resulting from the high concentration of dissociated species in
oxy-fuel flames.
In the past, water cooling and high temperature alloys have been used to
protect burners from the high heat flux of oxy-fuel flames. However, a number
of modern burners use gaseous cooling instead of liquid cooling.
Suggested Modes of Operation. For optimum performance, oxygen use should

be limited to those parts of the heating cycle where (a) the gross input to the
furnace is the greatest, and [b]the potential for generating NOx is greatest Mgh
furnace temperature).
Dual air-or-oxygen burners are available. They can be operated on either air
or oxygen, minimizing oxygen costs while conserving fuel and limiting NOx
emissions.
For applications where greater productivity is desired, there is limited gain
after soak temperature is reached; so oxygen is often used during the heat-up
period. With the temperature low, NOx generation will be low. At low temper-
atures, radiation heat transfer is low; so there is greater dependence on
convection heating. By operating with air instead of oxygen, the mass and volume
of hot gases circulating within the furnace will be higher, thereby aiding
convection heat transfer and uniformity.
After a furnace reaches temperatures above 1400 F (760 C), the major mode
of heat transfer is radiation, and also NOx formation is more probable. At this
point oxygen operationwill eliminate much nitrogen from the furnace atmosphere.
Elimination of nitrogen reduces the potential for NOx formation and decreases
the mass of stack gas, reducing stack loss, or increasing the % available heat;
so less fuel is required. Less fuel consumed and elimination of nitrogen result
in much less volume flow of poc through the furnace. The retention time of
the poc will therefore increase. That assures more complete combustion and
increases heat transfer time, improving overall efficiency.
At furnace temperatures above about 1400 F (760 C), a great part of the
heat transfer comes from gas radiation and also by reradiation from the walls
and roof. The poc from a standard air-gas fired system contain about 26%
triatomic molecules, principally C 0 2and HzOvapor. The energy radiated by these
molecules varies with their concentration, thickness of the gas blanket, and
temperature. Figure 13.13, specifically for the GO, and H 2 0 concentration from
a typical natural gas burned with air, shows how the gas radiation varies with
temperature and blanket thickness.
Figure 13.13. Gas radiation heat flux rates from the poc of a typical natural gas can be
calculated from the formulas at the top of this graph if the gas temperature and blanket thickness
are known.
kW = d,x emissivity, x fJG J,) -

14000 ( BtuJhr = fe x emissivity, x (IG - I,)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 f t
Gas blanket thickness
When burners are switched from air-gas operation to oxy-fuel operation, the
concentration of triatomic molecules increases from 26% to near loo%, thus
increasing the gas radiation heat transfer. This rise in gas radiation helps heat
transfer. For real furnace conditions with constant heat input, however, the gas
temperature tends to drop slightly. The added gas radiation apparently about
balances the lower temperature, luminosity, and convection. Depending on the
type of furnace, the gas radiation could aid temperature uniformity and provide
a modest increase in production.
APPLICATIONS AND ECONOMICS
Productivity improvement, fuel savings, and reduced pollutant emissions

are the main benefits of oxygen-enriched combustion (oec). Because of the
additional cost of oxygen, oec was Lraditionally considered only for special cases,
to overcome the deficiencies of conventional air-fuel combustion. The most
+
common reason for oec was to increase productivity of a furnace by raising heat
flux to the furnace load. Specialized oxy-fuel burners and oxygen lancing
techniques have been applied for high temperature furnaces such as electric
arc steel scrap melting furnaces and glass melting furnaces.
Recent advancement in air separation technology, especially in PSA and
membrane technology, and the escalation of fuel costs have justified the
use of oxygen more than before. In the early 1980s, the complete oxy-fuel
conversion of certain high temperature lurnaces was shown to be economical
for fuel savings alone. New oxy-fuel burners with flame characteristics equiva-
lent to conventional air burners have been developed (References 13.~1,e, and 1)
and adopted lor some steel reheating furnaces and for aluminum melting
furnaces.
Tighter air pollution regulations, especially for NOx emissions, have provided
additional economic benefits to 100% oxy-fuel combustion. Many glass melting
furnaces and hazardous waste incinerators have been converted to oxy-fuel
firing to reduce emissions and to save capital costs for pollution abatement and
heat recovery. The economics of these applications are complex and site-specific.
Capital costs for furnace conversion and air pollution control equipment, plus
operating costs for fuel and oxygen must bc analyzed together with potential
productivity improvement.
In the following sections, general considerations are discussed for oec
applications for industrial furnaces. More detailed discussions and some
examples for economic analyses are found in Reference 13.j.
Productivity improvement has been successful by use of oxygen enrichment
in a broad range of industrial furnaces as listed in Table 13.14. In most furnaces,
throughput increases of 10% to 20% are typically possible with a few percen-
tage points increase in oxygen concentration. For example, at 23 % oxygen con-
centration (i.e. 2% above that of air), the total amount of oxygen present in a
unit volume of enriched air is 10% greater than it was with air. Consequently,
the fuel input can be increased by 10%. The available heat from the combustion
with extra oxygen is much greater than that with air; so the total input of
available heat to lhe furnace is increased by 10% to 20%, depending on the
furnace temperature. From the overall energy balance, it is expected that about
10% to 20% increase in produclivity will be possible with only 2% oxygen
enrichment above the air level.
OXYGEN ENRICIIMENT A ND OXY-FUEL FIRING 235
Table 13.14. Industrial furnaces and kilns for applications of oxygen enrichment
Industry Furnaces /Kilns Primary benefits*
Aluminum Remelting 1, 2
Coke calcining 1
Cement Calcining
Chemical Incineration
Clay Brick firing
Copper Smelting
Anode
Glass Regenerative melters
Unit melters
Day tanks
Iron and Steel Soaking pits
Reheat furnaces
Ladle preheat
Electric arc melters
Forging furnaces
Petroleum FCC Regenerator
Claus sulfur
Pulp and paper Lime kilns
Black liquor
The extent of productivity improvement possible varies with the nature of

the furnace limitations. The most common limitations relate to the air supply
system capacity and the flue gas handling system capacity. Oxygen enrichment
is very effective in overcoming these limitations because of the lesser volume
of oxidant and flue gas for the same fuel input and higher available heat
to the furnace. Productivity increases of more than 40% have been reported
with oxygen enrichment in glass melting, steel reheating, and aluminum
remelting furnaces. Dust carry-over problems in glass melters and in rotary d m
incinerators, calciners, and kilns [cement, lime] have also been effectively
alleviated by the smaller flue gas volumes resulting from oxygen enrichment.
Although not common, heat transfer from flame can be a limiting factor in
some applications. High temperature oxygen-enriched or oxy-fuel flames have
been successfully applied lo certain glass melters and kilns to increase heat
transfer to strategic areas in the furnaces. In most furnaces, however, uniform
temperature distribution is a critical requirement. High temperature flames also
cause serious concerns for furnace refractory walls and roofs.
*Benefits of oxygen: 1 = productivity improvement, 2 = energy saving. 3 = quality improvement,

4 = emissions reduction.
Higher flame temperature is not the only way to achieve a higher heat
transfer rate. Gas radiation from hot combustion products to the surrounding
refractory walls and re-radiation to the load constitute the primary modes of
heat transfer in many high temperature furnaces. The intensity of gas radiation
is a function of the gas temperature and the concentrations of C 0 2 , HzO, and
soot. With oxygen enrichment, reduced concentration of Nzin the poc means
the concentrations of triatomic gases will be higher; so the gas radiation will
be stronger.
In a radiation-dominant furnace with uniform temperature requirement. the
preferred method for productivity improvement is Lo increase the bulk gas
temperature in the furnace; not the localized flame temperature. Various
oxygen enrichment techniques are available to create intense high temperature
flames or low temperature high momentum flames, depending on the process
requirement.
Fuel Savings. Both oxygen-enriched combustion [oec] and preheated air
combustion (pac] improve fuel efficiency. In Figure 13.15, fuel required to
provide one million Btu of available heat to a furnace is plotted as a function
of furnace flue gas exit temperature for ambient air combustion and three
different levels of pac and oec. As the flue gas temperature increases, more
fuel is required lo provide the same amount of available heat to the furnace.
With ambient air combustion, the fuel requirement increases sharply at high
temperatures. With 100% oxygen, the fuel requirement is much smaller than
with ambient air, and increases only slightly with flue gas temperature because
of the small flue gas mass and resulting small flue heal loss.
Figure 13.15. Fuel requirement to provide 1 000 000 Btu of available heat.
21170
O2 in flue
> 6
C
Flue gas temperature

OXYGEN ENRICHMENT A N D OXY-FUEL FIRING 237
Higher fuel savings are achieved as oec approaches 100% oxygen, or

with higher temperature preheated air. State-of-the-art direct-fired integral
burnerlregenerators can produce air preheat temperatures within 400 F
(204 C) of the furnace's flue gas exit temperature. The thermal efficiencies
(%s available heat) of such pac systems can exceed those of 100% oec at flue
temperatures above 2100 F (1150 C). The choice between oec and pac depends
on the overall economics and other process requirements, which will be discussed
in the next section.
When considering oec for fuel savings, an important economic parameter is
the ratio of fuel saved to oxygen required, or specific fuel saving. Figure 13.16
shows that 96 fuel saved increases sharply at low enrichment levels andincreases
at a lesser rate at high enrichment levels. Substantial fuel savings are obtained
at the modest enrichment levels achievable with membrane air separation
systems (28 to 35% oxygen). Very little fuel is saved by increasing oxgyen
enrichment above about 80% purity. Thus the high purity oxygen from a
cryogenic separation system offers little fuel-saving advantage over the 80 to
95% purity of a PSA separation system.
Figure 13.16. Fuel savings and specific fuel savings from oxygen enrichment, based on natural
gas, with 2400 F flue gas temperature and 2% excess oxygen in the flue gas.
0" -
c
0
? 16-
Specific fuel savings
z 15-
c
0
V1
14-
-
.-
5
60 - Fuel savings
-0
$ 40-
m
-V)
Q)
¶
20-
8
0 , I 1
20 40 60 80 100
% Oxygen in enriched air
238 NOKT'H AMERICAN COMB USTION HANDBOOK
Although Figure 13.16 suggests diminishing benefits with higher oxygen

enrichment, the incremental fuel saving per unit amount of additional equiva-
lent pure oxygen (Figure 13.17) actually remains constant for any oxygen
enrichment level, when the furnace flue gas exit temperature, excess 02, and
heat load are kept constant.
Figure 13.17 shows specific fuel savings in millions of Btulton of oxygen
consumed, for methane as the fuel, applicable at any level of oec. Each curve
represents the fuel saving over a base air case with a different combustion air
preheat temperature. For example, with 2400 F flue gas temperature, the specific
fuel saving is 15.2 million Btu per ton of oxygen over ambient air, or 5.1 million
Btulton compared with 1000 F air. The x-intercept of each curve (i.e. at zero
savings) represents the flue gas temperature at which the thermal efficiencies
of oec and pac become the same.
Figure 13.17. Specific fuel savings with 100% oxygen compared with various air preheat
temperatures. (From Reference 13.i)
300F 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000F
149C 316 482 649 816 982 1149 1316 1482 1649C
Flue gas temperature
If the cost of fuel and oxygen are $3 per million Btu and $30 per ton of equiva-
lent pure oxygen, the break-even specific fuel saving becomes
$30lton oxygen
= 10 million Btulton oxygen.
$3lmillion Btu
In the above example, oec resulted in a specific fuel saving of 15.2 million Btulton
02, or $3 x 15.2 = $45.6 savedlton Oz.Subtractingthe $30 cost of oxygen, shows
a net saving of $15.6 compared with ambient air. Compared with 1000 F
preheated air, ($3 x 5.1) - $30 = - $14.7, a net loss if oxygen were used.
Graphs are available in Reference 13.i for similarly checking the economics of
oec for a variety of fuels and combustion conditions.
Economics. Oxygen-enriched combustion (oec)offers a fast, low-capital retrofit

without major changes in existing furnace and combustion equipment. Although
a significant reduction in specific energy consumption is often realized through
productivity increases, fuel savings alone may not pay the cost of oxygen required.
The economics of oec depend primarily on the value of the additional products
produced through the furnace; so the optimum arrangement uses just enough
oxygen enrichment to achieve the desired productivity increase.
Oec is not usually economical, fuel-wise, for boilers and other low temper-
ature processes, or those with good heat recovery devices. It may be economical
for some high temperature furnaces, particularly if the existing heat recovery
system is not efficient. Economic evaluation of oec for fuel savings compared
with other heat recovery options is usually very complex and site-specific,
because so many factors influence the retrofit costs and the cost of oxygen. The
true operating cost of oec is the cost of electric power for the oxygen source
system, The capital cost is included in the "oxygen cost."
The capital costs of oec and pac heat recovery systems increase with furnace
temperature. (With oxy-fuel firing, the same equipment is generally used
regardless of furnace temperature.)Maintenance and replacement costs increase
with more corrosive flue gases. The costs of flue gas handling and cleaning
systems (including stacks) are less with oec because of the reduced flue gas
volume.
In general, oec has a low capital cost and high operating cost as compared
with pac. Economically, oec is more favorable at high temperatures and for flue
gases laden with particulates, corrosive gases, and high NOx emissions. Glass
melting is an example where many furnaces have been converted to 100% oec
in recent years to attain the combined benefits of reduced NOx and other
emissions, furnace rebuild costs, and fuel consumption. Further information on
the economic aspects can be found in Reference 13.i.
References 13.m and 13.n predict fuel savings with combustion air preheat
(cap) and oxygen-enriched combustion (oec), These are based on 10% excess
air ( 2 % oxygen in the flue gas) with natural gas as the fuel; but savings will be
about the same with fuel oils. (Both references are derived from the same
enthalpy and dissociation formulas; so they give comparable savings. Use of
tables from different sources may give misleading results.) Fuel saved is only
one of many factors to be considered when comparing pac and oec.
NOTE: Oxygen is usually sold in units of 100 cubic feet measured a t 70 F; sometimes
by the ton (2000 pounds = 909.1 kilograms]. One ton of pure oxygen occupies 24 180
cubic feet measured at 70 F or 21 C, and 14.696 psia or one atmosphere. 'l'o
convert an oxygen price from $ per ton to $lft3, divide $Iton by 24 180 ft3/ton.
Example 13-4: Convert an oxygen price from $DOlton, to $/hundred cubic feet:
SUMMARY
Oxygen-enriched combustion and oxy-fuel firing have been found to be

economically viable in some applications. Engineers must make thorough studies
of all aspecls of their processes and of state-of-the-art combustion and control
equipment.
Both oxygen-enriched combustion (oec) and preheated air combustion (pac)
improve fuel efficiency and raise flame temperature, which improves radiation
heat transfer. Both improve burner stability by broadening flammability limits
and increasing flame velocity. However, both oec and pac require special
burners, piping or ducting, valves, and controls; and both tend to aggravate NOx
by their high flame temperatures. Lower NOx burners are continually being
developed for both oec and pac. Low flame temperature oxy-fuel firing can
minimize NOx, especially when little nitrogen enters the flame from the fuel, load,
or furnace infiltration.
The volume, and sometimes the velocity or momentum, of circulating poc gases
within a furnace is reduced by any effort (oec or pac) to lower fuel and air
consumption. Reduced poc volume means less space and expense for post-
combustion cleanup equipment (scrubbers, baghouses, ID fans), and less chance
of particulate carryover loading. Oxygen-enriched combustion tends to reduce
poc volume more than pac does,
The above benefits must be weighed against the fact that less circulation may
mean poorer temperature uniformity, and therefore longer fuel use to regain the
uniformity. Oxygen enrichment tends to lower the circulation volume more than
does use of pac. The recirculation can sometimes be maintained by keeping the
momentum constant.
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 24 1
When oec or pac (preheated air combustion) is being considered for applica-
tion to a furnace, the effects on heat transfer and temperature uniformity must
be carefully evaluated. The selected burner type has a strong effect on both heat
transfer and NOx emissions; so careful consultation with burner experts is
advised. The number of burners and their placement may have to be changed.
Flame momentum may have to be increased to maintain the same furnace gas
recirculation ratio.
A very thorough analysis should be made comparing all costs. Safety costs
are difficult to evaluate, but must be considered. Handling oxygen may creale
some safety hazards; so il is important to utilize the judgment of an engineer
experienced in selecthg oxygen valve/control trains.
REFERENCES
13.a Anderson, J. E.: "A Low NOx, Low Temperature Oxygen Burner",
1986 Symposium on Industrial Combustion Technologies, Gas
Research Institute, Chicago, IL, 1986.
13.b Bodurtha, F. T.: "Industrial Explosion Prevention and Protection",
pg. 21, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, NY; 1980.
13.c Bornelburg, H. J.: "Efficiency Evaluation of Oxygen Enrichment
in Energy Conversion Processes", Report No. PNL-4917, for U.S.
Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., December 1983.
13.d Booker: Document F211ca150, International Flame Research Founda-
tion, IJmuiden, Netherlands, 1981.
13.e Browning, R. A. et al: "Recent Advances in Oxygen Combustion
Technology", CIM Conference of Metallurgists, Winnipeg, 1987.
13.f Coward and Jones: "Limits of Flammability of Gases & Vapors",
pg. 131, Bulletin 503, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1952
13.g Glassman, I.: "Combustion", pg. 80, Academic Press, NY, NY, 1977.
242 NOX'l'H AIMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Kissel, R. R. and Michand, M.: "International Flame Research

Foundation: First Experiments a t IJmuiden on the Combustion of
Oil Using Oxygen," pp. 109-120, J. Inst. of Fuel, March, 1962.
Kobayashi, H.: "Oxygen Enriched Combustion System Performance
Study, Volume I = Technical and Economic Analysis", U.S. Dept.
of Energy, Idaho Operations; 1987; DOEIID112597.
Kobayashi, 8.:"Oxygen Enriched Combustion System Performance
Study, Volume I1 = Market Assessment", U.S. Depl. of Energy.
Idaho Operations; 1988; DOElID112597-3.
Kobayashi, W. et al: "Oxygen Enriched Combustion System Perfor-
mance Study, Volume 111 = Burner Tests and Combustion Modeling",
U.S. Depl. of Energy, Idaho Operations; 1988.
Kobayashi, H. and Du, Z.: "Dilute Oxygen Combustion", American
Flame Research Foundation, Cambridge, Ocl., 1992.
North American Mfg. Co.: "Fuel Savings from Preheated Air",
(Handbook Supplement 155b], 1993.
North American Mfg. Co.: "Fuel Savings from Oxygen Enrichment
or Oxy-Fuel", (Handbook Supplement 2761, 1994.
Reed, R. J.:"Combuslion Handbook", Volume I; 3rd edition, pp. 10,12;
North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH; 1986.
Spiers, H. M. (ed.): "Technical Data on Fuel", 6th ed., pp. 260-265,
British National Committee, World Power Conference, London,
England, 1962.
Turin, J. J. and Huebler, J. H.: Gas-Air-Oxygen Combustion Studies,
Report to Committee on Industrial and Commercial Gas Research,
American Gas Association (AGA), Project 1.G.R.-61, pp. 1-28, 1951.
Vandaveer, F. E. and Segeler, C. G.: "Combustion" in Segeler, C. G.
(ed.): "Gas Engineers Handbook", pp. 211-21148, 2/78, The Industrial
Press, New York, NY, 1967.
Werley, B. L. (ed.): "Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in
Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres", ASTM Special Technical Publica-
tion 812, [ASTM PCN 04-812000-17), 1983.
Zabetakis: "U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 627", 1965, as reported
on page 253 of Rose and Cooper, "Technical Data on Fuel", 1977.
OXYGEN ENRICIIMENT AND OXY-FUEL FIRING 243
ADDITIONAL SOURCES of information relative to oxygen

Bonnekamp, H., et al: "Extension of Possibilities of Utilization of Fuels by
Addition of Oxygen", 1978, Stahl & Eisen, 98:141-149.
Brame, J. S. S. and King, J. G:"Fuel: Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous", 6th ed.,
St. Martin's Press, New York, NY, 1967. (Out of print.)
Compressed Gas Association: "Cleaning Equipment for Oxygen Service",
CGA Pamphlet G-4.1, 1985.
Compressed Gas Association: "Industrial Practices for Gaseous Oxygen
Transrnission/Piping'', CGA Pamphlet G-4.4, 1980.
National Fire Protection Association: "Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer
Sites", NFPA JN-50, Quincy, MA, 1990.
National Fire Protection Association: "Fire Hazards in Oyxgen-Enriched
Atmospheres", NFPA JF-53, Quincy, MA, 1994.
Puri, I. K. led.): "Environmental Implications of Combustion Processes",
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993.
Strahlel, W. C.: "An Introduction to Combustion", Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, 1993.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
List of tables and charts
APPENDIXA- Densities and thermal properties of air, steam, metals, various substances
Table A.l US Properties of air at elevated temperatures pages 247-248
Table A.2 Metric Properties of air at elevated temperatures 249
Table A.3 Factors for correcting gas volumes for pressure 250
Figure A.4 US High temperature psychrometric chart 251
Figure A.5 Metric High temperature psychrometric chart 252
Table A.6 US Properties of saturated air-water vapor mixtures 253-254
Table A.7 Metric Properties of saturated air-watcr vapor mixtures 255
Table A.8 US Properties of saturated steam 256
Table A.9 Metric Properties of saturated steam 257
Table A. 10 US Properties of superheated steam 258
Table A.11 Metric Properties of superheated steam 259
Table A.12 US Thermal properties of metals 260
Table A.13 Metric Thermal properties of metals 261
Figure A. 14 Heat contents of common metals at various temperatures 262
Figure A.15 Heat contents of lead, tin, zinc and their alloys 263
Table A. 16 US Dcnsity and thermal properties of various substances 264-276
Table A.17 Metric Density and thermal properties of various substances 277-289
Figure A 1 8 Absolute viscosities of gases and vapors 290
Table A. 19 US Properties of some heat transfer fluids 291
Table A.20 More properties of heat transfer fluids 292
Table A.21 Effect of humidity on oxygen content of air 293
Table A.22 Calorific (heating) values 294-299
Table A.23 Periodic table of the elements 300-302
APPENDIX B - Data for heat load calculations

Table B.l Approx. temp. ranges of industrial heating processes
Table B.2 Boiler load terminology and data
Table B.3 US Heat requirements for drying
Table B.4 Metric Heat requirements for drying
Table B.5 US Heat requirements for direct-fired air heating
Table B.6 Metric Heat requirements for direct-fired air heating
Table B.7 Sizes of crucibles
APPENDIX C - Conversion of units

Table C.1 Thermophysical constants in US and Metric units
Table C.2 Formulas, definitions, converting units
Table C.3 Heat, energy, work equivalents - SI units = Joule
Table C.4 Volume equivalents
Table C.5 Pressure equivalents
Table C.6 Unit equivalents
Table C.7 Temperature scale conversions
Figure C.8 Temperature scale alignment chart
Table C.9 Pyrometric cone equivalents
Table (3.10 US Millivolt-to-Fahrenheit conversions for thermocouples
Table C . l l Metric Millivolt-to-Celsius conversions for thermocouples
Table C.12 Equivalent airlfuel ratio specifications
Table C.13 US Pipe capacities, velocities, pressure losses
APPENDIX
List of tables and charts
APPENDIX D - Pipe, flanges, fittings;expansion of metals and refractories

Table D.1 Dimensions of ANSI malleable threaded pipe fittings,
Class 150 and 300 page 333
Table D.2 Dimensions of butt-welding pipe fittings 334-335
Table D.3 Thread engagements and lengths of pipe nipples 336
Table D.4 Thermal expansion and contraction of metals 337
Figure D.5 Approximate reversible thermal expansion of refractories 338
Table D.6US Pipe flange template data 339
Figure D.7 Schematic piping symbols for combustion systems 340-341
Table D.8 US Pipe color codes and labels 342
-
APPENDIX E Miscellaneous
Table E.l US Sheet metal and wire gauges
Table E.2 Squares and square roots
Tablc E.3 US Areas, circumferences, and flow capacitics of circles
and drill sizes
Table E.4 US Approximate hardncss number equivalents for steel
Table E.5 Maximum temperature for scaling resistance of some
carbon and stainless steels and heat resistant alloys
Tablc E.6 US Full load current of electric motors
Figure E.7 Ringleman charts for estimating smoke densities
Table E.8 Percent volume full of horizontal cylindrical tanks
Table E.9 Carbon monoxide (CO gas) warnings
APPENDIX
I
*$&p w d m o m o v m m o o o o m a v mot-mt-4
w m m w a L-r-r-mo mdat-m* m m a w m ~
+ - - d m mmmmmm mmmmm-
ese3 - - - - A
99999 9 9999 499499 999999
.g-grn3 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 rnr-oam m a m o m m + m m a m m w o t - s +
.u
.3
& tW- r -~t - w
~
wC O +W
W O ~ D N
m w w m m W
v v Fm Im ~m ~m ~ tC - R n ~ ~ d 0
a,
s ssss s ssss s s s s s s ws mmmmm
sssss
3
&,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table A.2 Metric. Properties of air at elevated temperatures
% Volume of Thermal
Temp- G, Volume Volume of Heat content of dry air water vapor Absolute conductivity,
erature, gas Density, expansion 1 kg dry air, in saturated viscosity, W.m
m2"K
---
C gravity kg/m3 ratio? ms
-
kcallkg -
kcal/m3 air at 1 atm. centi~oise
t Volume of one cubic foot of dry stp air at the listed temperature, = 1/G.
Table A.3 US. Factors for correcting gas volumes for pressure
Listed below are multipliers for correcting the measured volume of any perfect gas (including
air) from the pressure at which it was measured to a base pressure of atmospheric pressure (zero
base) or to a base pressure of 6 ounces per square inch. These correction factors are based on an
atmospheric pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury. Use of this table is illustrated in Example 2-7.
When applied to air, the factors in the zero base column represent the gravity of the air relative
to air at standard atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Factor Gauge Factor
pressure
20 in. Hg (vac)
Zero base
0.331 7
6 osi base
0.323 5
-
1psi
-
pressure
1.068 0
Zero base 6 osi basc
1.041 4
19 in. Hg (vac) 0.365 2 0.356 1 2 psi 1.136 0 1.107 8
18 in. Hg (vac) 0.398 6 0.388 6 3 psi 1.204 1 1.174 1
17 in. Hg (vac) 0.432 0 0.421 2 4 psi 1.272 1 1.240 5
16 in. Hg (vac) 0.465 6 0.453 8 5 psi 1.340 2 3.306 8
15 in. Hg (vac) 0.498 8 0.486 4 6 psi 1.408 2 1.373 2
14 in. Hg (vac) 0.532 2 0.519 0 7 pfii 1.476 3 1.439 5
13 in. Hg. (vac) 0.565 6 0.561 5 8 psi 1.544 3 1.505 9
12 in. Hg (vac) 0.599 0 0.584 1 9 psi 1.612 4 1.572 2
11in. Hg (vac) 0.632 4 0.610 7 10 psi 1.680 4 1.638 6
10 in. Hg (vac) 0.665 8 0.649 3 12 psi 1.816 5 1.771 3
9 in. Hg (vac) 0.699 3 0.681 9 14 psi 1.952 6 1.904 0
8 in. Hg (vac) 0.732 7 0.714 4 16 psi 2.088 7 2.036 7
7 in. Hg (vac) 0.766 1 0.747 0 18 psi 2.224 8 2.169 4
6 in. Hg (vat) 0.799 5 0.779 6 20 psi 2.360 9 2.302 1
5 in. Hg (vac) 0.832 9 0.812 2 22 psi 2.497 0 2.434 8
4 in. Hg (vac) 0.866 3 0.844 8 24 psi 2.633 0 2.567 5
3 in. Ag (vac) 0.899 7 0.877 3 26 psi 2.769 1 2.700 2
2 in. Rg (vac) 0.933 1 0.909 9 28 psi 2.905 2 2.832 9
1 in. Hg (vac) 0.966 5 0.942 5 30 psi 3.041 3 2.965 6
0.8 in. Hg (vac) 0.973 2 0.949 0 32 psi 3.177 4 3.098 4
0.G in. Hg (vac) 0.979 9 0.955 5 34 psi 3.313 5 3.231 1
0.4 in. Hg (vac) 0.986 6 0.962 1 36 psi 3.449 6 3.363 8
0.2 in. Hg (vac) 0.993 3 0.968 6 38 psi 3.585 7 3.496 5
0 in. Hg 1.000 0 0.975 1 40 psi 3.721 8 3.629 2
I nsi 1.004 2 0.979 2 42 psi 3.857 9 3.761 9
2 osi I .008 5 0.983 4 44 psi 3.994 0 3.894 6
3 osi 1.012 7 0.987 5 46 psi 4.130 1 4.027 3
4 osi 1.017 0 0.991 7 48 psi 4.266 1 4.160 0
5 osi 1.021 2 0.995 8 50 psi 4.402 2 4.292 7
6 osi 1.025 5 1.000 0 52 psi 4.538 3 4.425 4
7 osi 1.029 8 1.004 1 54 psi 4.674 4 4.558 1
8 osi 1.034 0 1.008 2 56 psi 4.810 5 4.690 8
9 osi 1.038 3 1.012 4 58 psi 4.946 6 4.823 5
10 osi 1.042 5 1.016 5 60 psi 5.082 7 4.956 2
11osi 1.046 8 1.020 7 62 psi 5.218 8 5.088 9
12 osi 1.051 0 1.024 8 64 psi 5.354 9 5.221 6
13 osi 1.055 3 1.029 7 66 psi 5.491 0 5.354 3
14 osi 1.059 5 1.033 1 68 psi 5.627 1 5.487 0
15 osi 1.063 8 1.037 3 70 psi 5.763 2 5.619 7
16 osi 1.068 0 1.041 4 72 psi
17 osi 1.072 3 1.045 6 74 PSI
18 osi 1.076 5 1.049 7 76 psi
19 osi 1.080 8 1.053 9 78 psi
20 osi 1.085 0 1.058 0 80 psi
22 osi 1.093 5 1.066 3 84 osi
24 osi 1.102 0 1.074 6 88 osi
26 osi 1.110 5 1.082 9 92 psi
28 osi 1.119 0 1.091 2 96 psi
30 osi 1.127 5 1.099 5 100 psi
APPENDIX 251
Figure A.4 US. High temperature psychrometric chart. Example: Find the air required
to dry 100#/hr of water from granular material that cannot be exposed to A50 F. The air input
to the once-through dryer is at 80 F DB (dry bulb temp) and 80 RH (% relative humidity) and is
heated to 250 F. Moisture added by burning H, from the fuel is 0.0037#H20/#da (dry air). All air
and flue gas exhausts at 220 F.
Solution: Plot the fresh air input, point 1at 80 DB and 80 RH. (Table below lists data from the
chart.) Add H,O from combustion and input air, 0.0037 + 0.0175 = 0.0212. Plot point 2 at; this
m, (absolute humidity) and DB, = 250 F. Assume the drying process is at constant total heat; so
find point 3, exhaust condition, at TH3 = TH2 = 87% and at DB, = 220 F; there read AN,=
0.0280. The moisture pickup is 0.0280 - 0.0212 = 0.0068#H2OI#da; so to rcmovc lOO#H,Obr
requires 100 + 0.0068 = 14 700#dalhr, or 14 700 x 14 ft3/#da = 205 800 cth air.
point DB, F RH, % AH, #H,O/#da TH, BtulHda ft3/#da Bold =&'en data.
Standard = answers for
1.air inlet 80 80 0.0175 38 14 problem tiom chart.
2. after heating 250 2% 0.0212 87% 18.6 ltalrcs = nther readings
3, exhaust 220 4 0.0280 87Y2 17.9 frurn chart.
Dry bulb temperature, F

Figure A.5 Metric. High temperature psychrometric chart. Example: Find t h e a i r

required to dry 50 kg/h of water from granular material that cannot be exposed to >I20 C. The
air input to the once-through dryer is a t 25 C DB (dry bulb temp) and 80 RH (% relative humidity)
and is heated to 120 C. Moisture added by burning H, from the fuel is 0.0037 kg HLO/kgda (dry
air). All air and flue gas exhausts a t 105 C.
Solution: Plot the fresh air input, point 1 a t 25 C DB and 80 RH. (Table below lists data from
the chart.) Add H,O from combustion and input air, 0.0037 + 0.0160 = 0.0197. Plot point 2 a t this
AH, (absolute humidity) and DB, = 120 C. Assume the drying process is a t constant total heat;
so find point 3, exhaust condition, a t TB, = TH, = 46% and a t DB, = 105 C; there read AH,
= 0.0255. The moisture pickup is 0.0255 - 0.0197 = 0.0058 kg H,O/kg da; so to remove 50 kg H,Oh
requires 50 t 0.0058 = 8621 kg dail~,or 8621 x 2.30 m3/kg da = 19 800 m3/h air.
point DB, C RH, % AH, kgH,O/kgda TH, kcalkgda m3/kgda old =given data.
1. air inlet 25 80 0.0160 20 2.30 Standard = answers for
problem from chart.
-
2. after heatinrr 120 2% 0.0197 46% 3.05 Italics = orhcr rcarliws
3, exhaust 105 4 0.0255 46% 2.97 fnvn eiinrt.
Takle A6 US. Properties of saturated air-water vapor mixtures. Temperature Range = 80 t o 211 F;Pressure = 29.921"Hg.
(Source = Zimmerman and Lavine, Psychrometric Tables and Charts.)
Saturation
moisture Saturation
Saturation content, weight density, Heat content,
humidity, of water vaporlcf weight of air plus Specific volume above 32 F
Saturation weight of water I
saturated water vaporlcf
pressure vaporflb dry air I mixture saturated mixture saturated saturated
mixture, mixture,
pounds grains pounds grains dry air, cfAb dry air, Btdb
Temp., F cab
--
psi 'Wg ' per cf
- - -- per cf per cf per cf dry air Btu/lb dry air
80 0.50689 1.0320
85 0.59588 1.2132
90 0.69816 1.4215
95 0.81537 1.6601
100 0.94926 1.9327
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155 29.581 312.55

160 30.786 368.13
165 31.991 436.61
170 33.196 523.06
175 34.402 634.63
(continued)
Table A.6 US. (concluded)
saturation
moisture Saturation
Saturation content, weight density, Heat content,
humidity, of water vaportcf weight of air plus Specific volume above 32 F
Saturation weight of water saturated water vaporicf
pressure vaporfib dry air mixture saturated mixture saturated saturated
mixture, mixture,
pounds grains pounds grains Iry air, cfilb dry air, ~ t d b
Temp., F psi '!Hg per cf p e r cf per cf per cf cab dryair Btdb dry air
-- - - -- 2
7.5109 15.292 0.01992 139.4 0.05023 351.6 16.127 32.984 35.607 783.08 b
8.3836 17.069 0.02207 154.5 0.04850 339.5 16.253 37.839 36.813 988.8 6
9.3392 19.015 0.02442 170.9 0.04667 326.7 16.380 44.935 38.019 1291.0 5
10.385 21.143 0.02697 188.8 0.04474 313.2 16.506 56.265 39.226 1775.0
11.526 23.466 0.02973 208.1 0.04270 298.9 16.632 77.102 40.433 2667.2 2
c'i
Table A7 Metric. Properties of saturated air-watervapor mixtures. Temperature range = 26.7 t o 99.4 C; pressure = 1.0
atmosphere. (Source = Zimmerman and Lavine, "Psychrometric Tables and Charts".) Abbreviations: a t m = atmospheres,
C = Celsius, da = dry air, kg = kilograms, kPa = kilopascals, m3 = cubic metres, sm = saturated mixture of water vapor and air,
wv = water vapor.
Saturation Saturation Specific Heat content

Saturation moisture density, volume above 0 C
Temp., pressure, humidity, content, (kg da + kg wv) m3 da/ m3 s d kcal in da kcal in sm Temp.,
C atm kPa kg wvkg da kg wv/m3sm /m3 sm kg da kgda /kg da /kg da C
--- --
Table A8 US. Properties of saturated steam*
Saturation Specific Latent heat Heat Specific Latent heat Heat

pressure, volume of of vapo- content of volume of of vapo- content of
Saturation inches of the vapor rization the vapor Saturation Saturation the vapor rization the vapor
temperature mercury ft3Ab Btunb Btu/lb temperature pressure ft3Ab Btuflb Btullb
F absolute (vg) (hfg) %) F psi& (vg) @fg) (h,)
1070.9 1078.9 239.4 10.00 952.7
1065.2 1083.3 250.0 15-12 945.6
1059.6 1087.7 258.8 20.00 939.7
1054.0 1092.0 286.7 40.00 920.1
*Adapted by permission from Steam Tables by J. H. Keenan, Keyes, Hill, and Moore, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1969.
j Pressure in psi absolute is pressure in psig plus 14.696.
APPENDIX
Table A S . Properties of saturated steam*
Specific Heat
Saturation volume of Latent heat content of
Saturation pressure, the vapor, of vaporization, the vapor,
temperature mm H g m3/kg kcaVkg kcaVkg
C or atm (v,) (hfJ (hd
10 9.2077
15 12.7904
20 17.5383
25 23.7705
* Calculatcd from Steam Tables by J. H. Keenan, Hill, and Moore, published by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1969.
Figure A.14. Heat contents of common metals at various temperatures
Temperature, F
Temperature. C
APPENDIX
Table A.16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances. (See Part 2,1701. I) for more information on m
N
kP
fuels; P a r t 4 (Vol. I) for insulations and refractories; Tables and Figures A.12-A.15for metals and alloys; Tables A.19-A.20for heat
transfer fluids.) Specific h e a t in B t d b '
F
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid state Gaseous state Melting point, F Latent h e a t of
Othera Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at std h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normnl Density Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e Specific range point barometric fusion ization
Name -Description fication
-- state --
lb/fts heat -- F F heat -- heat F
-- - F pressure) - -
Btuilb Btunb
Acetic acid (CqCOOH) 0 Liquid 65.8 0.487 32 0.51 32-212 - - 62.6 244.4 80.5 174
Acetone (CH,COCH,) 0 Liquid 49.75 - - 0.544 32-212 0.3468 73-230 -138.2 128-134 42 239
Acetylene (C,H,) 0,F Gas 0.0691 - - - - 0.64 59 -113.8 -118.8 - -
Air (see also Tables A.2 - Gas 0.0763 - - - - 0.2394 -22-+50 - -311.0 - -
and A.3) 0.2469 68-824
0.2562 68-1472
Alcohol, ethyl (CP,OH) 0, F Liquid 49.3 - - 0.648 104 0.4534 226-428 -173.2 172.4 46 369
Alcohol, ethyl (90%) and S Liquid 51.4 - - 0.718 - - - - - - -
water
Alcohol, ethyl (50%) and S Liquid 57.3 - - 0.923 - - - - - - -
water
Alcohol. ethyl (10%) and S Liquid 61.4 - - 0.99 - - - - - - -
water
Alcohol, methyl (CH,OH) 0, F Liquid 49.6 - - 0.601 59-68 0.33 260-440 142.6 150.8 29.5 480.6
Alcohol, methyl (90%) and S Liquid 51.4 - - 0.643 - - - - - - -
water
water
water
Alumina - see Aluminum - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oxide. Alumina (fused)
refractory, high-alumina
refractory
Alumina (fused) refractory R Solid 153-181 0.20 60-1200 - - - 3390+
(see also high-alumina
refractory)
iiluminum (see also Table M, E Solid 166.7 0.225 61-579 - - - - 1220
A.12 and Figure A.8)
Aluminum foil I Solid - 0.24 290 - - - - -
Aluminum oxide (alumina) - Solid 243.5 0.183 32-212 - - - - 3668
Ammonia (.XI,) - Gas 0.046 - - 1.08 -8.4t5 0.525 70-220 -103
Ammonium chloride (10%) S Liquid 64.4 - - 0.788 - - - -
and water
Ammonium sulfate[(NH,), - Solid 110 0.283 - - - - - 95sb
S0,l
A = alloy, E = element, P = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M =metal, 0 = organic compound, R =refractory, S .- solution.
Decomposes.
Table A16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (continued)
Specific h e a t in B t d b O F
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e -- Liquid s t a t e Gaseous s t a t e ~ ~ l t point,
i F ~ ~ Latent h e a t of
Othera Temp Temp Temp (fusions (at s t d h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e point barometric fusion ization
pressure) Btlvlb Btunb
Name- D e s c r i ~ t i o n fication
- - state -lb/fts - F
h e a t -- heat - ---F h e a t F F
Bronze (80 Cu, 20 Sn) A Solid - 0.0862 57-208 - - - - -
- - -
1
Aluminum A Solid 510 0.126 60-1922 - 1922
(see also A Solid 556 0.095 60-1832 - - - - 1832
Bell metal Table A.12) A Solid 540 0.100 60-1634 - - - - 1634
Gun metal A Solid 550 0.107 60-1850 - - - - 1860
Tobin
Bhg A Solid 525 0.107 60-1625 - - - - 1625
Butane (C,H,,) 0,F Gas 0.149 - - 0.55 60 0.458 60 -210
Cadmium (Cd) E, M Solid 540 0.057 212 - - - - 609.6
Calcium (Ca) E Solid 96.6 0.170 32-358 - - - - 1560
Calcium carbonate - Solid 168-184 0.210 32-212 - - - - 151ib
(CaCOJ
Calcium chloride (CaC1,) - Solid 134 0.292 60 - - - - 1425.2
Calcium chloride (30%) S Liquid 78.7 - - 0.676 104 - - -
and water
Camphor (C,,H,O) 0 Solid 62.4 0.44 68-353 0.61 353-410 - - 353
Carbon (C) (graphite) E,F Solid 138 0.160 52 - - - - 6332'
Carbon bisulfide
(see carbon disulfide)
Carbon dioxide (CO,) - Gas 0.117 - - - - 0.2169 52-417 -
Carbon disulfide (CS,) - Liquid 79.3 0.467 1789 0.232 60 0.1596 187-374 -166
Carbon monoxide (CO) F Gas 0.0741 - - 0.0615 -82.6- 0.2426 79.388 340
-73.8
Carbon tetrachloride (CC1,) - Liquid 98.8 - - 0.215 122 - - -9
Castor oil - Liquid 60.1 - - 0.434 - - - -
CelluIose - Solid 94.97 0.32 32-212 - - - - -
Cerium (Ce) E Solid 430 0.0448 32-212 - - - - 1184
Cesium (Cs) E Solid 118.6 0.0482 32-79 - - - - 83
Chalk - Solid - 0.215 32-212 - - - - -
Charcoal F Solid 18-38 0.165-0.25 75 - - - - -
Chlorine (Cl) E Gas 0.190 - - 0.229 -82 0.1125 61-649 -150.7
Chloroform (CHC1,) 0 Liquid 95.5 - - 0.23 32-212 0.1489 72-172 -85
Chrome refractory, burned R Solid 188 0.20 60-1200 - - - - 3580+
Chrome re&actury, R Solid 193 0.21 60-1200 - - - - 3580+
unburned
Chromite (chrome ore) R Solid 281 0.22 - - - - - 3956
(FeCr,O,)
a A = alloy, E = element, F = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M = metal, 0 = organic compound, R = refractor): S = solution.
Decomposes.
Sublimes at -109 F, melts at -49.2 F under 5.2 atmospheres of pressure.
Sublimes.
Table A16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (continued)
Specific heat i n B t d l b OF
Boiling Lntent
Solid state Liquid s t a t e Gaseous state ~ ~ l tpoint, i F ~ ~ Latent h e a t of
Othere Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at s t d heat of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific range Specific range Specific r a n g e point barometric fusion ization
-
Name Description fication state Ib/ft5 heat F heat F heat F F pressure) Btdb
- Btu~lb
Diphenylamine Liquid 576 45.4 -
(Cp,NHCP,)
Dolomite Solid
Dowtherm A Liquid
Earth (see also humus) Solid
Ebonite Solid
Ether, ethyl (C,H,,O) Liquid
Ethyl acetate Liquid
(CH,CO,CH,CH,)
Ethyl bromide (CH,CH$r) Liquid
Ethyl ~odide(CH,CH,I) Liquid
Ethylene glycol (Cp,O,) Liquid
Fiberglas board Solid
Firebrick, fireclay R Solid

insulating (2600 F) R Solid
silica R Solid
Flourine (F,) E Gas
Forsterite refractory R Solid
Fuel oil (see Tables 2.5 F Liquid
and 2.10, Vol. I)
Fuse1 oil - Liquid
Galena (PbS) - Solid
Gallium (Gal E Solid
Gasoline (commercial) F Liquid
Germanium (Ge) E Solid
German silver (see also A Solid
Table A. 12)
Glass - Solid
Glass block, expanded, - Solid
foamglas
Glass wool I Solid
Glycerine (C,H,O,) 0 Liquid

(glycerol)
Gneiss - Solid
a A = alloy, E = element, F = fuel or fuel component, I - insulation, M = metal, 0 - organic compound, R = refractory, S = solution.
Table A.16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (continued)
Specific heat i n E t a OF
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid state Gaseous state ~ ~ 1 - point, F Latent h e a t of
OtheP Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at std h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific range SpeciKc range Specific range point barometric fusion ization
-
Name Description fication state
- lb/fts
- F
------- heat F heat F heat F pressure) Btunb
- - Btunb
Gold (Au) Solid 1205 0.0316 32-212 0.034 - - - 1945.4 5380 28.7 29
(see also Table A.12)
Granite Solid 162-175
Graphite Solid 138.3
GYP- Soild 145

Hairfelt Solid -
Helium (He) Gas 0.01043
Hematite (Fe,O,) Solid -
Heptane (C,H,,) Liquid 42.4
Hexane (CP,,) Liquid 40.8
High-alumina refractory Solid 128
Hornblende Solid -
Humus (soil) Solid -
(see also earth)
Hydrochloric acid (HC1) Liquid 92
(45.2%) .I.H,O
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) Liquid 72
(35.35%) + H,O
Hydrogen (Ha) Gas 0.0053
Hydrogen chloride (HCI) Gas 0.0967

Hydrogen fluoride (HE Gas 0.0754
Hydrogen sulfide (H,S) Gas 0.0907
Ice (H,O) Solid 55.8-57.4
India rubber (Para) Solid -
(see also rubber)
Indium (In) Solid 456
Insulation, high temp Solid 14-24
block type
Iodme (11 Solid 308
Iridium (Tr) Solid 1400
Iron, (see also Figure A.14 Solid 491
and Table A.12)
gray cast Solid 443
white cast Solid 480
wrought Solid 487-493
" A = alloy, E = element, F = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M = metal, 0 = organic compound, R = refractory, S = solution.
Table A.16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (concluded)
Specific h e a t i n B t d b O F
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid state Gaseous s t a t e Melting point, F Latent h e a t of
Othera Temp Temp Temp (Fusion) (at s t d h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e point barometric fusion izntion
Name -Description fication state Ib/ft3 heat F heat F heat F F pressure) Btuilb Btwlb
-- ----
Varnish (see resins) - - -
Vegetable fiberboard I Solid 14.4
("Celotex")
Vermiculite (see mica) -
Vulcanite Solid
TVa'ater (H,Oj Liquid
(see also sea water)
(see Tables A.8 thru A.11:
Wood (see redwood bark) Solid
Wood fiber blanket Solid
("Bdsam iVooY')
Wood fiberbaard Solid
'iVood, oak Solid
Wood, pine Solid
'ivooood's metal Solid
126Pb, 13Sn, IZCd, 49Bi)
Wool (see also glass \vool, Solid
nineral wool, rocls wool,
lead slag wool, slag wool,
etc.)
Xenon (Xe) Gas
Xylene Liquid
Yttrium (Y) Solid
Zinc (Zn) (see Table A.12) Solid
Zinc ch-oride iZnC1,) Solid

Zinc oxide (ZnO) Solid
Zinc su:fate (ZnSO,) Liquld
Zicran Solid
Zirconium (Zr) Solid
a A = alloy, E = element, F =fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M = metal, 0 = organic compound, R = refractory, S = solution.
Decomposes.
Table A17 Metric. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (continued)
S ~ e c i f i hc e a t i n c d e OC
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid state Gaseous s t a t e .weltisg point, C Latent h e a t of
Othera Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at s t d h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e point barometric fusion ization
caYg
Name-Description fication
- --
state
kg/m3 -heat - C
- heat - C - heat - C - C pressure) -
caVg
Bronze (80 Cu, 20 Sn) A Solid - 0.0862 14-98 - - - - - - -
- - - - -
1
Aluminum A Solid 8170 0.126 16-1050 - 1050
Bearing (see also A Solid 8907 0.095 16-1000 - - - - 1000 - -
Bell metal Table A.12) A Solid 8651 0.100 16-890 - - - - 890
Gun metal A Solid 8811 0.107 16-1010 - - - - 1010
Tobin A Solid 8411 0.107 16-885 - - - - 885
Butane (C,H,,) 0, F Gas 2.387 - - 0.55 16 0.458 16 -134
Cadmitun (Cd) E, M Solid 8651 0.057 100 - - - - 320.9
Calcium (Ca) E Solid 1548 0.170 0-181 - - - - 849
Calcium carbonate - Solid 2691-2948 0.210 0-100 - - - - ~ 2 5 ~
(CaCO,)
Calcium chloride (CaC1,) - Solid 2147 0.292 16 - - - - 774
Calcium chloride (30%) S Liquid 1261 - - 0.676 40 - - -
and water
Camphor (C,,H,O) 0 Solid 1000 0.44 20-178 0.61 178-210 - - 178
Cnrbon (C) (graphite) E, F Solid 2211 0,160 11 - - - - 3500h
Carbon bisulfide
(see carbon disulfide)
Carbon dioxide (CO,) - Gas 1.87 - - - - 0.2169 11-214 -
Carbon disulfide (CS,) - Liquid 1270 0.467 976 0.232 16 0.1596 86-190 -110
Carbon monoxide (CO) F Gas 1.1871 - - 0.0615 -63.7- 0.2426 26-198 -207
-58.8
Carbon tetrachloride (CC1,) - Liquid 1583 - - 0.215 60 - - -22.7
Castor oil - Liquid 963 - - 0.434 - - - -
Cellulose - Solid 1521 0.32 0-100 - - - - -
Cerium (Cc) E Solid 6889 0.0448 0-100 - - - - 640
Cesium (Cs) E Solid 1900 0.0482 0-16 - - - - 28.3
Chalk - Solid - 0.215 0-100 - - - - -
Charcoal F Solid 288-609 0.165-0.25 24 - - - - -
Chlorine (Cl! E Gas 3.044 - - 0.229 -63.3 0.1125 16-353 -101.5
Chloroform (CHC$) 0 Liquid 1520 - - 0.23 0-100 0.1489 22-78 -65
Chrome refractory, burned R Solid 3012 0.20 16-649 - - - - 1971c
Chrome refractory, R Solid 3092 0.21 16-649 - - - - 1971t
unburned
Chromite (chrome ore) R Solid 4502 0.22 - - - - - 2160
(FcCr20,)
a A = alloy, E = clcmcnt, F = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M = metal, 0 = organic compound, R = refractory, S s solution.
Decomposes.
Sublimes a t -78.3 C, melts a t 56.5 C under 5.2 atmospheres of pressure.
Sublimes.
Specific heat i n caYg OC
Boiling Latent
SoIid state Liquid state Gaseous state ~ ~ l tpoint, i C ~ ~ Latent h e a t of
Othera Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at s t d h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific range Specific range Specific r a n g e point barometric fusion ization
Name - Description fication state kg/mg heat C heat C heat C C pressure) caUg caYg
- - - - - - --- - -
Gold (Au) E, M Solid 19304 0.0316 0-100 0.034 - - - 1063 2971 16 16
Granite Solid 2595-2804
Graphite Solid 2216
Gypsum Soild 2323

Hairfelt Solid -
Helium (He) Gas 0.16709
Hematite (Fe,O,) Solid -
Heptane (CP,,) Liquid 679
Hexane (C,H,+) Liquid 654
High-alumina refractory Solid 2051
Hornblende Solid -
Humus (soil) Solid -
(see also earth)
Hydrochloric acid (HC1) Liquid 1474
(45.2%) + H,O
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) Liquid 1153
(35.35711 c H,O
Hydrogen (H,) Gas 0.0849
Hydrogen chloride (HC1) Gas 1.5491

Hydrogen fluoride (HF) Gas 1.2079
Hydrogen sulfide ( Y S ) Gas 1.4530
Ice (H,O) Solid 894-920
India rubber (Para1 Solid -
(see also rubber)
Indium (In) Solid 7305
Insulation, high temp Solid 224-384
block type
Iodme (I) Solid 4934
Iridium (IT) Solid 22428
Iron, (see also Figure A.14 Solid 7866
and Table A.12)
gray casl Solid 7097
white cast Solid 7690
wrought Solid 7802-7898
a A = alloy, E = element, F = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, M = metal, 0 = organic compound, R =refractory, S = solution.
Specific h e a t i n caUg 'C
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid s t a t e Gaseous s t a t e Melting point, C Latent h e a t of
Othern Temp Temp Temp (fusion) (at s t d h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific r a n g e Specific r a n g e Specific range point barometric fusion ization
N a m e - Description fication state kdm" heat C heat C heat C C pressure) caVg
- - caUg
Magnetite (Lodestone) Solid

Manganese (Mn) Solid
Marble Solid
Mercuric chloride (HgC1,) Solid
hfercurous chloride Solid
(Hg2CI,)
Mercury (Hgi Liquid
Methane ICH.) Gas
Methanol (&,OH, Liquid
Methyl Alcohol)
Methyl chloride (CH,Cll Gas
Mica Solid
Mica, expanded Solid
(vermiculite)
Milk Liquid
Mineral wool board Solid
with binder
Molasses Liquid
Molybdenum (Mo) Solid
Monel metal Solid
(see also Table A. 12)
Naphtha Liquid
Saphthalene (C,H,C,H,) Solid
Neat's-foot oil Liquid
lieodymium (Nd) Solid
lieon (Ne! Gas
Nichrome Solid
liickel (Ni) Solid
Nickel steel Solid
Nitric acid (HNO,) Liquid
Nitric acid (10%) & water Liquid
Nitric acid (2%) & water Liquid
Nitric acid (1%) & \vale= Liquid
Nitric axide (NO) Gas
Nitrobenzcns (C,H,O,N) Liquid
" A = alloy, E = element, F =: fuel or fuel component, I = insulatiox, M = metal, 0 = organic compuund, R = refractory, S = solulion
Table A.16 US. Densities and thermal properties of various substances (continued)
Specific heat in c d g OC
Boiling Latent
Solid s t a t e Liquid state Gaseous state ~ ~ l t point,
i ~ c ~ ~ heat
t of ~ ~ t
Othera Temp Temp Temp (hion5 -(at std h e a t of vapor-
classi- Normal Density Specific range Specific r a n g e Specific range point barometric fusion ization
Name-Descriotion -
fication state
- k-
-dml -heat - C
- heat - C
- heat - C - C pressure) -- caUg -caUg
Nitrobenzole - Liquid - - - 0.35 14 - - - - - -
Nitrogen (N,) - Gas 1.1871 - - 0.475 -197- 0.2419 20-440 -211 -195 6.17 47.6
-209
Nitrous oxide (N,O) - Gas 1.874 - - - - 0.2262 16207 - -89 - -
Octane (C,H,,) 0, F Liquid 698 - - 0.52 16 - - - 130 - 70.06
Oil (see castor oil, coal tar oil, cottonseed oil, fuel oil, fuse1 oil, light oil, linseed oil, machine oil, oil of citron, oil of juniper, oil of orange, oil of turpentine, olive oil, parafiin oil,
petroleum, and Part 2,Vol. I.)
of citron - Liquid 852 - - 0.438 6 - - - - - -
of juniper - Liquid - - - 0.477 - - - - - - -
of orange - Liquid - - - 0.489 - - - - - - -
of turpentine - Liquid 860 - - 0.411 0 - - -10 160 - 102
Olive oil - Liquid 920 - - 0.471 7 - - 20k 300i - -
Osmium (0s) E Solid 22460 0.0311 20-98 - - - - 2700? 5482 - -
Oxalic acid (C$,O, - 2H10) 0 Solid 1663 0.338 -18 - - - - 189 160h - -
0.416 38
Oxygen (0,) E Gas 1.3569 - - 0.398 -66.7- 0.2175 13-207 -218 -182.7 3.32 50.9
-61.8
Palladium (Pdl E Solid 11999 0.0714 0-1265 0.0714 - - - 1549 2 5 2200 35.92 -
Paper, expanding blanket I Solid - 0.349 64 - - - - - - - -
("Kirnsul")
Parafm - Solid 865-913 0.622 35-40 0.712 60-63 - - 38-56 350450 35-39 -
Parafin oil - Liquid - - - 0.52 0-100 - - - - - -
Pentane n-C,H, 0, F Liquid 622 - - - - - - - 36 - 85.85
Petroleum F Liquid 753-881 - - 0.511 21-58 - - - - - -
Phenol (CP,O) - Solid 1070 - - - - - - 40.9 182 25.0 -
(see aldo resin)
Phosphorus (P) E Solid 1823 0.1829 0-51 - - - - 44.2 288 5.03 -
Pitch (coal tar1 F Solid 993-1298 0.45 16-100 0.35-0.45 - - - 30-150 163 - -
Plaster - Solid 1442 0.20 - - - - - - -
Platinum (Pt) E, M Solid 21387 0.0359 20-1300 - - - - 1755 5 5 4288 27.22 -
Porwlain - Solid 2291-2499 0.26 15-950 - - - - - - - -
Porcelain, refractory R Solid - 0.23 16-649 - - - - 1171-1649 - - -
Potassium (K) E Solid 859 0.170 -185- - - - - 62.3 760 14.6 -
c20
Potassium chlorate (KC10,) - Solid 2323 0.205 50 372 - - -
" A = alloy, E = element, F = fuel or fuel component, I = insulation, X =metal, 0 = organic compound,R = refractory, S = solution.
Sublimes.
NORTH AMERICAN COMBUS710N HANDBOOK
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Table A.19 US. Properties of some heat transfer fluids
T h e r m a l conductivity, Viscosity,
Max Pour Melt Sp. Ht. BtuAb "F B t u ft/ft2 h r OF centipoise
temp, point, point, Specific at at at at at at
F F F Gravity ?OF ( )F 70 F ( IF 70F ( )F
---
Ethylene glycol 325-400 - -60 1.12 0.625 0.710 0.167 - 20.0
(300) (300)
Polyalkylene glycols 400-565 0 to -45 - 0.99-1.08 0.44 0.64 0.099 to 0.095 to 90 to 1.5 to
(500) 0.121 0.099 (300) 320 1.85 (500)
Water 450 -
Aromatic base 425-850 -18 to -80 * 0.89-1.13 0.37 0.63 0.72 0.071 0.063 6.2 to 0.29 to
hydrocarbons 0.46 (600) 0.083 (600) 387 0.42 (600)
Triaryldimethane 500 -3 1 - 1.03 0.36 0.17 0.14 32 0.37

(572) (600) (600)
Mineral oils 525-680 15 to 25 - 0.85-0.94 0.38 to 0.62 to 0.72 0.070 to 0.059 to 190 0.25 to
0.48 (600) 0.078 0.065 (600) 10 000 1.0 (600)
Mercury 600 - -38 12.867 0.033 $: : iO 4.8 8.1 - 1.0
(600) (400)
Diphenylldiphenyl 700-805 - 12 to 22 1.06 0.379 0.591 0.081 0.057 4,5 0.30
oxides (700) (700) (700)
Salts (HTS) 800 - 300 1.83$ - 0.37 - 0.42 - 2.0

(?) (6001 (600)
Sodium
NaK (78 wt %K) 1500 -
* Except Therminol88 melts at 293 F. REFERENCES:

f At 600 F compared to 62.35 lb/ft3 water a t 60 F. Boyen, J o h n L.: "Practical Heat Recoveryn, pp. 102-105, John Wiley &
$ A t 500 F compared to 62.35 lb/ft3 water a t 60 F. Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1975.
Geiringer, Paul L.: "Handbook of Heat Transfer Media", Reinhold Pub-
lishing Corp., New York, NY, 1962.
APPENDIX
Table A.21. Effect of humidity on oxygen content of air
% (volume) oxygen % Relative humidity

in air 0 20 40 60 80
20.96 20.34 19.72 19.09 18.47
Interpolated from data by GTE.

* Extrapolated.
294 NORTH AMERICAN COMBlJSTION HANDBOOK
Table A.22. Calorific (heating)values. (Adapted from "Incineration of Hazardous,

Toxic, and Mixed Wastes" by Gill and Quiel, published by North American Mfg. Co.,
Cleveland, OH 44105-5600.) For organic compounds, see pages 206-231 of t h a t refer-
ence.
substance(") Formula (b) -
- (c) koal/kg(c) ~ t u / l b ( c )
Acetaldehyde CH,CHO daf n 6340 11410
Acetic Acid CH3C0,H daf n 3490 6280
Acetone (CH,),CO daf n 7360 13250
Acetylene CHCH daf n 12000 21600
Aluminum (to &On) daf g 7420 13350
Aniline C,H,N% daf n 8730 15710
Asphalt a r n 9530 17190
Bagasse, 12m ar n 4050 7300
Bamboo, 10m ar n 4110 7410
Benzaldehyde C,H,CHO daf n 7940 14290
Benzene CGHG daf n 10030 18050
Books, 24a daf g 4200 7560
Brown Papcr, 6m, l a ar g 4030 7260
Brown Paper, 6m, l a d g 4280 7710
Rrown Paper, 6m, l a daf g 4330 7800
Brown Peanut Skins d g 5800 10430
Brush, 40m, 5a ar g 2640 4740
Brush, 40m, 5a d g 4390 7900
Brush, 40m, 5a daf g 4780 8600
iso-Butyl Alcohol (CH,),CH,CH,OH daf n 8510 15320
n-Butyl Ncohol C,H,OH daf n 8630 15530
Butyl sole composition, lm, 30a ar g 6060 10900
Carbon ar g 7830 14090
Carbon Disulfide Cs2 daf n 3240 5840
Carbon Tetrachloride CCl, daf n 240 440
Cardboard daf g 4650 8370
Castor Oil d g 8860 15950
Castor Oil daf g 8860 15950
Charcoal, 4m ar n 7260 13090
Chloroform CHC13 daf n 750 1340
Citrus Rinds & Seeds, 79m, l a ar g 950 1710
Citrus Rinds & Seeds, 79m, l a d g 4450 8020
Citrus Rinds & Seeds, 79m, l a daf g 4610 8300
Coal, Sub-bituminous B, 15m, 7a ar g 5690 10240
Coal, Sub-bituminous B, 15m, 7a d g 6720 12100
Coal, Sub-bituminous B, 15m, 7a daf g 7200 12960
Coal, Bituminous-high volatile B, 9m, 8a ar g 6800 12240
Coal, Bituminous-high volatile B, 9m, 8a d g 7440 13390
Coal, Bituminous-high volatile B, 9m, 8a daf g 8190 14740
Coal, Bituminous-volatile, 4m, 5a ar g 8030 14450
Coal, Bituminous-volatile, 4m, 5a d g 8330 14990
Coal, Bituminous-volatile, 4m, 5a daf g 8780 15800
(continued)
(a)a = % ash by weight (b) ar = as received (c) g = gross or higher HV
m= % moisture by weight d = dry n = net or lower HV
daf' = dry & ash-free
APPENDIX
Table A.22. Calorific (heating) values. (continued)
~ubstance(a) - Formula - (c)

(b) - kcalflrg(c) ~ t u / l b ( c )
Coal, Anthracite, 5m, 14a a r g 6170 11110
Coal, Anthracite, 5m, 14a d g 6460 11630
Coal, Anthracite, 5m, 14a daf g 7600 13680
Coffee Grounds, 20m, 2a d g 5690 10060
Copper (to CuO) daf g 600 1090
Corn Cobs, 5m,3a ar g 4440 8000
Corrugated Boxes, 5.2m ar g 3910 7040
Corrugated Boxes, 5.2m d g 4130 7430
Corrugated Boxes, 5.2m daf g 4360 7850
Cotton Seed Hulls, 10m, Za ar g 4440 8000
Cresol (av. o, m, p) daf n 8170 14700
Ethane daf n 12280 22100
Ethyl Acetate daf n 6100 10980
Ethyl Alcohol daf n 7120 12820
Ethylene (ethene) daF n 11840 21320
Evergreen Shrubs, 69m, l a ar g 1500 2710
Evergreen Shrubs, 69m, l a d g 4850 8740
Evergreen Shrubs, 69m, l a daf g 4980 8960
Excelsior, 0.77a daf g 4740 8620
Fats (Animal) ar n 9500 17130
Fats, Cooking daf g 9000 16200
Fats, Fried ar g 9150 16470
Fats, Fried d g 9150 16470
Fats, Fried daf g 9150 16470
Flowering Plants, 54m, 2a ar g 2050 3700
Flowering Plants, 54m, 2a d g 4460 8030
Flowering Plants, 54m, 2a daf g 4700 8460
Fuel Oil, #2 ar g 10870 19570
Fuel Oil, #2 d g 10870 19570
Fuel Oil, #2 daf g 10870 19570
Fuel Oil, #6, 2m, O.la ar g 10150 18260
Fuel Oil, #6, 2m, O.la d g 10300 18540
Fuel Oil, #6, 2m, O.1a daf g 10380 18680
Grass, Dirt, Leaves, 21-62m d g 3490 6280
Grass, Dirt, Leaves, 21-62m daf g 4990 8990
Glycerol (glycerin) daf n 6400 11530
n-Heptane daf n 11500 20700
n-Hexane daf n 11510 20720
Household Dirt, 3m, 70a ar g 2040 3670
Household Dirt, 3m, 70a d g 2110 3790
Household Dirt, 3m, 70a daf g 7580 13650
Hydrogen ar g,n 33890 61000
(continued)
(a) a = % ash by weight (b) ar = as received (c) g = gross or higher HV
m= % moisture by weight d =dry n = net or lower HV
daf = dry & ash-free
296 NOK'I'H AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Table A.22. Calorific (heating)values. (continued)
~ubstance(a1 Formula (b) (c) kcal/kg(c) ~ t u / l b ( c )

-7
Iron (to Fe203) daf g 1760 3 160

Iron (to Fe0.9g) daf g 1200 2 160
Iron (to Fe,O,) daf g 1590 2870
Kerosene, 0.5a ar g 10500 18900
Latex ar g 5560 10000
Lead (to PbO) daf g 250 450
Leather, lorn, 9a ar g 4420 7960
Leather, 10m, 9a d g 4920 8850
Leather, 10m, 9a daf g 5470 9850
Lignin daf g 5850 10530
Lignite ar g 3930 7070
Lignite d g 6130 11030
Lignite daf g 7560 13610
Linoleum, 2m, 27a ar g 4530 8150
Linoleum, Zm, 27a d g 4620 8310
Linoleum, 2m, 27a dar g 6360 11450
Logs, Green, 50m, 0.5a ar g 1170 2100
Logs, Green, 50m, 0.5a d g 2340 4200
Logs, Green, 50m, 0.5a daf g 2360 4250
Magazines, 4m, 22a ar g 2920 5250
Magazines, 4m,22a d g 3040 5480
Magazines, 4m, 22a daf g 3970 7150
Magnesium ar n 4730 8530
Magnesium dafg 5910 10640
Meat Scraps, 39m, 3a ar g 4240 7620
Meat Scraps, 39m, 3a d g 6910 12440
Meat Scraps, 39m, 3a daf g 7280 13110
Methane daf n 13180 23720
Methyl Alcohol daf n 5340 9610
Methyl Ethyl Ketone daf n 8090 14560
Methylene Chloride daf n 1260 2260
Naphtha ar g 8330 15000
Newsprint, 6m, 1.4a ar g 4430 7970
Newsprint, 6m, 1.4a d g 4710 8480
Newsprint, 6m, 1.4a daf g 4780 8600
Oats d 4440 8000
n-Octane daf n 11430 20570
Oil, cotton seed ar n 9500 17130
Oils, Paints, 16a ax g 7440 13400
Oils, Paints, 16a d g 7440 13400
Oils, Paints, 16a daf g 8890 16000
(continued)
(a), = % ash by weight (b) ar = as received (c) g = gross or higher HV

m= Ib moisture by weight d = dry n = net or lower HV
daf = dry & ash-free
APPENDIX
Table A.22. Calorific (heating) values. (continued)
Formula (b) (c) k c a l k g ( ~ )~ t u A b ( ~ )

- - -
Paper Food Cartons ar g 4030 7260
Paper Food Cartons d g 4290 7730
paper Food Cartons daf g 4580 8250
Paraffin ar n 10340 18650
Peat ar g 1800 3240
Peat d g 5030 9050
Peat daf g 7000 12590
Phenol C,HsO?3 daf n 7790 14020
phcnol formaldehyde daf g 6220 11190
Phthalic Acid CJ&(COJU, daf n 4640 8360
Pitch ar n 8400 15150
Plastic Coated Paper, 4.71m ar g 4080 7340
Plastic Coated Paper, 4.71m d g 4280 7700
Plastic Coated Paper, 4.71m daf g 4410 7940
Plastic Film, 3-20m d g 7690 13850
Plastic Film, 3-20m daf g 8260 14870
l>lastics, Mixed, Zm, 10a ar g 7830 14100
Plastics, Mixed, 2m, 10a d g 7980 14370
Plastics, Mixed, 2m, 10a daf g 8890 16000
Polyethylene, 0.2m, l a ar g 10930 19680
Polyethylene, 0.2m, l a d g 10960 19730
Polyethylene, 0 2m, l a daf g 11110 20000
Polypropylene daf g 11080 19950
Polystyrene, 0.2m, 0.5a ar g 9120 16420
Polystyrcne, 0.2m, 0.5a d g 9140 16450
Polystyrene, 0.2m, 0.5a daf g 9170 16510
Polyurethane, 0.2m, 4a ar g 6220 11200
Polyurethane, 0.2m, 4a d g 6240 11220
Polyurethane, 0.2m, 4a daf g 6520 11730
Polyurethane (foamed) ar g 7220 13000
Polyurethane (foam) daf g 5700 10260
Polyvinyl Chloride, 0.2m, 2a ar g 5420 9750
Polyvinyl Chloride, 0.2m, 2a d g 5430 9780
Polyvinyl Chloride, 0.2m, 2a daf g 5560 10000
Propane C,J& daf n 11960 21530
iso-Propyl Alcohol (CH,),CHOH daf n 7910 14240
n-Propyl Alcohol C,H,OH daf n 8010 14420
Propylene CH,CHCH, daf n 11670 21010
Rags, lorn, 2a ar g 3830 6900
Rags, lorn, 2a d g 4250 7650
Rags, 10m, 2a daf g 4360 7840
(continued)
(a) a = % ash by weight (b) ar = as reccivcd (c) g = gross or higher HV

daf = dry & ash-tree
298 NORTH AMERICAN COMB U S 1YON HANUBOOK
T a b l e A.22. Calorific (heating) values. (continued)
~ubstancda) Formula Ib) (c) kcavl,rg(c) ~ t u f l b ( c )

Rags, cellulosc acetate, 2.19a daf g 4440 8000
Rags, cotton daf g 4000 7200
Rags, linen d g 3960 7130
Rags, mixed, 2.19a daf g 4191 7540
Rags, nylon daf g 7330 13190
Rags, rayon daf g 420 750
Rags, silk d g 4660 8390
Rags, wool daf g 5440 9800
Rubber, lm, 10a a= g 6220 11200
Rubber, lm, IOa d g 6290 11330
Rubber, lm, 10a daf g 7000 12600
Rubber Waste ar g 5560 10000
Sawdust (pine) d g 5380 9680
Sawdust (fir) d g 4580 8250
Shellac daf g 7540 13580
Shoe, Reel & Sole, Im, 30a ar g 6060 10900
Shoe, Heel & Sole, lm, 30a d g 6130 11030
Shoe, Heel & Sole, lm, 30a daf g 8770 15790
Starch d g 4180 7520
Starch daf g 4180 7520
Street Sweepings, 20m, 20a ar g 2670 4800
Street Sweepings, 2Om, 20a d g 3330 6000
Street Sweepings, 20m, 20a daf g 4440 8000
Styrene-butadiene copolymer daf g 9830 17700
Sugar (sucrose) d g 3940 7100
Sugar (sucrose) daf g 3940 7100
Sulfur (rhombic) ar n 2200 3970
Tar or asphalt, l m a= g 9440 17000
Tar 113, Paper 213, lm, 2a ar g 6110 11000
Textiles, 15-31m d g 4460 8040
Textiles, 15-31m daf g 4610 8300
Tin (to SnO,) daf g 1170 2100
Tires, lm, 7a ar g 7670 13800
Tires, lm, 7a d g 7730 13910
Tires, lm, 7a dafg 8280 14900
Toluene CH3C6H6 dafn 10150 18280
Turpentine a* g 9440 17000
Upholstery, 7m, 3a ar g 3870 6960
Upholstery, 7m, 3a d g 4160 7480
Upholstery, 7m, 3a daf g 4270 7690
Urea (NH,),CO daf n 2530 4550
(continued)
(a) a = % ash by weight (b) ar = as received (c) g = QOSS or higher HV

daf = dry &: ash-free
APPENDIX
Table A.22. Calorific (heating) values. (concluded)
~ubstancda) Formula -
(b)-
(c)
Vegetable Food Waste, 78m ar g
Vegetable Food Waste, 78m d g
Vegetable Food Waste, 78m daf g
Vinyl chloridelacetate copolymer daf g
Waste, Type 0, 5a, IOm ar g
Waste, Type 1, 10a, 25m ar g
Waxed Cartons daf g
Wax paraffin ar g
Wheat d g
Wood and Bark, 20m, 0.8a ar g
Wood and Bark, 20m, 0.8a d
Wood and Bark, 20m, 0.8a daf g
Wood, Balsam, Spruce, 74m, 1 a ar g
Wood, Balsam, Spruce, 74m, l a d g
Wood, Balsam, Spruce, 74m, l a daf g
Wood, bcech, 13m d g
Wood, birch, 11.8m d a
Wood, Demolition Softwood, 7.7m, .$a ar a
Wood, Demolition Softwood, 7.7m, .8a d g
Wood, Demolition Softwood, 7.7m, .8a daf g
Wood, Furniture, 6m, l a g
Wood, Furniture, 6m, l a d g
Wood, Furniture, 6m, l a daf g
Wood, oak, 13m ar n
Wood, pine, 12m ar n
Wood, Hotten 'limbers, 27m, 2a ar g
Wood, Hotten Timbers, 27m, 2a d g
Wood, Rotten Timbers, 27m, 2a daf g
Wood, Waste Hardwood, 12m, 0.5a ar g
Wood, Waste Hardwood, 12m, 0.5a d g
Wood, Waste Hardwood, 12m, 0.5a daf g
Xylene (av. o, m, p) (CHA,C,H, daf n
Zinc (to NzO) daf g
(a) a = % ash by weight (b) ar = as received (c) g = gross or higher FTV

m= % moisture by weight d = dry n = net or lower NV
daf = dry R; ash-free
300 NOH7.H AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Table A.23. Periodic table of the elements

Atomic Column, Atomic
Element Symbol Number Row Weight
Actinium Ac 89
Aluminum A]. 13
Americi urn Am 95
Antimony Sb 51
Argon Ar 18
Arsenic As 33
Astatine At 85
Barium Ba
Berkelium Bk
Bcrylium Bc
Bismuth Ri
Boron B
Bromine I3r
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium
Dysprosium DY 66
Einsteinium Es 99
Erbium Er 68
Europium Eu 63
Fermium Fm 100
Fluorine F 9
Francium Fr 87
Gadolinium Gd 64
Gallium Ga 31
Germanium Ge 32
Gold Au 79
(continued)
APPENDIX
Table A.23. (continued)

Hafnium Hf
(Hahnium) (Ha)
Helium He
Holmium Ho
Hydrogen H
Indium In
Iodine I
Iridium Ir
Iron Fo
Krypton Kr
Lanthanum
(Lawrencium)
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mendelevium
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Niclcel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium 0s
Ox~gen 0
Palladium Pd
Phosphorous P
Platinum Pt
Plutonium Pu
Polonium Po
(continued)
Table A.23. (concluded)

Potassium K
Prascodymium Pr
Promethium Prn
Protactinium Pa
Radium Ra
Radon ltn
Rhenium Re
Rhodium Rh
Rubidium Rb
Ruthenium Ru
(ltutherfordium) (Rf)
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum Ta
Technetium TC
Tellurium Te
Terbium Tb
Thallium T1
Thorium Th
Thulium Tm
Tin Sn
Titanium Ti
Tungsten (see Wolfram)
Uranium U
Vanadium V
Wolfram (Tungsten) W
Xenon Xe
Ytterbium Yb
Yttrium Y
Zinc Zi
Zirconium Zr
APPENDIX 303
Table B.1. Approximate temperature ranges of industrial heating processes
Material Operation Temperature, FK

Aluminum Melting 1200-1400 1920-1030
Aluminum alloy Ageing 250-460 / 395-510
Aluminum alloy Annealing 450-775 / 505-685
Aluminum alloy Forging 650-970 1616-794
Aluminum alloy Heating for rolling 850 / 728
Aluminum alloy Homogenizing 850-1175 / 720-900
Aluminum alloy Solution h.t. 820-1080 / 708-800
Aluminum alloy Stress Relieving 650-1200 1615-920
Antimony Melting point 1166 1 903
Asphalt Melting 350-450 / 450-505
Babbitt Melting (1) 600-800 / 590-700
Brass Annealing 600-1000 / 590-811
Brass Extruding 1400-1150 1 1030-1060
Brass Forging 1050-1400 / 840-1030
Brass Rolling 1450 / 1011
Brass Sintering 1550-1600 / 1116-1144
Brass, red Melting (1) 1830 / 1270
Brass, yellow Melting 1705 / 1200
Bread Baking 300-500 / 420-530
Brick Burning 1800-2600 / 1255-1700
Brick, refractory Rnrning 2400-3000 / 1589-1920
Bronze Sintering 1400-1600 / 1033-1144
Bronze, 5% aluminurn Melting (1) 1940 / 1330
Bronze, manganese Melting 1645 / 1170
Bronze, phosphor Melting 1920 11320
Bronze, Tobin Melting 1625 / 1160
Cadmium Melting point 610 / 595
Cake (food) Baking 300-350 / 420-450
Calcium Melting point 1562 / 1123
Calender rolls Heating 300 / 420
Candy Cooking 225-300 / 380-420
Ccment Calcining kiln firing 2600-3000 1 1700-1922
China, porcelain Bisque firing 2250 / 1505
Chine, porcelain Decorating 1400 / 1033
China, porcelain Glazing, glost firing 1500-2050 1 1088-1394
Clay, refractory Burning 2200-2600 / 1480-1700
Cobalt Melting point 2714 / 1763
Coffee Roasting 600-800 / 590-700
Coke By-product oven 1830-2730 / 1270-1770
Cookies Baking 375-450 / 460-505
Copper Annealing 800-1200 / 700-920
Copper Forging 1800 / 1255
Copper Melting (1) 2100-2300 / 1420-1530
Copper Refining 2100-2600 / 1420-1700
Copper Rolling 1600 / 1144
Copper Sintering 1550-1650 / 1116-1172
Copper Smelting 2100-2600 / 1420-1700
(continued)
Table B.1. (continu
Material Operation Temperature, F/H

Cores, sand Baking 250-550 / 395-560
Cupronickel, 15% Melting 2150 / 1450
Cupronickel, 30% Melting 2240 / 1500
Electrotype Melting 740 / 665
Enamel, organic Baking 250-450 / 395-505
Enamel, vitreous Enameling 1200-1800 / 922-1255
Everdur 1010 Melting 1865 / 1290
Ferrites 2200-2700 / 1478-1755
Frit Smelting 2000-2400 / 1365-1590
German silver Annealing 1200 / 922
Glass Annealing 800-1200 1700-920
Glass Melting, pot furn 2300-2600 / 1530-1645
Glass, bottle Melting, tank furn 2500-2900 / 1646-1865
Glass, flat Melting, tank furn 2500-3000 / 1645-1920
Gold Molting 1950-2150 / 1340-1450
Iron Melting, blast furnace tap 2500-2800 / 1645-1810
Iron Melting, cupola (1) 2fi00-2800 / 1700-1810
Iron, cast (2) Annealing 1300-1750 / 978-1228
Iron, cast Austenitizinp 1450-1700 1 1060-1200
Iron, cast Malleablizing 1650-1800 / 1170-1255
Iron, cast Melting, cupola (2) 2600-2800 / 1700-1800
Iron, cast Normalizing 1600-1725 / 1145-1210
Iron, cast Stress relieving 800-1250 / 700-945
Iron, cast 'l'cmpering 300-1300 / 420-975
Iron, cast Vitreous enameling 1200-1300 / 920-975
Iron, malleable Melting (1) 2400-3100 1 1590-1980
Iron, malleable Annealing, long cycle 1500-1700 / 1090-1200
Iron, malleable Annealing, short cycle 1800 / 1255
Iron Sintering 1283-1422 / 1850-2100
Japan Baking 180-450 / 355-505
Lacquer Drying 150-300 1340-422
Lead Melting ( I ) 620-750 / 600-670
Lead Blast furnace 1650-2200 / 1170-1480
Lead Refining 1800-2000 / 1255-1365
Lead Smelting 2200 / 1477
Lime Burning, roasting 2100 / 1477
Limestone Calcining 2500 / 1644
Magnesium Ageing 350-400 / 450-480
Magnesium Annealing 550-850 / 156-728
Magnesium Homogenizing 700-800 / 644-700
Magnesium Solution h.t 665-1050 / 625-839
Magnesium Stress relieving 300-1200 / 422-922
Magnesium Superheating 1450-1650 / 1060-1170
Meat Smoking 100-150 / 310-340
Mercury Melting point 38 / 234
Molybdenum Melting point 2898 / 4757
(continued)
APPENDIX
Table B.1. (contin
Material Operation Temperature, F/K
Monel metal Annealing 865-1075 / 1100-1480

Moncl metal Melting (1) 2800 / 1810
Moulds, foundry Llrying 400-750 / 475-670
Muntz mctal Melting 1660 11175
Nickel Annealing 1100-1480 i 865-1075
Nickel MelLing ( I ) 2650 / 1726
Nickel SinCering 1850-2100 1 1283-1422
Palladium Melting point 2829 / 1827
Pelroleum Cracking 750 I670
phosphorus, yellow Melting point 1111317
Pie Baking 500 1530
Pigment Calcining 1600 / 1150
Platinum Melting 3224 / 2046
porcelain Burning 2600 I 1700
Potassium Melting point 145 1336
Potato chips Fry irig 350-400 / 450-480
Primer Raking 300-400 / 420-480
Sand, cove Baking 450 / 505
Silicon Melting point 2606 1 1703
Silver Melting 1750-1900 1 1225-1310
Sodium Melting point 208 / 371
Solder Melting (1) 400-600 / 480-59 0
Steel Annealing 1250-1650 I 950-1172
Steel Austenitizing 1400-1700 / 1033-1200
Steel Bessemer converter 2800-3000 / 1810-1920
Steel Calorizing (haking in aluminum powder) 1700 1 1200
Steel Carbonitriding 1300-1650 / 778-1172
Steel Carburizing 1500 / 1750
Steel Case hardening 1600-1700 1 1140-1200
Steel Cyaniding 1400-1800 / 1030-1250
Steel Drawing forgings 8.50 / 72.5
Steel Drop-forging 2200-2400 / 1475-1590
Steel Forging 1700-2150 1 1200-1450
Steel Form-bending 1600-1800 / 1140-1250
Steel Galvanizing 800-900 1700-760
Steel Heat treating 700-1800 I 650-1250
Steel Lead hardening 1400-1800 / 1030-1250
Steel Melting, open hearth (1) 2800-3100 / 1810-1975
Steel Melting, electric furnace (1) 2400-3200 / 1590-2030
Steel Nitriding 950-1051 / 783-838
Steel Normalizing 1650-1900 / 1170-1310
Steel Open Hearth 2800-2900 1 1810-1866
Steel Pressing, die 2200-2370 / 1478-1572
Steel Rolling 2200-2300 / 1478-1533
Steel Sintering 2000-2350 1 1366-1561
Steel Soaking pit, heating for rolling 1900-2100 / 1310-1420
(continued)
Table B.1. (continued)

Material Operation Temperature, FIK
- -
Steel Spheroidizing 1250-1330 / 950-994

Steel Stress relieving 450-1200 1505-922
Steel Tempering (drawing) 300-1400 1 422-1033
Steel Upsetting 2000-2300 / 1365-1530
Steel Welding 2400-2800 / 1590-1810
Steel bars Heating 1900-2200 I 1310-1480
Steel billets Rolling 1750-2275 / 1228-1519
Steel blooms Rolling 1750-2275 / 1228-1519
Steel bolts Heading 2200-2300 / 1480-1530
Steel castings Annealing 1300-1650 / 978-1172
Steel flanges Heating 1800-2100 / 1250-1420
Steel ingots Heating 2000-2200 I 1365-1480
Steel nails Blueing 650 / 615
Steel pipes Butt welding 2400-2600 / 1590-1700
Steel pipes Normalizing 1650 / 1172
Steel rails Hot bloom reheating 1900-2050 / 1310-1400
Steel rivcts Heating 1750-2275 / 1228-1519
Steel rods Mill heating 1900-2100 / 1310-1420
Steel shapes Heating 1900-2200 / 1310-1480
Steel, sheet Blue annealing 1400-1600 / 1030-1110
Steel, sheet Box annealing 1500-1700 / 1090-1200
Steel, sheet Bright annealing 1250-1350 / 950-1000
Steel, sheet Job mill heating 2000-2100 / 1365-1420
Steel, sheet Mill heating 1800-2100 I 1250-1420
Steel, sheet Normalizing 1750 / 1228
Steel, sheet Open annealing 1500-1700 / 1090-1200
Steel, sheet Pack heating 1750 / 1228
Stccl, sheet Pressing 1920 / 1322
Steel, sheet Tin plating 650 1 615
Steel, sheet Vitreous enameling 1400-1650 / 1030-1170
Steel skelp Welding 2550-2700 1 1673-1755
Steel slabs Rolling 1750-2275 1 1228-1519
Steel spikes Heating 2000-2200 / 1365-1480
Steel springs Annealing 1500-1650 / 1090-1170
Steel strip, cold rolled Annealing 1250-1400 1950-1033
Steel, tinplate sheet Box annealing 1200-1650 1920-1170
Steel, tinplate sheet Hot mill heating 1800-2000 / 1250-1365
Steel, tinplate sheet Lithographing 300 / 420
Steel tubing (see Steel skelp)
Steel wire Annealing
Steel wire Baking
Steel wire Drying
Steel wire Patenting
Steel wire Pot annealing
Steel, alloy, tool Hardening
Steel, alloy, tool Preheating
APPENDIX
Table B.1. (continued)

Material Operation Temperature, F/XC
Steel, alloy, tool Tempering 325-12501 435-950
Steel, carbon Hardening 1360-1550/ 1010-1120
Steel, carbon Tempering 300-1100/ 420-870
Steel, carbon, tool Hardening 1450-1500I 1060-1090
Steel, carbon, tool 'I'cmpcring 300-550/ 420-560
Steel, chromium Melting 2900-3050/ 1867-1950
Steel, high-carbon Annealing 1400-1500/ 1030-1090
Steel, high-speed Hardening 2200-23751 1478-1575
Steel, high-speed Preheating 1450-160011060-1150
Steel, high-speed Tempering 630-1150/ 605-894
Stccl, manganese, castings Annealing 1900/ 1311
Steel, mcdium carbon Heat treating 1550/ 1117
Steel, spring Rolling 20001 1367
Steel, S.A.E. Annealing 1400-16501 1030-1170
Steel, stainless Annealing (3) 1750-2050(3)/ 1228-1505
Steel, stainless Annealing (4) 1200-1525(4)/ 922-1103
Steel, stainless Annealing (5) 1525-1650(5)1 1103-1172
Steel, stainless Austenitizing (5) 1700-1950(5)/ 1200-1339
Steel, stainless Bar and pack heating 1900/ 1311
Steel, stainless Forging 1650-2300/ 1172-1533
Steel, stainless Nitriding 975-10251797-825
Steel, stainless Normalizing 1700-2000/ 1200-1367
Steel, stainlcss Rolling 1750-2300/ 1228-1533
Steel, stainless Sintering 2000-2350/ 1366-1561
Steel, stainless Stress relieving (6) 400-1700/ 478-1200
Steel, stainless Tempering (drawing) 300-12001422-922
Steel, tool Rolling 1900/ 1311
'['in Mclting 500-6501 530-615
Titanium Forging 1400-21601 1033-1450
Tungston, Ni-Cu, 90-6-4 Sintering 2450-29001 161 6-1866
Tungston carbide Sintering 2600-27001 1700-1755
Type metal Stereotyping 525-650/ 530-615
Type metal Linotyping 550-650/ 545-615
Type metal Electrotyping 650-7501615-670
Varnish Cooking 520-600/ 545-590
Zinc Melting (1) 800-900/ 700-760
Zinc alloy Die-casting 8501 730
(1)Refer to Appendices A.12-A.15for typical pouring temperatures.

(2) Includes gray and ductile iron.
(3)Austenitic stainless stccls only. (AISI 200 and 300 series.)
(4)Ferritic stainless steels only. (AISI 400 series.)
(5)Martensitic stainless steels only. (AISI 400 series.)
(6)Austenitic and martensitic stainless steels only.
(continued)
308 IVORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTlON HANDBOOK
Table B.1. (concluded)
SOURCES
Lukasiewicz, M. A.: "Natural Gas-Yircd Radiant 'I'ubcs", Gas Research Institute,

Chicago, IL 60631., ?July 16, 1991..
Schneidewind, A.: private communication, "Lindberg unit of General Signal",

Watertown, WI, 1990.
Pritchard, R., J. T. Guy, and N. E. Connor: "industrial Gas Utilization", Rowker

Publishing Company Limited, Epping, Essex, UK (1977).
Dryden. I. G. C. (ed.): "The Efficiency Use of Energy", IPC Science and Technology
Press, Guildford, England, 1975.
Pohl, J. H.: "The Potential for Conserving Oil and Natural Gas Used in Industry",
Sandia National Laboratories, SAND 79-8290, September 1980.
Pohl, J. H., J. Lee, J. Clough, and J. Dan: "Technology Research Needed in

Industrial Combustion Processes", Prepared for EG & G Idaho Inc. under Contract
C84-3.303490-GHG44-84, 1984.
APPENDIX
Table B.2. Boiler load terminology and data

1boiler horsepower = 33 475 Btulhr (8442kcallh) heat to steam
= 34.5 poundshr (15.651%) steam evaporated from and a t 212 F (100C)
= 44 633 Btu/hr (11256 k c a l l l ~ fuel
) input For 75% overall efficiency
= 4 1 850 Btulhr (10555 kcallh) fuel input for 8 0 6 overall efficiency
= 39 400 Btuthr (9937kcallhj fuel input for 85% overall efficiency
= approximately 10 ft2 (0.929rrr2) of boiler heating surface (basis for boiler
ratings)
= 139.4 fte (12.95m 3 of equivalent direct radiation
OVERRATE firing (common practice):

Steel firebox boilcrs (gas or oil firing) ............................................................... ZOO% of rating
Steel firebox boilers (coal fired) .......................................................................... 150% of rating
Steel firebox boilers (simultaneous coal and oil or gas) ................................. 200% of rating
Scotch Marine boilers (conventional type) ........................................................ 250% of rating
Water tube boilers (small) ................................................................................... 300% of rating
Water tube boilers (Imge, power type) ............................................................... BOOB of rating
FURNACE HEAT RELEASE, Btu/ft3 (kcal /m3):

Steel firebox boilers (gas or oil firing) ................................. 65 000 Btu/ft3 (578400 kcaE/m3)
Steel firebox boilers (coal fired) ....................................... 60 000 Btu/ft3 (.5.?.7 900 kcaE/m3)
Scotch Marine boilcrs (gas or oil fircd) ................... 100 000 Btu/ft3 (889 900 kcal/m3)max.
EQUWALENT DIRECT RADIATION (EDR):

3 Ct2 EDR = 240.0 R t u k r for steam heating
= 150.0 Btulhr for hot water heating (open system)
= 180.0 Btulhr for hot water heating (closed system)
1 m2 EDR = 651.28Kcal lh for steam heating
= 407.05 k c a l l h for hot water heating (open system)
= 438.46 kcallh for hot water heating (closed system)
OVERALL BOILER EFFICIENCY, %:

(steama)x [(heat content, h,, of delivered steamb)- (heat content, hL of feedwaterc)l
- x 100
(fuel input rated) x (gross heating value of t h e fuep)
Gas fired Gas fired OiI fired Oil fired Coal fired Coal fired
American Metric American Metric American Metric
units
~~~~~ units units units units units
Steam lbhr kg / h Ibhr kglh lbhr kglh

Heat content d delivered steam Btdlb MJ/kg Btdlb MJlkg Btullb M J / ~
Hcat content of feedwater Btdb MJikg Btdb MJ/kg Bt"Ab MJIkg
"uel input rate fi3/hr m3/h gal/hr dm3/h Ib/hr kglh
Gross heating valuc of the fuel Btu/ftVJ/m3 Btu/hr ~ ~ l d r nB ~t d b MJ/kg
1 Btu~lb= 0.002326 M J / k g
1 cal / g = 0.004 183 MJlkg
1 US gal =3.785L = 3.785dm3
hf = hg- hfg.Values of h, and hfg can be determincd from Tables A.8-A.11.
NORTH AMERICAN COMB USTION EANDBOOK
Table B.3 US. Heat requirements for drying

The pounds of water to be evaporated per ton of dried material is 2000 where M is t h e
100 - M
percent weight of water to be removed from the wet material.
The (Btu) heat required to produce one ton of dried material (in driers with no heat recovery
equipment) is approximately
2000 x M
ton of dried matcrial 100 - M
where: M is the percent weight of water to be removed
b, is the heat content of the water vapor a s it leaves the drier in Btw'lb (from Table
A.10 US a t the vapor exit tcmperature)
is thc heat content of the liquid water in the matcrial entering the drier in Btutlb
hfl
= Tm - 32
c is the'specific heat of the dry material (from Table A.16 US)
Tn12 js the temperature a t which the dried matcrial leaves the drier, F
Tml is the temperature a t which the moist material enters the drier, F
Excess air is usually used, so the appropriate excess air curve from Figure 3.10 (Volume I) must
he used i n determining %J available.
For materials with a specific heat of 0.20 (most sands and slags) and for material entering the
drier a t 60 F, the above formula may be simplified to
available Btu required (2000 x M x h,) - (56 000 x M)

ton of dried material - (100 - M)
+ 400 Tm2- 24 000.
Thc table below lists results from the formula imrnediatcly above for selected percents of moisture
removed, material exit temperatures, and vapor (flue gas) exit temperatures. Both formula and
table assumc thorough exposure of the material being heated to t h e products of combustion to
allow sufficient heat and mass transfer.
Approximate
available heat
requirement,
1000s of Btu
per ton of
1 150
Exit temperature of dried material, T%, F
200 250 300
Exit temperature of vapor, F

350
150 200 250 200 250 300 250 300 350 300 350 400 350 400 450
APPENDIX
Table B.4 Metric. Heat requirements for drying

The lrg of water to be evaporated per metric ton of dricd matcrial is 'OoO where M is the
percent weight of water to be removed from the wet material. 100 - M
The heat required to produce one metric ton of dried material (in driers with no heat recovery
equipment) is approximately
available kcal required - --1000 x M (h, - hr,) -I- 1000 c ('I'm2 Tml)
-
metric ton of dried material 100 - M

where: M is thc pcrccnt weight of water to be rcmoved
hz is the heat content of the water vapor as it leaves the drier in kcallkg (from Table
A l l SI at the vapor exit temperature)
hf, is the heat content of the liquid watcr in the material entering the drier in kcal/kg
=Tm
c is thkspecific heat of the dry material (from Table A.17 ST)
Tm is the temperature at: which the dried matcriai lcavcs thc drier, C
T ~ is
: the temperature a t which the moist material enters the drier, C
Excess air is usually used, so the appropriate excess air curve from Figure 3.10 (Volume I) must
be used in determining 95 available.
For materials with a specific heat of 0.20 (most sands and slags) and for material entering the
drier at 16 C, the above formula may be simplified to
available kcal required (1000 x M x h,) - (16 000 x M)

- + 200 Tm2-- 32 000.
metric ton of dried material (100 - M)
The table below lists results from the formula immediately above for selected percents of moisture
removed, material exit temperatures, and vapor (flue gas) exit temperatures. Both formula and
table assume thorough exposure of the material being heated to the products of combustion to
allow sufficient heat and mass transfer.
Approximate Exit temperature of dried material, Tm,, C

available heat
requirement, 1 6 0 90 120 150
1000s of kcal
ner metric ton Exit temperature of vapor, C
o i dried material 120 150 150 180 180 210
21.5 21.7
34.3 34.7
47.0 47.6
59.8 60.6
72.5 73.5
85.3 86.5
W
Table 33.5 US. Heat requirements for direct-fired air heating i
N
The table below lists the gross Btulhr offuel input required to heat one standard cubic foot of air from a giveninlet temperature to a given
outlet temperature. I t is based on natural gas a t 60F, having 1000gross Btu/fta,910net Btu/ft3, and stoichiometric aidgas ratio of 9.4:l.
The oxygen for combustion is supplied by the air that is being heated. The hot outlet "air" includes combustion products obtained from
burning sufficient natural gas to raise the air to the indicated outlet temperature.
G r o s s Btu
o f fuel input O u t l e t air t e m p e r a t u r e , F
per scf of air 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
4.43 6.51 8.63 10.8 13.0 15.2 17.5 19.9 22.2 24.7 27. 29.7 32.2 34.9
4.04 6.11 8.23 10.4 12.6 14.8 17.1 19.5 21.8 24.3 26.7 29.3 31.8 34.4
1.60 3.64 5.71 7.83 9.99 12.2 14.4 16.7 19.0 21.4 23.8 26.3 28.8 31.4 34.0
1.20 3.24 5.31 7.43 9.58 11.8 14.0 16.3 18.6 21.0 23.4 25.9 28.4 31.0 33.6
0.802 2.84 4.91 7.02 9.18 11.4 13.6 15.9 18.2 23.0 25.5 28.0 30.6 33.2
Q 60 20.6
Example: Find the amount of natural gas required to heat 1000 scfm of air from 400 F to 1400F.
gross Btu 1000 scf air 60min
E0
Solution: From the table, read 23.2gross Btulscf air. Then
scf air min ) 1000gross Btu = 1392cfh gas.
ft3 gas %
The conventional formula derived from the specific heat eauation is: Q = wcAT so B t d h r = w e i-p h a r x specific heat x temp rise
- scf X- 60min X-X0.076
-- - lb 0.24Btu x "rise = scfm x 1.1x "rise.
min hr ft3 Ib "F
The table above incorporates many refinements not considered i n the conventional formulas: (a) 8 available heat which corrects for heat
loss to dry flue gases and the heat loss due to heat of vaporization i n the water formed by combustion, (b) the specific heats of the products
of combustion (N,, CO,, and H,O) are not the same a s that of air, and (c) the specific heats of the combustion products change a t higher
temperatures.
For t h e example above, the rule of thumb would give 1000scfm x 1.1x (1400- 400)= 1100000gross Btuihr, whereas the example finds
1392 x 1000 = 1392000 gross Btufhr required. Reminder:The fuel being burned adds volume and weight to the stream being heated.
Table B.7. Sizes of crucibles*

Approx. Approx. Approx. Approx. Approx.
height diam top working working working
Crucible outside outside capacity in capacity in capacity in
number in inchest in inches? lb red brass* lb aluminum$ lb magnesium
1 35 1 ~ 3 3 .o 0.93 0 60
1112 4'116 39/16 4.3 1.3 0.83
2 4% 33/4 4.7 1.4 0.90
3 51~18 4% 7.7 2.3 1.5
4 53/4 45/~ 10 3.1 2.0
5 6l/r( d71s 14 4.3 2.8
6 6% 5'14 15 4.6 3.0
7 5I12 21 6.5 4.2
8 7lIn Ei7/u 21. 7.4 4.8
9 7% VIE 26 8.0 5.1
10 8lIx (il/ls 36 11 7.1
12 8'12 6Vs 42 22 7.7
14 g7h 611/1fi 47 14 9.0
16 9'1.1 615/16 53 16 10
18 gL3/1c 7% 64 18 12
20 1os/16 7 11/16 74 20 13
25 10'511s 83/is 89 25 16
30 11lIz 8Vs 100 30 19
35 12 9 120 35 23
40 12l12 93/n 130 40 26
45 133/le g7/n 160 45 29
50 13314 10'I4 180 50 32
60 147/i6 10l3/16 210 60 39
70 15l/i6 111'4 240 70 45
80 155/8 111'/16 270 80 51
90 163/ie 12lIn 300 90 58
100 1611/1fi 12'12 330 100 64
125 173/n 13 370 125 80
150 18~1~ 133/4 47 0 150 96
175 19l14 143/n 520 175 110
200 20 15 600 200 130
225 203/4 15lIz 670 225 140
250 2131n 16 750 250 160
275 22 16%~ 820 275 180
300 22lIz 167/s 900 300 190
400 245/1s 183/ls 1200 400 260
* Crucibles above size 400 are rarely used for brass, since the weight of so much brass leads to
structural difficulties in the crucibIe. Large crucibles up to size 1000 are frequently used for
light metals such as aluminum.
t For carbon-bonded (silicon carbide) crucibles, and for clay-bonded (graphite) crucibles; but
consult the crucible manufacturer for detailed dimensions.
$ Rough approximations of metal working capacity for bilge shape crucibles, through size number
800, are: pounds of aluminum = 1x crucible number; pounds of brass = 3 x crucible number.
NORTH AMERICAN COhfBUSTION FlA NDAOOK
Table C.2. Formulas, definitions, converting units

Force = Mass x A c c e l e r a t i o n
1 lb force = the force t h a t accelerates 1Ib mass a t a rate of 32.17 ft/sec2
I poundal = " " " " 1lb mass " " " " 1. ftJsec2
1lb forcc
" slug " " " "
= " " " 1ft/sec2
1 newton = " " " " 1kg " " " " 1m/sz = 10Qynes
1dyne !, ,! ,! " l g !,8, ,!
4,
= 1 cm/s2
Pressure = Force per unit Area

1newton/m2 = 1pascal (Pa) (See pressure corlversions in Table C.5.)
1p ~ u n d l i n .=~ 1psi = 144 psf = 144 Ib/ft2
Work = Force x Distance (Work and heat are convertible forms of energy}
Btu
I. ft lb = work donc by 1lb forcc through a 1 ft = I .3558 joules = -----
778.8
1dyne cm = '* *s I newton q* 1cm = 1erg
1newton metre = 1 dyne 8, fa 1 m = lO7crg= 1joule = 1watt scc
Power = rate of doing Work (Heat flow rate can he expressed in the s a m e units)
1
1newton metre = 1watt = 1joule = - lp
746
1 k W = 1000 joule = 3413 Bthr = 860.4 kcalh
Converting units
Multiply a known measurement by conversion fraction. Make conversion fractions from the
equalities in Appendix Tables A.4, A.5 and A.G, putting numbers and units from each side of t h e =
sign above and below t h e fraction line. You can multiply anything by 111 = 1without changing its
value. All you have done is change its units. If you can't cancel out units (as you would cancel
fractions l/2 x 2/3 x 3/4 = l/4), t u r n t h e conversion fraction upside down. For example:
3413 B t h r 1kcal 1h r
10 000 kW x x x -= 2389 kcalls.
1kW 3.968 Btu 3600 sec
This illustrates the use of a known intermediate unit (Btu) to convert between units for which no
factor is readily available.
t Small pressures are often expressed in w c for water column, which is synonymous with wg for
water gauge or H,O. Larger pressures a r e often measured with a mercury column and
expressed a s "Hg or mm Hg.
Table C.4. Volume equivalents, rounded to 4 significant figures. SI unit = metre.
P USgal = 0.003 785 m3 = 231.0 in.3 = 3.785 L = 1 USgal

1 Br gal = 0.004 546 m3 = 277.4 in.3 = 4.546 L = 1.201 USgal = 1 Br gal
3
1ft3 = 0.028 32 m3= 1 728 in.3 = 28.32 L= 7.481 USgal = 6.229 Br gal = 1 R3 %
1bbl, oil = 0.159 0 m3 = 9 702 in.3 = 159.0 L= 42.00 USgal = 34.97 B r gal = 5.615 R3= 1 bbl
2b
1m3 = 1 m3 = 61 020 in.3 = 1000 L = 264.2 USgal = 220.0 Br gal = 35.31 ftS= 6.290 bbl 6
3l
B2
Table C.5. Pressure equivalents, rounded to 4 significant figures. SI unit = pascal.
1N/mz = 0.001 kPa (kilopascal)
1mmHg = 0.1333 kPa = 13.60 mm H 2 0 = 1 mm Hg (torr)

1" HzO = 0.2488 kPa = 25.40 mm HzO = 1.866 mm Hg = 1 "H,O
1 osi = 0.4309 kPa = 43.94 mm Hz0 = 3.232 mm Hg= 1.732"H20= 1 osi
1"Hg = 3.386 kPa = 345.3 mm HpO = 25.40 mm Hg = 13.61 "H20= 7.858 osi = 1 "Hg
1psi = 6.895 kPa = 703.1 mmHzO = 51.72 mm H g = 27.71 "H20= 16.00 osi = 2.036 "Hg= 1 psi
1kg.lcmz = 98.07 kPa = 10 000 mm H,O = 735.6 mm Hg = 394.1 "H,O = 227.6 osi = 28.96 H g = 14.22 psi = 1 kg/cmz
1bar = 100.0 kPa = 10 200 mm H,O = 750.1 mm Hg = 401.9 "H20= 232.1 osi = 29.53 "Hg = 14.50 psi = 1.020 kg/cm2
1 atm* = 101.3 kPa = 10 330 mm HzO = 760.0 mm Hg = 407.3 "Hz0 = 235.1 osi = 29.92 "Hg = 14.70 psi = 1.033 kg/cm2
" normal atmosphere = 760 tom (mm Ng, 0 C); a "technical atmosphere" = I kg/cm2 = 736 torr
APPENDIX
Table C.6. Unit equivalents (continued)

SI Metric To American American To SI Metric
Metric To Metric American To American
HEAT CONTENT and SPECIFIC HEAT:
J caVg = 1.80 B t d b = 4187 J k g 1Btu~lb= 0.5556 callg = 0.5556 kcalkg

1c a l / c m L 112.4 Btu/ft3 = 2326 J k g = 0.002 326 M J k g
1lrcal/m3 = 0.1124 Btu/ft3 = 4187 J/m3 1Btu/ft3 = 0.008 90 cal/cd
1kJ/kg = 0.43 R t d b = 8.899 kcal/m3 = 0.037 30 MJ/rn3
1M.J/n/rn3 = 26.81. Rtu/ft3 = 3.59 Btu/LTS gal 1BtuJUSgal = 0.0668 kcal/L = 66.6 kcal/m3
= 0.2787 MJ/m3
1cal/g.'C= 1Btu/lb."F = 4187 J/kg."K 1Btu/lb."F = 1cal/g."C = 4187 J k g - " K
1kcalkg = 0.004 187 MJ/kg = 1.8 Btudlb
1 joule/m3 = 3.723 x lo4 Btulscf
HgAT FJAOW,POWER:
1N-m/s = 1W = 1J/s 1BtuJhr = 0.2520 kcalk
= 0.001 341 hp = 0.7376 ft.lb/scc = 0.000 393 1hp
1kcaVh = 1.162 J/s = 1.162 W = 0.2931 W = 0.2931 cJ/s
= 3.968 B t u h r 1millio~lBtulhr = 1055 M J h r
= 0.001 thermiesh 1 hp = 33 000 ft.lh/min = 550 ft.lh/sec
1kW = 1000 Jls = 3412 Btu/hr = 1.341 hp = 7.15.7 W = 745.7 J/s
= 859.8 Ircalhr = 641.4 lrcalh = 2546 Stu/hr
1 MW = 3 412 000 Btu/hr = 3.600 G J h 1boiler hp = 33 475 B t d h r = 34.5 1b
steam/hr frnm and a t 212 F
HEAT FLUX and HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:
LENGTH:
1mm = 0.10 cm = 0.039 37 in. 1in. = 25.40 mm = 2.540 cm = 0.025 40 m
= 0.003 281 ft 1ft = 304.8 mm = 30.48 ern = 0.3048 m
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 39.37 in. I mile = 5280 ft;; 1nautical mile = 6076 fl
= 3.281 d = 1.094 yard 1micron = 1pm = m = 1 micrometer
1k m = 0.6214 mile = 10 000 A
1Angstrom unit = 1 A = 10-lom = lo4 pm
(continr~ed)

H U T CONTENT and SPECIFIC HEAT:
1cal/g = 1.80 Btu~lb= 4187 J k g 1B t d b = 0.5556 caVg = 0.5556 kcalkg

1caWcm3 = 112.4 Btu/ft3 = 2326 J k g = 0.002 326 MJkg
1kcaVma = 0.1124 Btu/fts = 4187 J/mS 1Btu/fta = 0.008 90 cal/cma
1k J k g = 0.43 B t d b = 8.899 kcal/m3= 0.037 30 MJ/m3
1 MJ/m3 = 26.81 Btu/ft3 = 3.59 Btu/US gal 1Btu/USgal= 0.0666 kcam = 66.6 kcaWm3
= 0.2787 MJ/m3
1caWg.OC= 1Btdb.OF = 4187 J/kg.'-'K 1Btdb.OF = I callg.OC = 4187 Jkg-OX
1kcaMg = 0.004 187 MJkg = 1.8 Btu~lb
1joule/mS 3 3.723 x lo4 Btdscf
HEAT FLOW, P O W R :
lN.m/s= l W = l J / s 1Btu/hr = 0.2520 kcalh
= 0.001 341 hp = 0.7376 ft.lb/sec = 0.000 393 1hp
1kcaVh = 1.162 J/s = 1.162 W = 0.2931 W = 0.2931 J/s
= 3.968 Btu/hr 1million Btulhr = 1055 M J k r
= 0.001 thermiesrh 1hp = 33 000 ft.lb/min = 550 ft-lblsec
1kW = 1000 J/s = 3412 Btuhr = 1.341h p = 745.7 W = 745.7 J/s
= 859.8 kcaVhr = 641.4 kcalh = 2546 Btu/hr
1MW = 3 412 000 Btu/hr = 3.600 GJ'/h 1boiler hp = 33 475 B t h r = 34.5 lb
steam/hr from and at 212 F
HEAT FLUX and HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:
LENGTH:
1mm = 0.10 cm = 0.039 37 in. 1in. = 25.40 mm = 2.540 cm = 0.025 40 m
= 0.003 281 ft 1ft = 304.8 mm = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
1m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 39.37 in. 1mile = 5280 ft; 1nautical mile = 6076 ft
= 3.281 ft = 1.094 yard 1micron = 1pm = lod m = 1micrometer
1km = 0.6214 mile =; 10000 k,
1Angstrom unit = 1 A = 10."' m = 1 O 4 ~ m

(continued]
APPENDIX
POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION:
30 000 ppmy = 1.0% by volume

1ppmv CH, = 676 pg/smd
1 ppmv CO = 1183 pg/sm3 (by volume) = (Mx 42.25) pg/sm'<
1p p m ~
1ppmv NO = 1272 pglsm'j wherc M = molecular wcight
1ppmv NO, = 1948 pglsm' [See also Table C.13 US.]
1 ppmv SO, = 2707 pg/sm3
tStoichiometric # NOx/ ppm NOx

Higher alr wet and dry million Btu equiv. to
beating required, dry poc, poc, equiv. to 1# N o d
Fuel* value. Blu cf cf cf 1 PPm million Etu
Natural gas 0.001 21
Coke oven gas 0.001 10
Commercial
propane
Methanol
#2 fuel oil
#6 fuel oil
# CH,/ ppm C H , # CO/ ppm CO # SO, I ppm SO,

million Btu equiv. to million Btu equiv. to million Btu equiv. to
equiv. to 1# CH, / equiv. to 1# COI equiv. to 1# SO, /
Fuel* 1 ppm C H , million Btu 1 ppm CO million Btu 1 ppm SO, million Btu
Natural gas 0.000 420 2380 0.000 735 1360 0.001 68 59 5
Coke oven gas 0.000 384 2608 0.000 670 1490 0.001 53 653
0.000 430 2328 0.000 750 1330 0.001 72 582
propane
Methanol 0.000 397 2520 0.000 696 1440 0.001 59 628
#2 fuel oil 0.000 454 2205 0.000 795 1260 0.001 82 550
#6 fuel oil 0.000 450 2223 0.000 788 1270 0.001 80 555
*For fuel specifications, scc Tables 2.la and 2.lb of Volume I of the North American Combustion
Handbook.
(continued

SL Metric To American American To SI Metric
Metric '1'0 Metric American 'l'o American
PRESSURE:
1 N.mr = 0.001 kPa = 1.00 Pa 1in. H,O* = 0.2488 kPa = 25.40 mm H,O
1mm H,O= 0.0098 kPa = 1.866 rnm IIg = 5.198 lb/ftz
1rnm Hg = 0.1333 kPa = 13.60 mm H 2 0 = 0.002 54 kg/cm2 = 2.540 g/crn2
= 1torr = 0.019 33 Ib/in.2 1 in. Hg= 3.386 kPa = 25.40 mm Hg
1 kdcmz = 98.07 kPa = 10 000 kg/m2 = 345.3 mm H,O = 13.61 in. H 2 0
= 10 000 mm H,O = 394.1 in. H,O* = 7.858 o ~ / i n=
. ~0.491 I b / i ~ ~ . ~ p
= 735.6 rnm Hg = 28.96 in. Hg = 25.4 torr
= 227.6 oz/in.* = 14.22 lblin." 11bIin.h 66.95 5kPa = 6895 N/mz
= 0.9807 bar = 703.1 mm H,O = 27.71 in. H,O
1bar = 700.0 kPa = 1.020 kglcm2 = 51.72 mm Hg = 2.036 in. Hg
= 10 200 mm H,O = 401.9 in. H,O = 16.00 ozlin."
= 750.1 mm Hg = 29.63 in. Hg = 0.0703 kg/cm" 70.31 g/cmZ
= 232.1 ~ z h n=. ~14.50 l b / i ~ ~ . ~ = 0.068 97 bar = 0.068 07 atm
= 100 000 N/m2 1 ~ z / i n=. ~0.4309 kPa
latm =101.3kPa = 43.94 mrn H,O = 1.732 in. H,O
1g/cm2 = 0.014 22 lb/in.2 = 3.232 mm Hg
= 0.2276 o ~ / i n . ~ = 0.004 39 kg/cm2 = 4.394 g/cm2
= 0.3937 in. H,O 1ft of head (water) = 12 000 milinch
(For rough calculations, 1 a t m t = 101.3 kPa = 101 325 N/m2

1bar = l atmt = 1lcg/cm2 = 10 330 mm H,O = 407.3 in. H,O
= 10 m H,O = 100 kPa) = 760.0 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg
= 235.1 o h . . 14.70 lb/in.2
= 1.033 kg/cm2 = 1.013 bar
1curie = 3.7 x 101° disintegrations per second

1microcurie = 3.7 x lo4 disintegrations per second
TEMPERATURE:
(continued)
* 1"wc = 1"wg
t Normal atmosphere = 760 torr (mm Hg a t 0 C)--not a "technical atmosphere", wliich is 736
torr or 1 kglcm2.Subtract about 0.6 Ib1i11.~ far each 1000 ft above sea level.
Tablc C.6. Unit equivalents (continued)

TFIERhW CONDUCTIVITY:
THERMAL DIFFUSMTY:
TORQIJE (BENDING MOMENT):
1 c d s = 0.3937 in./sec = 0.032 8 1 ftJsec 1 in./sec= 25.4 m d s = 0.0254 m/s

= 10.00 mmls = 1.969 ft/min = 0.0568 mph
1m/s = 39.37 in./sec = 3.281 Wsec 1ft/sec = 304.8 mmls = 0.3048 d s
= 196.9 ftlmin = 2.237 mph = 0.6818 mph
= 3.600 km/h = 1.944 knot 1 [ t h i n = 5.08 m d s = 0.005 08 nds
= 0.0183 k h
1mph = 0.4470 m/s = 1.609 kmth
= 1.467 ftlsec
1knot = 0.5144 m/s
1rpm = 0.1047 radianslsec
VISCOSITY, absolute, y: (See also pp 28-30 of Vol. I or Appendix Tables E . l , E.2, E.3 of North
American's Incineration book.)
0.1 Pa.s = 1dyne.s/cm2 = 360 kg1m.h 1lb mass/hr.ft = 0.000 008 634
= 1poise = 100 centipoise lb force-sec/ftz
= 242.1 1b mass/ft.hr = 0.413 centipoise
= 0.002 089 lb force.sec/ft2 = 0.000 413 Pa.s
1kg/m.h= 0.672 Ib/hr.ft = 0.002 78 g/cm.s 1lb force.sec/ft2 = 115 800 l b mass1ft.h~
= 0.000 005 8 1 1b force.sec/ft2 = 47 880 centipoise
= 47.88 Pa.s
1reyn = 1 lb force.sec/in."
= 6.890 x lo6 centipoise
p of water? = 1.124 centipoise p of airt = 0.0180 centipoise

= 2.72 Ib mass/hr.ft = 0.0436 I M n - R
= 2.349 10-"b.sec/ft2 = 3.763 x 1b.sedffL
t At stp (60 F and 14.7 psia or 15.6 C and 760 mm Hg). (continued)
324 NORTH AMERICAN CO.WBUSTION HANDBOOK
Table (3.6. Unit equivalents (continued)

1cm" (cc) = 0.000 001 00 m3 1in." 16.39 cm" 00.00 016 39 m3

= 0.0610 in.3 = 0.0338 US fluid 02 = 0.016 39 L
1L (dm" = 0.0010 m3 = 1000 cm' 1 ft' = 1728 in." = 7.481 USgal
= 61.02 in." 00035 3 1 ft.' = 6.229 Br gal
= 0.2642 USgal = 28 320 cm3= 0.028 32 m3 = 28.32 L
= 62.427 lh of 39.4 F (4 C) water
= 62.344 lb of 60 P (15.6 C)water
1m3 = 1000 L = 1 000 000 cm" 1 USgal = 3785 cm;' = 0.003 785 m3
= 61 024 in." 33.31 ft" = 3.785 L = 231.0 in."
= 220.0 Br gal = 0.8327 Br gal = 0.1337 f13
= 6.290 bbl = sp gr x 8.335 Ib
= 264.2 USgal = 8.334 lb of 60 F (15.6 C) water
= 1.308 yd" = 1/42 barrel (oil)
1Br gal = 277.4 in.3
= 0.004 546 m" = 4.546 1,
= 1.201 USgal
1bbl, oil = 9702 in." 5.615 ft"
= 0.1590 m" = 159.0 L
= 42.00 USgal
= 34.97 Br gal
VOLUME FLOW RATE:$.
1cm3 (cc)/s = 1x m3/s 1gpm (gaW~nin)= 60.0 gph (gaUhr)

1Lls = 1x m3/s = 0.016 67 gps (gal/sec)
1m 3 k = 4.403 US gprn (galfmin) = 0.002 23 cfs (ft3/sec)
= 0,5887 ft3/min = 8.022 cfh (ft3/hr)
= 0.8326 Br gpm
= 0.227 m3/h = 0.063 08 Lls
= 1.429 b h l k = 34.29 bbWday
1 gph (galhr) = 0.001 05 V s
= 0.000 037 1cfs (ft3/sec)
1cfm (ftVmin) = 6.18 Br gpm
= 0.000 471 m3/s
1cfs (ft3/sec) = 448.8 gpm
= 22 250 Br gph
(continued)
$ Volume equivalents are for the same temperature and pressure in both sets of units.
A standard cubic foot or scfh is measured a t 60 F and 29.92" Hg.
A standard cubic metre or sm3/h i s measured a t 15 C and 760 mm Hg.
A normal cubic metre or n m 7 k is measured a t 0 C and 760 mm Hg.
APPENDIX
Table C.6. Unit equivalents (concluded)

WEIGHT, FORCE, MASS:
1pg = 1.544 x 10-"grains 1oz avdp mass = 28.36 g = 0.028 35 kg

= 2.205 x lb avdp mass 1lb avdp mass = 453.6 g = 0.4536 kg
1 g = 0.035 27 oz avdp mass = 4.536 x lo8 pg
1kg mass = 1000 g mass = 1U' pg 1lb avdp force = 0.4536 kg force
= 35.27 oz avdp mass = 4.448 N
= 2.205 lb avdp mass 1 Ih avdp = 16 ounces (02) = 7000 grains
1 kg force = 1000 g force = 9.807 N 1short ton = 2000 lb = 907.2 kg
= 2.205 Ib avdp force 1 long ton = 2240 Ib = 1015.9 kg
1 metric ton (1 tonne) = 1000 kg = 2205 lb
326 NORTH AMERICAN COIMBUSTION HANDBOOK
Table C.7. Temperature scale conversions. Formulas are in Appendix (2.6.

Examples: From the bold type column, 600 Fahrenheit is the same as 315.6 Celsius or
588.7 Kelvin. 600 C = 1112.0 F. 600 K = 620.3 F.
from F from F Convert from C from K fromF from F Convert from C from K
--
toK to C F, C, or K
----
toP
-4.0
to F
-
toK to C F, C , o r K
--
to F to F
244.3 -28.9 -20.0 599.8 326.7 620.0 1148.0 656.3
249.8 -23.3 -10.0 14.0 - 610.9 337.8 640.0 1184.0 692.3
255.4 -17.8 0.0 32.0 459.7 622.0 348.9 660.0 1220.0 728.3
260.9 -12.2 10.0 50.0 -441.7 633.2 360.0 680.0 1256.0 764.3
266.5 -6.7 20.0 68.0 -423.7 644.3 371.1 700.0 1292.0 800.3
272.0 -1.1 30.0 86.0 405.7 672.0 398.9 750.0 1382.0 890.3
277.6 4.4 40.0 104.0 -387.7 699.8 426.7 800.0 1472.0 980.3
283.2 10.0 50.0 122.0 -369.7 727.6 454.4 850.0 1562.0 1070.3
288.7 15.6 60.0 140.0 -351.7 755.4 482.2 900.0 1652.0 1160.3
294.3 21.1 70.0 158.0 -333.7 783.2 510.0 950.0 1742.0 1250.3
299.8 26.7 80.0 176.0 -315.7 810.9 537.8 1000.0 1832.0 1340.3
305.4 32.2 90.0 191.0 -297.7 838.7 565.6 1050.0 1922.0 1430.3
310.9 37.8 100.0 212.0 279.7 866.5 593.3 1100.0 2012.0 1520.3
316.5 43.3 110.0 230.0 -261.7 894.3 621.1 1150.0 2102.0 1610.3
322.0 48.9 120.0 248.0 -243.7 922.0 648.9 1200.0 2192.0 1700.3
327.6 54.4 130.0 266.0 -225.7 949.8 676.7 1250.0 2282.0 1790.3
333.2 60.0 140.0 284.0 -207.7 977.6 704.4 1300.0 2372.0 1880.3
338.7 65.6 150.0 502.0 -189.7 1.005.4 732.2 1350.0 2462.0 1970.3
344.3 71.1 160.0 320.0 -171.7 1033.2 760.0 1400.0 2552.0 2060.3
349.8 76.7 170.0 338.0 -153.7 1060.9 787.8 1450.0 2642.0 2150.3
355.4 82.2 180.0 356.0 -135.7 1088.7 815.6 1500.0 2732.0 2240.3
360.9 87.8 190.0 374.0 -117.7 1116.5 813.3 1550.0 2822.0 2330.3
366.6 93.3 200.0 392.0 -99.7 1144.3 871.1 1600.0 2912.0 2420.3
372.0 98.9 210.0 410.0 -81.7 1172.0 898.9 1650.0 3002.0 2510.3
373.2 100.0 212.0 413.6 -78.1 1199.8 926.7 1700.0
377.6 104.4 220.0 428.0 -63.7 1227.6 954.4 1750.0
383.2 110.0 230.0 446.0 -45.7 1255.4 982.2 1800.0
388.7 115.6 240.0 464.0 -27.7 1283.2 1010.0 1850.0
394.3 121.1 250.0 482.0 -9.7 1310.9 1037.8 1900.0
399.8 126.7 260.0 500.0 8.3 1338.7 1065.6 1950.0
405.4 132.2 270.0 518.0 26.3 1366.5 1093.3 2000.0
410.9 137.8 280.0 536.0 44.3 1394.3 1121.1 2050.0
416.5 143.3 290.0 554.0 62.3 1422.0 1148.9 2100.0
422.0 148.9 300.0 572.0 80.3 1449.8 1176.7 2150.0
427.6 154.4 310.0 590.0 98.3 1477.6 1204.4 2200.0
433.2 160.0 320.0 608.0 116.3 1505.4 1232.2 2250.0
438.7 165.6 330.0 626.0 134.3 1533.2 1260.0 2300.0
444.3 171.1 340.0 644.0 152.3 1560.9 1287.8 2350.0
449.8 176.7 350.0 662.0 170.3 1588.7 1315.6 2400.0
455.4 182.2 360.0 680.0 188.3 1616.5 1343.3 2450.0
460.9 187.8 370.0 698.0 206.3 1644.3 1371.1 2500.0
466.5 193.3 380.0 716.0 224.3 1699.8 1426.7 2600.0
472.0 198.9 390.0 734.0 242.3 1755.4 1482.2 2700.0
477.6 204.4 400.0 752.0 260.3 1810.9 1537.8 2800.0
488.7 215.6 420.0 788.0 296.3 1866.5 1593.3 2900.0
499.8 226.7 440.0 824.0 332.3 1922.0 1648.9 3000.0
510.9 237.8 460.0 860.0 368.3 1977.6 1704.4 3100.0
522.0 248.9 480.0 896.0 404.3 2033.2 1760.0 3200.0
533.2 260.0 500.0 932.0 440.3 2088.7 1815.6 3300.0
544.3 271.1 520.0 968.0 476.3 2144.3 1871.1 3400.0
555.4 282.2 540.0 1004.0 512.3 2199.8 1926,7 3500.0
566.5 293.3 560.0 1040.0 548.3 2255.4 1982.2 3600.0
577.6 304.4 580.0 1076.0 584.3 2310.9 2037.8 3700.0
588.7 315.6 600.0 1112.0 620.3 2366.5 2093.3 3800.0
328 NORTH AMEfiICAN COMB US TION HANDBOOK
Table C 9. Pyrometric cone equivalents1 or end points, the temperatures a t which

the cones tip even with the top of the plaque for Orton Standard Pyrometric Cones
when heated a t the indicated rates in a n air a t m o ~ p h e r eOther
.~ heating rates and
atmospheres can cause deviations from these values.
The temperatures listed below for number 022 to 20 cones inclusive are for the large
or standard cone. Small cones in these numbers have the same composition as the
larger cones but require a higher temperature to cause deformation. The tempera-
tures listed for number 12 to 42 cones inclusive are for thc small or PCE cone. Large
cones in these numbers have the same composition as the small cones but will deform
a t a lower ternperaturc. Large cones are Z1/2"Iong and small cones are 11/8" long.
I Rate of temperature riseS Rato of temperature risea

End point, 270°Fhr or 150°Clh
temperaturcs temperatures
2460 1349
14 2548 1398
15 2GO6 1430
4 2134 1168 2167 1186 35 3245 1785

5 2151 1177 2185 1196 36 3279 1804
6 2194 1201 2232 1222 37 3308 I820
$4 7 2219 1215 2264 1240
i"l
a
2 El
9
10
2257
2300
2345
1236
1260
1285
2305
2336
2381
1263
1280
1305
38
39
40
3362
3389
3425
18504
1865"
1885'
22 11 2361 1294 2399 1315 41 3578 19704
12 2383 1306 2419 1326 42 3659 20154
Courtesy of Edward Orton, Jr., Ceramic Foundation, 9-64.
2 Determined a t the National Bureau of Standards by H. P. Beerman (see Journal of t h e American
Ceramic Society, vol. 39, 1956),except those marked "4".
During the last several hundred degrees of temperature rise.
Approximate.
Iron-free cones have the same deformation temperatures a s the red equivalents when fired a t 60°Ch
in air.
APPENDIX 329
Table C.10 US. Millivolt-to-Fahrenheitconversions for thermocouples

To convert an observed millivolt reading to a temperature, first find the cold junction
correction from Part a of this table. Add this to the observed millivolt reading. Opposite
this corrected millivolt reading in Part b of this table, read the temperature in F.
Example: an iron-constantan (J)thermocouple, with its cold junction a t 70 F is generat-
ing 40 millivolts. Solution: The correction is 1.076 millivolts. The total corrected mv is
therefore 40 + 1.076 = 41.076. By interpolation in the J column of Part b, the tcmpera-
ture of the hot junction is 1317 + 41'076-40 x (1458 - 1317)= 1311 + 30.3 = 1341.38.
(
45-40 )
Par1 a. Thermocouple metals a n d ISA lettter designations
Cold junction copper chrolncl iron chrome1
constantun constantan constantan alumel W/W26 W5/W26 PtIPt 1 3 2 PtlPt 10% PtWPt30
E K W
0i73
millivolts J W6 R 8 B
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.262 0224 0,176 0.U06 0.059 0.024 0.024 41.001
0.391 0.591 0.507 0.397 0.054 0.055 -0.002
5: 60 0.611 0.924 0.791 0.619 0.026 0.211 0.086 0.087 -0.002
.?.% 70 0.834 1.259 1.076 0.843 0.118 0.119 -0.003
2'80 1.060 1.597 1.363 1.068 0.050 0.365 0.150 0.152 -0.002
YO 1.288 1.937 1.652 1.294 0.184 0.186 -0.002
100 1.518 2.281 1.942 1.520 0.079 0.522 0.218 0.221 -0.001
Thermocouple metals and ISA lettter designations
Part b. copper chrome1 iron cirromel
constantan constantan alumel WM26 W5M26 Pt/Pt 13% P e t 10% PtWPt30
E J K W W6 R S B
32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0
62.3 67.3 77.0 385.6 158.8 293.0 295.5 841.2
120.5 91.8 102.0 121.0 573.4 274.3 496.8 507.8 1176
161.7 120.7 136.1 164.5 707.6 382.6 680.5 702.9 1435
4 2U1.3 148.9 169.8 207.9 834.1 485.9 853.4 889.3 1661
Data checked 6-94 and found in agreement

with ASTM E 230-93.
1222
1335 lSg8
1744 2250 To find the electromotive force equivalent to
1449 1895 a known temperature, it may he more conven-
1564 2050 ient to interpolate from the tables of North
1681 American's Mfg. C o m p n n y ' ~Hnndhook
1799 Supplement 175.
330 NORTH AMERICAN COAifBUSTION HANDBOOK
Table C . l l Metric. Millivolt-to-Celsius conversions f o r thermocouples

To convert an observed millivolt reading to a temperature, first find the cold junction
correction from Part a of this table. Add this to the observed millivolt reading. Opposite
this corrected millivolt reading i n Part b of this table, read the temperature in C.
Example: an iron-constantan (J)thermocouple, with its cold junction a t 30 C is generat-
ing 30 millivolts. Solution: The correction is 1.536 millivolts. The total corrected mv is
therefore 30 + 1.536 = 31.536. By interpolation in the J column of Part b, the tempera-
ture of the hot junction is 546.3 + (3iy:;O) x (581.2 - 546.3) = 546.3 + 26.8 = 573.1 C.
Thermocouple metals anrl ISA lettter designations
2 :30 1.196 1.801 1.536 1.203 0.171 0.1727 -0.002

1.611 2.419 2.058 1.611 0.232 -0.000
$ $ $,
u" 60
2.035
2.467
3.047
3.683
2.585
8.115
2.022
2.436
0.296
0.363
0.2346
0.2986
0.3045
-0.002
-0.006
70 2.908 4.329 3.649 2.850 0.431 0.4323 -0.011
Thermocouple metals and ISA lettter designations
par^ b. I conoer
constnntan
chrome1
constantan
iron
constantan
chrome1
alumel fffl't 13% P W t 10% Pt6iPt30
C T E J K R S B
APPENDIX
Table C.12. Equivalent airffuel ratio specifications

Confusion in combustion communications may result because some people think in
terms of airlfuel ratios, others fuellair ratios; some in weight ratios, others in volume
ratios; some in mixed units (such as normal cubic metres of air per metric tonne of coal
or ft3 air/gal oil). Unitless ratios such as % air (% aeration), % excess air, % defi-
ciency of air, or equivalcncc ratio are preferred.
"Stoichiornetric"ratio (also called correct or ideal ratio or "on-ratio") refers to the
chemically correct proportion of air to fuel to completely burn the fuel with no excess
air (typically 10:l for natural gas). Tables 2.lb and 2 . 1 2 ~(Volume I) list correct air/
fuel ratios for a number of common fuels. "100% air" is the correct (stoichiometric)
amount. 200% air is twice as much as necessary, or 100% excess air.
Equivalence ratio, @, is the actual amount of fuel expressed as a fraction percent of
the stoichiometrically correct amount of fuel. The $ = 0.9 is lean; I$ = 1.1 is rich; $I = 1.0
js "on-ratio."
In Europe, "stoichiometricratio" = 1/I$ = "S.R." 100 1
-
% air = 100/Q = %XS + 100 = 100 - %def '=%xs+ 100- 1-%def
%XS= Sair- 100 = $?x 100 %def= 100 - %air =

9
x 100
% rich = (@ - 1) x 100 (for rich conditions only)
Thc table below lists a number of equivalent terms for convenience to save the above
calculations in converting values from one "language" to another.
Q %air % def % rich %XSair

----
Fuel Rich 2.50 40 60 150 (continued from table at left)
(air lean) 1.67 60 40 66.7 0.62 160 60
1.25 80 20 25 0.56 180 80
1.11 90 10 11.1 0.50 200 100
1.056 95 5 5.56 0.40 250 150
Stoichiometric 1.000 100 0 0
Fuel Lean 0.952 105
(air rich) 0.909 110
0.833 120
0.769 130
0.714 140
Examples: If $ = 0.9, then 9/io of the stoichiometricallycorrect amount of fuel is supplied

or %XS = (1 - 0.9)/0.9 = 0.V0.9 = 11%;or %air = 100/0.9 = 111%. For a natural gas
requiring 10.00 ft3 air/ft3 gas for stoichiometric combustion, this means an aidfuel
ratio of 111%of 10.00 = 11.10ft3air/ft3gas, or a fuellair ratio of 1/11.10= 0.0901ft3gas/
ft3 air. For a heauy oil requiring 1492 fk3 airlgal for stoichiometric combustion, this
means an airlfuel ratio 111%of 1492 or 1656 R3/gal.
,If$ = 1.25, then 125%of the stoichiometricallycorrect amount of fuel supplied, 1001
1.25 = 80% aeration, or % deficiency of air (1.25 - 1.0)/1.25 = 20%. For a producer gas
requiring 1.18 m3 airkg gas for proper combustion, this means 1.1811.25 = 0.944 m3
airkg fuel.
NORTH AMERIG4 N COMBUS TION HANDBOOK
Table C.13 US. Pipe capacities, velocities, pressure losses
Mean pipe velocity Pressure loss

"wc/100f t
Pipe flow, scfh wJ40 fps*
456 608 32.8

534 80 1 1068 25.0
0.0060 864 1300 1730 19.5
11/4 40 0.0104 1500 2 250 3 000 13.7
lllz 40 0.0141 2 040 3 050 4 070 10.6
For metering with 4"wc differential and P of 0.7, use the following for maximum capacity:
cold air ....................................................................40 fps
natural gas ............................... slightly less than 60 fps
coke oven gas .......................... slightly more than 60 fps
* Multiplying factors for pipe velocities other than 40 ftisecond

Velocities in ft/sec. (COLD AIR)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Volume factor 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5
Presume drop factor 1.25 0.56 1.0 1.56 2.25 3.06 4.00 5.06 6.25
APPENDIX 33 3
Table D.1. Dimensions of ANSI malleable threaded pipe fittings, Class 150
and 300 (perANSI B16.3-1977)
Coupling
Elbow
Effective
thread length'
Tee Cap Cross
Width Outside dia. Length of

Center-to-end, of band, of band, Effective Height, caps, strnight
45 deg. elbows min. min. thread length mio. couplings
A C E H L* P W
0.69 17.5 - - 0.20 5.1 0.69 17.6
0.81 20.6 0.73 18.5 0.21 5.5 0.84 21.4
0.95 24.1 0.80 20.3 0.23 5.8 1.01 25.8
1.12 28.5 0.88 22.4 0.25 6.3 1.20 30.4
0 P) 1.31 33.3 0.98 24.9 0.27 6.9 1.46 37.0

1.12 28.5 0.30 7.7 1.77 45.0
1.29 32.8 0.34 8.7 2.15 54.7
1.43 36.3 0.37 9.3 2.43 61.6
2.25 57.2 1.68 42.7 0.42 10.7 2.96 75.3
1.95 49.5 0.48 12.1 3.59 91.2
3 2.17 55.1 0.55 13.9 4.28108.8
4 2.61 66.3 0.66 16.8 5.40 137.2
5.13 130.3 3.46 87.9 0.90 22.9 7.77 197.3
0.94 23.9 0.81 20.6 0.38 9.7 0.93 23.6

0.88 22.4 0.44 11.2 1.12 28.5
1.00 25.4 0.50 12.7 1.34 34.0
1.13 28.7 0.56 14.2 133 41.4
1.63 41.4 1.31 33.3 0.62 15.8 1.95 49.5
1.94 49.3 1.60 38.1 0.69 17.5 2.39 60.7

2.13 54.1 1.69 42.9 0.75 19.1 2.68 68.1
2.50 63.5 2.00 50.8 0.84 21.3 3.28 83.3
2.94 74.7 2.25 57.2 0.94 23.9 3.86 98.0
3.38 85.9 2.50 63.5 1.00 25.4 4.62 117.3
* See Table D.3 for normal thread engagements for tight joints.
Table D.3. Thread engagements and lengths of pipe nipples. For all other
nipples, specify length x pipe size.
Nominal Normal thread engagement Nipple lengths

pipe size for a tight jointt Close nipple Short nipple
t Not the same as dimension L in Tablc D.1.

338 NORTH AMERICAN COIL.IBUSTION HANDBOOK
Figure D.5. Approximate reversible thermal expansion of refractories

(Courtesy of G . Thrton of K.71G. Glassworks Techrzolng,y,I'ittsburgh, PA from his article in the
Sept. 1980 issue of GLASS INDUSTRY)
Temperature, C
Temperature, F
Temperature, C
Temperature, F
* HarbideBis a registcred trademark of Harbison-Walker Refractories division of Dresser Indus-

tries.
Figure D.7. Schematic piping symbols for combustion systems
m
I
NC NO M
Manual
Valves
Shutoff
3.Wav I
Closed
Norm. Norm.
Open Hydraulic
Actuated -ls$-s& manual
with
reset
Valve 4 ~ W a yValve Solenoid Valves Pneumatic Valves
I
Manual Aux. Diaphragm Gas Pressure Regulator
Pneumatic Electric Reset Switch Operoted or
AiriOil Ratiotrol
Supervisory Cocks Manual Reset Shutoff Valves GaslAir Ratio
Regulator
(-1 Manual Butterfly Motorized Pneumatic Motorized Pneurr~atic Hydraulic

Oil Press. Reg. Valves Butterfly Valves Adjustable Port Valves
or
Pilot Regulator
uHigh Press. Low Press. High Low

I
Pressure Tsmperature Expansion
Switch Switch Press. Press. Gauge Gauge Chamber Needls V-Port Limiting
Manual Manual Switch Switch Valve Orifice Valve
Reset Reset
~ C I I - Q - I I + Inspirator Check
Valve Orifice Flanged Screwed
2-D-
4S0 Reducer
++-A
90° Tee
Aspirator Mixer Union Union Elbow Elbow
(continued)
APPENDIX 341
Figure D.7. Schematic piping symbols for combustion systems (conclude&
End View Dual-Fuel sido View Dual-Fuel Burnet 011 Burner

Burner w i t h Pilot w i t h Pilot
Nozzle-Mix Premix
Gas Burner Gas Burner
I,J-&
Manometer
Mixing
Tee Sirliplex Duplex
Filters or Strainers
Size
Pipe Center.
line Heater Pump or
Compressor
Blow-off
Valve
Rel~ef
Valve
Closed Open Closed Open

c-Sec. Upstr.
d-Sec. D o w n
Test e-Pri. Down
Cock -
Flow
. ..
Switches
Flow
Direction Supply
, .
Return Supply
, .Return
Hydraulic Furnace Hydraulic Fuel/Air
Pressure Control Ratio Control
Metering Orifice
w i t h Manometer,
Shutoff, and
By-Pass Valves
fly:;:': (7 Blowers w i t h Flexible
Discharge Sleeves
342 NORTH AMERICAN COMB US TION HAIWBOOK
Table D.8 US. Pipe color codes and labels

There is general agreement between ANSI Standard A13.1 and the MCAA (Mechani-
cal Contractors Association of America) Engineering Standard Part V on the following
general pipe color code:
Color Color
Classification of field of letters
Fire quenching materials
water, foam, CO, RED WHITE
Inherently hazardous materials

flammable or explosive YELLOW BLACK
chemically active or toxic YELLOW BLACK
extreme ternperaturc or pressure YELLOW BLACK
radioactive YELLOW BLACK
Inherently low hazard materials

liquid or liquid admixture GREEN WHITE
gas or gaseous admixture BLUE WHITE
The above codes are so general that it is difficult to distinquish the many fluids
involved in combustion systems; so North American Mfg. Co. has established the
following specific pipe color code for its own laboratories:
Fire protection materials and equipment RED

High pressure fuel gas . . . . ORANGE
Low pressure fuel gas . . . . YELLOW
Fuel oils . . . . TAN or BROWN
Low pressure a i r . . . . LIGHT BLUE
Compressed air . . . . PINK
Steam. . . . WHITE
Water. . . . GREEN
Oxygen gas . . . . Bare stainless steel with frequent
GREEN LABELS WITH WHITE LETTERING
Even with pipe color coding, FREQUENT USE OF STICK-ON LABELS, with large
easy-to-read type, is recommended to minimize the chance that someone will open or
close the wrong valve. Multiple applications of stick-on FLOW DIRECTION ARROWS
are also advised.
The multitude of fluids piped around process plants may necessitate use of different
shades of the above colors or spiral striping, for example, to distinguish cooling water
from boiler feedwater, producer gas from natural gas, recirculated flue gas from air,
hot air from cold air, main loop oil from individual furnace loop oil.
In all cases, pipe color coding should be accompanied by many stick-on labels identi-
fying the fluid so that all personnel can easily learn the code.
APPENDIX 347
Table E.3 US. Areas, circumferences, and flow c:apacities of circles and drill
sizes.
Drill size Flow, c f h ~ i t h
or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, Ap = lt'wc, K = 1.0
diameter inches inches in.z natl gas
ft2
-
air -
80 0.042 41 0.000 143 0.000 000 9 0.238 0.306
79 0.045 65 0.000 165 0.000 001 1 0.274 0.354
l/~'! 0.049 09 0.OOD 191 0.000 001 3 0.317 0.409
78 0.050 27 0.000 201 0.000 001 4 0.334 0.430
77 0.056 55 0.000 254 0.000 001 8 0.422 0.545
76 0.062 83 0.000 314 0.000 002 2 0.522 0.673
75 0.065 97 0.000 846 0.000 002 4 0.575 0.742
74 0.070 69 0.000 398 0.000 002 8 0.660 0.851
73 0.076 40 0.000 452 0.000 003 1 0.751 0.969
72 0.098 54 0.000 491 0.000 003 4 0.816 1.061
71 0.081 68 0.000 531 0.000 003 7 0.881 1.137
70 0.087 96 0.000 616 0.000 004 3 1.022 1.318
69 0.091 73 0.000 670 0.000 004 7 1.112 1.434
68 0.097 39 0.000 755 0.000 005 2 1.253 1.616
l/r2" 0.098 18 0.000 765 0.000 005 3 1.277 1.647
67 0 100 53 0.000 804 0.000 005 6 1.335 1.722
66 0.103 67 0.000 855 0. DO0 005 9 1.420 1.831
65 0.109 96 0.000 962 0.000 006 7 1597 2.060
64 0.113 10 0.001 018 0.000 007 1 1.690 2.179
63 0.116 24 0.001 075 0.000 007 5 1.785 2.302
62 0.119 38 0.001 134 0.000 007 9 1.883 2.428
61 0.122 52 0.001 195 0.000 008 3 1.983 2.558
60 0.125 66 0.001 257 0.000 008 7 2.086 2.691
59 0.128 81 0.001 320 0.000 009 2 2.192 2.827
58 0.131 95 0.001 385 0.000 009 6 2.300 2.9136
57 0.135 09 0.001 452 0.000 010 1 2.411 3 109
56 0.146 08 0.001 698 0.000 011 8 2.819 3.636
3/64" 0.147 26 0.001 73 0.000 012 0 2.868 3.699
55 0.163 36 0.002 12 0.000 014 7 3.525 4.547
54 0.172 79 0.002 38 0.000 016 5 3.944 5.087
53 0.186 93 0.002 78 0.000 019 3 4.616 5.953
'/16" 0.196 35 0.003 07 0.000 021 3 5.093 6.569
52 0.199 49 0.003 17 0.000 022 0 5.257 6.780
51 0.210 49 0.003 53 0.000 024 5 5.853 7.548
50 0.219 91 0.003 85 0.000 026 7 6.388 8.240
49 0.229 34 0.004 19 0.000 029 1 6.948 8.961
48 0.238 76 0.004 54 0.000 031 5 7.531 9.713
%4" 0.245 44 0.004 79 0.000 033 3 7.952 10.257
47 0.246 62 0.004 84 0.000 033 6 8.034 10.362
46 0.254 47 0.005 15 0.000 035 8 8.554 11.033
45 0.257 61 0.005 28 0.000 036 7 8.767 11.307
44 0.270 18 0.005 8 1 0,000 040 3 9.643 12.437
43 0.279 60 0.006 22 0.000 043 2 10.398 13.320
42 0.293 74 0.006 87 0.000 047 7 11398 14.700
(continued)
348 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUS TlON HANDBOOK
Table E.3 US. (continued)
Drill size Flow, c-ith

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, A p = ll'wc,K = 1.0
diameter inches inches in.2 ft2 air
- natl gas
-
0.0937 11.447 14.763
0.0960 12.016 15.497
0.0980 12.521 16.150
0.0995 12.908 16.648
0.1015 13.432 17.324
0.1040 14.102 18.188
0.1065 14.788 19.072
0.1094 15.604 20.125
0.1300 15.776 20.347
0.1110 16.064 20.718
0.ll:Io 16.648 21.472
0.1160 17.543 22.627
0.1200 18.774 24,214
0.1250 20.371 26.274
0.1285 21.528 27.766
0.1360 24.114 31.102
0.1405 25.737 33.194
0.1406 25.773 33.241
0.1440 27.035 34.868
0.1470 28.173 36.336
0.1495 29.139 37.583
0.1520 30.122 38.850
0.1540 30.920 39.879
0.1 562 31.810 41.027
0.1 570 32.136 41.448
0.1590 32.960 42.511
0.1610 33.794 43.587
0.1660 35.926 46.336
0.1695 37.457 48.311
0.1719 38.526 49.689
0.1730 39.020 50.327
0.1770 40.846 52.681
0.1800 42.242 54.482
0.1820 43.186 55.699
0.1850 44.621 57.551
0.1875 45.835 59.117
0.1890 46.572 60.066
0.1910 47.563 61.344
0.1930 48.564 62.636
0.1960 50.085 64.598
0.1990 51.630 66.591
0.2010 52.673 67.939
0.2031 53.780 69.363
0.2040 54.267 69.979
(continued)
APPENDIX
Drill size Flow, cfh*th

diameter inches inches in.= ftP air natl gas
5 0.2055 0.645 60 0.033 17 0.000 230 3 55.058 71.012
4 0.2090 0.656 59 0.034 31 0.000 238 2 56.950 73.451
3 0.2130 0.669 16 0.035 63 0.000 247 5 59.150 76.290
7/32" 0.2187 0.687 22 0.037 58 0.000 261 0 62.358 80.427
2 0.2210 0.694 29 0.038 36 0.000 266 4 63.128 82.128
1 0.2280 0.716 28 0.040 83 0.000 283 5 67.775 87.413
A 0.2340 0.735 13 0.043 0 1 0.000 298 7 71.389 92.074
15/64" 0.2344 0.736 31 0.043 14 0.000 299 6 71.633 92.389
B 0.2380 0.747 70 0.044 49 0.000 308 9 73.850 95.249
C 0.2420 0.760 27 0.046 00 0.000 319 4 76.353 98.478
n 0.2460 0.772 83 0.047 53 0.000 370 1 78.898 101.76
E = 114" 0.2500 0.785 40 0.049 09 0.000 340 9 81.485 105.10
F 0.2570 0.807 39 0.051 87 0.000 360 2 86.112 111.06
G 0.2610 0.819 96 0.053 50 0.000 371 5 88.813 114.55
17/M11 0.2656 0.834 41 0.055 42 0.000 384 9 91.972 118.62
H 0.2660 0.835 67 0.055 57 0.000 385 9 92.249 118.98
I 0.2720 0.854 52 0.058 11 0.000 403 5 96.457 124.40
J 0.2770 0.870 22 0.060 26 0.000 418 5 100.04 129.02
K 0.2810 0.882 79 0.062 02 0.000 430 7 102.95 132.78
9/32" 0.2812 0.883 57 0.062 13 0.000 431 5 103.09 132.97
L 0.2900 0.911 06 0.066 05 0.000 458 7 109.65 141.42
M 0.2950 0.926 77 0.068 35 0.000 474 7 113.46 146.37
19/64" 0.2969 0.932 66 0.069 22 0.000 180 7 114.93 148.23
N 0.3030 0.951 90 0.071 63 0.000 500 7 118.91 153.36
5/i6" 0.3125 0.981 75 0.076 70 0.000 532 6 127.32 164.21
0 0.3160 0.992 75 0.078 43 0.000 544 6 130.19 167.91
P 0.3230 1.014 74 0.081 94 0.000 569 0 136.02 175.43
21/64" 0.3281 1.030 8 0.084 56 0.000 587 2 140.35 181.02
Q 0.3320 1.043 0 0.086 57 0.000 601 2 143.71 185.35
R 0.3390 1.065 0 0.090 26 0.000 626 8 149.83 193.24
'%2" 0.3437 1.079 8 0.092 81 0.000 644 5 154.01 198.64
S 0.3480 1.093 3 0.095 11 0.000 660 5 157.89 203.64
T 0.3580 1.124 7 0.100 6 0.000 699 0 167.10 215.51
23/64" 0.3594 1.129 0 0.101 4 0.000 704 4 168.41 217.20
u 0.3680 1.156 1 0.106 4 0.000 738 6 176.56 227.72
3/sH 0.3750 1.178 1 0.110 5 0.000 767 0 183.34 236.47
v 0.3770 1.184 4 0.111 6 0.000 775 2 185.30 239.00
W 0.3860 1.212 7 0.117 0 0.000 812 7 194.26 250.54
Zc/64" 0.3906 1.227 2 0.129 8 0.000 832 2 198.91 256.55
X 0.3970 1.247 2 0.123 8 0.000 859 6 205.48 265.03
0.128 2 0.000 890 2 212.80 274.45
0.129 6 0.000 900 1 215.12 277.45
0.134 0 0.000 930 3 222.38 286.82
0.139 8 0.000 970 8 232.07 299.31
(continued)
Table E.3 US. (continr,red)
Drill size Flow, cfhxith

diameter inches inches
- ft2 air natl gas
'7/1611 0.4375 0.1503 0.001 044 249.55 321.86
29/H" 0.1613
0.4531 0.001 120 267.66 345.22
15/32'1 0.4687 0.1726 0.001 198 286.41 369.40
31/a11 0.d8d.J. 0.1843 0.001 280 305.92 394.54
l/2" 0.5000 0.1964 0.001 364 325.94 420.39
YY/64" 0.5156 0.2088 0,001 450 346.60 447.04
17/32" 0.5313 0.2217 0.001 539 368.03 474.68
35/M" 0.5469 0.2349 0.001 631 389.95 502.95
9/1~" 0.5625 0.2485 0.001 726 412.52 532.05
"7/64" 0.5781 0.2625 0.001 823 435.72 661.97
1Q/32v 0.5938 0.2769 0.001. 923 459.70 592.91
0.6094 0.2917 0.002 025 484.18 624.47
51~'~ 0.6250 0.3068 0.002 131 509.28 656.85
"/@" 0.6406 0.3223 0.002 238 535.02 690.05
2%2" 0.6562 0.3382 0.002 350 561.40 724.07
"/64" 0.6719 0.3545 0.002 462 588.58 759.13
11/16'' 0.6875 0.3712 0.002 578 616.23 794.79
23/32" 0.7188 0.4057 0.002 818 673.62 868.81
%" 0.7500 0.4418 0.003 068 733.37 945.87
25/32w 0.7812 0.4794 0.003 329 795.65 1026.2
13/16w 0.8125 0.5185 0.003 601 860.69 1110.1
27/s2" 0.8438 0.5591 0.003 883 928.28 1197.3
7/s" 0.8750 0.6013 0.004 176 998.19 1287.4
23132w 0.9062 0.6450 0.004 479 1070.6 1380.9
15/i6" 0.9375 0.004 794 1145.9 1478.0
31/32'1 0.9688 0.005 119 1223.7 1578.3
1" 1.0000 0.005 454 1303.8 1681.6
11/16" 1.0625 0.006 157 1471.8 1898.3
11/8" 1.1250 0.006 903 1650.1 2128.2
131~~" 1.1875 0.007 691 1838.5 2371.2
11/4" 1.2500 0.008 522 2037.1 2627.4
16/16" 1.3125 0.009 396 2245.9 2896.7
131~" 1.3750 0.010 31 2464.9 3179.2
17/16u 1.4375 0.011 27 2694.1 3474.7
11/2" 1.5000 0.012 27 2933.5 3783.5
19/16u 1.5625 0.013 32 3183.0 4105.3
15/8" 1.6250 0.014 40 3442.7 4440.3
11'/16" 1.6875 0.015 53 3712.7 4788.4
1314" 1.7500 0.016 70 3992.8 5149.7
l1"1s" 1.8125 0.017 92 4342.3 5600.6
171~" 1.8750 0.019 18 4583.5 5911.7
1'5/1sU 1.9375 0.020 47 4894.2 6312.3
2" 2.0000 0.021 82 5215.0 6726.1
21/is" 2.0625 0.023 20 5546.1 7153.1
fcontinued)
APPENDIX
Drill size Flow, cfhxith

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, A p = l"wc, K = 1.0
diameter inches inches in.z ft2 air natl gas
2 " 2.1250 3.5466 5887.3 7593.2
27/1~" 2.1875 3.7583 6238 7 8046.6
2%" 2.2500 3.9761 6600.3 8512 9
2%6" 2.3125 4.2000 6972 1 8992 5
a?/s" 2.3750 4.4301 73540 9484.9
27/ls'm 2.4375 4.6664 7746.2 9990 7
2'h" 2.5000 4.9087 8148.5 10 510
2g1161' 2.5625 5.1572 8561 0 11042
2</"" 2.6250 5.4119 8983.7 11587
2111~~~~ 2.6875 5.6727 9416 6 1 2 145
Z3/a" 2.7500 5.9396 9859.7 12 717
213/16" 2.8125 6.2126 10 313 13 301
2"/n" 2.8750 6.4918 10 776 13 899
21Y16" 2.9375 6.7771 11250 14510
3" 3.0000 7.0686 11734 15 134
31/16" 3.0625 7.3662 12 228 15 771
3l/~" 3.1250 7.6699 12 732 16 421
3'/16" 3.1875 7.9798 13 246 17 085
3l/4 " 3.2500 8.2958 13771 17761
3Y16" 3.3125 8.6179 14 306 18 451
3318" 3.3750 8.9462 14 851 19 154
37/1~" 3.4375 9.2806 15 406 19 870
3'12" 3.5000 9.6211 15 971 20 599
3'116" 3.5625 9.9678 16 547 21 341
3 " 3.6250 10.321 17132 22096
311/i6" 3.6875 10.680 17 728 22 865
3%" 3.7500 11.045 18 334 23 647
313/i6" 3.8125 11.416 18950 24441
371s" 3.8750 11.793 19 577 25 249
315/16't 3.9375 12.177 20213 26070
4" 4.0000 12.566 20 860 26 905
4lIl6" 4.0625 12.962 21 517 27 752
4'/8" 4.1250 13.364 22 184 28 612
4311s" 4.1875 13.772 22 862 29486
4%" 4.2500 14.186 23 549 30 373
45/16" 4.3125 14.607 24 247 3 1 273
4Vs" 4.3750 15.033 24955 32 186
47/ie" 4.4376 15.466 25 673 33 112
4%" 4.5000 15.904 26401 34051
4'116" 4.5625 16.349 27 140 35 004
45/a" 4.6250 16.800 27888 35969
411h" 4.6875 17.257 28 647 36 948
4 3/4" 4.7500 17.721 29 416 37 940
413/~~" 4.8125 18.190 30 195 38 945
(c.onkrn7~~d)
Drill size Plow, cfh-ith

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, A p = l"wc, K = 1.0
diameter inchos inchos in." ft2 air natl gas
30 985 39 963
31 784 40 994
32 594 42 038
33 414 43 096
34 244 44 167
35 084 45 250
35 936 46 347
36 796 47 457
37 666 48 581
38 548 49 717
39 439 50 867
40 340 52 029
41 252 53 205
42 174 54 394
43 106 55 596
44 048 56 811
45 000 58 039
45 963 59 281
46 935 60 535
48 911 63 084
50 928 65 685
52 986 68 339
55 084 71 045
57 223 73 804
59 403 76 615
61 623 79 479
63 884 82 395
66 186 85 364
68 529 88 386
70 912 91 460
73 337 94 586
75 801 97 766
78307 101000
80 854 104 280
83 441 107 620
86 069 111010
88 737 114450
91 447 117 940
94197 121490
96988 125090
99819 128740
102 690 132 450
105 610 136 210
108 560 140 010
(continued)
APPENDIX
Drill size Flow, cfhyith

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, A p = ll'wc,R = 1.0
diameter inches inches ft2 air natl gas
9.2500 0.4667
9.3750 0.4794
9.5000 0.4922
9.6250 0.5053
9.7500 0.5185
9.8750 0.5319
10.000 0.5454
10.125 0.5591
10.250 0.5730
10.375 0.5871
10.500 0.6013
10.625 0.6157
10.750 0.6303
10.876 0.6450
11.000 0.6600
11.125 0.6750
11.250 0.6903
11.375 0.7056
11.500 0.7213
11.625 0.7371
11.750 0.7530
11.875 0.7691
12.000 0.7854
12.250 0.819
12.500 0.851
12.750 0.886
13.000 0.921
13.250 0.957
13.500 0.995
13.750 1.031
14.000 1.069
14.250 1.109
14.500 1.149
14.750 1.185
15.000 1.228
15.250 1.269
16.500 1.309
15.750 1.352
16.000 1.398
16.250 1.440
16.500 1.485
16.750 1.531
17.000 1.578
17.250 1.619
354 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HANUBOOK
Drill size F l o y cfh_with

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, Area, Ap = I1'wc,B = 1.0
diameter inches inches in.= f t2 air natl gas
171'2'' 17.500 399 280 514 970
17V4" 17.750 410 770 529 790
18" 18.000 422 420 544 820
181/it 18.250 434 230 560 060
18'12" 18.500 446 210 575 510
183/4" 18.750 458 350 591 170
19" 19.000 470 660 607 040
1g1/4" 19.250 483 130 623 120
tg1/2" 19.500 495 760 639 410
1g3/4" 19.750 508 550 655 910
20" 20.000 521 500 672 620
201/4" 20.250 534 620 689 540
201/2" 20.500 547 910 706 670
203/4" 20.750 561 350 721 010
21" 21.000 574 960 741 560
211/4" 23.250 588 730 759 320
211/2" 21.500 602 660 777 290
21.750 616 760 795 470
22.000 631 020 813 860
22.250 645 440 832 470
22.500 660 030 851 280
22.750 674 780 870 300
23.000 689 690 889 530
23.250 704 760 908 990
23.500 720 000 928 650
23.750 735 400 948 490
24.000 750 970 968 570
24.250 766 690 988 850
24.500 782 580 1009300
24.750 798 640 1030 000
25.000 814 850 1051 000
25.250 831 230 1 0 7 2 100
25.500 847 770 1 093 400
25.750 864 480 1 115 000
26.000 881340 1136700
26.250 898370 1158700
26.500 915 570 1180900
26.750 932920 1203200
27.000 950440 1225800
27.250 968 120 1248600
27.500 985 970 1271700
27.750 1004 000 1 294 900
28.000 1022100 1318300
28.250 1040500 1342000
{continued)
APPENDIX
Table E.3 US. (conclrtded)
Drill size Flow, cf'hxith

or Diameter, Circumference, Area, A p = l7'wc,K = 1.0
diamcter inches inches ft2 air natl gas
28'12" 89.536 4.430 1059000 1365900
2S3/4" 90.321 4.508 1077 600 1389 900
29" 91.106 4.587 1 096 500 1414 200
29%" 91.892 4.666 1 115 400 1438 700
29'/z1' 92.677 4.746 1134 600 1463 400
2g3/4" 93.463 4.827 1153900 1488300
30" 94.248 4.909 1 173400 1513400
31" 97.390 5.241 1252900 1616000
32" 100.53 5.585 1335 100 1721 900
33" 103.67 5.940 1419800 1831200
34" 106.81 6.305 1 507 100 19.13 900
35" 109.96 6.681 1 597 100 2 059 900
36" 113.10 7.069 1689 700 2 179 300
37" 116.24 7.467 1784 800 2 302 000
38" 7.876 1882 600 2 428 100
39" 8.296 1983 000 2 557 600
40" 8.727 2 086 000 2 690 500
41" 9.168 2 191 600 2 826 700
42" 9.621 2 229 800 2 966 200
43" 10.08 2410700 3109200
44" 10.56 2 524 100 3 255 500
45" 11.04 2 640 100 3 405 200
46" 11.54 2 758 800 3 558 100
47" 12.04 2 880 000 3 714 500
48" 12.57 3 003 900 3 874 300
49" 13.10 3 130 300 4 037 400
50" 13.64 3 259 400 4 203 800
Table E.4 US. Approximate hardness number equivalents for steel
Brine11 (3000 kg) RockwcU superficial Shorn Vickers Approximate

Dinm Num- Rockwell hardness number h-chess number sderoscope DPH tensilo
mm her' A B C D 15-N 30-N 46-N number numbcr strength, psi
* Numbera above 429 are for a tungsten carbide ball. Nwlbers 81-429 are for a standard, Hultgren, or tungsten carbide ball.
(continued)
APPENDIX
Table E.4 US. (conclude8
Brine11 (3000kg) Rockwell superficial Shore Wckers Approximate

Dim Num- Rockwell hardness number hardness number scleroscope DfH tensile
mm bcr* A B C D 15-N 50-N 45-N number numbor strength, psi
45
43
-
41
40
* Numbers above 429 are for a tungsten carbide ball. Numbers 81-429 are for a standard, Hultgren, or tungsten carbide ball.
Table E.5. Maximum temperature for scaling resistance of some carbon and
stainless steels and heat resistant alloys
Temperatures are approximate limits for reasonably long service without destruction
by scaling in an oxidizing environment. These limits do not apply to reducing atmos-
pheres or atmospheres contaminated by sulfur compounds or other impurities. that
may accelerate scaling.
Design of parts for elevated temperature service should consider all engineering
properties of a n alloy; scaling resistance alone is not a guarantee of satisfactory
perforrnancc.
Maximum temperature
for scaling resistance
Continuous cxposure Intermediate exposure
0.20% C Steel 800 (427) 1000 (538)

302, 304, 316, 321,
and 347 Stainless
309 Stainless
% 310 Stainlcss
3 410 Stainless
416 Stainless
430, 431 Stainless

446 Stainless
Inconel* 600
" Inconel is a registered trademark of International Nickel Co., Inc.

Figure E.7. Ringleman charts for estimating smoke densities. The charts below
are proportional reductions of standard charts issued by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. These charts
are used in the following manner: Make observations from a point between 100 and 1300 ft from
the smoke. The observer's line of sight should he perpendicular to the direction of smoke travel.
Place the below charts approximately 15 ft in front of the observer and as close as possible to his
line of sight. (Standard ASME or U.S. Bureau of Mines charts should be placed 50 f t from the
observer.) Open sky makes the best backgourld for observations. Compare the smolre density
with the charts (which, a t 15 ft, are shades of gray instead of individual lines) and classify the
smoke according to the Ringleman chart number. Ringleman Nos. 0 and 5 are 0% and 100%
black, respectively. Charts for these are solid white and black (not shown).
1. Equivalent t o 20 percent black. 2. Equivalent to 40 pcrcent black.
3. Equivalent to 60 pcrcent black. 4. Equivalent to 80 pcrcent black.

APPENDIX
Table E.8. Percent volume full of horizontal cylindrical tanks
% of level
For this S-curve relationship, the 0 to 50

portion is a mirror image of the 50 to 100
portion.
The table data apply to any size tank, in

any consistent set of units of volume; and is
accurate for flat-ended horizontal cylindri-
cal storage tanks, and "sufficiently accurate"
for hemispherical-ended tanks. The data
may be only approximate for dished-ended
tanks.
50 50 Source: "APractical Economical Approach

for Obtaining Percentage Volume Readings
45 43.6 on Horizontal Tanks" by Hazem Huss and
40 37.4 David Festa, Burns and Roe, Inc., Oradell,
35 31.2 NJ; published in the May 24,1984 issue of
30 25.2 PLANT ENGINEEKING.
25 19.6
362 NOR TFI AMERICAN COMB USTION HANDBOOK
Table E.9. C a r b o n monoxide (CO gas) w a r n i n g s
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON MONOXIDE (CO GAS):

A gas. Not visible. Odorless. Tastclcss.
Approximately the same density as air.
HAZARDS -KNOW THE DANGERS OF CARBON MONOXIDE (CO GAS):

Toxic. Can be fatal if inhaled.
Can explodc or burn.
SYMPTOMS OF CARBON MONOXIDE: POISONING:

Headache. Throbbing scnsation. Sleepiness.
Nausea. Vomiting. Shortness of breath.
CORRECTIVE ACTIONS FOR VARIOUS CO GAS CONCENTRATION LEWLS:
CO concen- Life-threatening and

tration, health-threatening
PP~V* conditions What action t o take
50 OSHA permissible Do not enter confined space.

8-hour exposure Determine source; take
limit corrective action.
75 OSHA permissible Danger. Ventilate. Avoid confined

8-hour limit is 50 ppm spaces. Eliminate CO sources.
200 Immediately dangerous Evacuate the area, or wear self-

to life and health contained breathing apparatus.
1500 IMMINENT DANGER IMMEDIATELY EVACUATE the

to life and health area unless wearing self-contained
breathing apparatus.
* parts per million, by volume
Adapted from Tony Fennell's script of a mill bulletin board warning.

GLOSSARY
(including abbreviations, acronyms, Greek letters, symbols)
Definitions listed herewith are for the purpose of conveying a better under-
standing of the meanings of the terms used in this handbook. They are not
necessarily legal definitions. Some of these definitions are abstracted from the
following references:
"ABBR Abbreviations for Scientific and Engineering Terms", Canadian

Standards Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1983.
ANSI 22101-1973: "Metric Practice Guide", American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1973.
Begell, W.: "Glossary of Terms in Heat Transfer, Fluid Flow, and Related
Topics [English, Russian, German, French, Japanese)".
Cook, E. M. and DuMont, E.1. D.: "Process Drying Practice", McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York, NY, 1991.
Cowell, G . W.: "Dictionary of Metalworking Terms", Advance Book
Publishing Co., Cincinnati, OH, 1971.
Cubberly, W. H. (ed.): "Comprehensive Dictionary of Instrumenta-
tion and Control, Reference Guides", Instrument Society of America,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, 1988.
Dreyfuss, H.: "Symbol Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
NY, 1974.
Engineers Joint Council: "Thesaurus of Engineering Terms", EJC, 345
E. 47 St., New York, NY; 1964. Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New
York, NY, 1983.
Factory Insurance Association: "Recommended Good Practice for
Combustion Safeguards on Single Burner Boiler-Furnaces", Industrial
Risk Insurers, Chicago, IL, 1963.
Freedman, A.: "The Computer Glossary", 4th ed., American Manage-
ment Association, Point Pleasant, PA 18950-0265, 1989.
Gilpin, A.: "Dictionary of Fuel Technology", Philosophical Library, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1969.
364 NORTHAMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
G.1 Harbison-Walker: "Modern Refractory Practice", Harbison-Walker

Refractories Co., Pittsburgh, PA, 1961.
G.m IEEE: "Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms",
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, N J
08855-1331,1993.
G.n Jay, F.: "IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms",
1993.
G.o Lapedes, D. H. (ed.): "Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms",
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY 1956.
G.p Parker, S. P. (ed.):"Dictionary of Electronics and Computer Tech-
nology", McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY,1984.
G.q Parker, S. P. (ed.):"Dictionary of Mechanical and Design Engineer-
ing", McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1984.
G.r Parker, S. P. (ed.):"McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Tech-
nical Tcrms", 5th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1994.
G.s Parker, S. P. (ed.): "McGraw-I-IillConcise Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology", McGraw-Hill, Book Co., New York, NY, 1984.
G.t Rose, A. & E.: "The Condensed Chemical Dictionary", 6th ed.,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, NY, 1956.
G.u Sax, N. I. and Lewis, R. J.: "Hazardous Chemicals Desk Reference",
Van Norstrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, NY, 1987.
G.v Terrell, C. E. (ed.):"AGAGas Measurement Manual", American Gas
Association, Arlington, VA, 1963.
G.w U. S. Refractories Div.: "Glossary of Terms", General Refractories
Company, Pittsburgh, PA 15219.
G.x U. S. Environmental Protection Agency: "Glossary of Environ-
mental Terms and Acronym List", Office of Public Affairs (A-107),
G.y Van Schoick, E. C. (ed.): "Ceramic Glossary", American Ceramic
Society, Columbus, OH, 1963.
G.z Zimmerman,0.T. and Lavine, I.: "Conversion Factors and Tables",
3rd ed., Industrial Research Service, Inc., Dover, NH,1961.
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY for Volumes I and I1

(including abbreviations, acronyms, Greek letters, and symbols)
Explanations listed below are for the purpose of conveying bcttcr understanding of the meanings of
the terms used in this handbook. They are not necessarily legal definitions. Some of these defini-
tions were abstracted from other references, listed at the end of this glossary, or from:
North American's Handbook Supplement Nos.

113 (oil),
196 (process control),
236 (combustion, guiding),
248 (NUx),
253 (pollution control); and
"Incineration of Hazardous, Toxic, and Mixed Wastes", by Gill and Quiel, pulrlislletl by North
A~nericanMfg. Co.
A = ampere, unit of electric carrent.
A = Angstrom unit, a measure of length, particularly electromagnetic wavelengths, = one ten-

millionth of a millimetre.
absolute humidity = weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air.
absolute pressure (abs press) = gauge pressure plus barometric pressure. Absolute pressurc can be
zero only in a perfect vacuum.
absolute temperature (K & R) = the temperature relative to absolute zero. Molecular motion stops
at absolute zero, which is -273.16 Celsius or -459.69 Fahrenheit. Absolute temperature scales are
Kelvin and Rankine. See Tables C.6 and C.7 for conversions.
absolute viscosity (abs visc) = by definition, the product of a fluid's kinematic viscosity times its
density. Absolute viscosity is a measure of a fluid's tendency to resist flow, without regard to its
density. Sometimes termed dynamic viscosity. Usually designated p (mu) in poise, lb masslsec A,
.
or Pascal seconds. [By contrast, see kinematic viscosity.)
absorption - See sound absorption.
absorptivity = ability of a surface to absorb radiant energy, expressed as a decimal compared to the
ability of a black body, absorptivity of which is 1.0.
a-c = alternating current.
ACerS = American Ceramic Society; Columbus, OH.
acf = actual cubic feet (at existing temperature and pressure).
ACGIB = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; Cincinnati, OH.

acid rain = a condition resulting from complex atmospheric and chemical phenomena, often far
from the original sources, i n which emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds and other
substances are deposited on the earth as rain, snow, or fog.
acoustic absorptivity = the ratio of sounri absorbed by a surface relativc to the incident sound.
acoustic power = see snund power.
acoustics = the study of sound -prodiir:tion, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sourlcl
and of hearing phenomena.
acoustic velocity = the speed of sound in a given medium,
ACS = American Ceramic Society; WasllCngton, DC.
adi = austempered ductile iron.
adiabatic flame temperature = a theoretical flame temperature calculated fnr a condition with no
heat loss. See flame tenlperature.
adjustable port valve = a special kind of rotary plug c:ontrol valve, most commonly used for auto-
matically contmlli~~g input to a funlace. One dilllension of the rectangular port opening in the
rotary plug is nlanually adjustable, permitting on-site optimizing r~fthe valve's resistance relative
to that of the entire pipeline i n which it is installed.
adsorption = the adhering of molecules, atr~ms,or ions (solid, l i q ~ ~ ior

d ,gaseous] to snrface [unlike
absorption which i s perletration within the bulk of a liquid or solid).
aeration = addition and mixing of air, % aeration compares actual aeration with the stoichiometri-
cally correct amount, e.g. 60% primary aeration on a premix nuzzle means that 60% of thc
stoichiometric air rcquirernent is supplied though the mixer and nozzle and 40% from secondary
air surrounding the nclzzle.
aibc = atmospheric fluidized bed co~nbustion.
alfratio = airlfuel ratio. For gaseous fuels, usually the ratio of volumes in the same units. For liquid
and solid fuels, it may be expressed as a ratio of weights in the same units, but it is often given in
mixed units such as fi' airlpound or fP airlgallon, alf ratio is the reciprocal nf fla ratio. See Table
C.10.
AFS = American Foundry Society; Des Plains, IL.
AGA = American Gas Association; Arlington, VA.
agglomerating characteristics = the tendency of a coal to bind together into a larger mass when
heated.
AIChE = American Institute of Chemical Engineers; New York, NY.
A I M = American Industrial Hygiene Association; Fairfax, VA.
air-directed burner = a burner in which the flow or pressure energy of the air supply stream is used
to control the aerodynamics of air-fuel mixing and flame formation, thus needing higher air
pressure, but less fuel pressure than a Fucl Directed@burner.
air-flow proving switch = a device installed in an air stream which senses air flow or loss thereof
and electrically transmits the resulting impulses l o the flame supervising circuit.
GLOSSARY 367
aidfuel ratio = the proportion of air to fuel = the reciprocal of fuellair ratio, both expressed in
volumcs for gaseous fuels, but more often in weights for liquid and solid fuels.
air-jet mixer (aspirator) = a mixer using the kinetic energy of a stream of air issuing from an orifice
to entrain the gas required for combustion. In some cases this type of mixer may be designed to
entrain some of the air for combustion as well as the gas.
primary = a system of fuellair ratio control in which the demand for heat adjusts the air flow to
the combustion system, and the automatic ratio control then makes a colresponding adjustment in
the fuel flow.
air-ramming = n method of forining refractory shapes, furnace hearths, or other furnace p a t s by

means of pneumatic hammers, using a plastic ramming mix.
air register = a type of burner mounting that can admit secondary air to the combustion space
through openings around the burner. Also used for primn~yair in windbox burners.
air-setting refractories = con~positionsof ground refractory materials that develop a strong bond
uIlon drying. These refractories includc mortars, plastic refractories, ramming mixes, and gunning
mixes. They are available in both wet and dry condition, the lattcr requiring addition of water to
develop the necessary consistency.
air shutlcr = an adjustable shutter on a burner air register by means of which the amount of air
induced into the furnace through the register can be controllcd.
AISE = Assnciation of Iron and Steel Engineers; Pittsburgh, PA.
AISI = American Iron and Steel Institute; Washington, DC.
ait = autoignition temperature = t at which a substance ignites spontaneously fro111 the heat of its
environmcnt. See also minimum ignition temperatures, 'I'able 1.10, Volume I, and "Industrial
Explosion and Protection," McGraw-Hill, 1980.
A1 = aluminum.
aldehyde = a class of organic compounds containing the CHO radical. Examples: acetaldehyde
(ethanal), benzaldehyde (almond oil), formaldehyde, furfural. A product of incomplete combus-
tion (pic). Aldehydes have been known to cause eye irritation, headaches, and nausea near ovens
when recirculating air quenches the burner flames.
alt = altitude.
alumina (A1,0,) = the oxide of aluminum having a melting point of 3720 F (2050 C). In combina-
tion with H,O, alumina forms the minerals diaspore, bauxite, and gibbsite; in combination with
SiO, and H,O, alumina forms kaolinite and other clay minerals.
ambient noise = the total of all sounds associated with a surrounding area.
ambient temperature = the air temperature within a given enclosure or surroundings.
AMCA = Air Moving and Conditioning Assn.; Arlington Heights, IL.
amorphous = lacking crystaline structure or definite molecular arrangcmcnt; without definite

external form.
368 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION H A NDROOK
amplitude = the magnitude of a wave's variation (such as sound pressure or electrical current).
anneal = to remove internal stress by first heating and then cooling slowly
annular orifice = a flow-measuring device used in a pipe where the velocity profile may be non-
symmetrical; cnnsists of a circular 'target' plate centered in the pipe by supporting spider-like
mounts; as opposed to a cur~ceritricorifice, which has a hole in the center.
ANSI = American National Standards Imtitute; New York, NY.
a-od = argon-oxygen dccarburizing.
a-0 mix = air-oxygen mixture as in oxygen-enriched air.
Apachi = a commercial gas mix, the major c:onstituenl 01which is propylcnc, C3H6.
API = American Petrnleum Institute; Washington, DC. A scale adopted by thc Amcricnn Petro-
lcurn Institute to indicate the specific gravity of a liquid. API gravity readings art: higher for less
dense l i g ~ i d sTherefore
. the API gravity for a liquid rises as its tcmperatare rises. See also gravity.
Water has an APT gravity of lo0; #2 h e 1 oil, about 35" API.
arumatics = unsaturated hydrocarbons typified by a benzene ring stnicture, such as benzene (C,He).
toluene (C,H,CH3), xylcnt: [C,H4(CH,),]. Aromatics are chemically active, and relatively heavy, hav-
ing a high cart~onlhydropenriitiu. Cracked oils contaillillg aromatics tend to smoke or form soot
when burned.
arrangement factor, Fa = a decimal expression of the portion of theoretical radiation flux that is
actually "seen" by a receiving surf;ic:e as cc~rrlparedwith the rrraxirr~ur~~
that a surlace of the same
at~sorptivitycould receive in the ideal positioning configuration. See Table 4.9 and formula 411 in
Volume I.
artificial fuels = man-made fuels, including all manufactured and by-product fuels. Examples are
water gas, I)lasl furnace gas, and coke.
ASHRAE = American Society of Heating, Refrigeratiun, and Air Cunditiuning Engineers; Atlanta,
GA.
ASME = American Society of Mechanical Engineers; New York, NY.
ASM Intl., was American Society for Metals; Materials Park, OH.
AST = above-ground storage tank (vs. UST).
ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials; Philadelphia, PA.
atmosphere [atm) = refers to a mixture of gases (usually that within a hrnace). Also a unit of
pressure equal to 14.696 lb per sq inch nr 760 mm of mercury. Another meaning = the mixture of
gases within a furnace, e.g. reducing (rich) atmosphere, oxidizing [lean) atmosphere, prepared
atmosphere.
atmospheric pressure (atm press) = the pressure exerted upon the earth's surface by the weight of
the air and water vapor above it. Equal to 14.696 psia or 760 mn Hg at sea level and $5" latitude.
atmospheric (ratio) regulator = also called a zero governor. A diaphragm type regulator that main-
tains gas pressure at at~nosphcricor "zero" pressure.
atmuspheric system = apparatus for airlgas proportioning and mixing, using energy of a jet of low
pressure gas (c14"wc) to entrain part of thc required combustion air from the atmosphere.
GLOSSARY 36 9
atom = the smallest part of an element that retains the properties of that element. Sornetii~lesused
as an abbreviation for atomizing, as in atom air or atom steam.
atomization = the process of breaking a liquid into a multitude of tiny d r o ~ l e t sSee

. also:
centrifugal mechanical
compressed air oil pressure
low pressure air steam
atomizing air = that part of the air supplied through a burlier (usually about 10%)that is used to
break the oil stream into tiny droplets. The atomizing air is also used for r:orrll~ustio~l
alter it has
tlroken up the nil stream.
autogenous = stdf-gc~lernting,cxothormic;.
autoignition tcmpcrature = the lowcst tenlpcralure reqllired to initiate sclf-sustaincd coml~t~stion

in tho absence of a spark or flame. It varies considerably with the naturc, sizo, and shape of 111e hot
surface, and other factors. Sorne vapors can be ignitntl by surfaces at temperatures as low as
500 F. Keference 1.j lists autoignition temperatures and other properties of lrlany gases, liquids,
;ind solids.
-
automatic control an arrangerrlent by w1iic:h ;I systcm reacts to a change or an imbalance in one
of its variables and c : o i ~ ~ ~ ~ t l ~ li s~nyiidjlisting
tes the other variables to restore the systeln to t h e
desired balance. For example, a system for automatic control of airlfuel ratio wllcrcin a change in
the com1)ustioii air inpul results in a c:orresporlding change in the fuel input.
automatic fuel shutoffvalve = a valve for stopping the flow of fuel automatically when a dangerous
situation develops. The valve is closed by a spring force of at least 5 pounds which is tripped by
de-energizing an electric or pneumatic hold-open mechanism when any connected interlock senses
a dangerous contlition. Set? automatic reset and manllal reset automatic fuel shutoff valves.
automatic reset fuel shutoff valve = an automatic fuel shutoff valve that automatically rcopcns as
soon as a normal operating condition is restored.
available carbon = carbon not combined chemically with oxygen in any way, and therefore avail-
able for combustion.
available heat = Ole gross quantity of heat released within a ct~1111)ustion

chamber minus both the
dry flue gas loss and the moisture loss. It represents the quantity of heat remaining for useful
purposes and to balance losses to walls, openings, conveyors.
available hydrogen = hydrogen not chemically combined with oxygen in any way, and therefore
available for combustion.
avdp = avoirdupois, a system of weight measure.
background noise = the ambient noise level above which signals must be presented or noise sources
measured.
BACT = best available control technology.
bagasse = the fibrous material remaining after the extraction of the juice from sugar cane. IJsed as
a fuel.
bag wall = a refractory baffle in a kiln for the purpose of channeling the course of the flame and
poc.
370 NORTH AIMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
ball clay = a highly plastic, very fine-grained, refractory bond clay that has a wide range of vitrifi-
cation and burns to a light color; oftcn high in carbonaceous matter.
ball valve = similar to a plug valve except that tile rotatable eIement is spherical.
bar = unit of pressurc - one atmosphcrc - see units in Appendix.

barometer = an instrument for m e a s u r i ~ ~atmospheric:
g pressure, usually in inches or millimetres of
mercury column.
barometric damper = a b~i1;incedair valve placed so as to admit air to the Hue pipe i n ordcr to
maintnjn ;I constant amount of clraft tbrr~irgha hrnacc. A minimum dwft hiis the advantage of
reducing the heat loss through the flue.
barometric prcssure = the atrnosphcric pressure at a specific: place according to the c:urrent reading
of baromctcr. Standard barr~metrir;pressurc is l4.696 psia, 29.92 in. Hg, or 760 rrirIi Hg.
barrel = the unit by which petroleum prr)ciucts are sold. 1barrcl (11111)= 42 US gallons
base pressure = a standarcl t c ~which nieasurcments of ;lvolumc of gas are referred. This and base
temperature should be defined in any gas measurement contract.
base temperature = a standard to which measurements of a volume of gas are referred. The stand-
ard value in the llnitcd Statcs is 60 F for natural gas (per AGA h4easurcment Manual).
basic refractnries = refractories consisting esscritially of magnesia, lime, chrome ore, or forstcritc.
or ~llixturesof these. (By contrast, acid refractories contain a substantial proportion of free silica.)
batch-type furnace = a furnace shut down periudically to remove one load and arlti ;I new charge,
as opposed tn ;1 c:onli~~uous
type furnace. An "~II-arid-out"
furnace, a "periodic" kiln.
"BaumB = a scalc for cxpressing specific gravity of liquids, designed to provide a lirlear scale on
hydrometers. Nearly the same as the modern API. (1"Bi: = l0API.) Named for Antojne Baurlit'!(1727-
1804),a French h he mist widely known for his improvements in technical processes, but best known
for his invention of the hydrometer which bears his name.
bbl = barrel. See units of volume in Appendix. (Many sizes.)
"BB = degrees Baum6.
beat = periodic vibration resulting from interference of two sound waves of different frequency.
beehive kiln = a periodic downdraft kiln with a circular hearth and dome-like roof [crown).
bellows = a metallic accordian-like cylinder or box that can be compressed or cxpanded mechani-
cally or with fluid pressure (likc a spring), and which will return to its normal shape when the
pressurc is released. Bellows are used in oil expansion chambers, in some high pressure fuel shutoff
valves in place of a diaphrag~rl,and in pressure sensitive instruments and regulators.
benzene (C&Ifi) = a highly combustible liquid derived from the distillation of petroleum. Its flash
point [closed cup) is 12 F (-11 C). Also known as benzol.
Bernoulli theorem - conservation of energy in thc stcady flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid.
beta ratio, p = din, w l l e r ~(1 = orifice diameter, and U = pipe ID.

GLOSSARY 371
bhp = boiler horsepower (see definition in this glossary). The abbreviation bhp is also used for
brake horsepower, which has another meaning and anrlther value.
bisque = fired, unglazed ceramic ware.

hlack body = a theoretical physical concept of a body that would absorb all radiant energy incident
upon it, and would enlit the nlaxir~iurnpossible radiation at a given temperaillre. The emissivity
and the ahsnrptivity of a black body art: each 1.0. A black body would not necessarily be black in
color. Lampblack and platinum black rriost nearly approximate a black body.
black hody radiation = the theoretical rate of ri~tliationhorn n black 1)ocIy at a given te~xperaturc.
blast burner (pressure burner) = burner delivering a coml)i~stibleinixture under pressure,

normally above 0 . 3 "to~ the
~ combustion zone.
blast furnace gas = a gas of 11)wRtu contcnt recovered from a blast furnace as a by-product and used
as a fuel.
blast gate = a shntmff air valve - not to t ~ euscd for flow r:ontrol.
blast tip = a small melallic: or c:eranljc burner nozzle so made that flamcs will not hlnw away from
it, even with high rnixturc pressures.
bleeder = a device designed to provide an intcntional leak, usually used to reduce pressure i n an
irripulse line.
blending = usually the addition of #2 distillate oil to residual oils to meet a certain specification
(visc:osity or sulfili-, for example) or to makc the residual oil casier to handlo.
block. See burner tile.

hlock valve =blocking valve = a redundant fuel sliutoff valve for protection in case of failure of the
primary fucl shutoff valve. Usually automatic or manual reset type.
blow-off = lifting of a flame because fced stream velocity exceeds flame velocity
blue (water) gas = an artificial fuel made by passing steam over incandescent carbon (usually
coke), forming a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. C + H , 0 4 H 2 + CO, the water gas
reaction, is hazardous because of its high CO content.
bluff body = a solid obstruction in a fluid stream, having a brood flattened front and providing a
shelter for small scale turbulence and zones of low velocity; a stability assister.
bof = basic oxygen furnace.
bogie hearth furnace = car hearth furnace = car bottom furnace.
boiler horsepower (bhp) = the e uivalent of the heat required to change 34.5 lb per hour of water at
212 F to steam at 212 P It is e q u a to a boiler heat output of 33 175 Btuihr or 8439 kcalih = 9.81 kLV.
booster heater = a heater used to raise the temperature of oil from that requircd for pumping to that
required for atomization. The booster heater is usually located close to the atomizer.
boundary layer = the portion of a fluid flowing in the immediate vicinity of a surface. The boundary
layer has a reduced flow due to the forces of adhesion and viscosity.
Bourdon tube = a metallic tube of elliptical c:ross section, shopcd into an arc or spiral with one end
attached to an indicating, recording, or controlling device. It is used in industry to measure
pressures. A pressure within the tube tends to make it less elliptical and more nearly circular,
straightening its arc or unwinding its spiral, thus actnating the attached device.
372 NORTH AMERICAN COhfBUSTION HANDBOOK
Boyle's Law = Mariotte's law = the product of the volume of a gas and its pressure is a constant at
a fixed temperature.
branch circuit = a secondary circuit leading from the main oil circulating loop to a burner or group
of burners; a booster circuit or loop.
breeching = a passagewily 1e~di11p

from a Purllace to its chimney.
BR gal = British (Imperial) gallon.
bring-up time = the tirnt: recluiretl to raise a cold furnace, and its charge if any, to operating tempcr-
aturc.
British thermal unit (Btu)= the quantity of cncrgy required to herit one pountl u l water fro111 59 F
to 60 F at stantiard barometric pressure, = 0.252 kcal = 0.000 293 kwh.
bsw = hnttom sedirne~itand water. Impurities ant1 foreign rni~teriillsfound in Puel oils, Part 2 , Vol. I.
Btu = British thermal unit(s).
bulk density = the wctight 01 unit volume of a substance. The volume includes the volume of
pores in the material, and the volume between particles, so the bulk density of a substance is
usually lower t14an the absolute density of the substance.
bunker B, bunker C = two designations for heavy fuel oils. Now becoming obsoletc. Both now fit
the #6 classificatinn, 11i1tI~ur~ker
B was somewhat lighter and less viscous.
bunker oil = a heavy fuel oil formed by stabilization of the residual oil remaining after the cracking
of crude petroleum.
Bunsen-type burner = a gas burner consisting of a straight tube with a gas orifice at one end.
Primary air is entrained through adjustable openings around the gas orifice. The gas-air mixture
burns with a short intense flame as it emerges fro111the tube. Those that operate on low pressure
gas are called atmospheric burners. Named for R. W. Bunsen (1811-1899), who proved that fur-
naces of his day wasted 50% to 80% of the fuel heating value through the exhaust gases.
buoyancy controlled flame = diffusion flame in which the aspiration of combustion air into the
combustible gas is controllcd by the buoyancy of hot gases.
burble = a separation or breakdown of laminar flow past a body; eddying or turbulent flow result-
ing from this.
burn = the degree to which desired physical and chemical changes have been developed in the
firing of a c:eramic material. A batch of ceramic materials subjected to the firing process. To heat
ceramic materials so as to change their properties.
burner = a device that positions a flame in the desired location by delivering fuel and air to that
location i n such a manner that continuous ignitio~lis accorriplisiled. Some burners include
atomizing, mixing, proportioning, piloting, and flame monitoring devices.
burner refractory =refractory block with a conical or cylindrical hole through its center. The block
is i~lountedin such a manner that the flarne fires through this hole. The brick helps to maintain
ignition, and reduces the probab~lityof ilashl~ackor blow-elf. Also callcd a burner block, burner
Me, combustion tile, combustion block, refractory tile, refractory block, or quarl.
GLOSSARY 373
burner tile, refractory, block, q u a d = a part of a burner that serves as a primary combustion cham-
ber, often helping to determine the flame position, character, and stability. Usually constructed of
high temperature refractory ceramic ~naterial.
burning (firing) = the final heat treatment in a kiln to which ccranlic materials arc subjected in the
process nf manufacture, fur the purpose of developing bond and other necessary physical
and chemical properties.
butane (C,H,,) = a gaseous hydrocarbon fuel of the paraffin scries. Often a component of LPG or
1)ottle gas. A by-product of refinery anti gas wcll operations. Comrnerr:i;ll bubiric: is a ~rlixtureof
easily liquefiable hydrocarbon gases (consisting principally of butane) which is sold as "butane."
butterfly valve = a dampcr or throttle valve in a pipe; consistillg of a rotatable disk.
butylene (C4H8)= a colorless, gaseous, hydrocarl~r~n,

also known as Lutenc, C,H,.
by-product coke oven gas = gas given off during the process of making coke from coal. It consists
(:hiefly of hydrogcn and rnethano.
C = Celsius (formerly centigrade), temperature level, e.g, watcr frcczes at o C; c;oulomb (G unit of
electrical charge), one ampere second; carbon.
CI....C9 = methane, ethane....~ i u n s n ein the c~c:t;lneseries, CH, through C,H,,.
CAAA = Clean Air Act Amendments (USA).
calcining = roasting, a process of hcating mincral materials to a temperature below their melting
point for the purpose of ririving off moisture or other volatiles, reducing volume, oxidizing, or
reducing.
caUg = calories per gram.
Calorie (Cal) = large calorie = kilogram calorie = kilocalorie = kcal = 1000 cal = the energy required
to heat one kilogram of water (at standard atmospheric pressure) through one degree Celsius =
3.968 Btu.
calorie (cal) = gram calorie = small calorie = the quantity of energy required to heat one gram of
water fiom 4 C to 5 C. A kilogram calorie is one thousand times as large.
calorific value, cv = the amount of heat chemically released by combustion of a unit weight or
volume of a fuel: heating value.
cap or crown = the arched roof of a furnace, especially a glass tank furnace.
carbon deposition = the deposition of amorphous carbon, resulting kom the decomposition of
carbon monoxide gas into carbon dioxide and carbon within a critical temperature range. When
deposited within the pores of a refractory brick, the carbon may build up such pressure that it
destroys the bond and causes the brick to "bloat" or disintegrate.
carbon dioxide, ultimate O/u = the percentage of carbon dioxide that appears in the dry flue gases
when a fuel is burned with its chemically correct fuel/air ratio. The theoretical maximum %CO,
possible.
carbonhydrogen ratio = the weight of carbon in a hyrlrocarbon fuel divided by the weight of
hydrogen. Aromatics, for example, have higher carbon/hydrogen ratios than paraffins. Also see
car1,on residue and hydrocarbon.
carbon monoxide, CO = a product of incomplete [:ombustion (pic); a colorless odorless gas harm-
ful to llu~nansif inhaled at a concentration >400 pprrl fur Inore than one hour.
carbon residue = the amount of carbonaceous material left from 3 sample of oil heated or distilled
in the abscnce of air; on indication of carbonlhydrogen ratio; of most importance i n donlestic appli-
catinns using #I or #2 oil. Industrial burner systerrls me generally capable or handling oils with any
normal carbonlhydrogen ratio, although somctimes special precautimns must be taken to nlil~inlizc
formatior1 UT soot. Carbon residile is measured by: (1)thc Conradson test with an open tlamc heat-
ing thc distillation apparatus; or (21 the Ramsbottom tcst with the boat i~ppliedindirectly through a
mOlte1~bath. ?'he two methods (lo not agree exactly, but a conversion table is available.
car bottom fiumace = car hearth furnace = bogic hearth filmace. A batch-type! furnace in which the
loat1 is placed on piers on a refractory-covcrcd r:nr which call be loaded outside the hlrnacc and
rollcd into the furnace (to constitute its floor), a door being closed behi~ldit. This type of furnace is
very ve~satilein types of loads it can handle and it saves tirr~ebecause the car and load can be roller1
out for quicker cooling. Somc "shuttle" types have 2 cars with doors at both ends.
arideri, o~iginaliyfor the purpose

carbureted blue (water)gas -. water gas with gaseous hydroc:arI)~)ns
of increasing the name's luminosity, later to increase the Btu content.
CAS number = Chemical Abstract Scrvicc's assigned number used to identify a material
castable refractory = a mixture of a heat-resistant aggregate and a heat-resistant hydraulic cement;

for use, it is nixed with water and rammed or poured into place. Hydraulic setting refractory.
catalyst = a substance that can alter the rate of a chemical reac:tiori, without itsell entering into the
reaction products, or ur~tierguinga chemical change. 1
cc = cubic centimetre = 1 millilitre.
Celsius (formerly centigrade) = temperature scale. Named for Andres Celsius, a Swedish astronomer
who devised the centigrade scale i n 1742.
cem = continuous emissions monitoring
CEMA = Canadian Electrical Manufacturers Association.
CEMS = continuous emission monitoring system.
centi, abbreviated c = prefix for submultiple 10-I.
centipoise = a unit for measurement of absolute viscosity = one hundredth of a poise. The absolute
viscosity of water at 20 C is approximately one centipoise.
centistoke = a unit of measurement of kinematic viscosity = onc hundredth of a stoke. The kinematic
viscosity in centistokcs times the specific gravity equals the absolute viscosity in centipoise.
centrifugal atomizing oil burner = a burner in which oil is thrown by centrifugal force from a
rotating cup into an air stream, causing the oil to break into a cone of spray.
GLOSSARY 375
centrifugal blower = a mechanical device for moving air by using the centrifugal force from a
mtating fan, squirrel cage, or paddle wheel, to increase the air pressure in a collecting scroll. "Fan"
usually implies a lower prcssure than does "blower" (4 to 44 ounces per square inch, or 200 to
1900 mm of water column).
ceramics = "Products made of inorganic materials by first shaping thcm and later hardening
them by fire." -F. Singer. Originally, only ware formed from clay and hardened by the action
of heat, or thc art of making such ware. Now understood to include all refractory materials,
cement, lime, plaster, pottery, glass, enamels, glazes, abrasives, electrical insulating products,
and thermal insulating products made frtlrr~inorganic nonmetallic mineral substances.
cermet = a product consisting of a mixture of ceramic material and finely tiivicieci metal; alsu
referred to as ~ : R ~ H I I ~ R I S .
cf or cu ft = cubic foot.
CFC = ChloroPluoroCarbons.
cfd = computational fluid dynamics.
cfli = cuhic feet per hour (fiVhr).
CFR = Code 01Federal Regulations.
cfs = cubic feet per second (ft3/sec].
CGA = Canadian Gas Associaton; Arlington, VA.
cgs = centimetre-gram-second, system of units [old mctric).
CH, = methane, first in the paraffin series of hydrocarbons: C,H, = ethane; C,Hn = propane; C,H,,
= butane; C,H,2 = pcntane; C,H,, = hexane; C,H,, = heptane; C,H,, = octane; C,H,, = nonane; etc.
C,H, = acetylene
Charles' Law = Gay-Lussac law = for a constant mass of gas the volume varies directly with its
absolute temperature if the pressure is constant; and absolute pressure varies directly with absolute
temperature if the volume is constant.
checkers, checkerworks = refractory in furnace regenerators to recover heat from outgoing hot
gases, and later to transmit the heat to cold air or gas entering the furnace; so-called because the
brick are arranged in checkerboard patterns, with alternating brick units and open spaces.
check valve = a valve to prevent reverse flow, usually closed by reverse movement of the iluid.
Chemex = a Commerci~lgas mix, the major constituent of which is propane, C,H,.
chr = condensation heat recovery
circular kiln = a tunnel kiln in the shape of a circlc, or doughnut.
circular mil = a unit for measuring the cross sectional area of wircs; thc area of a wire having a
diameter of one mil, or one thousandth of an inch (0.001").
circulating loop = the main loop in which oil is circulated from the oil storage tanks to the branch
circuits and then back to thc storage tank.
closed burner = ii sealed-in burner which in mnst cases supplies all the air for combustion through
the burner itself.
closed circuit oil system = a system in which oil may be pumped completely through the circula-
ting loop and back into the oil storage tank.
closed impeller = ;I l~lowerimpeller with cover plate discs attached to the sides of the blatiev to
minimize short-r:ircuiting. (An open impeller consists of a series of rotating blades or vanes similar
to an old-fashioned paddle wheel. The blades rotate bctwccn the stationary walls of the blower
housing, these walls channeling the air so that nlost of it flows out through the tips of the blades.
Some air short circuits back to the impeller inlet.)
cm = centimetrc(s), n unit of length in the cgs systcm of units, nut rccommcncic:d in tho 81 system;
c m L square centimetrels); c m b cubic centinietre(s) or cc; = 0.01 metre.
CO = carbon monoxide. ["C.O.gas" is oc.c:;lslonally used for coke oven gas, but it is suggested this be
spelled out to ilvoid r.onfusion with carbon monoxida gas.] CO, = carbon dioxide.
coal tar =a viscous mixturc of organic cornp(~u1lds;

a by-product of coke production. Limited fuel
use.
Coanda eeeect = the tendency uf a fluid issuing fro111 a jet to follow the wall contour even where the
wall's curvature is away from the axis of the jet; a characteristic utilized in the operation of fluidic:
elements; after a French engineer and inventor, born in 1885. A type E burner (Figure 8.2) is some-
times termed a Coanda burner.
co-combustion = capability of burning more than one fuel--requires Dual-Fuel'", multi-fuel, or

combination burners.
co-current flow = parallel flow, opposite of counterflow.
coefficient of discharge = a factor useti in figuring flow tliruugh an c~rific:ti.It takes into R ( : C ~ Uthe
IL~
facts that a fluid flowing through an orifice will contract to a cross sectional area smaller than that
of the orifice, and that there is some dissipation of energy due to turbulence.
co-firing = using a small portion of natural gas along with other fossil or waste fuels in utility,
industrial, and waste-to-energy boilers to mitigate adverse environmental emissions from com-
bustion (NOx, SOX,particulates, dioxins), and to improve operational flexibility and performance.
coke (general) = the solid product, principally carbon, resulting from the destructive distillation of
coal or other carbonaceous materials in an oven or r:losed chamber. In gas and oil combustion, the
carbonaceous material formed due to abnormal circumstances.
coke oven gas = gas saved for use as fuel when coke is made from coal in by-product ovens. Chiefly
llydrogen and methane.
combination burner = a burner capable of burning either gas or oil. (Dual-Fuel'" is the North Ameri-
can Mfg. Co. trademark for combination burners.)
combined carbon (or hydrogen) = carbon (or hydrogen) chemically combined with oxygen and
therefore unavailable for combustion.
combustibles = materials that can be burned, often including pic.
combustion = burning, or rapid oxirlation.

GLOSSARY 377
combustion air =main air. All of the air supplied through a I,urner other illall that used for atomi-
zation. May or rnay not illclude air induced through the burner register by a negative pressure in
the (:ombustion chamber.
combustion intensity = volumetric rate of combustion. The ratio of the file1 energy input to thc
flame volume.
combustion noise = flame noise, and see Figure 12.20.
cumnbustion products =matter resulting from combustion, such as flue gases, water vapor, and ash.
combustion roar = flarrie noise. The driving force that sets resollallt cavities (such as 11unlertiles)
~ 1000 Hz, a combustion
into resonance, further amplifyi,ng the original noise, e.g. on Figure 1 2 . 2at
roar of almost 80 dn resorlilles In a burner tile Ln product allllost 90 LIB.
combustion sdcgnarrl = flarrit?supervising syste~r~.

comeback = the time required for a t)xtr:li-type furnace to return to tnrnperilture after the introduc-
tion of a load of ware.
composite walls = walls made u p of a series of materials of various qualities. Used in heating
c:hal-nl)ers to resist tcmpcrature, abr;-lsion, iirld heiit Inss.
compound = a distinct substance formed by the [:hemica1 colnbillatio~lof two or more elements in
definite proportions.
compressed air air generally at a pressure of 5 or more pounds pcr square inch above atmo-
2
spheric pressure (>about 0.35 kgicm2 gauge].

compressed air atomizuig oil burner = a bllrner in which compressed air is used to break the oil
stream into a spray of tiny droplets.
compressibility eEect = the change in density of gas or air under conditions of compressible flow.
compressible flow = flow of high pressure gas or air which undergoes a pressure drop sufficient to
result i n a significant reduction of its density.
condensible hydrocarbon content = the fraction of a gas that may condense as the gas is cooled.
Natural gasoline is a condensible hydrocarbon present in raw natural gas.
conductance. See thermal conductance.
conduction = the transfer of heat through a material by passing it from molecule to molecule.
conductivity = ability to transfer heat or electricity. See k or thermal conductivity
constant pilot. See pilot.
continuous furnace = a furnace operated on an urlirlterrupted cycle, in which the charge is being
constantly added to, moved through, and removed from the furnace; as opposed to a batch-type
furnace.
continuous pilot. See pilot.
controller = a device that detects a change in a process variable, and then automatically uses an
external source of power to amplify the detected signal and ta energize a mechanism that will
correct the deviation in the process variable until it returns to a preset value. [Not the same as
regulator.)
378 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTIONHANDBOOK
control zone = that section of a furnace within which temperature is controlled by one temperature
sensing device and one set of valves or regulators (one each for air and each fitel).
convection = transfer of heat by moving masses of matter. Convection currents are set up in a fluid
by mechanical agitation (forced convection) or because of differences in density at different tcm-
peratures (natural convcction).
convection burner = a l~urnerdesigned to produce a flue gas stream with considerable velocity,
enabling convection heat transfor.
copper strip corrosion = an oil test standardized by ASTM as an indic;~tionof sulfur in the oil.
Generally applied only to light distillates and gasoline.
corbel = a supporting projection of the face of a wall; an arrangement of brick in a wall in which
each course prtijer:ts l~eyondthe one immediately 11elowit to form a support, shelf, or baffle.
corebuster = device inserted insicle H heat transfer tube to t~lrbulatethe flow and increase velocity.
counterflow. See Figure 9.11.
course = a hnrizontal layer or row of brick in a strui:ture.
cp = combustion products--same as fg unless there is a recuperator or other heal recovery device;

ccntipoise, unit (11viscosity. (See Volume I, Part 2.)
cp = specific heat at cnnstarlt pressure, ollen simply writtcn c and assumed to be at constant pres-
sure unless otherwise spec:ifietl.
Cr = chromium.
cracking = the process of breaking hydrocarbon molecules so that they recombine into both lighter
and heavier molec~ilcls.Therrnal cracking involves the use of high temperatures in the ahsence of
air. Catalytic cracking uses lower temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst. Catalyti-
cally cracked distillates are more stable than straight run or thermally cracked distillates, and they
have a higher carbonlhydrogen ratio.
creosote = a light fuel produced by the distillation of coal tar. Limited fuel use.
criteria pollutants = CO (carbon monoxide), Pb (lead). NOZ(nitrogen dioxide], 0, (ozone), particu-

lates, SO, (sulfur dioxide).
critical flow (sonic flow) = fluid flowing through an orifice at a velocity equal to the velocity of
sound in the fluid. Under such conditions, the rate of flow may be increased (supersonic) by an
increase in upstream pressure, but it will not be affected by a decrease in downstream pressure.
Also, the (much lower) rate of flow at which the flow changes bom the laminar to the turbulent form.
critical Reynolds number = the point where there is a radical change in the character of the flow.
Below this number the fluid flow is laminar. Above this number, turbulent flow (irregular eddying
and mixing motion) occurs.
cross-connected = a term used to describe two pipes or systems of flow connected to each other to
provide an equalization or interplay of prcssures, or to provide an impulse to a regulator for this
purpose.
cross-connection = a low pressure pneumatic sensor signal line, usually conveying a burner air
input pressure sjgnal to an airlfuel ratio control regulator. Usually 318" or lzger tubing tapped intr)
the side of an 8d (minirrk~~r~~)
straight air line. Also called an "impulse line".
GLOSSARY
cross-fired furnace = a furnace with fuel supplied from the side.
crossover network. See lead-lag control.
crown = a furnace roof, espnc:ially one which is dome-shaped; the highest point of an arch.
crown drift = kiln gases flowing frr1111the firing zone toward the entrance of a tunnel kiln (counter-
current to product travcl). Cases flow due to pressure differential between firing zone and entrance.
Most of the volume flow occurs between the top of the load and the crown.
crude oil = petroleum ;is it c:ornCs out of the grouncl. C:rudcs vary cnnsiderably in make-UII,quality
and appcarancc--so~nethin and light, others heavy and viscous. Crudes arc sr,nietimes used as
fuel, after suitable cleaning and preheating.
CSA = Canadian Standards Association; Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
CU = copper.
cu il = cubic foot (or Soct); fi7 is prcfcrrcd.
cu in. = cul~ic:irlch (or inches); in.3is prcfcrrcd.
cupola = a form of shaft furnace for making cast iron.
C, = cocfficicnt of valve capacity = gallons of water per minute at 1 psi drop.
cv = calorific value = heating value = hv.
D = inlpeller diameter, pipe tli~~rleter,

diameter in feet; tolal fluid te~nperdluredrop, degrees.
d = orifice diameter, dia111eLer iri inches.
d a = dry air.
damping (of sound] = dissipation of vibration within a vibrating body to make it an efficient
acoustic radiator.
Darcy friction factor = Weisbach friction factor = a factor used in determining resistance to flow of
fluids in pipe. See formulas 5117a and b, Figure 5.13a, Table 5.13b. The Darcy friction factor = 4 x
the Fanning friction factor, and Darcy friction factor = 8 x the Stanton (Biasius) friction factor.
dars = data acquisition and reporting system.
DB = dry bulb temperature
dB(A) = decibels, A-weightcd scale. (Also dBA.1 A unit of sound intensity, or sound pressure level
taking into account a distribution of frequencies sirnilar to the characteristics of the human ear.
dc = dense castable.
d-c = direct current.
dcp = dry combustion products--sar~leas dfg unless them is a recul)arnLr~ror other heat recovery
device.
NORTH AMERICAN COlMBUSTION HANDBOOK
DCS = distributed control system.
dead end of a line = the end of a pipe line that does not lead back to an oil storage tank, so that the
oil in that end of the line cannot be recirculated.
dead end system = a11 oil system that does not contain a return line to an oil storage tank; therefore
the oil cannot be pumped around in a closed circuit.
dead weight relief valve = a valve in which the unrelieved weight of the plug is the: force which
tends to koep the valve closed. Tlie valve opens when the pressure i~tcrcasessuffir:ieritly Lo lift the
plug against the fnrcc of gravity.
deca, abbreviated d a = prefix lux rrlultiplc 10.
lo-'
deci, abhrcviated d = prefix for sull~r~lultiple
decibel = dB = a measuro of sound intensity, a unit of sound pressure level = the ratio of a measured
sound pressure to that at a11 arbitrary base. A l s o a uilil oP sound power level. Sex: equations 1213
thrnr~gh1216.
def L definition; defic:icncy.
deficiency of air = a supply of tiir which is inadequate for complete combustion of a fuel. This is
the same as an cxccss of fuel.
deflagration = a chemical reaction accompanied by vigorous evolution of heat, such as flar~ieor

burning particles.
deg = degree (or degrees), ".
degree-day method = a procedure for estimating fuel requirements for h e a t ~ r ~I>uildings

g by adding
the degrees below fi5 F of the mean temperatures for each day. For example, if the mean tcmpem
tures for M-T-W were 5 0 , 4 5 , 40, the degree-days would total (65 - 50) + (65 - 45) + (65 - 40) = 60
If the degree-days for Th-F-S totaled 120, il would take twice as much file1 for Th-F-S.
delayed mixing = a process in which the fuel and air leave the burner nozzle unmixed, and
thereafter mix relatively slowly, largely through diffusion. This rcsults in a long, luminous flame,
called a diffusion flame, luminous flame, or long flame. (Type F, Figure 6.2.)
delta p = pressure difference or pressure drop.
delta t = temperature difference or temperature drop.
de-NOx. See thermal de-NOx.
density = the weight of a unit volume of a substance, usually designated p (rho), in 1b/ft3. Also
called specific weight.
detonation = an exothermic chemical reaction that propagates with such rapidity that the rate of
advance of the reaction zone into the unreacted material exceeds the velocity of sound (Mach
number >1.0)in the unreacted material; that is, the advancing reaction zone is preceded by a shock
wave.
devitrification = the change from a glassy to a crystalline condition
dew point = the highest temperature at which vapor condenses from a gas-vapor mixture tlint is
being cooled.
GLOSSARY
dfg = dry flue gas. This abbreviation is peculiar to the combustion industry and may not be widely
recognized in other fields.
dgb = dry gas basis.
dia = diam = diameter.
diaphragm = the thin, flexible material separating the various chamhers in pressure sensing devices
such as pressure regulators, pressure switches, gauges.
-
diaphragm burner a burner which utilizes a porous refractory diaphragm at the l ~ o r so
r;ombustion takes place over the entire area of this refractory tliaphrag~n.
t that the
diatomaceous earth = a hydrous form of silica which is soft, light in weight, and consists mainly of
mic:rost:opic; shells of diato~llsor other marine organisms. widely used for furnace insulation.
diatomic molecule = a molecule having two atoms--such as N,, I),, and Hz.
diesel fuel = a distillate fucl oil similar to # 2 fuel oil.
diffusion flame = a long luminous flame created by the slow diffusion mixing (delayeti 111ixirlg)oP
parallel fuel and air streams in laminar flow; or, in a broad sense, any flame in which combustion
follows from the gradual rr~ixingof air and combustibIe gas after these have been introduced
separately into the combustion region.
diffusivity = a measure of the rate with whic:h heat diffuses tlln~ugha ~naterial,evaluated as kicp,
c:onduclivity divided by volume specific heat.
DIN = De~~tsches
Irlstitut for Norrnung (German stantlartls organization).
direct-fired heater = a heating device in which direct radiation and convection contact the load--
n o muffle or radiant tube separating the poc from the prt~duc:tbeing heated.
direct spark ignition = direct electric ignition, use of an electric arc, as from a spark plug or other
igniter, to light the main flame of a burner without the use of a gas or oil pilut as all intermediate
step. See pilot.
discharge coefficient = a factor used in figuring flow through an orifice. It takes into account the
facts that a fluid flowing through an orifice will contract to a cross sectional area smaller than that
of the orifice, and that there is some dissipation of energy due to turbulence.
dissociation = the breaking up of combustion products into combustibles and oxygen (or com-
pounds containing less oxygen), accompanied by absorption of heat. This usually occurs at high
temperatures, and is one of the factors limiting the maximum temperature of a flame.
distillate = an oil obtained by condensation of hydrocarbons that have been vaporized by hcating,
usually in a fractionation or distillation column.
distillate oil = oil separated from crude oil by fractional distillation.
distillation = the process by which an oil [crude) is vaporized by the application of heat, and in
which the products are selectively cnndensed sn as to result in oils or fiiels with desirable proper-
ties. Straight run distillation of crude oil results in the collection of gasoline, naphtha, kerosene,
and #Z distillate oil (in order of increasing gravity or molecular weight). The residuals, reduced
crude, or #5 and 86 fuel oils, or residuum, are collected from the bottom of the c:olumn.
distillation temperature = distillate fuel oils arc specified, partialIy, by means of distillation
temperatures; i~ltitialboiling point, 10% point, 50% point, 90% point, and end point. Thesc fig-
ures are obtained within a standardized test, with a closely controlled rate nf heating. Used in fuel
oil specification.
dm = decimetre = '11" of a mctre.
dm3 - cubic dccimetre--see L.
doc = dilute oxygen cnmbustion.
UOE = (IIS) Department of Encrgy
dowr~draftkiln = an encloseti pe~iodickiln, roilntl or rectangular. I-Iot r:c~mnbustiongascs collect

untler the crown iiricl then pass tiown through the ware to flues in the hearth.
Dl' = dew point temperature.
draft = a difference of pressurt: that causes a flow of air or gases through a filmat:n or chimney.
Dm -. destruction anti removal efficiency.
dry hasis = flue gas arlalysis by an analyzer that scrubs or drics the sa~nplebefore analysis; or an
analysis in which all wet basis readings [except water vapor) have bee11 divide11by (I- summation
of all dry gas pcrcentages/100%).
dry bulb temperature, DB = tempcrature of air. (By contrast, see wet bulb temperiture.)
dry flue gas (dfg) = gaseous protfucls of comb~~stion exclusive of water vapor. Separation of the
vapor from the flue gas (a practical impossibility) is a theoretical concept used in combustion
calculatio~is.
DSC = distributed control system.
dscf = dry standard cubic feet.
Dual-Fuel'" Burner = the North American Mfg. Co. trademark for combination gas-oil burners
designed for rapid and convenient conversion from one fuel to the other by simply opening and
closing valves.
Dutch oven = a combustion chamber built outside and connected with a furnace.
dynamic pressure = see velocity pressure.
e = emissivity or emittance. See definition of those terms. Also, a measure of the degree of oxygen
enrir:hment, varying hom 20.9% to 100%.
EAF = electric arc furnace
EASA = Electrical Apparatus Service Association, a standards group.
Ed = equivalent pipe length (of a fitling) expressetl in diameters

GLOSSARY
EDR = the rate of heat transfer (11y both radiation and convection) from a radiator or convector. The
equivalent direct radiation is expressed in terms of the number of squarc fcet of surface of an
imaginary standard radiator that would be required to transfer heat at the same rate as does the unit
in question. One square foot of EDR gives off 240 Btulhr for steam heating units, or 150 Btuihr for hot
water heating.
effective area of furnace openings = the area of an opening in an infinitely thin furnace wall thai
would permit a radiation loss equal to that occuring through an actual opening i n a wall of finite
thickness. The effective area is always less than the actual area because some radiation always
strikes the sides of the opening and is reflcctcd back into the furnace.
effective chimney height = the height above that necessary to overcome the pressure drop caused
by the friction of gas flow.
efficiency = the percentage of gross Btu input that is realizcd as usehi1 Btu output of a furnace.
EGR = FGR = exhaust gas recirculation = flue gas recirculation.
EJC = Engineers Joint Council; New York, NY.
element = one of the 11-1311asic substances of which all matter [compn~intisand mixtures) is
composed.
cmissivity = a measure of ability of a material to radiate energy = the ratio (expressed as a decimal
fraction) of the radiating ability of a given material to that of a black body. (A "black body" emits
radiation at the maxirnum possible rate at any given temperature, and has an emissivity nf 1.0.)
Assumed to be total hemispheric cmissivity (all wavelengths, all dircctions) unless otherwise speci-
fied. By contrast, see emittance.
emittance = the ability of a surface to emit or radiate energy, as compared with that of a "black
body", which ernits radiation at the maximum possil~lerate at any given temperature, and which
has an emittance of 1.0. (Emissivity denotes a property of the bulk material independent of geom-
etry or surface condition, whereas emittance refers to an actual piece of material.)
emittance factor, F, = the combined effect of the ernittanccs of two surfaces, their areas, and rela-
tive positions. See Table 4.9 and formula 411 in Vululne I.
enclnsed combustion burner = a burner that confines the combustion in a small chamber or minia-
ture furnace and only the high temperature, completely cornbusted gases, in the form of high velocity
jets or stre;lrris, are used for heating.
endothermic reaction = a chemical reaction that absorbs heat.
end point = upper temperature limit in the distillation range of crude oil. IBP is the initial boiling
point and EP is the end point.
Engler degrees = a scale of kinematic viscosity. See Volume I, Part 2.

enthalpy = total heat content, expressed in Btu per pound or kcallkg, above that at an arbitrary set
of conditions chosen as the base or zero point.
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; Washington, DC (U.S. unless otherwise stated).
EPIC@ = North American Mfg. Company's trademark for Electronic Pressure Indicating Control for
furnace pressure.
EPRI = Electric Power Research Institute; Palo Alto, CA.
equilibrium = as applied to a furnace, the condition that exists when its walls have absorbed all the
heat they can bold at a specific furnace temperature, so that any further tlnw of hcat to the walls
results in an equal amount of heat being transferred to the outside.
NORTH AMERICAN COMBUS TION HANDBOOK
equiv. = equivalent.
equivalence ratio, 9 = a means of expressing airlfuel ratio = the actual amount of fuel expressed as
a decimal ratio of the stoichiometrically correct amount of fuel. (See Table C.10 in the Appendix.)
equivalent diameter = the diameter of a circle having an area equal to the area of the shape being
considered = 4 x hydraulic radius.
equivalent inches of firebrick = the thickness of firebrick having thc same insulating valuc as the
material being considered.
equivalent length = the length of straight pipc that would produce the same pressure drop as a
fitting or valve of the same pipe size.
equivalent pure oxygen = a measure of the dollar value of various conlmercial oxygen purities. See
Example 13-1.
equivalent thickness = for refractory walls, thc term refers to the thickness of firc11ric:kwall that has
the same insulating capability as a wall of nther refractory materials. See Figures anti 'I'al~los4.5 in
Volume I. For pipe insulation, this term refers to an imaginary pipe thickness that sinlplifies pipe
heat loss calculations by relating all calculatiorls to the outside surface area as in formula 4/6d.
ethane (C,H,) = hydrocarbon gas used as a fuel, frequently a component of natural gas.
Bvasd = a diffuser or divcrging section of a duct, fan or stack. The diverging tail section of a venturi.
A flow passage in which kinetic: energy is corlverted to static pressure. (Pronounced aye-vaaz-aye.)
excess air, abbreviated XSAir = the air remaining after a fuel has been completely I)urrie~l,or that
air supplied in addition to the quantity required for stoichiometric cunlbustion. A lean airifuel
ratio. Equivalence ratio less than 1.0. (See Table C.10 in the Appendix.]
excess oxygen, like excess air, is an indication of how lean or how oxidizing the combustion reac-
tion is. For most fuels, the "/o excess oxygen in the flue gas is about 113 of the % excess air (up to
about 3% oxygen or 15% excess air, above which point the ratio is progressively less than 113).
excess pure oxygen = a measure of degree of oxygen enrichment above pure air. For example, with
25% oxygen concentration instead of 20.9, the "excess pure oxygen" would be 25 - 20.9 = 4.1%.
See Part 13.
exit temperature = the temperature of combustion gases as they leave a furnace.
exothermic reaction = a chemical reaction that liberates heat, such as the burning of a fuel.
extrusion = a process in which plastic material is forced through a die by the application of pres-
sure.
F orO F = Fahrenheit (temperature level, e.g. water freezes at 32 F). This is in contrast to " or O F
which indicates temperature change or difference, e.g. the drop across the wall is 355"F, or the air
temperature rose 60°F between dawn and noon.
f = .friction factor.
#f = pounds force, as opposed to the less frequently used pounds mass.
Fa = arrangement factor. See that definition.

GLOSSARY
fla ratio = fuellair ratio. For gaseous fuels, this is usually the ratio of volumes in the same units. For
liquid and solid fuels it may be the ratio of wcights in the same units. f/a is the reciprocal of a/f
ratio. (See Table C.10 in the Appendix.)
fan mixer = an air blower in which fucl gas is admitted to the inlet to be mixcd with air.
Fanning friction factor = a factor used in dctcrmining resistancc to flow of fluirls in a pipe = 114 of
tho Darcy or Weis1~;it:hfriction factor (formulas 5117a and b, Figure 5.13a, 'hble 5 1711in Volurnc I).
fb - firebrick.
fic = fluidized bed coillbustion (or fluid-bed com1)ustior~).
f, = emittant:e f;ic:ttrr. Scc lhat tcrnl.
-
feedback a sensor message, in a.11 automatic control system, that measures a result of the control
action ant1 re-c:orrsc:ts il as necessary.
feedforwaril = a sensor message, in an automatic control system, that anticipates the need for a
correction.
hmto, abbreviated f = prefix for sul)~rlultiplelo-'?.
FERC = Federal (1JS)Energy Regulation Commission.
fg= flue gas--same as combustion products unless there is a recuperator or other heat recovery
device.
FGD .
; flue gas desulfi~rization.
FGR = EGK = flue gas recirculation = exhaust gas recirculation
FIA = Forging Industry Association; Cleveland, OH.
FID = flame ionization detector.
film coefficient, h, = convection heat transfer coefficient = the reciprocal of the boundary layer
film resistance = the rate of heat flow per unit arca (hcai flux) for cach dcgrcc of tcmpcrnturc
difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid stream.
filter = a porous mass used to remove particles suspended in a fluid. An oil filter is actually a wire
mesh strainer, but is frequently called a filter.
firebox = a combustion chamber. If external to the furnace or kiln, also called a Dutch oven or
doghouse.
fireclay brick = a refractory brick manufactured substantially or entirely from fireclay.
fire point = thc minimum oil temperature at which a flame is sustained for at least 5 seconds. By
contrast, see flash point.
firing (burning of ceramic materials) = the final heating process to which ceramic shapes are
subjected for the purpose of developing bond and other necessary physical ant1 chernic:al properties.
firing rate = the ratc at which alr, fuul, or a fuel-air mixture is supplied to a burr~er,r)r f11rnar:e. It
may be expressed in volume, weight, or heat units sopplietl per unit timc.
firing zone = that portion of a furnace, usually a continuous [urnace, through which the load passes
and which is at or near the maximum process temperature.
flame = a visible shape within which combustion occurs, flame envelope
flame blow-off = the phenomenon that occurs when a flarne moves away konl a burner. This often
results in the flame being extinguished. A flame blows off when the fuel-air mixture leaves the
burner at a velocity greater than the velocity with which tho flnn~ekont progresses into the mixture.
flame character = thc naturc of a flame, e.g. length, size, shape, color, luminosity, vclocity--usually
determined by the design of the flame holder and refractory quarl, and by pressures, velocities, and
directions of fuel jets and air jets.
flame front = the plane along which combustion starts, or the root of a flamc.
flame holder = burner nozzl(:. ;I pwt of a 11urnt:r that positions the flame, deternlines the character
of the flame [length, shape, luminosity, veloc:ity), anti provides f l a ~ r ~ht~1)ility.
e
flame monitoring device = flalr~e"sensor", narrre "sc;anrler",furr~lerlyflarne safety device. A device

for flamc surveillance--ultravioI~!tdetector, flame rod, flickcr dctcctor, infrared detector, photnt:ell,
thermopile, bimck~lwarp switch.
flamc noise = see combustion roar and superturbulent combustion noise. See Part 12
flame retaining nozzle = any burner nozzle with built-in features to hold the flame at high mixture
pressures.
flamc retention burner (flame retaining nozzle] = a burner whose nozzlc is surrounded with small
ports that act as pilots to relight the 11liiiri flame i l it blows off. The velocity through the small ports
is less, so the flame almost never blows off. Also called a stick-tight nozzle.
flame speed = the rate at which a flame propagates through a con~bustiblenlixture. See flame
velocity.
flame supervising system (formerly combustion safeguard) = a safety control responsive directly
to flame properties, except where supplemented by the words "gas analyzer type". It senses
tlle presence of flame and causes fuel to be shut off in the event of flame failure. See "Supervising
Controls" in Part 7.
flame temperature. Theoretical flame temperature is calculated in the same way as hot mix
temperature, but usually for stoichiometric airlfuel ratio. It may or may not be corrected for
dissociation. See also hot mix temperature.
flame velocity = the speed at which a flame progresses into a mixture relative to the speed of the
mixture. Also called flame speed, ignition velocity, rate of flame propagation. The latier sometimes
refers to flame front movement in a tube whereas the other forms usually rcfcr to measurements in
quiescent mixtures or in perfectly streamlined (laminar) flames. The turbulence encountered in
the tube measurements usually results in velocities about twice as great as by the other methods.
gas mix, the major constituent of w11ic:h is prt~pane,CBHB.

Flamex = a coni~~lercial
flammability limits = the maximum and minimum percentages of a fuel in a fuel-air mixture which
will bur11. Sonletimes called limits of inflanlmability.
flange taps = pressuro taps that are 1 in. upstrearn and downstream from a thin mctoring orificc.
Standard flanges can be purchased with these taps already drilled.
GLOSSARY 387
flashhack = the phenomeno11 thal occurs when a flarr~efront moves back through a burr~ernozzle
(and possibly back to thc mixing point). Flashback occurs I)ecanse i h e flarr~evelocity exceeds the
fucl-air mixture velocity through the burner nozzle.
flash heat = refers to an application of heat to an objcct in a very short time pt:riod, utilizing dircct
flame impingement or a high thermal head.
-
flashing (brick] firing a kiln under reducing conditions to ol~tairlcertain dcsircrl colnrs. May he
cfft:c:t[:tl by adding maganese, salt, or zinc.
flash paint = the temperature at which enough of an oil is vnporizetl to a flash nf burning
oil vapor when ignited by an external flame. Flash point and fire point are obtainr:tl (1)by the
y Cleveland, open cup. By ~ o ~ ~ t r sce
Pcnsky-Martens; or tag, r:ltisntl (:up, a11d (2) l ~ thc a s t fire
, point.
flat arch = a furnace roof in which both outer arid inner surfaces are horizontal p1ant:s. Formed of
spccial tapered 1)ric:ka11t1linltl i r ~plnc:c? 1)y their keying actiorl. A jar:k ilrch.
Flat Flame"' = North American Mfg. Company's trac1em;lrk for a Qpe E flame that spreads radically
wross the adjacent furnace wall. In scientific lilerilture, a flat flame is onc formed t ~ yn slut-like
nozzlc.
fkw coellicient = a correction factor used for figuring volume flow rate of a fluid througll an orifice
(K in formula 5/37). This factor includes the effects of contraction and turbulence loss (covered by
the coeIficient of discharge), plus the con~pressibilityeIIe(:t,and the effect of an upstream velocity
other than zero. Since the latter two effects are negligible in nlany instances, the flow coefficient is
often equal to the coefficient of discharge.
flow noise = that portion of burner noise produced exclusively from the flow of fuel and air through
the burner, irrespective of combustion.
flue gas = all gases, combustion gas, products of combustion [poc] that leave a furnace by way of a
flue, including gaseous products of c.ombnstinn, water vapor, excess oxygen and nitrogen. Exit gases
from recuperators, wastc hcat boilcrs, rcgcncrators, and other heat recovery deviccs ore tcrmcd
"waste gases" or "stack gases".
flue gas analysis = a statcmcnt of thc quantities of thc various compounds of a sample of fluc gas,
usually expressed in percentages by volume.
flue gas loss = also called stack loss. The sensible heat carried away by the dry flue gas pIus thc
sensible and latent heat carried away by the water vapor in the flue gas.
fluid = any liquid, vapor, or gas or their mixtures. The terms fluid bed and fluidized bed refer to
solid particles activated into a fluid-like condition by forcing a gas u p through them.
fluid bed = fluidized bed.
flux = rate r)f flow of heat or fluid across a unit area. See also fluxing.
fluxing = addition of a substancc (flux) to promote fusing of minerals, metals, glass, enamels, and
refractories, or to prevent oxide formation.
FM = Factory Mutual Insurance Association; Norwood, MA.
foot valve = a check valve at the bottom end of a suction line in a tank to prevent the oil system
from drair~ir~g11iic:kinto the tank when the pump is not operating.
388 NORTH AMERICAN COMR1JSTIC)N HANDBOOK
forced convection = convection heat transfer by artificial fluid agitation.
forced draft = the difference in pressures that blows air into a furnac;e, usually produced by a fan
located in the inlet air passage to the fiirnace.
fph, fpm, f p s = feet per hour, feet per minute, feet per second; American or English foot-pclulld-
secnnti system units for veloc:ity.
fractional distillation = the process of heating, evaporating, and condensing r:ruclr: oils into various
grades (or fri1c:ticrns) of oil. This is accomplished in a fractionating tower with the lightest materials
(thosc with the lowest boiling points] such as gasoline and naphtha condensing at the top, and the
heaviest materials (those with the highest boiling points) such as the heavy gas oils condensing at
the I~ottorn.The haction that docs not evaporate, the? residual oil, is also collected in this process.
free field = an area in which the boundaries Irive no effect on noisc measurements.
frequency (of sound) = the speed with whic:h its cyclical prcssurc variatinn or:c:urs, dp/dt (the
differential of pressurt.: rclt~tiveto time). Frequency = the reciprocal of pc:riodic lime. (See also
low-frcquont:y sounds, and high-frequency sounds.)
friable = easily reduced to a granular or powdery condition.
fi-iction bctor = a factor uscd in calculating ioss of pressure due to friction of a fluid flowing
through il pipe. See Llarcy and Fanning.
PRP = fiberglass-reinforced plastic.
fi = foot (or feet]; ftZ= squme foot (or feet); ff" = cubic foot (or feet).
fuel = any substant:e used lur combustion as a heat source.
fiteyair ratio = the ratio of the fuel supply flow rate to the air si~pplyflow rate when both rates are
measured in the same units under the same conditions; the reciprocal of airlfuel ratio. [These
terms are often used interchangeably in qualitative discussiur~s.)
Fuel-Directed@burner = the North American Mfg. Co. trademark for a burner in which the flow or
pressure energy of the fuel supply stream is used to control the aerodynamics of air-fuel mixing
and flame formation, thus needing higher fuel pressure, but less air pressure than an air-directed
burner.
fuel-lean = @ = <1.0, less fuel than required for stoichiometric combustion.
fuel NO = nitric oxide kern N atoms in the fuel in forms other than N,, i.e. from fixed nitrogen.
fuel oil = a petroleum product used as a fuel. Conlmon fuel oils are classified as:
#I = distillate oil for vaporizing type burners.
#2 = distillate oil for general purpose use, and for burners not requiring #1.
#4 = blended oil intended for use without preheating.
#5 = blended residual oil for use with preheating facilities. Usual preheat temperatures are
120 to 220 F.
H6 = residual oil, for use in burners with preheaters permitting a high viscosity fuel. Usual
preheat temperatures are 180 to 260 E
fuel primary = a system of a i r / f ~ ~ratio

c l control in which the demand for heat adjusts the fuel flow
to the combustion system, and the automatic ratio control thcn makes a corresponding adjust-
ment in the air flow.
GLOSSARY
fuel-rich = $ = >1.0, more fuel than required for stoichiornetric combustion.
fuel shutoff valve = any valve for stopping the flow of fuel, but this term is frequently used to mean
an automatic fuel shutoff valve, which is spring loadcd and tripped by de-energizing an electric or
pneumatic hold-opcn mechanism when any connected interlock senses a dangerous condition.
Automatic rcsct fucl shutoff valvcs rcopcn as soon as a normal operating condition is restored.
Manual reset automatic fuel shutoff valves must be reopened by hand after the dangerous condi-
tion is rectified and the hold-open mechanism re-energized.
fuel train = the fuel handling system between the source of fuel and the burner. It may include
regulators, shutoff valves, prcssurc switches, flow meters, control valves.
fully-metered flow control = use of volumetric flow measuring devices to control airlfuel ratio, as
opposed to the simpler prsssure-balanced alf ratio control or linked valvcs (area control).
fundamental frcqucncy = thc lnwcst frcqucncy at which o crllumn of gas or a body vibrates. Alsu
called the first harrnoriic:.
fi~rnace= an enclosed space in which heat is intentionally released by combustion, electrical
dcvic:es, or nuclear reat:tion.
furnace pressure = the gauge pressure that exists within a fur11at:e cnrnbustion ~ h a m l ~ eThe
r.
furnace pressure is said to be positive if greater than atmospheric prcssurc, ncgativc if less than
atmospheric pressure, and neutral if equal to atmospheric pressure.
Furul, Saybolt = a scale used for measuring the vist:osity of heavy oils. The instrument has a larger
orifice and is used at a higher temperature than the Saybolt Universal instrument used for lighter
oils.
fusion = a state of fluidity or flowing, in consequence of heat; the softening of a solid body, either
through heat alone or through heat and the action of a flux, to such a degree that it will no longer
support its own weight, but will slump or flow. Also the union or blending of materials, such as
metals, upon melting, with the formation of alloys.
fusion point = the temperature at which the solid and liquid states of a substance can exist together
i n erpilil~riu~ri;
also designated the melting point or freezing point of a substance.
G = gas or density of a gas relative to that of standard air. See SGA and SGW; giga--see below.
g = gram(s) = 0.00220 pound avdp; acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2 or 0.908 m/s2.
gal = gallon [US gal unless specified imperial).
GAMA = Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association.
gas = in broad general terms, any substance that is not a liquid or a solid--air, for example. A perfect
gas is one that conforms to Charles' Law, and the characteristic equation of a perfect gas, pV = mRT.
(By contrast, see vapor.) See also the following types of gases: blast furnace, blue (water), butane,
carbureted water, coke oven, high pressure, liquefied natural, liquefied petroleunl, low pressure,
natural, producer, propanc, synthetic, water.
gas booster = a gastight blower used to increase gas pressure.
gas gravity = the ratio of the weight of a given volume of a gas to the weight of an equal volume of
air (0.07fi5 ll]lft3). Sorr~ntirnescalled specific gravity.
gas-jet mixer (inspirator) = a mixer using the kinetic energy of a jet of gas issuirlg from an orifice to
cntrain all or part of the air required for combustion.
gas mixer = any device lor mixing gas and air, such as a fan, aspirator, or inspirator,
gas oil = a heavy distillate oil; a product of straight run distillation, slightly heavier than #2 fuel oil.
gas-oil burner = a burnor dusigncd to burn gas and oil simultancously.
gasnline = a fuel lor interrlal cornl~ustionenginas. A distillate lighter than kerosene. May be straight
run, cr;lckt:d, blended. Molecular weight is similar to octanc, C,H,,.
gas train = thc fuel train for gas.
gauge pressure = thc diffcrcnce between atmospheric: pressure and the pressure the gouge is
measuring. Also writtcn gage pressure.
G I N = gross heating value = higher heating value--scc those definitions.
giga, abbreviated G = prefix for rrlultiple 10".
gigajode - GJ = 948 000 Btu.
glass = an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition without crystalizing.
glost fire = the process of kiln-firing bisquc warc to which glaze has been applied.
gph, gpm, gps = gallons per hour, gallons per minute, gallons per set:ond.
gr = grain(s) avoirdupois = 117000th of a pound.
grades o f fuel nil = voluntary commercial standards recommended by the ASTM for different
classifications of fuel oils, based on several characteristics among which the most ilnportani are
specific gravity and viscosity. See listing under "fuel oil".
gravimetric analysis = an analysis based upon the weights of the compound parts.
gravity, specific = a measure of the density of a liquid relative to that ul water (62.43 lblft3]. By
contrast, see gas gravity.
gravity, standard = g, the standard accepted value for the force of the earth's gravity. A gravita-
tional force that will produce an acceleration equal to 32.17 feet per second, or 9.80 metreslscc'.
The actual force of gravity varies slightly with altitude and latitude. The standard was arbitrarily
established as that at sea level and 45 degrees latitude.
greenhouse gases = principally carbon dioxide, metharie, CFCs, nitrous oxide, and ozone, all of
which are opaque to reradiation of inhared heat from earth to space. (They are transparent to the
wavelength of solar radiation--hence the thermal build-up as in a greenhousc.)
GRI = Gas Research Institute; Chicago, IL.
gross heating value = higher heating value = the total heat obtained from conlbustion of a specified
amount of fucl and its stoichiornetrically correct amount of air, both being at 60 F when conlbus-
tion starts, and the combustion products bcing coolcd to 60 F before the heat release is measured.
Also called higher heating value. By contrast, see net or lower Heating value. Calorific value. Heat
of combustion.
GLOSSARY 391
grout = a suspension of mortar matcrial in water, of such consistenr:y that whe11 it is poured upon
horizontal courscs of brick masonry, it will flow into vertical open joints.
13, Hz = atomic hydrogen, molecular hydrogen.
h = enthalpy = heat content, usually in Btullb; or h = heat transfer coefficient--a film coeflicient for
convcction or a surface coefficieilt for radiation = ratt: nf heat flow per unit area (hcat flux) for c:nt:h
degree of lenlperature difference bctwccn thc surface and the heat rcccivcr (fliiiclstrnarr~in the case
of convection or anc~thcrsurface in the case of radiation); or h = hour[s).
hack = a stack of bricks in a kiln or on :I kiln c:ar.
harmonic = a multiple of the hndamcntal sound frequency.
h, = heat transfer coefficient for convection; also called film cocfficicnt, h,, = h,, = the coefficient
on tho (Jutside surface; hGi= hi, = the cnefficient on the insidc surface.
HCl = hytirnchlorlc acid.
HCN = hydrogc:n cyanide -. hydrocyanic acid = an interu1c:diatc c o m p ~ u n dformeti in tlie process

of chcrnical NOx formation.
head = the pressure difference that causes the flow of a fluid in o systcrn. Whcn applied to liquids
it is usually rnc;lsurt:ci in height of liquid column. See also vclocity head.
header = in piping, manifold or supply pipe to which a nu~nberof branch pipes are con~iected.In
bric:kwt~rk,a brick laid flat with its longest dimension perpendicular to the wall face.
heat cnntent = the sun1 total of latent and sensible heat stored in a substance minus that contained
at an arbitrary set of conditions chosen as the base or zero point. It is usually designated h, in Btu
per pc)un[i,but rmay also be expressed in such units as Btu per gallon and Btu per cubic foot if the
pressure and temperature are specified.
heat exchanger = any device for transferring heat from one fluid to another without allowing the
fluids to mix.
heat flux= q = QIA = the rate of flow of heat through a unit area, in Btulhr It2.
heat of combustion = the heat released by cor~hustionof a unit quantity of a fuel, measured in
calories, joules, or Btu. Heating value. Calorific value.
heat of fusion = the heat given off by a unit weight of a liquid fieezing to a solid or gained by a solid
melting to a liquid, without a change in temperature.
heat of vaporization = the heat given off by a unit weight of vapor condensing in a liquid or gained
by a liquid evaporating to a vapor, without a change in temperature.
heat receiver = heat sink, load.
heat transfer = flow of heat by cundnction, convection, or radiation. This term is often used to
mean heat transfer rate.
heavy oil = a term denoting residual oil, as opposed to light or distillate oil. Fuel oils #4, 5 , and ti
and "Bunker C are "hcavy oils".
hecto, abbreviated h = prefix for multiple lo2.

NORTH AMERICAN COMAUSTION HANDBOOK
heptane = C,H,,.
hertz = Hz = cycles per second.
hexane = C,H,,.
h f = cnthalpy of liquid at saturation temperature.
hf = change of heat content (or enthalpy] during vaporization of 1 lb of liquid; lateut heat of
vzporization.
H-fuel = a by-product liquid fuel, containing heptane, similar to naphtha, sold by Sun Oil Co. CII1
ratio = 5.3. Gravity relative to water = 0.70. Higher heating value = 119 000 Btulgal. Distillation:
5's at 147 F, 50% at 185 F, 90L'/oat 225 F, EP = 290; recovery = 98%.
Hg = mercury; "Hgor nmHg measure height on a manometer lo indic:;ltt? pressure.
"tIg = inches of mercury column, a unit used in measuring pressure. One inch of rr1ert:ury c:olumn
equals a pressure of 0.491 psi. See Table C.5 in the Appcndix.
"Hg absolutc = total pressure, including atmospheric, measured in inches of mercury colurrin. Orie
inch of 1rierc:ury colurrin equals a pressure of 0.491 psi. Standard barometric pressure is 29.92
inches of mercury column.
"Fig vacuum = a scale for rnet~suringpressures less than atmospheric. A reading o f zern indicates
atmospheric pressure, while 29.92 would indicate no pressure, or a perfect vacuum.
hg = hcat content (or enthalpy) of 1 lb of saturated vapor, i.e. vapor at tile builing point. Inclutles
heat t:orite~~t
of the litluitf plus latent heat of vaporization.
HHV or hhv = higher heating value, gross heating value. (See below.)
hi = heat transfer coefficient on the inside = hi, + hi,, whcrc hi, = convection or film coefficient on
the inside, and hi, = radiation or surface coefficient on the inside.
high-alumina refractories = alumina-silica refractories containing 45% or more alumina.

The materials used in their production include diaspore, bauxite, gibbsite, kyanite, silli~~ranite,
andalusite, and fused alumina (artificial corundum).
high-duty fireclay brick = fireclay brick which have a PCE not lower than cone 311/z or above 32%-33.
higher heating value = gross heating value = the total heat obtained from combustion of a specified
amount of fuel and its stoichiometrically correct amount of air, both being at 60 F when combus-
tion starts, and the combustion products being cooled to 60 F before the heat release is measured.
By contrast, see net or lower heating value. Calorific value. Heat of combustion.
high fire = a relative term rncaning that the input rate to a burner or combustion chamber is at or
near its maxirnunl.
high frequency sound = high-pitched (soprano) sound as from the right cnd of a keyboard instru-
ment. (See also frequency.)
high pressure air system for gas-air proportioning and mixing (air pressure = 5 psig or higher] =
a system using the momentum of a jet of high pressure air to entrain gas, or air and gas, to produce
a combustible mixture.
high pressure gas = gas at pressures greater than 2 psi.

GLOSSARY 393
high pressure switch = a device to monitor liquid, steam, or gas pressure and arranged to shut
down the burner at a preset high pressure (normally closed).
HiRam@,HiVamm = North American Mfg. Company's trademarks for large high velocity [high
momentum) burners.
hl = heat loss, Btu/ft2hr.
H,O = water.
"H,O .:"wc = inches of water gauge = inches of watcr column = a measure of pressure. 1 . 7 3 2 " ~ ~
= 1 osi. See Table C.6 in the Appe~ldix.
11, = heat transfer cocfficicnt on tho outside = h,, -c h,,, where h,, = convection or film coefficient
on the outsitle, ancl h,, = radiation or s11rf;lce coefficicnt on the outside.
horscpowcr (hp) = a unit of power equal to 550 foot pounds pcr second, or :i3 000 foot pounds pcr
minute. In c:otitrast, see boiler horsepower.
hot mix temperature = a theoretical average temperature of ail products of c:o~l~l~ustionof a file1
with air, including excess air assuming n plug flow reaction with no heat loss. Sometimes called
flame tempcraturc, hut fl;lme temperature illore often i~nplicsan actual or mcasurt:d temperature.
See also flame tempemt~lre.
hp - horsepower.
HPG = a commercial gas mix, the major constituerlt of which is propylene, C,H,.
h r = hour(s]. See h.
h, = heat transfer coefficient for radiation; also called the surface coefficient. See formula 4/2,
Volume I. h,, = h,,. = the coefficient on the outside; hri = hi, = the coefficient on the inside.
hrt = horizontal return tubular boilcrs.
N,S = hydrogen sulfide.
hs = heat storage, Btu/ft2.
ht = heat.
hthw = high temperature hot water
IITV = hi templhi vel drying (paint finishing).
humidity--see absolute humidity and relative humidity.
hydrate (verb) = to combine chemically with water.
hydraulic radius = the cross sectional area of a flow path divided by its perimeter.
hydrocarbon = any of a n~lnibero f c:r~m~c~unds

conlposed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The four
basic classes of hydrocarbon compounds in petroleum are paraffins, olcfins, aromatics, and
n;~phthcnics.
IIz = hertz, unit of frequency = 1 cyclelsecond. (Sec abovr:.)

394 NORTH AMERICAN CClMBlJSTION HANDBOOK
I = inlet fluid temperature, F.

i, = temperatures at 1st and 2nd interfaces horn thc hot facc.
i,,
id, ID = inside diameter, insiclc: dirrierisic~n;ind11c:erl draft.
ideal combustion = perfect combustion = stoichiometric combustioil = 'on ratio'

occurring at stoichiometric airlfuel ratio. See stoichiomctric ratio.
- c:ombusiion
itb = insulating firebrick.

igrliliun = the acl of starting (;orr~l~uslion.
ignition pilnt. See pililt.
ignition temperature = the Iowcst tcmpcrature at which n filel-air mixture can proceed as llilrne
with an oxidation rate that releases heat faster than heat is lost to the surrounclirlgs. S c c T ~ b i c1.10,
Volilme 1.
ignition ve1ut:ity = flame velocity--scc that definition.
IGT = Institute of Gas Technology; Chicago, IL.
IIIEA = Industrial IIeating Equipment Association.
impact tube [Pitot tube) = a tube with an open end immersed in a strei~rn,a n d pointed upstream.
Tho other end of the tube is connected to a pressure gauge, which thcn indicates the total pressure
due to the "ra111effer:t" of the flow.
impeller = a 1)lower impeller consisting of a series of rotating blades or varies, similar to an old-
fashioned paddle wheel, the purpose of which is to import velocity to air or a gas.
impulse line = a small diameter pipe or tube used to convey pressure from a piping system to a
diaphragm or hellows-operated mechanism. (See cross-connected.)
in. = " = inch(s); in.2= square inch(es); in.3= cubic inch(es). 1"= 0.02540 m.
inches of mercury column = "Hg = a unit used in measuring pressures. One inch of mercury
column equals a pressure of 0.491 psi. See Table C.5 in the Appendix.
inches of water column "wc= a unit used in measuring pressures. One inch of water colurnrl
equals a pressure of 0.578 osi. See Table C.5 in the Appendix.
incomplete combustion = combustian in which fuel is only partially burned, and is capable of
being further burned under proper conditions. An exarnplt: is the case of carbon burning to form
CO. With more air, it would burn to CO,.
indirect-fired heater or dryer = a heating device in which the poc do not contact the load being
lleated--separated 1)y a muffle or radiant tube.
induced air = air that flows into a furnace through openings because the furnace prcssurc is less
than atmospheric pressure. Also air brought into a furnace by entrainment in a high velocity strea~n.
induced draft = gas flow r:aused by a furnace exit pressure less than the furnace pressure. It may be
produced by natural or artificial means.
induced draft fan = a fan or blower that produces a negative pressure in the combustion chamber
either by taking its suction from the combustion chamber or by inductio~i~nt:;~ns.
GLOSSARY 395
industrial heating = the direct application of heat to an industrial process, such as in the
metallurigical and ceramic industries; as opposed to domestic, space, process, and power heating.
inerts = noncombustible substances in a fuel.
incared burner = a radiation type humer. This tarrn is most corllrr~urilyapplied to ceramic grid or
alloy mesh gas burners for low temperature ovens or people-heating by direct radiation instead of
"space" heating, but Figures 6.13, 6.14, and 6.28 show industrial type infrared burners.
input controller = firing rate control = a system that automatically determines when more heat is
needed and automatically opens a valve or valves to nleet that ~ieetl.Usual!y temperature-achiated,
or pressure-actuated as in the case of a steam boiler.
input rate = the qiiantity of hedt, fuel, cir air su~iplintlper unit time, measured in volumc, weight,
or heat units.
inspirator = inspirator mixer = gas-jet mixer, a mixer using the kinetic energy 01a jet of gas issuing
from an orifice to entrain all or part of the air required for combustion.
insulating firebrick = ifb = a refractory brick characterized by low thermal conductivity and low
heat c~lpncity.
insulation = a material that is a relatively poor transmitter of heat. It is usually used to reduce heat
loss fr-orti;l given space.
interface = a surface regarded as the comnlon boundary between two solitls or fluitls, as in c:onlpcls-
ite furnace walls, or between air and fuel streams from a humer.
interlock = an ~1e(:trit:al,
~ l l l e u l ~ l a t0i1~. ~lle(:~lal~ic:ill
, <:o~ir~et:tion
between elements of a control
system that verifies conditions satisfactory to a proper operating sequence; and which commands
a shutdown of the system when a dangerous or unwanted condition develops. Examples: excess
furnace temperature limit, low gas pressure limit.
intermittent pilot. See pilot.
interrupted ignition = same timing and function as "interrupted pilot", but may be direct electric
ignition or a pilot flame. See pilot.
interrupted pilot. See pilot.
inviscid fluid = ideal or non-viscous fluid; flows without energy dissipation; supports no s h e a ~
stress.
ifo = inputloutput.
IR = infrared.
IN = Industrial Risk hisurers; Hartford, CT.

ISA = Instrument Society of America; Research Triangle Park, NC.
I S 0 = International Standards Organization.
iso = a prefix before a chemical co~npoundindicating an isomer atomic arrangement.
iso-C,H,,, = isomer of butane, iso-butane.

J = joule(s) = u n i t of energy, work, or heat = 1 N.m = 0.000 948 Btu = 0.239 cal
jamb = a vertical structural member forming the side of an opening in a furnace wall.
JIC = Joint Industrial Council, an electrical standards organization.
K or "K = Kelvin (absolute Cclsi~is).Scc unit c:nnversions in Appendix.
K = flow coefficient. Scc Tablc 5.21, Volumc I.

k -
thermal conductivity ol irisuliitic~n,Btu in./ft2hr "P; k (prefix, pronounced kilo] = thousands,
;
x 10" k = resistance coefficient (see 'I'able 5.21, Volume I).
kaolin = iiwhite-bunling clay having kaolinitc as its chicf constituent. Specitic gravity = 2.4 to 2.6.
Thc P(:E of most conlinercia1 kaolins rangcs from conc 3 3 to cone 35.
kcal = kilogram-calorie. See calorie.
k-factor = the thernial c:oritiut:tivityof a rriatcrial.
kerosene = a light liquid petroleulll fuel, inos~lynonane, CnHz0.A constituent in #I and #2 fire1 oils
and jet propulsion fuels.
ketone = a class of liquid organic: c:ornpouritis i11wllicl~tlit? car1)onylgroup. C double bonded to O,

is attached to two alkyl groups. Used primarily as solvents. Examples: acetone, MEK.
key = in furnace construction, the uppermost or the closing brick of a curved arch.
kg -. kilogram (force or mass); 1kg = 2.205 lb avdp.
kg/m3 = kilograms per cubic metre, a measlire of ilensity. 1 kg/rri3= 0.002 4 3 ll~/ft".(See Table C.6 in
the Appendix.)
kiln = a heated chamber used for the burning, hardening, and/or drying stage of an industrial
(usually ceramic) process.
kilo, abbreviated k = prefix for multiple lo3.
kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 calories = the energy required to raise one kilogram of water one degree
Celsius. (See Table C.6 in the Appendix.)
kilohertz = kHz = 1000 IIz.
kilowatt-hour (kwh) = a unit of work or heat, equivalent to that resulting from the use of electricity
at the rate of onc kilowatt for one hour. It is equal to 3412 Btu.
kinematic viscosity (kin visc) = the relative tendency of fluids to resist flow; equal to the absolute
viscosity divided by the density. Usually designated v (nu) in stokes, ft2/sec, SSU, SSF. See Table
2.6 and Figure 2.7, Volume I.
kip = thousand pound.
k m = kilometre. 1 krn = 3281 ft

GLOSSARY
knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = 1.15 statute miles per hour.
kPa = kiloPasca1 = 0.145 psi prcssure.
kp(T) =equilibrium constant at constant pressure = o measure of concerltration of molecules in an

end pmduct mixture, relative to the concentratic~n;anti of mt~leculesin the starting mixture, as a
I'~inc:tionof temperature.
kW = kilowatt. 1 k W = 3412 Btulhr
L = litre = dm3.Also length or thickness of a conduction path, also dcsignateri X in some tcxtbonks.
Scc formulas 4/3 oncl 4 6 , Volunle I; = length of pipe, ft, corresponding to tirop D.
ladle = a refi-actory-1i11sdvessel used for the temporary storage or transfer of molten metals.
laminar flow = streainlincl flow = viscous flow = the flow of a viscous fluid i n w1iic:h the particlcs
of fluid movc in straight lines pitrallcl to the clirection of flow.
large port burner = a burner chardcterized by a single large discharge opening or nozzle.
latent heat = heat allsorbed or given off by a substance without changing its temperature, as when
melting, solidifying, evaporating, condensing, changing crystalline structure.
latent heat oL'fusion = heat given off by a unit weight of a liquid freezing to x solid or gained t)y a
solid melting to a liquid, without o change in temperature.
latent heat of vaporization = heat given off by a unit weight of a vapor condensing to a liquid or
gained by a liquid evaporating to a vapor, without a change in temperature,
lb = pound(s) (avdp unless otherwise stated); unit nf force or mass.
lb/fi3 = pounds per cubic foot = a rneasure of density. 1 1b/ft3= 16.02 kg/m3.(See Table C.6 in the
Appendix.)
LCD = liquid crystal display.
L-D process = a process for making steel by blowing oxygen upon or through molten pig iron,
whereby most of the carbon and impurities are removed by oxidation.
lea = low excess air.
lead-lag control = control scheme to prevent going rich when changing firing rate--via crossover
network or stepwise limits.
lean mLxture = a mixture of fuel and air in a premix burner system in which an excess of air is
supplied in relation to the amount needed for colnplete combustion.
lean ratio = a proportion of fuel to air in which an excess of air is supplied in relation to the amount
needed for complctc combustion of the fuel.
led = light-emitting diode. A solid state diode that emits light when forward biased.
LEI, = lower explosive limit.

NORTHAMERICAN COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
lhv = lower heating value = net heating value.
lining = blow-off of a flame because fuel stream velocity exceeds flame velocity.
light fuel oil = a term designating a distillate fuel oil, gcncrolly grade #1 or #z.
light-up = the entire procedure of igniting a 11urr1aror system of burners.
limit control = interlock.
lilniting orifice = a flow restriction, clften a very sensitive adjust;il~levalve as a V-port, for restrict-
ing the flow r~fa fluid. Specific:ally for initial setting of airlfi~elratio 11ylirrliti~~g
the fuel flow.
limiting orilice valve = a h c l flc~wcontrol dcvicu, usually manually adjustable, for setting fi~el/air
mtio.
limits of flammability 7 see flainmability li~nits,explosive lilnit, low limit.
line burner = il burner whose flamc is ;I "line" from onr: end to the other.
c:c~~i~inuous
lintel = i~
l~orizoi~tal
supportirlg rncmbcr spanning a wall opcning.
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) = 'bottle gas" = propanc andlor butane (often with small amounts of
propylene and butylenel sold as a liquid in pressuri~edc:ontainers. Usually a by-prr)(lu(:Lof natural
gas or gasoline pmc,essing.
litre, formerly liter (L) = o measure nf volume in the old cgs metric: system, not recommended in
the new S1111etricsystem = 1000 cc = 0.001 m3 = 0.2642 US gallons. See 'l'able C.6 in the Appendix.
lmtd = logarithmic mean temperature difference.
In,loge = natural logarithm, logarithm of the base e , where e = 2.718. Bxampla: "ln 2 = 0.69" means
the power to whic:li e must be raiser1 to produce 2 is 0.69, or e U G G
2.
LNG = liquefied natural gas.
LNI = low NOx injection system using nozzles for feeding air, oxygen, or fuel around the periphery
of a flame to reduce NOx emissions, as in fuel-staging or air-staging. (Please note that the nozzles
do not inject NOx.)
load, boiler = the quantity of steam a boiler must produce, usually measured in Ib per hr.
load coupled combustor = a combustion chamber in which the combustion zone and the load
share a common wall and are close together so that there will be appreciable heat transfer from
the combustion zone.
log = log,,, = log to the base 10 = common logarithm.
logarithmic mean temperature difference (lmtd) = a term used in evaluating heat exchanger per-
forma~lce;defined in formula 418, Volume I.
log,, In = logarithm to the base e, where e = 2.718; natural logarithm.
low Btu gas = a fuel gas of low calorific value, such as producer gas.
low CV gas = low Btu gas

GLOSSARY 399
lower heating value (lhv) = net heating value (nhvl = net calorific value. The gross heating value
minus the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the combustion of the hydrogen
in the fuel. For a fuel with no hydrogen, net and gross heating values are the same.
low fire = a relative term meaning that the input rate to a burner or combustion chamber is at or
near the minimum.
low-fie start = the firing of a burner with fuel controls in a low-fire position to provide safer oper-
ating conditions during light-off.
low frequency sounds = the low-pitched [bass) sounds, as £ram the left end of a piano keyboard.
[See also frequency.)
low pressure air = air generally at a pressure less than two pounds per square inch gauge pressure.
Produced by a centrifugal blower or a turbo blower.
low pressure air atomizing oil burner = a type of burner that uses a relatively large amount of air
at a pressure between 1 and 2 psi to atomize the oil.
low pressure air system for gasiair proportioning and mixing (air pressure up to 5 psig) = a systcm
using the momentum of a jet of low pressure air to entrain gas to protluce a combustible mixture.
low pressure gas = gas at a pressure less than 2 psi.
low pressure switch = a device to monitor liquid, steam, or gas pressure and arranged to shut down
the burncr if the pressure falls bclow a preset low pressure limit (normally open).
Lp = SPL = sound pressurc level, dB.
1-p = low pressure.

LPG = liquefied petroleum gas, usually propane and/or butane. Bottlcd gas. From natural gas
liquids or a refinery by-product.
LSI = large scale integration.

luminous flame burner = a long flame burner. A burner that purposely has poor mixing of fuel and
air so that the fuel takes more time to burn, thus producing a long, luminous flame.
Lw = PWL = sound power level, dB.
M (prefix, pronounced mega] = millions, x 10' (formerly, thousands as per the Roman numeral MI.
m = metre; (as a prefix, pronounced milli) = thousandths, x 1w3;measure of length; m3 = cubic
metre.
#m = pounds mass, as opposed to the more common meaning of pounds, which is force.
mA = milliampere.
main air = combustion air = the air supplied through a burner, but not including that air used for
atomizing.
main circulating loop = the section of an oil handling system that delivers the oil from sZorage lo
the branch circuits and returns the unused oil to the storage talk.
makeup air = air supply to a building to make up for exhausted air.
makeup water = watcr added to a boiler, tank, or some other container to replace water which has
been vaporized, thus maintaining the proper water level.
manifold = header = a supply pipc from which a number of branch pipes are fcd. (Scc also ple-
num.)
manometer ::a U-shapcd tubc, with liquid in the bottom of the U, used for measuring gauge pres-
sure or pressure differences of fluids. The U-tube is partially filled with a liquid of c1t:nsity different
from that of the fluid being measured. Wheri (liffererit pressure lines arc connected to the two ends
of the U-tube, the liquid level rises in thc low pressure side, and falls correspondingly in the high
prcssllrc sidc. Thc diffcront:c in hr:ight of the two licluiti r:olumns is proportional to the difference
in pressure, and is measurer1 in inchcs or n~illimctrcsof liquid cnlumn.
manual ignition = the lighting of a burner by use of a manually applied portable gas torch, or gas
pilot. (The terms manual and rriii~~~~tllly
do riot iiecessarily ir~lplythat the pilot is hand-held--but
that it is not automatically ignited.)
manual reset automatic file1 shulolTvalve = rni~r~unlreset valve = M-R valve, a file1 shutoff valve that
automatically closes by spring action when its hold-open rnuctlanisrn i s eIec:tric:ally rlr pneumatically
tripped by any connecleil irlterlock sensing a dangerous condition. It must bc rcopcncd by hand
aftcr thc dangerous condition is rectified arld the 110111-openmechanism re-energized.
manufactured gas = arly gas made artificially on a large scale for usc as fuel.
Mapp gas = stabilized methylocctylcnc propadiene. A fuel patented by L)ow Chemical Co., origi-
nxlly as a sul~stitutefor 3c:etylene. See Table 2.12, Volume I.
mass flow airlfuel ratio control = fully metered airlfuel ratio control with temperoturc compcnsa-
tion to correct volumetric metering to weight flow metering.
matter = anything that has mass or weight, and occupies space.
max = maximum.
mean stack temperature = the average temperature of flue gases in a chimney, sometimes approxi-
mated by measuring the temperature of the gases at a point midway between the breeching inlet
and the top of the chimney.
mechanical draft = a pressure differential produced by machinery, as a fan or blower.
mechanical mixer = a device that uses mechanical means to mix gas and air, and compress the
mixture to a pressure suitable for delivery to its pc~intof use. These utilize either a centrifugal fan
or mechanical compressor with a proportioning device on its intake.
mechanical pressure atomizing burner = a burner in which oil under pressure is permitted to
expand through a small orifice, causing the oil to break into a spray of fine droplets. (The same
principle as in a garden hose nozzle.)
mega, abbreviated M = prefix for the multiple lo6.

melting point = fusion point, the tr:~npr:r;lturcat which crystalline (solid) and liquid phases having
the same composition coexist in equilibrium. Few refractory materials have true melting points.
Most melt progressively over a rclativcly wide range of teni~~eratures.
GLOSSARY 401
mesh = mesh size, a size of scrccn or of particles passed by a screen in terms of the number of
openings per linear inch.
methane (CH,) = a gaseous hydrocarbon fuel. It is a principal component of natural gas, marsh gas,
and sewage gas.
methanol = methyl alcohol = wood ali:ohol= CH,OI-I, a poisonous, colorless, volatile, water-soluble
liquid produced by distillation of wood or incomplete oxidation of natural gas. Its liquid form has
a specific gravity of 0.793; its vapor furin, a gas gravity of 1.1052. Reid vapor pressure is 4.5 psi.
Viscosity at 20 C is 0.0593 centipoise, 0.748 centistokes. Heating values are 64 000 grnss Rtu/gal,
56 000 net Btulgal. Open cup flash point is 52 to 60 I?. Coefficient of c:ubical expansion is 0.0012/
"C. Corrosive to aluminum and lead. See Tables 1.8, 1.10, 2.1, Volume I and Table 8.9, Volume 11.
metre (m), formerly meter = SI unit of length. Scc Table C.6 in the Appendix.
m3/hr = cul)ic metres per liour = a rrleasure of vi)lurne flow rate. 1 m3/hr = 0.5887 cfrn = 4.4133 IJS
gpm. See Table C.6 in the Appendix.
MHI; = multiple hearth furnace.
micro, abbreviated p (mu) = one millionth = prefix for submultiple
microbar = one millionth of a bar (unit of pressure).
micron (p) = one thousandth of a millimetre (0.001 mm) = one millionth of a metre.
milli, abbreviated m = prefix for submultiple
millilitre = 0.001 L = 1 cc. See litre. (See Table C.6 in the Appendix.)
~ n i n= minimum.
mineral = a natural inorganic substance sometimes of variable chemical composition and physical
characteristics. Most minerals have a definite crystalline structure; a few are amorphous.
mineral matter = inorganic elements or compounds found in a natural state. As far as combustion
is concerned, mineral matter, water, inert gases, and oxygen cor~~prise
the uon-combustible parts of
fuels. Thus all ash is mineral matter.
minimum firing rate = the lowest input rate for a burner or a process.
minimum ignition temperature = the lowest temperature at which combustion of a given fuel can
start. (Sometimes shortened to "ignition temperature".)
mixer, gas = a device used to mix gas and air before delivery to a burner; an aspirator, an inspirator,
or a fan mixer.
mixture, lean - an air-fuel mixture containing too little fuel or too much air for perfect combustion.
mixture, rich = an air-fuel mixture containing too much fuel or too little air for perfect conlbustion.
MJ = megajoule = 1000 000 joules = 947 Btu = 239 kcal.

mm = millimetrc = one thousandth of a metrc.
mm Hg = millimctrcs of mercury column, a measure of pressure. l m m Hg = 0.019 33 psi. (See

Table C.5 in the Appendix.)
mm wc = nlm H 2 0= rnillimetres of water column, a measure ofpressure. 25.4 rnm wc = l U w c .(See

Tablc C.5 in thc Appendix.)
Mn = manganese.
modulating control = proportional control, hut sometimes used lo r e h tu any systeri~of autu~rrutic
control that providcs an infinitc number nf contrul positions, as opposed to systems with a finite
number of positions such a5 two-positiurl corltiol
modulus of elasticity = a measure of the elasticity of a material; the ratio of stress [force] to strain
(dcformation) within thc elastic limit.
lnodulus of rupture = a measure of the transvcrsc of "cross-breaking" strength of a solid body.
mol= mole = pound mol, the inolecular weight of a substance expressed in pounds, e.g. 32 pounds
of 0, constitute 1pound mr11of oxygen (or 3 2 grams of 0, constitute 1gram mol). For perfect gases,
a pound mol occupics 379 ft%t stp; a gram mol, 22.414 litres at 32 I: and 760 rrirrl Hg.
rnol fraction = mol pcrccnt, or volu~netricanalysis for a gas
molecular weight = thc sum of the atonlic weights of the atorns forming one mrdec:ule of a suh-
stil~lce.
moleculc = the smallest part of a compound that retains the properties of that compound.
momentum = mass times velocity; or (oftcn with gascs) density times velocity.
monolithic lining = n furnace lining without joints, formed of material which is rammed, cast,
gunned, or sintered into place.
morlar (refractory) = a finely gruund refi.ac:tory material that becomes plastic when mixed with
watcr, and is suitablc for usc in laying refractory brick.
mp = melting point = fusion point
mph = miles per hour.

M-R valve = manual reset valve = manual reset automatic fuel shutoff valve. See that definition.
MSHA = United States Mine Safety and Health Administration.
MSW = municipal solid waste.
muffle = an enclosure in a furnace protecting the load from the flame and products nf ct>mbustinn.
mullite refractories = refractory products consisting predominantly of mullite (3A1,0, . 2Si0,)

crystals formcd cithcr by conversion of one or more of the sillimanite group of minerals or by
synthesis from appropriate materials employing either melting or sintering processes.
MW = megawatt. 1 MW = 3.412 million Btulhr.
N = atomic nitrogen: newton, unit of force = 1 kg . m/s2.
N, = molecular nitrogen.
GLOSSARY
n (prefix, pronounced nano) = x
naphtha = a term applied to many petroleum, coal tar, and natural gas liquid by-products, usually
to a narrow boiling range fraction somewhere between kerosene and gasolinc. For one sample, the
minimum ignition temperature was 531 F or 227 C. For another sample, the molecular weight was
YR and the dew point was 150 F. See H-fuel. Many special purpose naphthas have narrow ranges of
specifications for use as solvents in particular industries. Although usable as a fuel, it is ~lifficullto
pump bccrtuse of vopur luck and lack of lubricity. (Naphtha is not a naphthenic hydrocarbon.]
naphthenes = saturated hydroc:arbons having a cyclic, or ring structure wit11 Llln general formula
C,HZn, such as cyclopropane (C,H,], cyclohexane (C,H,,). Naphthenlcs are cht:mic:nlly stable and
offer no unusual combustion proble~ns.
nat = nati = natural.
natural cnnvection = free convectio~l=transfer of heat by currents set up in fluids by differences of

dcnsity resulting from differences in temperature.
natural draft = a differe111:ein pressure resulting from the tendency of hot gascs to rise up a chim-
ney, thus creating a partial vacuum in the furnace.
natural gas = any gas f0un.d in the earth, HS opposed lo lnanufacturcd gas.
NC = numerical control.
nc = normally closed.
n-C,II,,, = nornlal butane, as opposed to iso-butane.
NEMA = National Electrical Manufacturers Association; Annapolis, MD.
net heating value = lower heating value, the gross heating value minus the latent heat of
vaporization of the water vapor forr~ledby the conibustion of the hydrogen in the fuel. For a fuel
with no hydrogen, net and gross heating values are the same.
neutral atmosphere = an atmospheric condition in firing a furnace or kiln that is neither oxidiz-
ing nor reducing.
NFPA = National Fire Protection Association; Quincy, MA.
nhv = net heating value = lower heating value. (See those definitions.)
Ni = nickel.
nine-inch equivalent = a brick volume equal to that of a standard 9 in. x 4% in. x 2% in. straight
brick; the unit of measurement of brick quantities in the refractories industry.
NIOSH = United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
nm3 = normal cubic metre, a measure of gas volume at a pressure of 760 mm of mercury column
and temperature of 0 C. sm3 = standard cubic metre is measured at 15 C and 760 mnl Hg. scf [US
standard cubic foot) i s measured at 60 F and 29.92"I-Ig. 1 nm3 = 1.06 sin' = 35.31 scf.
NO = nitric oxide = nitrogen monoxide, formed in flames, electric arcs, and many other places;
colorless gas, readily reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide.
404 NORTHAMERICAN COMBUSTIONHANDBOOK
NO, = nitrogen dioxide, formed from NO in the presence of sunlight anrl VOCs; red-brown gas,
causes smog, acid rain.
no = normally open.
noise = unwanted sound.
nonane (CJI,,) = a major constituent in kerosene, diesel h c l , #I fuel oil and #2 fuel oil.
nonoxidizing = not capable of oxidizing. Usually refers to the atmosphere in a furllace or kiln. Also
used to describe a burner flamc when insufficient 0, is present to complete combustion (reducing).
normal thread engagement = effective thread length = t h e amount of overlap, usually measured in
inches, ncccssary to ellsure a tight connection between thrt:acled pipes and fittings. (Sce Tablc D:l
in the Appendix.]
NOx - NO, = nitrogen oxides, specifically defined by the USEPA as NO plus NO,.
nozzle = an opening, port, orifice, or jet tube through which a fluid flows. For a burner, the part that
delivers air, fuel, or an air-fix1 mixture to a combustion chamber.
nozzle mixing burner = a burner In which the gas and air are kept sep;lr;~to
until disr1l;lrgctl fiom
the burner into the combustion chamber or tunnel. Generally use11 with low pressure g3s (lip to lh
psig or 14"wc) and low pressure air (up to 5 psig).
NTIS = National Technical Information Service, US Dept. of Commerce; Springfield, VA, USA.
null balanced system = a rnuthod Ior c:ontrolling a variaI)Ie by balancing it against a reference
quantity. The control is such that the difference between the variable and the rcfcrcncc is held to
zero.
O = atomic oxygen.
0, = oxygen (molecular).
od, OD = outside diameter or outside dimension, in inches, in feet
oec = oxygen-enriched combustion (as opposed to pac).
oil pressure atomizing burner = mechanical pressure atomizing burner, a burner in which oil
under pressure is allowed to expand through a small orifice, causing the oil to break into a spray of
fine droplets.
oil temperature limit switch = a device that monitors the temperature of oil between preset limits
and shuts down the burner, by clnsing an automatic file1 shutoff valve, should improper oil tem-
peraturc bc detected.
oil-to-gas converter = a device used to vaporize distillate oils. The vaporized oil-air mixture can then
be burned through premix gas burners. The system consists of an oil-fired air heater, atomizers,
and ratio controls.
oil train = a fuel train for oil. It may include heating and recirculating systems for hcavicr oils.
olefins = unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula C,II,,, such as propylene (C,FI,),
butene (C,H,). They tend to polymerize. They occur in large amounts in cracked fuel oils.
GLOSSARY
ONGA = Ontario Natural Gas Association.
on-off control = a control scheme that turns the input on or off, but does no proportioning or
throttling of the flow rates as is the case with a modulating control.
on-ratio = slang far operating at chemically correct airlfuel ratio.
open port burner = open-type burner = open burner = a burner that fires across a gap into an
operiir~gin the Iurnace or coillbustion chambcr wall and is not scaled into the wall. Soilletimes
surrounded by an air register through which controlled secondary air or tertiary air can enter the
combustion chamber. By contrast, see sealed-in burncr.
optimwn air supply = the quantity r ~ airf that gives greatest therrnal efficiency under actual condi-
tions. With perfect mixing of fuel ant1 air, the r~ptirriurriair supply is equal to the chelllically correct
(stoichiometric) amount of air.
orifice = literally, any opening, but used in this book to dcsignatc a deliberate cnnstn~ctinnin a
passage, circular in shape unless otherwise spccificd.
Orsat analyzer = an absorption apparatus uscd to dctcrminc the pcrccntagc (by volume, dry basis]
of CO,, O,, and CO in flue gases.
OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration, a part of the U.S. Department of Labor.
osi = ounces per square inch; a measure of pressure = 1/16 psi.
overall boiler efficiency = the ratio of the useful heat in thc delivered stcam to the gross heat in the
fuel supplicd, cxprcssed as a %.
overall cocEcient of heat transfer, U = the coefficient relating the heat transferred from onc point
to another, to the terriperature difference between the two points and the cross sectional area o f
heat transfer, and including the combined effects of several resistances in scrics as in composite
walls with surface and film resistances. See formula 415, Volume I.
overfiring = a hcat trcatmcnt that causes deformation or bloating of ceramic products, or damages
any product.
ovcrload of motors = excess amperage drawn by an electric motor resulting from application of a
torque greater than that for which it was designed. This slows the motor, and the excess current
breaks down the insulation, resulting in a burned-out motor.
overrate firring = operating a boiler or furnace at an input rate in excess of its rated capacity. The
rated capacity of a boiler is based upon its heat transfer surface area.
oxidizing atmosphere = a furnace atmosphere with an oversupply of oxygen, thus tending to oxidize
materials placed in it.
oxidizing flame = oxidizing firc, a lean flame or fire; that is, one resulting from combustion of a
mixture containing too much air and too little fuel. This kind of flame produces an oxidizing
atmosphere.
Oxy-fuel combustion = a system for operating a burner with 100% oxygen instead of air.
oxygen concentration = "%emi n Part 13 = % oxygen concentration (by volume) in an air-oxygen

mixture or in the total of separate air and oxygen streams being fed to a burner or combustion
chamber. (Normal air has a %e of 20.9; oxy-fuel has a %e of 100.)
406 NORTH AMERICAN COMl3IJSTIC)NHANDBOOK
Oxygen-enriched combustion = oec = oxygen enrichment =burning fuel w ~ t ha mixture of air and
pule oxygen [anywhere between e = 20.9% and 100% i~xygen)t o irnprt~veefficiency or to prncluct:
a higher flame temperature. Thc dcgrec of oxygcn cnrichmcnt is dcsignatcd by the % oxygcn con-
centration in thc air-oxygen mixture.
oxygen process = a mcthod for making steel in which oxygen is blown upon or through molten pig
iron, whereby most of the carbon and impurities arc rcmovcd by oxidation.
oxygcn sensor = a device for measuring the oxygen content of a gas.
Oxygen trim (0,trim) = an airlfilel mtio c:ontrol syste111t11;it uses a11 oxygen sensor in the flue gas
as a fecdback signill to control tho amount of excess oxygen (excess air).
oz = nunce(s1, (avdp).
P = pressure.
p = fluid flow rate, lb/hr :( gph x 1blgal or c h x lbIft7.
P a = pascal, an SI unit of prcssurc or stress

pascals. (See Table C.5 in the Appenrlix.]
- 1N/mL= 0.102 mm H,O = 0.002 32 os4. 1atm = 4976
pac = preheated air combustion [as opposed to nec) = h~lrninga file1 with air that has been hwateil
(upstrearrl of the burner) to an elevated temperature, as by a recuperator or regenerator, for the
purpose of improving fuel efficiency or raising the flame temperature.
PAC = polycyclic aronlatic compound (a pollutant), containing four or more closed rings, usually
of the benzenoid type.
paraffins = straight chain or branched, saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula C,H, ,, +
such as methane (CH,), propane [C,H,), octane (C,H,,). Paraffinic fuel oils are stable and easy to
1ia11dleand burn.
parallel flow = co-current flow. See Figure 9.11.
PCC = primary combustion chamber; SCC = secondary combustion chamber.
PCE = pyrometric cone equivalent, the temperature corresponding to the sagging point of a ceramic
conc of prescribed shape.
PEL = permissible exposure limit.
pentane = C,H,,.
percent air = thc actual amount of air supplied to a combustion process, expressed as a percent-
age of the amount theoretically required for complete combustion.
percent excess air = thc pcrccntagc of air supplicd in excess of that rcquired for complctc combus-
tion. For example, 120% air equals 20% excess air. See ideal combustion. (See Table C.10 in the
Appendix.)
perfect cnmbustion = the combining of the chemically correct proportions of Fuel and air in
c:ornbustion so that both thc file1 and oxygen are totally consumed.
GLOSSARY 407
perfect gas = any gas for which the quantity PvIT is a constant over a wide range of conditions
(where P is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, and T is the absolute temperature].
There is no "perfect gas," but many gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, nhey this law
very closely over a wide range of temperatures and pressures, and so are oftcn callcd perfect gases,
as opposed to vapors which do not obey Boyle's law so closely.
periodic dryer = a dryer in which ware is placed, dried, and then removed; in contrast to a
continuous dryer.
periodic kiln = a batch-type kiln.
periodic timc (in acoustics) = poriod = rcciprociil of frequency = time for one cycle.
permeability = thc property of porous materials which permits t11e pirssage of gases and liquids
under pressure. The permeability of a body is largely dependent upon the number, size, and shtlpc:
of the open connecting pores, and is lneasured by the rate offlow of ;1stnn~lortlfluitl unrler tiefinite
pressure.
pH = a chemical term used tn specify the degree of acidity of a solution. A pH of 0 to 7 is acid; 7 to

1 4 is alkaline.
photocell flame detector = a device that generates or rcctifics an clcctric currcnt while exposed to
the Iight fro111 a flame. Failure c~ft11e c:urrent or lack of rectification may be used to close an auto-
matic fuel shutoff valve.
PIC = pressure indicating controller.
pic = products mf inr:ornplete combustion, such as CO, OH, and aldehydes. As usually used, the pic
also include some poc.
pico, abbreviated p = prefix for submultiple 10-12.
p&id = process and instrumentation diagram.
PID = proportionallintegral/derivative control (gainlratelreset).
pilot = a small flame used to light a burner. An interrupted pilot (sometimes called ignifion pilot) is
automatically spark-ignited each time that the main burner is to be lighted. It burns during the
flame-establishing period andlor trial-for-ignition period, and is automatically cut off (interrupted)
at the end of the main burner flame-establishing period, while the main burner remains on.
Interrupted pilots are usually preferredlrequired for industrial heating operations.
Two types of pilot control not suitable for industrial furnaces, ovens, kilns, incinerators, nor
boilers are:
A continuous pilot (sometimes called a constant pilot, standby pilot, or standing pilot) burns
without turndown throughout the entire time that the burner assembly is in service, whether or not
the main burner is firing.
An intermittent pilot is automatically ignited each timc thcre is a call for heat, and maintained
throughout the entire run period. It is shut off with the main burner at the end of heat demand.
piod = temperature sensing probe, usually encased.
pipe burner = any burner made in the form of a tube or pipe with ports or tips spaced over its
length.
pitch = rarcly-uscd fuel products by distillation of coal tar. Very heavy, with a high carbonlhydrogen
ratio.
408 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUS TION HANDBOOK
Pitot tube = impact tube, a tube with an open end immersed in a stream, and pointed upstream.
The other end of the tube is connected to a pressure gauge, which the11 indicates the total pressure
due to the "ram effcct" of thc flow. Namcd after a French physicist, Henry Pitot (1695-1771).
Pfi transducer = a [1evir:e to C C J I I V B I ~a~ pressure signal to electrical currcnt.
plasma jet = ionized gas produceti by passing an inert gas thrt~ugha high-intensity arc, causing
lemperatures up to tcns of thousands of degrees Celsius.
plastic refractory = a blend of ground refractory materials in plastic form, suitable for ra11111li1lg
into placc to form monolithic linings.
PIX = logic c:or~trc~llnr.
plc = pressure loss coefficient = pressure loss ratio = AP net orifice loss affer recovery aAP,n,, at the
vena contracts.
~ l e n u n ur
i ~ l e n u mchamber = windbox = part of a ducting or piping system having ii cross
sectional area considerahly larger than that of any connecting pipcs or openings so that the
vclocity prt:ssurc within such section is essentially zero. (Velocity pressure is largely converted
to static: pressure.) A rrlarlifol[l should be generously sized to serve as a plcnum so that flow
distribution will be equal among all of its downcomers.
plug fan = a high temperature recirculating fan that is inserted through the roof of a kiln or furnace
to rccirculi~tng;ises within the chanlber.
plug flow ::a reaction situation in which the products are pushed, as a plug, ahead of the raw
reactants without rnixing or reacting with the inconling products or those in the reaction zone.
Thcorctical opposite of a well-stirred reaction.
plug valve = a gas valve = a device for qhutting off the flow of a fluid (not for throttling control),
consisting of a rotatable cylinder or conical element with a passage through it to pennit flow in one
position but block flow when rot~teclto other posiiions.
PM-10 = particulate emissions less than 1 0 microns i n size (1 micron = 1 millionth of a metre
= 0.000 039 4").
pna. See polynuclear aromatics.
poc = products of combustion (assumed complete combustion) or combustion gases in a combus-

tion chamber or on their way through a flue, heat recovery device, pollution reduction equipment,
or stack. Usually consist of GO,, H,O, N,, but may also include O,, CO, Hz, aldehydes, and other
complex hydrocarbons; and sometimes particulates, sulfur compounds, and nitrogen compounds.
May be termed flue gas, stack gas, exit gas--depending on position. Should not be called waste gas
bccause of confusion with by-product fuels. See also pic.
POHC = principal organic hazard constituent.
poise = a metric unit for measuring absolute viscosity. One poise equals one dyne-second per
square centimetre, or one gram per centimetre sound. From a physicist named Poiseuille who, in
1842, laid the groundwork for the deduction of coefficients of viscosity.
polymerization = the formation of larger, heavier molecules.
polynuclear aromatic (pna) = a petrochemical compound, usually gaseous, the molecule of which
consists of three or more benzine rings. Also known as a polycyclic hydrocarbon.
GLOSSARY
port = an orifice or opening
ported manifold type burner = a burncr in which a manifold supplies fucl to a number of small
ports, as for examplc thc burners in domestic gas stoves.
positive displacement pump = any type of pump in which lcakngc or slip is negligible, so that the
pump delivers a constant volume of fluid, 1)uilding up to any pressure necessary to deliver that
volurr~e(unless the motur stalls or thc pump breaks).
post-purge = an acceptabl~method for scavenging tlit: cor~lluslionchamber, boiler passes and

breeching to rcmove all combustible gases after flame failure controls have scnsed pilot and main
burner shutdown and fucl shutclff valves are closed.
potential flow = a rtlovutnent of fluid, heat, or electrical change, the rate of which is dircctly pro-
portional to the net driving force and inversely proportional to thc rcsistancc. For example, per
Ohm's Law fclr electricity, I = EIR; for hcat transfer rl = Q/A = ATIR or 1JAT; alld pcr the Bcr~loulli
- -
equation for fluids, flow rate per unit arca, QIA = K ~ Z ~ , . A P (K
/ ~ and
. U are measures of conduc:-
tance, wllich is the reciprocal of resistance.)
pouring-pit refractory = a refractory associatetl with the transfer or flow colltrol of molten stccl
betwccn filmace ant1 mold.
pouring temperature = the custunlary temperature at which molten metals xre pourer1 in indus-
trial proccsses.
pour point = the lowest temperature at which an oil will flow when cooled and examined under
conditions spccificd in ASTM test method D 97.
power = the ratc of transfer of energy.
pp11= parts per billion.
ppm = parts per million, referring to c:c~rlc:entration,usually of a pollutant or contaminant in air,

water, or food, although also used i n specifying chemical formulations. The "parts" may be
volumes in a million voIumes or weights in a million weights. For gaseous pollutants it js usually
by volume in 1 000 000 volumes of dry air. 1 ppm = --!&- ~ g / m ~ M is the molecular
where
0.024 04
weight. 1 ppm = 0.0001% = 1pound in 500 tons = 1 ounce in 7530 gallons of water.
ppm, =parts per million by volume.
preheated air = air heated prior to its use for combustion. Frequently the heating is done by hot
flue gases.
preheated air combustion. See pac.
preignition purge = pre-purge, an acceptable method for scavenging the combustion chamber,
boiler passes, and breeching to remove all combustible gases before the ignition system can be
energized.
premix gas burner = usually, a burner (nozzle) supplied with gas and air from a11 upstream mixing
device, as rjpposed to a nozzle-mix burner. Sornetir~les,a burner within which the gas and air are
mixed before they reach its nozzle.
premixer = a device used to rnix gas and air bcforc delivery to a burner, such as an aspirator, an
inspirator, or a fan mixer.
pre-purge = preignition purge.

pres = press = p r = pressure,
pressure-balanced a/f ratio control = system using regulators or pneumatic controls to automati-
cally control airlfucl ratio.
pressure burner = blast burner = a premix burner dolivering a combustible mixture under pres-
sure, normally above 0 . 3 " to
~ the
~ corrlb~~stion
zone.
pressure control = a system for control of airifuel ratios by proportioning the pressures in the air
and f i ~ csupply
l lines.
pressure drop = thc diffcrence in I,rc?ssure between any two points along the path of flow of a fluid.
pressure loss = prcssurc drop, often unintentional.

pressure recovery = the amount nf pressure regainecl after n fluid passes through a restrir:iion such
as a thin plate orifice. Percent of recovery depends on the Beta ratio (d/D).
pressure-reducing regulator = pressure regulator = Iine pressure regulator, a device used to main-
tain a constant pressure in a file1 supply line regardless of the demand. It cannot maintain a pres-
sure greater than its inlet pressurc.
pressure-relieving regulator = pressure relief valve, a device used to maintain a constant pressure
in a fuel supply line regartileus of flow by t~leetiingnff some file1 to atmosphere or to return to a
tank.
primary air = the first stream of air to mix with fuel at a burner, butsee secondary air.
primary element = the first system element that responds quantitatively to the measured variable
and performs the initial measurement nperation. A primary element performs the initial conver-
sion of measurement energy.
producer gas = an artificial fuel gas of low Btu content made by passing a mixture of air and steam
through a hot bed of coke or coal.
products of combustion. See poc.
products of incomplete combustion. See pic.
propane (C,H,) = an easily liquefiable hydrocarbon gas of the paraffin series. Propane is one of the
components of raw natural gas, and it is also derived from petroleum refining processes. A major
component of "LPG", liquefied petroleum gas.
proportional control = a mode of control in which there is a continuous linear relation between
value of controlled variable and the position of the final control element.
proportioning = maintaining the desired ratio of fuel to air.
proportioning valve (pv) system for airlgas prnportioning and mixing = a system using separate
control of air and gas both of which are under pressure. The valves, controlling the air and gas
flows are usually mechanically connected.
propylene (C,H,) = a hydrocarbon fucl similar to and usually associated with propane. 1f over 5%
propylene is found in propane, ponr combustion with some soot and carbon formation may occur.
PSD = prevention of significant deterioration (of the environment).

GLOSSARY
psf = pound(s) per square foot. (See Table C.5 in the Appendix.)
psi = pounds per square inch. (See Table C.5 i n the Appendix.) psig = psi gauge pressure, psia
= psi absolutc prcssurc = gauge prcssurc + 14.695 psia (barometric pressure).
psychrometry = the science or techniques of measurement of the water vdpclr content of air or
othcr gases.
pulse combustion = ram-jet-like combustion that proviclcs pressure, flow, and high convection heat
transfer in limited configurations for domestic and commercial applications invulving large
numbers of identical heating units.
pulse-controlled firing = a control schenle for furnaces with multiple i11dustri;ll burners wherein
all burners nra clperaled on/oPf or high tc~very low, and rnodlllatnrl by varying their ratio of timc:
on to timc off. This enhances convcction hcat transfer because burners operate only at lull fire.
Individual burncr cyclc timcs arc lisually "stcppcd" to start at slightly different times so as to
increase furnace temperature uniformity. See Step-Fire"'.
pump lift = the net vertical difference in elevation between an open liquid surface and the suction
side of a pump.
purge, post = an acceptahlt! method for scavenging the combustion chamber, boiler passes and
breeching to rcmovc all combustible gascs aftcr flnmc failure controls have scnsnd pilot and main
burner shutdown and file1 shlltoff valves arc? closed,
purging = eliminating an undesirable substance from a pipe, piping system, or furnace by flush-
ing it out with another substance, as in purging a furnace of unburned gas by blowing-air through
it.
purple peeper = (slang for) ultraviolet flame detector, a device illat energizes a n e1ec:tronlr: c:irt:i~it
when it "sees" the small amount of ultraviolet radiation that is present in all industrial burner
flarries.
pv = proportioning valves, a system for airlfuel ratio control using air and fuel valves that are
opened and closed in proportion to one another by a common shaft, a mechanical linkage (some-
times cam-biased), or an electronic "linkage".
PV = process variable.
P W L = Lw = sound power level.

pyrometric cone = one of a series of pyramidal-shaped pieces consisting of mineral mixtures, and
used for measuring time-temperature effect. Each numbered cone is of a definite mineral com-
position so that when heated under standard conditions, it bends at a definite temperature, the
PCE.
pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) = the number of that Standard Pyrometric Cone whose tip would
touch the supporting plaque simultaneously with a cone of the refractory material being investi-
gated, when tcstcd in accordance with the Method of Tcst for Pyromctric Conc Equivalent (PCE)of
Refractory Materials (ASTM) Designation CZ4.
Q = volume flow rate or heat flow rate.
Q' = stp volume flow rate (weight flow rate).

Q,, Q,= fluid flow rate [volume) at concfiiions 1 and 2 , or heat transfer rate at conditions 1 and 2.
q = heat flow rate or heat flux (Btulhr ft2).
qc = convection heat transfer rate.
qk = conduction heat transfer rate.
q, = radiation heat transfcr rate.
quad Y 1015Btu - log thousand cf of natural gas.
quarl = burner tilc, cornbusticln refractory.
quarl angle = tile angle, usui~llythe inc:luded angle, bul it is l~etterto always specify "qilarl in-
c:lutied angle" or "quarl half angle '.
quenching of flames = the process in which the reactants in a flame are rapidly cooled. This
usually prevents the reiiction from reaching r:nmpletion in the localized area where quenching
occurs. Large scale quenching may result in incomplete combustion.
quenching of metals = a hedt treat~nerltof riletal wherein the heated piece is rapidly cnoled by
i~rirrlersi~ig
it in water or oil fc~rtile purpose of hilrdening the material.
R or "R = Rankinc or dcgrccs Rankine (absolutc tcmpcrature level = F + 460); or resistance, the
reciprocal of conductance. (See formulas 415 and 416, Volume 1.)
RACT = reasonably available control technology; RACM = ... measure.
radiant burner = radiation burner = infrared burner, a burner designed to transfer a significant part
of the cornbustion heat in the for111 of radiation from surfaces of various refractory shapes or alloy
screens.
radiant tube burner = a burner designed to operate inside a tube, which heats the load indirectly
by radiation, or by air or gas convection.
radiation = a mode of heat transfer in which the heat travels very rapidly in straight lines without
heating the intervening space. Heat can be radiated through a vacuum, through many gases, and
through a few liquids and solids.
radiation burner = infrared burner = a burner that heats its load primarily by radiation--either by
long burner flame, or by convection transfer to a surface that becomes a radiant emitter.
ramming mix = a ground refractory material mixed with water and rammed into place for patch-
ing shapes or for forming monolithic furnace linings.
rangeability = the ratio of maximum operating capacity to minimum operating capacity within a
specified tolerance and operating condition.
ratio regulator = a proportional control device that regulates the downstream pressure in the
pipeline in which it is located to maintain proportional pressures in fuel and air lines in a prcssurc
control system, thus producing proportional flow of fuel and air.
GLOSSARY 413
Ratiotrol'"' = North American Manufacturing Company's trademark for an aidoil ratio regulator.
RCRA = Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (USA).
rdf = refuse-derived fuel.
recirculating type oil system = a closed circuit oil system in which the oil not used at the burners
i s returned to the storage tank. It is good practice to use only a relatively small proportion of the oil
pumped, st] that turning on additional hurners will not cause an excessive tirtip in pressure or
temperature.
reclaimed oil = motor, cutting, rli~eric:liing,or trallsformcr oils that havc been trcatcd for use as
fuel oil. (;cnerally satisfactory substitutcs for heavy fuel oils, but somctimcs requiring unusual
preparation.
rectification = the process of ct~nvertingan alternating current to a pulsing ciirt:c:t current.
recuperator = a piece of equipment that rnakcs use of hot flue gases to preheat air for com-
bustion. The flue gases arld air flow are in adjacent passageways so that beat is transferred from
the 1101 gases, through the separating wall, to the cold air.
reducing atmosphere = a furnace atmosphere t h ~ tt?r~tls

t to rcrl~ovcoxygen from substances placed
in thc furnace. It may be produced by supplying inadequate air tu the b ~ ~ r n e rthus
s , intentionally
making the con~bustionincomplete.
reducing flame = reduc:ing fire, a 'ich flame or fjre; that is, one resulting fro111 combustion of a
mixturc containing too much fuel and too little air, producing a reducing atmosphere.
refractories = highly heal resistant materials used to line furnaces and kilns.
refraclory block = refractory tile = burner block = burner tile = combustion tile = combustion
block = burner refractory = a piece of refractory material molded with a conical or cylindrical
hole through its center. The blrlc:k is ~rluuntedin such a manner that a burner flame fires ihrough
this hole. Thc block helps to maintain continuous combustion, and reduces the probability of
flashback and blow-off with premix l~urners.
refuse = the ash and unburned fnel remaining after combustion of a solid fuel; any solid waste.
regenerator = a cyclic heat interchanger which alternately receives heat from gaseous combustion
products and transfers heat to air before combustion.
regulator = a device that detects a change in a process variable, and automatically energizes a
mechanism that will correct the deviation in that variable so as to return it to a preset value. A
controller is externally powered, but a regulator uses energy from the system that it is regulating. In
current practice, a controller is sometimes called a regulator.
regulator, gas pressure = a spring loaded, dead weighted or pressure-balanced device that can
maintain the ghs pressure to the burner supply line withi11 210% of the operating pressure at any
one rate from maximum to minimum firing rates, with variations in inlet pressure of *40% of the
rated inlet pressure.
relative humidity, r h = the partial pressure of water vapor in air divided by the vapor pressure of
liquid water at the same temperature, expressed as a percent. For other liquids, the term "'%
saturalion" is used.
relief valve = a valve that opens at a designated pressure and bleeds a system in order to prevent a
build-up of excessive prcssure that might darnogc regulators and other instruments.
NORTH AMERICAN COMB USTION HANDBOOK
residual oil = residuum = heavy oil, the heavy portion of a cruds oil remaining alter distillation
and cracking. As rcfining methods incrcasc yiclds of gasoline and distillate oils, thc rcsidual oil
becomes heavier and more difficult to pump and atomize.
resistance = (as applied to fluid flow) the opposition to flow that makes it inevitable that there will
be o pressure drop whcn a fluid is flowing.
resolution = the smallest change in input that can be detected by an instrument.
resonance = maximum vibration or sound--occurs when the frequency of the forcing vibration is
the same as the natural frequency of a column of gas or solid body on which it is impressed.
Sometimes referred to as "response".
return line = the low pressure side of a main circulating oil loop or branch circuit. That is, that part
of an oil circulating system through which the unused oil flows back to the storage tank after
having passed the burners.
reverberation = the sound that persists at a given point after the initial sound source has stopped.
Reynolds number = the ratio nf inertia forces to viscous forces i n a flowing fluid. When Reynolds
number has becn calculated, the friction factnr may he determined.
RH or rh = relative humidity, usually %. (See above.) \
Ri =&in ftLhr OFIBtu, the heat transfer resistance of the film or boundary laycr on thc insidc of
hid;
a pipe.
ribbon burlier = a burner having many small closely spaced ports usually 111adeby pressing corru-
gated metal ribbons into a slot.
rich mixlure = a mixture of fuel and air in a premix burner system in which an exc:ess r~fhiel is
supplied in relation to the amount needed for complete combustion. Morc prcciscly, a fuel-rich
mixture, or an air-lean mixture, or oxidant-lean ratio.
rich ratio = o proportion of fucl to air containing too much fuel or too little air for complete com-
bustion of the fuel. More precisely, a fuel-rich ratio, or an air-lean ratio, or oxidant-lean ratio.
ricra = pronunciation for the acronym RCRA (above).
riddle tile = refractory tiles usuaIly 9 to 1 2 in. thick used to make up hearths in periodic kilns. Tile
shapes permit flue gases to travel down fi-om the kiln to flue collection chambers.
ring burner = a form of atmospheric burner made with one or more concentric rings; or a form of
burner used in firing boilers consisting of a perforated vertical gas ring with air admitted generally
through the center of the ring. Combustion air may be supplied by natural, induced or forced draft.
rise of an arch = the vertical distance between the spring line and the highest point of the under
surface of an arch.
m s = root mean square.

1 in ft2hr OFIBtu, the heat transfer resistance of the film or boundary layer on the outside
R, = -
ho
c ~ af pipe or a pipe's insulation.
GLOSSARY
ROG = reactive organic gases - VOC.

ROI = return on investment.
rotameter = a variable-area, constant-head, rate-of-flow volume meter in which the fluid flows
upward through a tapered tube, lifting a shaped weight to a position where upward fluid force just
balances its weight.
rotary cup oil burner = centriiiigal atomizing burner, a burner which throws oil from a rotating cup
into an air stream, breaking the oil into a fine conical spray.
rotary dryer or kiln = an inclined rotating drum usually refractory lined and fired with a burner at
thr? lower end. Used to dry loose materials as they roll through by gravity, sometimes lifted, mixed,
arid exposed by flights or shelves attached to the inner wall.
rotary plug valve = a type of valvc in which a ported sleeve or plug is rotated past an opening in t h ~
valve body.
rowlock course = a course of brick laid on edgo with thcir longcst dimensions perpendicular to thc
face of a wall.
RPM flange = a low pressure pip: fln~igedesign standardized by the Riveted Pipe Manufacturers.
rpm = revolutions per minute (rotational velocity) = Hz.
rtd = resistance temperature detector.
S = specific gravity, usually relative to water; also sulfur.
s = second(s).
SAE = Society of Automotive Engineers; Warrendale, PA.
sagger = a fired ceramic container to hold ware during firir~gand tu protect ware G.UIII Ll~eflames.
Sankey diagram = a pictoral method for analyzing how heat is spent in a furnace, boiler, oven,
kiln, i~lcinerator,heater. See Part 3, Volume I and Part 9, Volume 11.
saturated air = air containing all the water vapor it can normally hold under existing conditions.
saturated steam = steam at the boiling point for water at the exisiing pressure.
saturation pressure = the pressure at which a vapor confined above its liquid will be in stable
equilibrium with it. Below saturation pressure, some of the liquid will change to wpor, and
above saturation pressure, somc of thc vapor will condense to liquid.
saturation temperature = the boiling point of a liquid for the existing pressure.
Saybolt Furol = a scale used for measuring the viscosity of heavy oils. The instrument has a larger
orifice and is used at a higher temperature than the Saybolt Univcrsal instrument used for lighter
oils.
Saybolt Universal = a scale used for measuring the viscosity of oil, expressed in seconds rcquircd
for a specified amount of oil to flow through a n orifice; hence the larger the number of seconds,
Sayl~nltIJniversal (SSIT), the rrlole viscous the oil.
SCC = secondary combustion chamber.
scfh = standard (stp) cubic feet per hour.
schlieren = strata of air having densities sufficiently different from surrounding air to permit flow
pattern studies by refracted light.
SCR = selective catalytic reduction, a form of de-NOx.

sealed-in burner = a burner mounted on a furnace in an airtight manner so that there can be no
inflow of secondary air around the burner.
sec = second(s), also abbreviated s.
secondary air = the second stream of air to mix with fuel at or near a burner. (See also tertiary air.)
In an air atomizing burner, the atomizing air might be considered to be primary air and the main or
combustion air to be secondary air. In an open burner, all air through the burner [atomizing and
main) may be considered to be primary and all air through the register to he secondary.
semimuffle furnace = a furnace with a partial muffle, in which the products of combustion can
eventually contact the load, but the temperature uniformity is improved by protecting the load
from intense direct hcat transfcr from the flames.
sensible heat = heat, the addition or removal of which results in a change in temperature, as
clpposed to latent heat.
Sensitrol" = North American Mfg. Company's trademark for a limiting orifice oil valve that is also
usable for manual shutoff.
sg = specific gravity with respect to water with both substances at 60 F. (This abbreviation is
peculiar to the combustion industry and may not be widely recognized in other fields. "sg" and
"sp gr" are also used for specific gravity of a gas relative to air, a term identified as "gas gravity" in
this book.)
SGA = specific gravity relative to standard dry air (0.076 32 lb/ft30r 1.222 kg/m3).
SGW = specific gravity relative to water at 39.2 F or 4 C (62.4 lb/ft3 or 1000 kglm3).
shaft furnace = a vertical cylindrical heating chamber, such as a cupola or blast furnace, in which
lump materials are heated by convection of a rising stream of hot gases.
shaft kiln = a furnace for heating lump material, consisting of a vertical refractory-lined shaft.
shape factor = the fraction of radiation from one surface that falls upon another.
shielded cable = a single wiye or multiple conductors surrounded by a separate conductor (the
shield) to minimize the effects of outside electrical disturbances.
shock loss = if in converting fluid velocity to static pressure the fluid is stopped or slowed too
rapidly, some of the energy of fluid velocity is converted to usclcss heat instead of the desired static
pressure. This is called shock loss.
shutdown = the total process of terminating operation of a system.

shuttle kiln = a type of perir~dickiln in which the ware is loaded on cars rather than directly on the
hearth. Operating sequence is: load car, push car into kiln, fire, cool, remove car.
GLOSSARY 417
SI = Le Systenle International d'Unitbs, the international system of units, the new metric system.
Si = silicon.
silicon carbide = a cornpound of silicon and carbon; formula, Sic, used for making refractories that
are good heat conductors.
simultaneous gas-oil hurner = 3 burner that burns gas and oil at the same time.
single port burner = a burner having only one discharge opening or port.
sintering = a heat treatment that causes adjacent particles of material to cohere at a temperature
bclow that of complete melting.
skewback = the course of brick, having an i~iclincdface, from which a n arch is sprung.
sl = sen level.
slagging of refractories = destructive chemical action between refractories and external agcnc;ir:s :~t
high te~nperatures,resulting in the formation of a liquid.
sludge = heavy materials found at the bottom of fuel oil storage tanks, including oil-water emul-
sions, heavy chemicals, oxidation products, dirt; also sewage sludge.
slurry = a suspension of finely pnlvcrizcd solid matcrial in water, of creamy consistency.

sm3 = standard cubic metre (at 15 C and 760 mrn Hg).
sm3/h = stantiart1 cubic metres per hour (volume flow rate). See also nm3.
small port burner -- ported manifold burner = a manifold containing many small holes through
which an air-gas mixture flows, and outside of which the mixture burns, such as a domestic gas
stove burner.
SME = Society of Manufacturing Engineers; Dearhorn, MI.
Sn = tin.
SNCR = selective non-catalytic reduction.
SNG = substitute natural gas or synthetic natural gas, usually made from coal or petroleum
products. Trade names include hi-gas, bi-gas.
snubber = any device or method for slowing or easing a reaction, as a brake on a drum, a dampen-
ing device on a spring, or an orifice in a pneumatic signal line.
SO, = sulfur dioxide.
SO3 = sulfur trioxide.
soak (soaking) = to hold the load in a kiln or furnace at one temperature for a time to allow equal-
ization of temperature throughout the load.
soldier course = a course of brick set on end.
sonic velocity = velocity of sound = c;ritical velocity, V,.

soot = a black substance, consisting of very small particles of carbon or heavy liydrocarbons, which
appears in smoke resulting from incomplete combustion.
sound = any cyclical pressure variation in a n elastic medium (gas, liquid, or solid) that is
perceived and interprctcd by the ear.
sound absorption =conversion of sound cncrgy into another form of encrgy, usually heat, when the
sound enters an acoustic medium.
suund power = acoustic source energy rate = acoustic power, PWL, or L

, usually rneasuretl in
watts.
sound pressure = sound intensity, in microbars or micropascals.
sound pressure level, SPL = Lp = ratio of a mcasured sound pressure to that at somc arbitrary base,
usually in decibels.
sound power level = L, or PWL, is the total aconstic: nnelgy rate radiating from a point srlurce of
origin of ;l sound, in watts.
sour gas, sour oil = fuel containi~lga large propc>rlion of sulfur or sulfur compounds. Low sulfur or
trcatcd fuels are termed swcot g a s , sweet crude.
SOX = SOx .:sulfur oxides, e.g. SO,, SO,.
space heating = hcating large volumes of air to the temperatures desired for hunlan occupancy or
fr~rstorage.
spalling of refractories = the loss of fragments (spalls) from the face ofa rcfractnry struc:turc, through
r:riic:king and rupture, with exposure of inner portions of the original rcfroctory mass.
spanner tile
tile.
- a piece of refractory that bridges an opening--as to providc support above a burner
sparging = sprinkling over, scattering across, or mixing into.
spark-ignited pilot = an electrically-ignited small flame used to light a main burner. See pilot
specific gravity of a gas = gas gravity = the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of dry air at
standard temperature and pressure.
specific gravity of a liquid = the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water. ("sp gr G O /
60 F" means specific gravity when both the liquid and the water are at 60 F.)
specific heat = the amount of heat required to raise a unit weight of a substance through one degree
temperature risc. 1Btu/lb O F = 1 cal/,m "C.
specific volume = the volume occupied by a unit weight of a substance under any specified condi-
tions of temperature and pressure; the reciprocal of density; ft3/pound or m3/kg.
specific weight = density, the weight per unit volume of a substance
sp gr (60/60 F) = specific gravity with rcspect to water with both substances at 60 F.
sp ht = specific heat.
SPL = sound pressure level = Lp.
spring line or spring o f a refractory arch = the line of curltact belween the inside surface of a n arch
and the skewback; usually used to specify the height of an arched refractory chamber.
GLOSSARY
sprung arch = a curved structure supported only by abutments at the side or ends.
spuds = a gas orifice, a small drilled hole for the purpose of limiting gas flow to a desired rate; a
flame holder; a small-port prernix nozzle.
sq ft = square foot (or feet); ft2 is preferred

sq in. = square inch (or inches); in.z is preferred.
SR1 = seconds, Re~lwoo11
NO 1.
SSF or SFS = seconds, Saybolt Furol, a unit of kinematic viscosity. See Figme 2.7, Volume I.
SSU or SUS = seconds, Saybolt Universal; a measure of viscosity. See Part 2, Volume I.
stability, combustion = that quality of a'burncr enabling it to remain lighted over a wide range of
airlfuel mixture ratios and input rates without benefit of a pilot or spark.
stability, oil = the resistance of an oil to breakdown. Results of instability art? sludge fc>rrnation,
carbon or coke formation, sooting, and gumnly or waxy deposits.
stack gases. See flue gases and poc.
stackhnnded = method ol installing ceramic fiber, perpendicular to inner furnac:e wall surEar:e.
stack loss = flue gas loss, the sensit~leIleiit r:arrieci away by the dry flue gas plus the sensible and
latent heat carried away by thc water vapor in the flue gas.
staijed c n ~ b u s t i u n= a physical arranoernerlt of burner parts and surrunn~linginjer:tor nl~zzlesthat
ad s the alr to the fuel or the fuel to ihe air in stages.
standard air = air at standard temperature and pressure, namely 60 P (15.56 C) and 29.92 inches of
mercilry. (14.696 lb per in.%r 760 mm Hg.) See Table 1.1, Volume I.
standard atmosphere. = thc acccptcd normal atmospheric pressure at sca lcvel, equal to 29.92
inches of mercury column, 14.696 lb per sq. inch ahsnhlte, or 760 mm Hg.
standard barometer = the reading of a barometer for standard atmospheric pressure; equal to 29.92
inches of mercury column or 14.696 psia or 760 mm Hg.
standard cubic foot = a measure of gas volume, at 60 F and 29.92"Hg.
standard cubic metre = a measure of gas volume, at 15 C and 760 rnm Hg, = sm3.
standard pressure = standard atmosphere, equal to a pressure of 29.92"Hg. 14.696 Ib per sq. in., or
760 mrn of mercury.
standard temperature = 60 F (15.56 C) in this book and in engineering. For the fan industry, 70 F
(21.1 C). In scientific work, 32 F (0C) or 39.2 F (4 C).
standard volume = the volume of a gas or air measured at 60 F (15.56 C) temperature and 29.92
inches of mercury pressure (760 mm Hg or 14.696 psia).
standby pilot--(explained under pilot).
standing pilot--(explained under pilot).
static pressure = the force el unit sreil exerted by a fluid upon a surface at rest, or across a surface
parallel to thc direction of fluid flow For flow in a pipe, if is measured by a gauge connected to the
side of the pipe, perpendicular to the direction of ow. (See Figure 5.3, Volume I.)
stcady state = a condition in which the variables of a process are constant with respect to time.
StepFireTMsystem = North American Mfg. Company's trademark for its pulse-controlled firing
system which converts the temperature demand input signal to the on-time and rotational-time of
burner group firing.
Stephan-Bolzman law = total cncrgy radiated from a I)cldy is proportional to the 4th power of its
absolute temperature = 4th power law.
std = standard.
steam atomizing burner = a burner that uses high pressure steam to tear droplets of oil frrlrri an oil
stream and propel them into the combustion space so that they vaporize quickly.
stoichiometric combustion - See stoichiometric ratio.
stoichiometric ratio = chemically c:orrect ratio of air to fuel, or oxygen to fuel, that will leave no
unused file1 nor oxygen after combustion.
stoke = the cgs unit of kinematic viscnsity. One stoke equals one centimctrc squared per second.
From Sir George Gahriel Stokes (1819-19031, Rritish nr~thctrnaticianand physicist who is noted for
his work on the tiiction of fluids i n motion.
stp = standard temperature and pressure (60 F and 14.696 psia or 15.56 C and 760 mm Ng].
stp flow rate = the rate of flow of a fluid, by vulurne, correcterl to standard temperature and pres-
sure.
stp volume = the volumci that a quantity of gas or air would occupy at standard tempcraturc and
pressure.
strainer = a fine mesh scree11or filter used to separate foreigri particles from an oil or steam stream.
street elbow = street ell = a 90 degree pipe fitting wiul a 111aIe thread on one end and a female
thread on the other. Not recommended because of higher pressure drop than a standard elbow with
female threads on both ends.
stretcher = a brick laid flat with its length parallel to the face of the wall.
sublimation = change of state directly from solid to gas, or fiom gas to solid.
suction line = that part of an oil circulating system between the oil storage tank and the first pump.
suction type mixer = aspirator mixer, a n airlgas proportioning device that uses the venturi prin-
ciple to cause the combustion air to induce the proper amount of gas into the air stream. It is used
with low pressure air and zero gas.
superduty fireclay brick = fireclay brick having a PCE not lower ihan cone 3 3 , and that meets
certain other requirements outlined in ASTM Standard C 27-58T.
superheated steam = water vapor at a temperature above the saturation temperature for the exist-
ing pressure, e.g. at 250 F and 14.696 psia. The water vapor in the atniosphere is superheated
(above the saturation temperature for its partial pressure) and changes from superheated to satu-
rated when lowered to its dew point.
supervising gas valve = supervising gas cock = a valve that sends a signal indicating that its main
passage is closetf. When such a signs1 is receivcd kom all fuel valves on a furnace, the operator
may proceed to purge the furnace and then light the pilots. See Supervising Valve System, Part 7,
Volume 11.
GLOSSARY 423
surface coefficient = hr = radiation heat transfer coefficient = the rate of heat flow per unit area
(heat flux) for each degree of temperature difference between the emitting surface and the absorb-
ing surface. (See formula 4/2, Volume I.)
surface tension = molecular attraction or cohesion of molecules on the surface of a liquid, which
gives it the appearance of having an elastic skin.
suspended arch = a furnace roof consisting of refractory shapes suspended from overhead support-
ing members. By contrast, sco sprung arch.
swirl = spinning or spiral motion of a fluid; usually an aid to combustion stability. See Burner
Characteristics, Part 6, Volume 11.
swp = steam working pressure.
synthetic gas = any man-made gaseous fuel; substitute gas; manufactureti gas; usually made from
coal, petroleum by-products, or waste materials by complex molecular reforming processes.
taconite = a compact formginous chert or slate in which the iron oxide is so finely dispersed that
substantially all of the iron-bearing particles are smaller than 20 mesh. Typical analysis of the ore
grade shows 32.0% total Fe.
take-off lines = pipelines leading from the high pressure side of a main circulating oil loop to the
branch circuits.
TAPPI = Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry; Atlanta, GA.
tc = tlc = T/C = thermocouple = temperature of casing or cold face.
TEFC = totally enclosed fan cooled; refers to electric motors.
temp = temperature.
Tempest@= North American Mfg. Company's trademark for small high velocity (high momentum)
burners.
tera, abbreviated T = prefix for multiple
tertiary air (pronounced turl-she-ary) = a third supply of air introduced downstream from the
secondary air.
TH = total heat (psychrometric chart).
THC = total hydrocarbons, or total hydrocarbon emissions.
theoretical air = stoichiometric air = on-ratio air = correct air, the chemically correct amount of air
required for complete combustion of a given quantity of a specific fuel.
theoretical draft = the calculated difference between the pressure in a furnace and the atmospheric
pressure (causcd by buoyancy of hot gases in thc furnace and chimney). This does not include the
effects of Mction or nonstandard conditions.
theoretical flame temperature = adiabatic flame temperature. See also hot mix temperatwe.
therm = 100 000 Btu.

thermal conductance = the amount of heat transmitted by a material divided by the differ-
ence in temperature of the surfaces of the material. Also known as conductance. Where heat is
transferred by more than one mechanism through a structure of mean cross sectional area Am,
conductance, C = gross rate of heat transfer divided by temperature drop between its faces. C
= CqIAt = KmAm/X.
thermal conductivity, k = the ability of a material to conduct heat, mcasured in flow of Btu per hour
through a square foot of crnss sectional area and one foot (or inch) of thickness with 1°F of tempera-
turc difference across this thickness. The rehactory and insulation industries use Btu in./ft2 hr O F .
Most others use Btu ft/ftzhr O F .
thermal de-NOx = an after treatment to remove nitrogen oxides kom products of combustion,
using NH, (ammonia), or urea, with or without catalysts. See SCR.
thermal expansion = an increase in volunle and linear dimensions resulting when a substance is
heated.
thermal NO = nitric oxide funned by temperature effccts as opposed to that formed by fixed nitrogen
fiom the fuel (fuel NO).
thermal shock = a sudden temperature change
thermie (French therm) = 1000 kcal.
thermistor = semi-conductor elements that have a large negative temperature coefficient of resis-
tivity.These arc convenient for measuring temperature changes over short spans very accurately,
thermopile = many thermocouples assembled in series to provide a signal strong enough to actuate
a valve without amplification by an external power source.
throttling valve = a valve used to control the flow rate of a fluid. A throttling valve docs not
necessarily provide tight shutoff.
thrust controlled flame = turbulent diffusion flame in which aspiration of combustion air into the
combustible gas is controlled by thrust forces.
TIC = temperature indicating controller.
tile - See burner tile.
timed trial-for-ignition = that eriod of time during which the programming flame supervising
controls permit the burner fuervalves to be open before the flame sensing device is required to
detect the flame.
T/I transducer = a device to convert a temperature signal to electric current.
T/I transmitter = a transducer that converts the millivoltage from a thermocouple to an electrical
current signal.
TLV = threshold limit value (highest allowable concentration).
TMS = The Metallurgical Society; Warrendale, PA.

toe = tons of oil equivalent, i.e. for equivalent heating ability. (1toe = 40.66 gigajoules; See Appen-
dix for unit conversions.)
ton, short = 2000 lb = 907.2 kg; ton, long = 2240 lb = 1015.9 kg.
tonne = metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb.
torque =bending moment; a rotational form of doing work. Torque multiplied by rotational speed
equals power. A torque of 1 pound(force1~inch= 0.172 984 8 Newton.metre nf torque.
TORR = 1 mm Hg, a unit of pressure.
tosca = pronunciation for the acronym TSCA. (See below.)
totalizer = a counter that totals or accumulates a total count, such as an odometer. Like a positive
displacement gas or oil meter, its reading must be dividcd by elapsed time to determine rate.
Sometimes erronoeously called an "integrator". Not to be confused with a "summer", which adds
two or more flow ratcs.
total pressure = impact prcssurc = stagnation pressure, Lhfl pressure lneasured by an impact tube,
the sum of static prcssure and velocity pressure. The total pressure of a motionless fluid is equal to
its static pressure.
town gas - city gas, artificial gas (usually madc from coal, as prt~dric:e~
gas, or low Btu gas).
tpy = tons per year.
T, = tempcrature of a radiation-receiving surface, in degrees Rankine (Fahrenlieit + 459.67)

tramp air = infiltrated air, usually u~ldesirableadded excess air.
transducer = an element or device whicli receives illformation in the form of one physical quantity
and converts it to information in the for111 of the same or another physical quantity, e.g. pressure
to milliamps.
transmitter = a dcvice that conveys information born one location to another,
triatomic gases = gases having three atoms in each molecule, such as CO,, H,O, SO,. These gases
are capable of gas radiation.
T, = temperature of a radiation source, in degrees Rankine (Fahrenheit + 459.67).
TSC = two stage conlbustion.
TSCA = Toxic Substances Control Act (USA).
tunnel burner = a burner sealed into the furnace wall in which combustion takes place mostly in a
refractory tunnel or tuyere which is part of the burner.
tunnel kiln = a tunnel-shaped furnace through which ware is pushed o n cars passing through
preheating, firing, and cooling zones consecutively, enabling continuous operation.
turbo blower = a centrifugal blower in which the air leaving the blade tips passes through a narrow
slot into a large volume chamber, thus efficiently converting velocity energy to static prcssure.
turbulence = a state of being highly agitated. 'hrbulent flow is fluid flow in which the velocity of
a given particle changes constantly both in magnitude and direction.
turndown = the ratio of rnaxir~lumto minimum input rates; turndown ratio, abbreviated tld = high
fire ratellow firc rate.
tuyere (pronounced tweer) = a rcfractory shape containing one or more holes through which air
and other gases are introduced intu a furnace.
TWA = time-weighted, average.

TwinBed@= North American Mfg. Company's trademark for its integral burner-regenerator system.
TY = temperature control split range device.
UBC = used beverage containers, usually aluminum.
UEL = upper explosive limit

UHC = unburned hydrocarbons.
[TI. = Underwriters Laboratories; Northbrook, IL.
ULC = [Jnderwriters Laboratories (Canada).
of the various elements of which a substance is

ultimate analysis = ;1 statement of the q~~antities
composed, usually exprcsscd in percentage by weight.
ultimate %CO, = the pcrccntilge by volume of r:arl)on dioxide that appears in the dry flue gases
when a file1 is c:on~pletelyburned with its chemjcally correct airlfuel ratlo. The theoretical maxi-
mum %CO, possible.
Universal, Saybolt. Sco Soybolt Universal.
upper limit of flammability (formerly inflammability) = the r ~ ~ a x i ~ l lpercentage

unl of file1 i n an air-
file1 mixture which can be ignited. Above this percentage, the mixture will be too rich to burn.
USEPA = United States of America Environmental Protection Agency; Washington, DC.
USgal = United States gallon.
UST = underground storage tank (vs.AST).
UV = ultraviolet.
V = volt, a unit of electromotive force.
VA = volt-ampere.
vac = vacuum.
valve control = a system for control of airlfuel ratio by mechanical linkage of valves having the
same characteristic.
vanadium = a metal, the oxide of which appears in the ash resulting from the combustion of fuel
oils. Vanadium oxide has a destructive effect on refractories.
vapor = a gas that is near the condensing or liquid state, whose molecules are so close together that
the forces between them significantly affect their behavior so that P,v,/T, r P,v,/T,.
vaporizing oil burner = a burner in which the oil is vaporized in a single step by direct heating of
the liquid.
vapor lock = an obstruction to the flow of a liquid i n a pipe caused by vapor from the liquid, or by
air.
GLOSSARY 425
vapor pressure = the pressure of the vapor of o liquid or solid in cquilibrium with the liquid or
solid.
Vc = critical velocity = sonic velocity.
velocity head = velocity pressure expressed in feet of column of the flowing fluid.
velocity pressure = the diffcrcncc bctwccn total pressure and static pressure; that is, the difference
1)c:twecn the pressure which a fluid flowing in a pipe exerts upon the upstrcam facc of an obstruc-
tion in the pipe and the pressure which it exerts upon the walls of the pipe.
velocity protile = a diagram of vcctor arrows (Icngth proportional to velocity) superimposed across
a sectional view of a duct or pipe.
vena contracts taps = the pressure taps (located upstream and d o w n s t r e a ~of~ ~o thin 111eteririg
oi-ifice) positit~~led
t t ~give Lhe highest possible plessure differential readings
vent = a hole or opening for the escape of a fluid.
venturi = a sec:tiorl in a pipc or pilssilgoway that corlvcrges to a narrow constrjction, then smoothly
flares out again. Named for thc Ititliiln physicist C. B. Vcnturi (1762-18221,who first noted the effect
of constriction.
vg = specific volumc of a saturatcd vapor.
visc = viscosity = the tendency of a fluid to resist flow. A measure of resistance to flow. Vcry
significant in design and sclcction of oil burncrs and oil handling systems. See kinematic viscosity
and absolute viscosity.
viscosity, absolute = dynamic viscosity = a measure of a fluid's tendency to resist flow, without
regartl to its density. Absolute viscosily is kinematic viscosity rriultiplied by density or specific
gravity.
viscosity, kinematic = the relative te1111enr:yof ;l fluid to resist flow, including the effect of the
fluid's density. Kinematic viscosity is equal to absolute viscosity s density or specific gravity.
viscous friction = resistance to flow of fluids caused by energy dissipation and generation of stresses
by distortion of fluid elements; flow resistance; internal ftiction.
vitiated air (pronounced vish-ee-ate-ed air) = air with <20.9% 0,.
vitrification = a process of permanent chemical and physical change (reduced porosity] at high
temperatures in a ceramic body, with the development of a substantial proportion of glass.
VOC = volatile organic compound = any of a group of hydrocarbons that react in the atmosphere
with nitrogen oxides, heat, and sunlight to form ozone; thus aggravating smog and global warm-
ing proble~ns.Some enforcement agencies exclude CO, CO,, carbnriir: acid, carl~nnates,~netalliccar-
bides, and methane from their definition of VOCs.
vol = volume.
volatile = easily vaporized; the more easily vaporized component of a liquid.
volume, combustion = the spacc occupied by thc fuel while it is actually burning, inclu[Iing both
the flame and invisible combustion zone.
volume flow rate = the quantity [measured in units of volume) of a fluid flowing per unit of time,
as cubic feet per minute or gallons per hour.
volume, specific = the volume occupied by one pound of a substance under any specified
conditions of temperature and pressure.
volumetric analysis = a statement of the various components of a substance (usually applied to

gases only), expressed in percentages by volume.
vortex shedding = in the flow of fluids past an object, the eddying or formation of alternating
whirlpools downstream of the object. A form of burble.
vs = versus, as compared to.
W = tungsten, or watt(s), a unit of power or heat flow ri~tc.1W = 1Jls.
wall loss = the heat lost from ;1 furnar:e or tank to or through its walls.
warmup time = bring-up time = the time required to bring a h~rnaccand its c:h;lrge, if any, u p to
operating temperature.
waste gases = by-product fuel. See discussion under poc and flue gases
water and sediment = bsw (bottom sediment and water). Impurities and foreign materia! found in
fuel oils. Sec Part 2 , Volume I.
-
water (blue) gas = an artificial fuel made by forcing steam over incandescent carbon to form a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. C + H,O CO + H,.The gas is poisonous because of its
high C.0 content.
water column = the leg[s) of a manometer that uses water as the measuring fluid for pressure or
pressure drop. The difference in height of the two water columns is usually stated in inc:hes or
millimetres of water column. See "wc below, and Table C.5 in the Appendix.
watt density = a measure of the concentration (in relation to surface area) of heat input, particularly
critical in electrically heated oil heaters. Usually measured in watts per square inch, abbrcviatcd
wsi.
watt-seconds = a unit of work or heat equal to that resulting kom the use of electricity at the rate of
1 watt for one second. One watt-second equals one joule.
wavelength (A, lambda) = the distance traveled by a sound as its pressure wave varies through one
complete cycle.
wax = the large hydrocarbon molecules that precipitate out of a liquid fuel when it is gradually
cooled. This is the major factor controlling the pour point of a fuel oil.
wb = wet bulb temperature. (See below.]

"wc = "H,O = inches of water column = inches of water gauge ("wg), a measure of pressure. See
Tdble C.5 in the Appendix.
weight flow rate = the quantity (measured in units of weight) of a fluid flowing per unit of time, as
pounds per second.
GLOSSARY
weight, specific = density, the weight per unit volume of a sut~stance.
well-stirred reaction = a chemical combining of atoms or compounds in which the products of the
reaction are thnrn~~ghly mixed with the incoming raw reactants. Theoretical opposite of a plug
flow reaction.
wet basis = flue gas analysis by an analyzer that docs not scrub or dry the sample before analpis;
or an analysis in which all dry basis readings have been multiplied by (I - O/omoisturc/l~~"/o).
wet bulb temperature, wb = the temperature indicated by a therrnometcr, the bulb 01which is
covered with a w ~wick;
t the temperature at which hcat and mass transfer are in equilibrium. "Wet
bulb depression" is the difference between wet bulb and dry bulb readings. Wheil the wl) depres-
sion is zero, there will be no evaporative cooling, and the relative humidity will hc 100%; that is,
the air is saturated with all thc water vapor that it can hold.
wg = water gauge. When prcccdcd by inches or millimetres, a measure of pressure. (See "wc.)
"wg = "wc. (See 'l'able C.5 in the Appendix.)
whb = waste hcat boiler.
Wobbe Index = Wobbe Number, a n index used to show fuel interchangeability. Wobbc index
= gross heating value in Btu/ft3 divided by d m . See Irtterchangeability of Fuels in Part 2,
Volume 1.
wsi = watts per square inch. See watt density.
wt = weight.
W-T-E boilerlincinerators = waste-to-energy boiler/irlcirlerators.
wwp = water wurking pressure.
x = times, or multiplied by.
XSAir = excess air; usually measured in % excess above the stoichiometrically correct amount of
air.
xylene (C,H,,) = a colorless, flammable, toxic liquid of tlie benzene series. Obtained mostly from
coal tar.
zero gas = gas at atmospheric pressure (zero gauge pressure).

Zn = zinc.
zone, control = that section of a furnace within which temperature is controlled by one tempera-
ture measurement (and usually with one control valve).
Greek letters and symbols: .

a (alpha) = proportional to; quarl angle; tile angle; angle.
p (beta) = d/D = ratio of orifice diameter to inside diameter of a pipe (both in same units).
l', Ap, AT.
A (delta) = differential, difference in, change in, increment. See A
AP = pressure drop, differential, or loss in any consistent units, but sometimes used for Ib/ftz (ps4
to differentiate from Ap in lb/in.2 (psi).
Ap = pressure drop, differential, or loss usually in psi, but sometimes osi or "wc.
AT = difference in temperature, change in temperature, drop in temperalure.
E = (epsilon) = absolute roughness, ft. (Relative roughness, e/D is used on Figures 5.13a and 5.14.)
h = (lambda) = wavelength.
= (mu) = absolute viscosity; (sr~rrietimes)= microampere; or micron = 1 millionth of a metre; (as

a prefix, pronounced micro) = one millionth or x 10-".
v = (nu) = kinematic viscosity.

n (pi) = 3.141 592 654 = ratio of circumference of a circle to the rlia~nelerof that circle.
p (rho) = density.
X (sigma) = sum, summation, total of.

ip(phi) = equivalence ratio = a means of expressing a i r h e 1 ratio = the actual amount of fuel ex-
pressed as a decimal ratio of thc stoichiometrir:ally correct amount o f fuel. (See Table C.10 in the
Appendix.)
h l (omega) = ohm, unit c~felectric resist;lnt:e = 1 VIA.
-t plus.
- minus.
.I- plus or minus, tolerance.
times, or multiplied by.
+ divided by.
I divided by, per, for each.
the square root of.
equals, or is equal to.
measured by.
not equal to.
(is) less than.
stnaller than or equal to.
(is) greater than.
greater than or equal to.
<< much smaller than.

GLOSSARY
much larger than.
proportional to, similar to.
approximately equal to.
congruent to.
therefore.
angle.
parallel to.
perpendicular to, at right angles to, normal to.
infinity, infinite.
degrees. (Used only to specify the size of an angle or a temperature difference or tempera-
ture drop--not a temperature level; e.6. the temperature drop through a wall is 250°, from
310 I: io GO E)
temperature difference or change in degrees Celsius.
degrt:es Engler, a measure of viscosity. See Figure 2.7.
temperature difference or change in degrees Fahrenheit.
pound(s), or number.
percent.
foot (or feet), ~r~iilules

(1160 of lo angle).
inch(es), seconds (1/60 of 1' angle = 1/3600 of 1" angle); ditto.

INDEX
Absolute humidity, 251-252, definition 365 Air [continued)

Absolute pressure, definition 365 properties, (tables) 247-249, 292
Absolute temperature (K & R), definition 365 requirements*, 224-218
Absolute viscosity, definition 365 staging, NOx control, 167
air, gas, (tables) 247-249, 277-289 Air combustion, fuel requirement*, (fig.) 236
Absorbing noise, 190 Air-directed burner, definition 366
Absorption system, source of oxygen, 212 Air filters, blowers, 91
(table) 213 Air-flow proving switch, definition 366
Absorptivity, defi~finition365 Air-fuel mixedness, affecting, 20F
Accessories, piping, 90-91 Aidfuel ratio, definition 367
Accumulator, light oil systems, 101 affecting noise, 206
Acetylene (C,H2), burning velocity*, flow control of, 53-57, (figure) 54
(table) 225 heat recovery, [figure) 128
ignition temperature*, (table) 223 rich, soot-containing flames, 172
Acid rain, definition 366, 157, 171 specifications, (table] 331
Acoustic absorptivity, definition 366 Airffuel ratio controls, 56, (figurc) 57
Acoustic power, definition 366 cold side air rrlatering, (figure) 1 2 8
Acoustics, depnition 366, 179 digital electronic, [figure) 56
Acoustic surge, i n air systems, 199-200 effect of gas gravity on, 54-55
Acoustic velocity, definition 366 flow-balanced, (figure) 5 3
Actual cubic feet (acf), definition 365 for integral regenerator burner, (figure) 110
Adiabatic flame temperature*, rlef. 366, 222 for multiple I~urnerzones, with preheated
(tables) 220-221 air, (figure) 109
Adjustable flame, 36-37, (figure) 37 fulIy metered, 127-128
Adjustable heat pattern burner, 36-37 hot side air metering, (figure) 128
Adjustable linkages, a i r l h e l ratio and, 4 9 multiple fuels, 111
(figure) 48 preheating combustion air, 127-128
Adjustable port valve, definition 366 Air-gas burner, (figure) 228
Adsorption, de.finition 366 Aidgas ratio control system, 106
Aeration, definition 366 flow-balanced, (figure) 53
After-fix treatments, NOx control, 169 fully-metered, [figure) 53
Agglomerating characteristics, def. 366 Aidgas ratio regulator, 51
Air, blower, volume flow rate, [fnrmula) 215 balanced pressure type, (figure) 50
burning velocity with gaseous fuels, hookups, (figure) 107
(table) 225 Air heater, recirculating, 22
composition, (table) 211 Air-heating burner, 38-39
excess, effect on available heat*, 124 Air heating induct burner
(figure) 125 flame holder, (figure) 9
flammability limits* in, 223, (table) 224 Air infiltration
fuel requirements, (figure) 57 through furnace openings, 61, 163,
heating input requirements, (tables) 310-313 (figure) 62
hot (see Preheated air) Air jet dampers, 67, (figure) 65
ignition temperature* in, for gaseous Air-jet mixer, definition 3fi7, 16, (figure) 1 5
fuels, [table) 223 Air jet noise, in combustion, 202-203
infiltrated, fuel input to heat, (figure) 61 Air lines, material, 87
in oil lines, 9 1 Air manifold
makeup, heat recovery, 121-122 preferred position for, 87, (figure) 88
oxygen-enriched, (formula) 124 Air metering
preheated, burners for, 35-36 cold side, ratio control, (figure) 1 2 8
available hcat, 124-155 hot side, airffuel ratio control, (figure) 128
* See also Volume I.

Air metering orifices Amorphous, definition 367
piping, multiple burners, (figure) 112 Ampere, definition 365
Air mixing system, affecting noise, 206-207 Amplitude, definition 368
I Air nozzles Angskom unit (A), definition 365
I boundary layer, for noise control, Anneal, definition 368
I (figure) 196 Annular orifice, definition 368
I
Airloil ratio control systems, 108, (figure) 54 Annunciator, 8 1
Airloil ratio regulator, 51 Anti-seize compound, 90
control zones, light oil system, 101 Apachi, definition 368
I (figure) 51 Application-specific control systems, 151
piping arrangement, (figure) 52 Area control of airlfuel ratio, 46, 48-49
I Airloil llatiotrol
cr~ntrolzones, light oil system, 101
cost-effectiveness of, 4 9
on dual-fuel l~urrier,(figure) 48
piping, (figure) 89 Argon-oxygen decarburizing (a-od), def. 368
Air operation Aromatics, definition 368
preheated, Cue1 requircmcnts, (figure) 57 Arrangement factor (Fa],definifion 368
Air-oxygen mixture (a-0 mix), def. 368 Artificial hels, dcfinition 368
percent oxygen concentration in, Aspirator mixer, 16, (figure) J 5
(figure) 216 gas pilot, [figure) 11
Air pipes, hot, insulation, heat recovery, 1 1 7 Atmosphere (atm), definition 368
Air plenum, burner l~ackworks,11 Atmosphere-stable burner, 7
Air preheat, 165 Atmospheric burner, 1 2
effects on flame velocity, (graph) 226 Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion
eCCects on flammability, (tat~le)223 (afbc), definition 366'
Air preheater, cold side air metering for Atmospheric pressure (atm press), def. 368
ratio control, (figure) 128 Atmospheric (ratio) regulator, definition 368
schematic diagram, (f~gure)126 Atmospheric system, definition 368
hot side air metering for ratio control, Atom, definition 369
(figure) 128 Atomic nitrogen (N), definition 402
Air primary system, dcf. 367, 49, 53-54 Atomic numbers, weights, (table) 294-299
arrangement, (figures) 50, 53 Atomization, definition 369
Air-ramming, definition 367 rcquiremcnts for vaporization after, 29
Air register, definition 367 Atomizer, burner l~ac:kwnrks,11
Air-setting refractories, definition 367 sonic, ultrasonic, 32
Air shutter, definition 367 Atomizing air, definifion 369
I Air-staging, 167-168 Audiometric testing, 185
Air systems, acoustic surge in, 199-200 Austempered ductile iron (adi), def. 366
Air valve, gas pilot, (figure) 11 Autogenous, definition 369
1
I
Aldehydes, definition 367 Autoignition temperature (ait)
products of incomplete combustion, 170 definition 367, 369
11 Alloys, scaling resistance, (table) 358 Automatic burner, 34
Alternating current (a-c), definition 365 Automatic control, definition 369
Altitude (alt), definition 367 Automatic fuel shutoff valve, definition 369
Alumina (A1,0,), definition 367 Automatic furnace pressure controls
Aluminum (Al), definition 367 58-69, [figure) 65
benefits of oxygen, (table) 235 downdraftlupdraft flue arrangement, 64
Aluminum melters Automatic reset fuel shutoff valve, def. 369,
application-specific control systems, 152 72-73
Aluminum reverberatory furnace, 61-63 wiring, (figure) 73
flow pattern through gap, (figure) 63 Available carbon, definition 369
Ambient air pollution standards, 155 Available heat*, definition 369,
Ambient noise, definition 367, 187 124-125, 217-221
correction, (table) 187 and adiabatic flame temperature*
Ambient temperature, definition 367 217-221, (figure) 125

Available heat* [continued) Blower air, volume flow rate of, 215
fuel requirement to provide 1000 000 Btu Blower, noise, cu~nponents,198
of, (table) 336 control of, 198
file1 savings and, 124-125, 217-221 pulsations in, [figure) 200
Available heat concept, percent, 122-123 suuntl power level, 198-199
(formulas) 124-127 Blowersh, 91
Available hydrogen, definition 369 Blow-off*, definition 371,10
Avoirdupois (avdp), definition 369 Blue (water) gas, definition 371, 426
"A" weighted network factor, 188-189 Bldf bodies, definition 371,
flame stability, 7
Background noise, definition 369 Body, burner backworks, 11
Bagasse, definition 30'9 Bogie hearth furnace, def~nition371
Bag wall, definition 369 Boiler, furnace hcat rclcnse, (table) 309
Balancing orifices, 111-112 load terms, data, (table) 309
Ball clay, definition 36.9 preheating load, 120
Ball flame, (figure) 4-5 tri-fuel fire tube, (figure) 111
Ball valve, definition 370 waste heat, hot products of combustion,
R ar, definilion 370 121 [figure) 122
Barometer, definition 370 Boiler horsepower (blp], definition 370, 371
Barometric dampcrs, definition 370, Booster circuits, for heavy oil, 101-104
65, (figure) 66 Booster heater, definition 371
Barometric pressure, definition 370 Bottom sediment and water (bsw), def. 372
Barrel (bbl), definition 370 Boundary layer, definition 371,
Base pressure, deJnilion 370 for noise c:ontrol, 196
Base temperature, definition 370 Bourdon tube, definition 371
Basic oxygen furnacc (boo, definition 371 Boyle's Law, riefinilion 372
Basic refractories, definitiorl 370 Branch circuits, definition 372
Batch furnace, preheating load, 120 oil systems, 101-104
Batch-type furnaces, defi~~ition 370 coking, temperature, vaporization, 102
high turrldown ratio, 10, (figure) 68 light oil systems, 99-101
"BaumB, definition 370 schematic piping diagram for, (fig.) 100
Reat, definition 370 main oil circulating loop, 98
Beehive kiln, definition 370 Branch piping, (figure) 89
Bell arrangement Breeching, definition 372
for oil suction and return, (figure) 95 Bring-up time, definition 372
Bell crank dampers, 65, (figure) 66 Brine11 hardness equivalents, (tabte) 356-357
Bellows, definition 370 British (Imperial] gallon (BR gal)
Benzene (C,H,), definition 370 definition 372
Bernoulli theorem, definition 370 British thermal unit (Btu), definition 372
Beta ratio, definition 370 Bulk density, definition 372
Bimetal warping devices, 75 Bulk liquid system supply, 212, (table) 213
Bisque, definition 371 Bunker 3 , C, definition 372
Black body, definition 371 Bunker oil, definition 372
Black body radiation, definition 371 Bunsen-type burner, definition 372
Blast burner, definition 371, 12-14 Buoyancy controlled flame, definition 372
Blast furnace gas, definition 371 Burble, definition 372
Blast gates, def. 371, as shutoff valves, 91 Bureau of Mines, noise reduction, 185
Blast tip, definition 371 Burn, definition 372
Bleeder, definition 371, 51, (figure) 50 Burner, definition 372
in ratio control system, 204, 106, (fig.) 107 Burner block (see Refractory tiles)
Blending, definition 371 Burner design, 3, 12
Blocking, of source, for noise control, Burner flame stability, 222-226
195-196, (figure), 195 Burner for integral burner-recuperatorst
Blocking valve, definition 371 regenerators, 27

Burner instability, 7 Bu~mer(s)(continued)
Burner installation, refractory tiles, 83-86 Fuel Directed@,25-27, 36, (figure) 26
Burner lighting sequence wlintegral heat recovery devices, 27-28
programming flame supervising system, premix, 12-16
(figure) 79 pilot, 12
Burner management system, 75, 79-81 generalized flow field, (figure) 9
Burner nose/nozzle, 10, 12, (figure) 11 general-purpose, 7, 33, (figurc) 9
Burner orifice, 16 general-purpose Dual-Fuel, 33-34
Burner pilot, 11 grid typc fume, 40
Burnerpilot-monitor geometry, (figure) 77 heat pattern, adjustable, 36-37
Burner piping, 86, 89 heavy oil system, starting, 104, (fig.] 105
preferred position for, 86, (figure) 87 high pressure air atomising oil, 30-32
Burner-recuperator/regenerator,27-28 [figure) 31
direct-fired compact, efficiency, 137 high velocity, 8, 165, (figures] 18-21
(ligure) 28 Dual-Fuel, (figure) 19
Burner refractory, definition 372 high velocity dual flame, with flame
Burner(s). (see also Oxygen erlric:llment) monitor, (figure) 77
adjustat~lehtral pattern, 36-37 high vclocity Duol-Fuel, 38-39
air-gas, [figure) 228 hopper car thawing, 37, (figure] 38
air-heating, 38. 3 9 horizontally-fired, preferred position,
air heating induct, (figurc) 'J (figure) 87
atmusphere-stable, 7 horizontal rotary cup, 32
atmospheric, 12 hot air, 165, (figures) 6, 35
automatic, 34 insulation, heat recovery, 117
blast, 12-14 immersion tube, (figure] 22
centrifugal atomizing, 32 industrial nozzle-mix, flame holding,
characteristics of, 3-10 (figure) 9
closed-type, 11 industrial process, 1, (figurc) 9
coanda, 22 infrared, 6, (figure) 23
combination, 33-42, (figure) 36 integral air-preheatcr, 133
combination gas and oil, 33-42 integral recuperator/regenerdtor, 133
components of, 10-12 integral f d r l Dual-Fuel, (figure) 34
continuous flame line, (figure] 9 integral regenerator, alf ratio control,
convection*, 8, 17-23, 37-38 (figure] 110
delayed mixing, 6, 24-27 large port gas, 12-14, (figurc) 15
dilute oxygen combustion, 228 liquid fuel, 29-32
dual air-or-oxygen, 232 low pressure air atomizing oil, 29-30, 52
Dual-FuelrM,33-34 (figurc) 29-30
Dual-Fuel, airlfuel ratio control, (figure) 48 multiple, 112
Dual-Fuel, high velocity, 19, (figure) 77 piping for metering orifices, 112
Dual-Fuel, hot air, 35 NOx control with oxygen-enriched air,
duct, silencing, (figure) 193 227, 229
flame-retention, 13 nozzle-mix, 14
flame supervising system, 80 advantages over premix, 16-17
Flat FlameM,(figures) 9, 23 bleeder, 106, [figure] 107
forward-flame, [figures) 9, 17, 18 convection, 17, (figurc) 18, 19
Fuel Directed@,25-27, 36, (figure) 26 impulse line, 106, (figure) 107
fume, grid type, 40 limiting orifice valve, 106
fume-incinerating, flame holding arrange- radiation typc, 23, (figure) 4
ment, (figure) 9 ratio regulator, (figure) 107
functions of, 1 oil pressure atomizing, 32
gas, 12-27 oil vaporizing, 40-41
combustion volume*, 6 open, 11, (figure) 15
fuel-burning equipment, 12-27 oxy-fuel, mcthod for combustion, 231-232

Burner(s) (continued) Burner velocity [continued)

oxy-fuel firing, NOx contrcll, 227, 229 in oxygen for gaseous fuels, (table) 225
oxygen enrichment, 42 Butane (n-C,H,,), definition 373
oxygen-gas, (figure) 228 burning velocities*, (table) 225
ported manifold, 12 flammability limits*, (table) 224
prediction of sound power levels in, Butt-welding pipe fittings, (t;tl)le) 334-335
207-200, (figurc), 208 Butterfly dampers, 65, (figure) 66
premix, 12-16 Butterfly valves, def. 373, 44, 46, (figure) 47
flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9 with integral electrical drive, (figurn) 4 7
flashback", 7 rcduced port, 46
large port, (figuitl) 1 5 thrcadcd manual, (figure) 47
pilot, 12 water type, (figure), 47
piping, 90 Butylene (C,H,], definition 373
ratio regulator, 106, (figure) 107 Bypass t~ort,1 3
tunnel, flame holding arrangement, By-product coke oven gas, definition 373
(figurc) 9
prossurc, 12-14
pressure drop, affecting noisc, 205 CabIe-operated dampers, 65, (figure) 66
pressure type gas, 12-14 Calcining, definition 373
pulverized coal, 1 Calorie (Call, definition 373
radiant, 6, (figure) 23 Calorific value*, definition 373 118
radiant tube, 25 Cap or cruwn, definition 373
flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9 Carbon deposition, definition 373
radiatinn, 6 , 23, 37, (figures) 4, 38 Carbon dioxide (CO,), ultimate %, def. 373
refractory installation around, 85 Carbonthydrogen ratio, definition 374
refractory-lined, 35, (figure) 36 Carbon monoxide (CO), deb 374, 376,
refractory tiles [see Refractory tilc) 170-171
rotary, 32 flammability limits, (table) 224
sealed-in, 11 hazards, (table) 362
large port, 13, (figure) 1 5 ignition temperoturc* for, (tablc) 223
self-piloting, 13 p o l l u t i o ~factors,
~ (table) 332
sizc, affecting noisc, 205, (figure) 208 products of incomplete combustion,
small port premix gas, 12 165-167
special purpose, 35-42 Carbon residue, definition 374
staged combustion, NOx control, 167, 168 Car bottom furnace, definition 374
stability, 6 Carbureted blue (water) gas, definition 374
steam air atomizing oil, 30-32, (figure) 31 Car hearth forge furnace. 63-64
tile response/resonance, 204, (figure) 203 Cascade control, advanced process control
tiles (see Refractory tile) 147-148
tile-stable, 7 loops, advanced process control, 147-148
tunnel, 14, (figure) 1 5 Casing noise, 198
tunnel premix, flame holding arrangement, radiated fan, 199
(figure) 9 sound power level, (formula) 199
turndown ratio, 8, 1 0 CAS number, definition 374
two-stage combustion, TSC, NOx control, Castable refractory, definition 374
167, 168 Catalyst, definition 374
unstable, 6 Celsius (C), definition 373, 374
vaporizing, 29 conversions, (table) 319-326, (figure) 327
waste incinerating-fume, 40 centi (abbreviated c), definition 374
waste incinerating--liquid, 39 Centimeke(s) (cm), definition 376
Burner tile, definition 373 Centipoise, dcfinition 374
Burning (firing), definitinrl 373 Centistoke, definition 374
Burning velocity * , 22 5 Centrifugal atomizing burner, 32
in air tor gaseous fuels, (table) 225 Centrifugal atomizing oil burner, def. ,374
* See also Volume I. I

Centrifugal blower, definitior~375 Co-Gring, definition 376
Ceramics, definition 375 Coke (general), definition 376
Cermet, definition 375 Coke oven gas*, definition 376,
C,H2 (Acetylene), burning vclocity* conversion factors, (table) 321
(table) 225 Coking, in heavy oil system, 102
ignition temperature* for, (table) 223 Cold a n d tight combustion chamber, 7, 22
Characteristic, control valve, 43-46, (figure) 44 Combination burner, definlfion 376
range, 44 33-42, (figure) 36
Char-burning process, 1 Combined carbon (or hydrogen), def. 376
Charles' Law, definition 375 Combustibles, definition 376
Checkers, chcckerworks, definition 375 Combustion, definition 376
Checkerwork regenerator, 133, 134 effects of oxygen on, 214-229
Check valve, definition 375 fuel flow rate for, calculation,
Chemex, definition 375 (formula) 214
Chemical [fuel) NOx, 159-161 industrial, pollution control, 153
C,H, (Ethane), ignition tcmpcraturc* fur, methods for, with oxygen, 229-233
.
ftablel, 223 stoichiometric, I3
- . [Ethvlene],
C,Ha - -
- ignition tcmpcrature* for, pure oxygcn required per unit volume
of fuel*, (formula) 214
(tablcj 223
CI& (Methane), 1)unling velocity*. (table) 225 Combustion air, definition 377
offect of oxvsen enrichment, o n flame direct oxygen enrichment of, 229-230
velocity*; Itable) 226 heat recovery, 122-137
o n flammability limits* for, 225 preheating, 165
effect of oxygcn enrichment on flamma- airlfuel ratio control, 127-128
bility limits*, [table) 226 - Combustion chamber, aerodynamics, affect-
flammability limits*, (table) 224 ing noise, 207
ignition temperature* for, (table) 223 cold and tight, 7, 22
C,IZ, (Propane), burning velocity, cyclone, 2
(table) 225 tight, 2
flanlmability limits*, (table) 224 Combustion chamber response, 204, (fig.] 203
ignition temperature* for, (table] 223 Combustion controls, 43-82, (figures] 56, 70-71
Circular kiln, definition 375 air/fuel ratio controls, 46-57
Circular mil, definition 375 control valves, 43-46
Circulating loop, definition 375 pressure controls, 58-69
main oil (see Main oil circulating loop) supervising, 72-81
Clapper dampers, 67, (figure) 66 Combustion intensity, definition 377
Cleanup costs, reduced with heat recovery, affecting noise, 206
120 Combustion noise, definifion 377, 203-207
Closed burner, definition 376 blower, 198
Closed circuit oil system, defi~~ilion 376 factors affecting, 204-207 (see also Sound
Closed impeller, definition 376 power level)
Closed loop, Ultimate Period Method, frequencies, 204
142-143 intensity, 204
Closed-type burner, 11 sources, 203-204
Coals, 1-2 spectrum of, (figure) 203
stokers, (figure) 3 Combustion poc analysis, 54-55
Coal tar, definition 376 Combustion products (cp), def. 377, 378
Coanda effect, definition 376, 22, 23 Combustion roar, definifion 377, 204
Coanda flame, (figures) 4-5 Combustion safeguard, definition 377
CO (see Carbon monoxide) Combustion supervising controls, 72-81
CO, (see Carbon dioxide) Combustion systems, 83-116
Co-combustion, definition 376 air jet noise, 202-203
Co-current flow, definition 376 burner installation, 83-86
Coefficient of discharge, definition 376 comnplctc, 69-71, (figures) 56, 70-71

Combustion systems (continued) Conversion factors, 157, (tables) 31 9-325

dual-fuel, 115, (figure) 113 Conveyor furnace, preheating load, (fig.) 120
gas jet noise, 202-203 Copper strip corrosion, definition 378
metering systcms, 111-112 Corbel, definition 378
mr~dificationsfor low NOx, 164 Corebuster, definition 378
noise r:onLrol, 198-207 Counterflow, combined with parallel flow,
oil handling, 91-104 (figure) 131
orifice balancing, 111-112 arlvantages over parallel flow, 129-131
piping, 86-91 Couplings, piping, 90
piping arrangements, 214-116, [ligure) 113 Course, definition 378
piping system noisc, 199-202 Cracking, definition 378
pressure loss, 201-202 Creosote, definition 378
ratio contrr~l,104, 106-111 Criteria pollutants, definition ,778
Combustion volume*, 6 Critical flow (sonic flow), defioit~on378
Combustor, fluidized bed, 2 Critical Reynolds number, definition 378
swirl, 2 Cross-cnnnected, defilition 378
Comeback, defi~nition377 Cross-connection, definition 378
Composite walls, definition 377 Crossfeed, 2
Compound, definition 377 Cross-fired furnace, definition 379
Conipressed air, definition 377 Cross-flow recuperators, [Iigure) 132
Compressed air atomizing oil hurner, Crown, definition 37.9
definition 377 G o w n drift, definition 379
Compressibility effect, definition 377 Crucible sizes, (tal~le)314
Compressible flow, definition 377 Crude oil, definition 379
Condensation, in heat recovery, dew points, Cryogenic system, source of oxygen, 212
1 I R., (table] 213
Condensible hydrocarbon content, def. 377 Cupola, definition 378
Conductance, definition 377 Current d r a w of motors, (tidlle) 359
Collduction, defikitiorl 377 Cyclone combustion chamber, 2
Conductivity, definition 377 Cylindrical tank volumes, (table) 361
Conical flame, (figure) 4-5
Constant pilot, 11, 72 Dampers, 65-67
Continuous flame line burner, flame hold- furnace pressure control systern, 65-67
ing arrangement, (figure) 9 Damping (of sound), definition 379
Continuous furnace, definition 377 Darcey friction factor, definition 379
preheating load, 120 Day-night sound pressure (Ldn), (table) 186
Continuous pilot, 11 dB(A1, definition 379 188-189
Contraction, pipe, (table) 337 DCSs (Distributed Control Systems)
Control equation, 141 advanced process control, 148-149
Controller, definition 377 Dead end oil line, definition 380, 115
Control systems, application-specific, 151 Dead end system, definition 380
Control valve, characteristic, 43-46, (fig.) 44 Dead weight relief valve, definition 380
piping location between impulse tap Deafness, 183-184
and, (figure) 89 deca, abbreviated da, definition 380
piping location between pipe branch deci, abbreviated d, definition 380
and, (figure) 89 Decibels dB(A), def. 379, 380, 182, 188-189
Control zones, definifion ,778 combining of from multiple sound sources,
light oil system, 99-101 [tablc) 186
ratio control system, 104 Decimetre (dm), definition 382
Convection, definifimn 378 Dedicated ratio controllers,
Convection burner, definition 378, 8, 17-23 advanced process control, 147, (figure) 146
dual-fuel operations, types, 37-38 Deficiency of air, definition 3130
nozzle-mix, 17, (figures) 18, 19 Definitions, [tablc) 315, 363-429
Conventional forward flame, (figure), 4-5 Deflagration, definition 380
* See also Volumc I.

Degree-day method, definition 380 Dissociation, definition 381
Delayed mixing flame, definition 380, Distillate, definition 381
6, 24-27, 172 Distillate fuel oil (#2), available heat and
Delta p, definition 380 adiabatic flame temperature*, [table) 221
Delta t, defjnjtjon 380 Distillate oils, d e f i ~ ~ i t i o381
n
Density, definition 380 flowrr~etars,112, (figure) 113
dry air (tablcs) 247-249 Distillation, definition 381
metals, materials, (tables) 260-261,264-276 Distillation temperature, definition 382
moist air, (tablcs) 253-255 Distributed Control Systems (DCSs)
Detonation, definition 380 advanced process control, 148-249
Detuning, for noise control, 193 Dividing wall temperature,
Devitrification, defirlitior~3110 parallel flow recuperator, 131
Dew points (DP), definition 380, 382 Double Chcckcr, 1 ~ 1 test, k 74
acid, effects of sulfur, 118, (Pigure) 119 Downdraft flue arrangement,
(;ondensation, 118 automatic furnace pressure controls, 64
products of combustion, variation, 118 U o w ~ d r a fkiln,
i definitiorr 38.2
(figure) 119 Downstream valve, piping location between
Diaphragm, definition 381 gas metering orifice and, (figurc) 89
Diaphragm burner, definition 381 Draft, definition 382
Diaphragm chamber, vcnt to furnace chamber Dresser couplings, 90
106, (figure) 107 Drill sizes, areas, (table) 336
Diaphragm relief valves, main oil circulating Drive, as burr~ercharactcristic, 8
loop, 98 benefits of, 8, (figure] 4-5
Diatomaceous earth, definition 381 Dry air, heal conlent, (tables) 247-249
Diatomic molecule, definition 381 Dry basis, definition 382
Die casting melter, preheating load, 120 Dry bulb temperature (DB], definition 382
Diesel fuel, dej?nitio~~ 301 Ury combustion products (dcp), dej: 379
Differential pyrometers, 36, (figure) 37 Dryer, rccirculating, 22
Diffuser, venturi, 1 6 Dry flue gases (dfg), rleJ11ition 382, 382
D a u s e r plate bluffbodies, flame stability, 7 sensible heat content*, 124
(figure) 9 Drying heat requirements, (tables) 310-313
DiffUsion flame, definition 381, (figures),4 , 24 Dual air-or-oxygen burners, 232
flammability limits, 223 Dual-Fuel'" burner, definition 382, 33-34
Difisivity, definition 381 area control of air/filsl rdtiu
Digital electronic flow type, aidfuel ratio (figurcs] 33, 48, 77
controller, (figure) 56 high velocity, (figure) 77
Digital era, advanced process control, 145-149 integral fan, 34
Dilute jet burner system, 166 Dual-fuel combustion system, 113, 115
Dilute oxygen combustion (doc) burner, 228 Dual-Fuel high velocity burner, 19
Dilute oxygen combustion (doc) method, Dual-Fuel hot air burner, 35
definition 382, NOx emissions, 227-228 Dual-fuel trains, 99
Direct electric igniters, 76-78 Duct, hot poc, insulation, heat recovery, 117
Direct-fired air heating requirement, resonance in, 199-200
(tables) 311-312 size, hot fluids, heat recovery, 117-118
Direct-fired compact burner-regenerator, Duct burner, silencing, 192-193
efficiency, 137 Dutch oven, definition 382
Direct-fired heater, definition 381,
Direct-firing integral burner-regenerator, Ear, 182
(figurc) 134 response at threshold, (figure) 188
Direct spark ignition, definition 381 toleration levels, 183
Discharge coefficient, definition 381 EDR, definition 383
Disk baffle, (figure), 9 Effective area of furnace openings, def. 383
Disk plug, characteristic of sliding plug EKective chimney height, definition 383
valve, 45 Efficiency, definition 383

EGR, definition 383 Expansion chamber, 115

Elbow, required straight run to branch, (fig.) 89 light oil systems, 101
street, 90 for noise control, 194
Electric motors, current, (table) 359 Expansion, pipe, [table) 337
Electronic controller system, flow balanced, ratio, air, (tables) 247-250
(figure) 54 refractory tiles, 83
fully-metcred, 54-55 Explosive limits", 22 3
Electronic, flow typc, digital, airlfucl ratio Exposure time, reduction of, for noise
controller, (figure) 56 control, 207
Electronic pressure indicating controller, 69 Extrusion, definition 384
(figure) 67
Element, ckfinition 383 Fahrenheit (F or OF), definition 384
periodic table, 294-299 conversions, (tables) 319-326, (figurc) 327
Emissions, particulate, pollution control, False pressure signals, impulse lines, 90
172-173 Fan instability,
soot-containing flames, 172-173 pressure/volu~~e characteristics, 200
Emissivity or emittance (e), def. 382, 383 Fan mixer, definition 385, 16
Emittance factor (F,), definition 383 Fanning friction factor, definition 385
Enclosed combustion burner, definifion 383 Fan noise, control of, 198
Enclosures, for noise control, 195-196 Fam, noise, components, 198
Endothermic reaction, dcjinition 383 resonance in, 199-200
End point, definition 383 stmnd power levcls, 198
Energy conservation, 117 Faom(Volumeflow rate of air-oxygenmixture],
Energy, heat, work equivalents, (table) 317 (furmula) 215
Engler degrees, defir~ition383 Fa (Volume flow rate of blower air), 215
Enthalpy (h), definition 383, 391 Feather flame, (figure) 4-5
dry air, (tdbles) 247-249 Feedback, definition 385
stcam, (tables) 256-260 Feedforward, definition 385
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Feed speed*, 225
noise reduction, 185 femto, abbreviated f, definition 385
Equal percentage valve characteristic, 43-44 FGR (Flue gas recirculation), NOx control,
Equilibrium, defi~ition383 164-166
Equilibrium NOx emissions, 159 Pill pipe, oil storage tanks, 94
Equivalenceratio ((I), definition 384, (table)331 Film coefficient, h,, definition 385
Equivalent diameter, definition 384 fluids (figure) 290, (table) 291
Equivalent inches of firebrick, definition 384 Filter, definition 385
Equivalent length, definition 384 Fire-bed, 1
Equivalent pure oxygen, def. 384, 213-214 Firebox, definition 385
Equivalent sound pressure (Leq), (table) 186 Fireclay brick, definition 385
Equivalent thickness, definition 384 Firehose flame, (figure) 4-5
Error signal, equipment response to, 141 Fire point, definition 385
Ethane (C,H,), definition 384 Fire tube steam generator, [figure) 18
ignition temperature*, (table) 223 Firing (burning of ceramic materials),
Ethylene (C,&), ignition temperatureX definition 385
(table) 223 Firing rate, definition 385
6vas6, definition 384 affecting noise, 205
Excess air, abbreviated XSAir, def. 384, 427 Firing zone, definition 386
Excess oxygen, definition 384 Fittings, required straight pipe to metering
Excess pure oxygen, definition 384 orifice, (figure) 89
Exhaust flue gas recirculation, 164-166 Fixed port valve characteristic, 43, [figure) 44
Exhaust noise, sound power level, 199 Flame, definition 386
Exit restriction, (example) 202 Flame bIow-off, definition 386, 10
Exit temperature, definition 384 Flame characteristic, definition 386, 4
Exothermic reaction, definition 384 Flame detectors, 75-76

Flame envelope, 205, (figure) 178 Flame temperature control
Flame flow noise, 204 nitrogen oxides, minimizing, 163, 167-168
Flame front, dttfinition 386 Flame thickness, 3
oscillating, noise, 177, (figure) 178 Flame, swirl, 4-6, 22, 23, 26
Flame holder, definition 386 Flame types, 6, (figure) 4-5
Flame holding arrangements, 7, 8, (figura) 9 Flame velocity*, definition 306
Flame initiation, 8 methane gas, (table), 226
Flame momentum, 227 Flamex, definition 386
Flame monitoring devices, definition 386, Flammability limits, definition 386, 223,
75-76, (figure) 77 (table) 224
Flame noise, definition 386 effects of oxygen enrichment r ~ nrnetllann,
Flame propagation velocity*, 225 (table] 226
Flame retaining nozzle, dcf. 386, 13, (fig.) 11 Flange dimensions, (figure) 338
Flame retention baffles, (figure) 9 Flanges, piping, 90
Flame retention burner, dejinition 386, 13 Flange taps, definition 386
Flame rod typc dctcctors, 76 Flashback, deJi~rition3117, 1 0
Flame, adjustable, 36-37 premix burners, 7
ball, typc C, (figure) 4-5 Flash heat, definition 387
coanda, type E, (figure) 4-5 Flashing &rick), definition 387
c:onical, (figure) 4-5 Flash point, definition 307
delayed mixing, type F, 24 Flat arch, definition 387
cliffusion, typc F, 24 Flat FlameTM, definition 387
feather, type A, (figure) 4-5 (figures) 4-5, 23, 165
firehose, type G, (figure) 4-5 flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9
flat, type E, (figure) 4-5 Flexible connections, for noise control,
Fuel Directed@gas hurner, 27, (figure) 26 (figure) 195
gas pilot, (figure) 11 Flow capacities, orifices, [table] 347-355
headpin, type 8 , (figure) 4-5 Flow coefficient, definition 387
high velocity, type H, 38, (figs.), 4-5, 20-21 Flow cuntrol, uf airlfuel ratio, 53-57, (fig.) 54
hot air burner, 35 Flow inducer, for noise control, (figure) 196
jet, (figure) 4-5 Fluwmeters, distillate oils, 112, (figure) 113
lazy, (figi~res)4-5, 24 Flow noise, definition 387, 202, (figure) 203
long, luminous, 6, 21, (figure) 4-5 Flow rate, valve handle position versus, 43,
low pressure air atomizi~lgoil burner (figure) 44
(figure) 30 Fluc arrangement,
premix, 7 downdraft, furnace pressure control, 64
quenched, 162, 173 updraft, furnace pressure control, 64
soot-containing particulate emissions Flue gas analysis*, definition 387, 54-55
172-173 Flue gas components, (figure) 216
swirl, 4-5, 165 Flue gas (fg], definition 385, 387
Flame scanners, sensors, 75 dry, sensible heat content, 124
Flame shape, affecting noise, 205 Flue gas exit temperature, furnace, 218
as burner characteristic, 3-6 Flue gas loss, definition 387
Flame size, affecting noise, 205 Flue gas recirculation [FGR),
Flame speed*, definition 386 NOx control, 164-166, 235
225-229, (tables) 225-226 Fluc loss, latent, (formula) 124
Flame stability, as burner characteristic, 6-8, Fluid, definition 387
affecting combustion, 222 226 Fluidized bed combustor, 2
Flame supervising system, definition 386 Fluids, hot, ductlpipe size, 117-118
programming, wiring, 75, 78-81 Flux, defiilifion 387
Flame temperature, definition 386 Fluxing, definition 387
adiabatic and available heat*, (table) 220 F,, (Volume flow rate of commercial oxygen)
measuring, 2 22 (formula) 215
oxygen enrichment and, 222 Foot valve, definition 387

Forced convection, definition 388 Fuel oil, definition 388

Forced draft, definition 388 distillate, availnblc heat and flame
Forward flame, conventional, (figure) 4-5 temperature, (table) 221
Forward-flame burner, 17, (figures) 9, 18 problems, 91-92
Fractional distillation, definition 388 properties, 91
Free field, definition 388 Fuel oil #2, conversion factcirs, (talle) 321
Frequency, definition 388, sound, 179-180 Fuel oil #6, convcrsion factors, (table) 321
Friable fuels, definition 388, 1 Fuel primary control of a/f, definition 388, 54
Friction factor, definition 388 Fuel-rich, definition 388
Frp, (Required volume flow rate of pure Fuel shutoff valve, definition 388
oxygen), (formula) 214 automatic, 72-76, 99
Fuel, definition 388, Fuel-staging, 167-1ti8
conversion factors, 321 Fuel supply manifold, 87, (ligure) 88
flame speed*, 225 Fuel train, def, (389, 99, (figures) 115-116
fl~rr~rnabilitylimits*, 223, (table) 224 Full load current, motors, (table) 359
gaseous, burning velocity*, (table) 225 Fully-metered electronic controller system,
ignition temperature*. (table) 223 54-55
multiple, airlfuel ratio control systems, 111 Fully-metered flow control, definition 389
requirements, excess air, (figure) 57 Fume brwner, grid type, 40
preheated air nperxtir~n,(figiire) 5 7 Fume-incinerating burner, (figurc) 9
saved by oxygc11-enrichment, 126 Fundamental frequency, definition 389
saved hy preheated air, 124, 126 Furnace, deJi11iiior1389
saving for furnace, (example) 126-127 Furnace atmosphere, reducing, 133
savings of, availat~leheat and, 218-221 Furnace chamber
comparison, (formula) 220 vent to diaphragm, 106, (figure) 107
in oxygen-cnrichcd combustion, 236-23'3 Furnace pressure controls, automatic, 58-69
in preheated air combustion, 236-239 downdraft 8r uptiraft flues, 64,
solid, fincly ground particles, 1-2 (figures) 65, 67
staging, NOx control, 168 Furnace pressures, deJit~itiuri389
substilulion of alternate, aidfuel ratio, 56 60, (figures) 61, 62, 63
type, affecting noise, 204 Furnace response, 204, (figure) 203
unsaturated, soot-containing flames, 172-173 Furnace(s), with air preheater, 124,
velocity ranges*, (table) 225 (figurc) 126
FueYair ratio, fla ratio, definition 385,388 aluminum reverberatory, 61-63
specifications, (table) 331 batch, preheating load, 120
Fuel-burning, solid, 1-3 batch, high turndown ratio, 1 0
Fuel-burning equipment, 1-43 boiler, 6
burner characteristics, 3-10 car hearth forge, 63-64
burner components, 10-12 causes of failures, 83
burners for liquid fuel, 29-32 complete combustion system control,
combination gas and oil burners, 33-42 (figure) 70
gas burners, 12-28 continuouslconveyor, preheating load,
gas burners wlintegral heat recovery, 27-28 (figure) 120
solid, 1-3 fuel saving for, (example) 126-127
Fuel Directed@burner, def. 388, 25-27, 36 industrial, oxygen enrichment applica-
Fuel flow rate (FfJ, (formula) 214 tions, (table) 235
Fuel gas gravity negative pressure within, (figures) 61-62
effect on combustio11, (figure) 55 oxygen-enriched comparison, (example) 218
Fuel input, to heat infiltrated air, (figure) 61 radiation-dominant, 236
Fuel-lean, definition 388 steel reheat, app1ic:atinn-specific cr~ntrnl
Fuel lines, inaterial, 87 systems, 152
Fuel mixing, affecting noise, 206-207 tight, 7
Fuel NO, definition 388 tunnel-like conveyer, preheating load,
Fuel (chemical) NOx, 159-161 (figure) 120

Furol, Saybolt, definition 389 Gas valve, gas pilot, (figure) 11
Fusion, definition 3119 Gate valve, as shutoff valve, 91
Fusion point, definition 389 Gauge pressure, definition 390
General-purpose burner, 7, (figures) 9, 33
General-purpose Dual-Fuel" burner, 33-34
Gain, Reset, and Rate, 141 giga, abbreviated G , definition 390
Gas, definition 389 Gigajoule (GJ), definition 390, (table) 319
average natural, available heat, 217 Glass, definition 390
coke oven, conversion factors for Glass melting tanks, 133
(table) 321 Glost fire, definition 390
natural, acfh of products of combustion Glycols, (figure) 290, (table) 291
(formilla) 211 Grades of fuel oil, definition 380
conversion factors for, (table) 321 Gram (G), definition 3/39
products of r:o~r~t)ustion, 131, (figure) 130 Gravimetric analysis, definition 390
pot for air-oxygen mixes, (figure) 216 Gravity, accclcratiun, (table) 315
Gas booster, definition 388 Gravity, specific, definition 390
Gas burner, combined with oil burner, 33-42 Gravity, standard, definition 390
combustion volume, 6 Greenhouse gases, definition 300
delayed mixing, 24-27 Grid plate, (figure) 9
fuel-I~urriingequipment, 12-27 Grid type fume burner, 40
Fuel Directed@,25-27, (figure) 26 Gross heating value (GHV), definition 390
i n t e g r ~ beat
l recovery devices, 2 7-28 heat rc:covcry, 118
nozzle-mixing, 16-23 percent available heat, (table) 219
premix, 12-16 Grout, definition 390
Gas connection, hurner backworks, 11
Gaseous fuels
burning vt?l(ir:ity*,(table) 225 Hack, definition 391
flammability limits", 223, (table) 224 Hardness number equivalents, (table) 356-357
ignitiori temperature*, (table] 223 IIarmunic, dejinitior~391
Gaseous products of incomplete combustion Head, definition 391
(pic), aldehydes, 170 Header, defilitior~391
carbon monoxide, 170 Headpin flame, Type 3,(figure) 4-5
Gases, dry flue, sensible heat content, 124 Hearing loss, 183-184
exhaust, heat recovery, 117 Heat, available, 1 2 2
Gas fuel train, 115 average natural gas, (figures) 125, 217
(;as gravity, definition 389 benefit of preheating combustion air,
Gas-jet mixer, definition 389, (figure) 15 122-127
Gas jet noise, combustion systems, 202-203 energy, work equivalents, [table) 317
Gas-jet venturi mixer, 14-16 gross, 124; net, 124
Gas metering orifice, required straight pipe percent available, 122, (formulas) 124-127
between fittings and, (figure) 89 Heat content, definition 391
Gas metering orifices air, (tables) 247-249, 255, (figure) 251
piping for multiple burners, 112 metals, (tables) 260-261, (figure] 262
Gas mixer, definition 390 sensible, dry flue gases, 124
Gas oil, definition 390 steam, water, (tables) 256-257
Gas-oil burner, definition 390 Heater, oil storage tank, 94
Gasoline, definition 390 Heat exchanger, definition 391
Gas pilot, arrangement, low pressure air and Heat flux, definitjon 391
gas, (figure) 11 Heating values, (table) 293
Gas pressure-reducing regulators, 58, (fig.) 59 Heat loss reduction, 117
Gas radiation heat flux rates, 233 Heat of combustion, definition 391
Gas regulator, gas pilot, (figure) 11 Heat uf fusion, defi~~ition 391
Gas train, definition 390 Heat of vapurizatiun, definition 381
Gas train fuel shutoff valve, (figure) 74 Heat receiver, definition 391
* See illso Volu~neI.

Heat reclaimerlregenerator vs. recuperator, High velocity Dual-Fuelm burner, 38-39

133-137, (figure) 28 gas and oil flames, (figures), 4-5, 39
Heat recovery, 117-139 High velocity type H flame, 4-5, 165
airifuel ratio, 127-128 Hopper car thawing burner, 37, [figure) 38
effectiveness, 137 Horizontal cylindrical tanks, (table) 361
generating steam, 121-122 Horizontally-fired burner
heating water, 121-122 preferred pipe positions, (figure) 87
integral air-preheater burner, 133 Horizontal rotary cup burner, 32
makeup air, 121-122 Horsepower (hp), definition 393
preheating cor~ibustionair, 122-137 Hot air, available heat, (formula) 124
preheating load, 120-121 Hot air burner, 35
proportioning of air to fuel, 127-128 Hot air pipes, insulation, heat recovery, 117
recuperators, 129 Hot mix temperature, definifion 393
regenerators, 133-137 Hot poc ducts, insulation, heat recovery, 117
Heat recovery systems, H,SO, (Sulfuric acid), 171-172
loss minimization, 117 Human ear, 182
Hcat release pattern, 36 response at threshold, (figure) 188
Heat release rate, 2, 13 toleration levels. 183
Hcat requirements, air, drying, Humans, effect of noise, 182-185
(tables) 310-313 physiological and psychological aspects,
Heat resistant alloys, [table) 358 182-183
Heat tracing, heavy ail line, 102-103 threshold of sound, 182
Heat transfer, definition 3.91 IIumidity, (figs.) 251-252, (tables) 253-255.292,
Heat transfer coefficient (h,), definition 391 combustion air, changes in, 54-55
Heat transfer fluids, (figure) 290, (table) 291 Hydraulic radius, definition 393
Heavy oil, definition 391 Hydrocarbon, definition 393
Heavy oil system Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), definition 391
branch circuits, 101-104 Hydrogen (H,)
coking, 102 burning velocity*, (table) 225
differ from light oil, 101-104 flammability limits*, (table) 224
temperature, 102 ignition temperature* for, [table) 223
vaporization, 102
burner, starting, 104, (formula) 102
piping, 104, (figure) 105 Ideal combustion, definition 394
hecto, abbreviated h, definition 391 Igniter, direct electric, 76, 78
Helmholtz resonators, for noise control, 192 Ignition, definition 394
Herreshoff kiln, 2 Ignition pilot, definition 394, 11
Hertz (Hz), definition 391 Ignition port
H-fuel, definition 392 aerodynamics, affecting noise, 207
H, (see Hydrogen) Ignition temperature*, definition 394
High-alumina refractories, definition 392 affecting flame stability, 222-223
High-duty fireclay brick, definition 392 for gaseous fuels, (table) 223
Higher heating value, definition 392 Ignition velocity*, definition 394, 225
High fire, definition 392 Immersion tube burner, 22, 137
High-frequency sound, definition 392, 181 Immersion tubes, resonant, 202
travel of, 189 Impact tube (Pitot tube), definition 394
High pressure air atomizing oil burner, 30-32 Impeller, definition 394
High pressure air system..., definition 392 Impulse line, definition 394, 49, 106
High pressure gas, definition 392 false pressure signals, 90
High pressure switch, definition 392 nozzle mixing burner, 106, (figure) 107
High velocity burner, 8, 18-21 Impulse tap
Dual-Fuel, 18-21 required straight pipe to control valve,
integral burnerlair preheater, 133 (figure) 89

INDEX 443
Inches of mercury column ("Hg), dej. 394 Jet noise, causes of higher frequencies of,
Inches of water column ("wc), definition 394 combustion systcms, 202-203
Incineration, starved air principle, 2 high velocity, (figure) 196
Inclined damper, 65, [figure) 66 sound power level, [fr~rmula)202-203
Incomplete combustion, definition 394 Jet tubes, (figurc) 9
Indirect-fired compact burner-regenerator, 137 flame stabiliiy, 7
Indirect-fired heater or dryer, definition 394 Joule(s) J, definition 396
Indirect-firing integral burner-regenerator,
133, (figure) 135 Kaolin, definition 396
Induced air, definition 394 Kerosene, rkfinjtion ,796
Induced draft, definition 394
Ketone, definition 396
Induced draft fan, definition 395 Key, definition 396
Industrial cornbustion, pollution control, 153 Kiln, definition 396, 1
Industrial flame types, (figure) 4-5 application-specific control systcms,
Industrial furnaces, applications of oxygen flarne supervising systcm, 80
enrichment, ( t ~ l ~ l 235
t?) 1 Ierresh[~ff,2
Industrial heating, definition 395 Kilocalorie (kcall, definition 396
Industrial process burner, 1,(figure) 9 Kilogram (kg), riefinilion 396
Industrial process temperatures (table) 303-308 Kilohertz (kHz),179
Inerts, definition 395 Kilowatt, tiefiniliorl 397
Infiltrated air, fuel input to heat, 233, (fig.) 61 Kilowatt-hour (kwh),definition 3.06
Infrared burner, definition 395, 6, (figure) 23
Kinematic viscnsity (kin visc), definition
Infrared detectors, 75 Knot, definitjon 397
Input controller, definition 395
1n;ut rate, clefinifion 39.5
Inspiratur mixer, definition 395, 14-16 Ladle, definition 307
Insulating firebrick (ifb), definition 39.5 Laminar flow, definition 397, 226
Insulation, definition 395 Large port gas burncr, definition 397, 12-14
heat loss reduction, 117 Large pnrt premix nozzle, (figure) 15
heavy oil line, 102-103 Latent flue loss, (formula) 124
Intake noise, 198 Latent heat, definition 397, (tables) 256-257,
sound power level, (formula) 199 260-261
Integral air-preheater burner, 133 Latent heat of fusion, definition 397
Integral burner-recuperator, 27, 133 Latent heat of vaporization, definition 397
heat reclaimer advantages, 336 Lazy flame, (figure) 4-5
Integral burner-regenerator, 27-28, 134-137 L-D process, definition 397
alf ratio control, (figure) 110 Ldn (Day-night sound pressure), (table) 186
direct-firing, (figure) 134 Lead lag control, definition 397
effectiveness vs. recuperators, Lead sulfide cell, 75
(figures) 28, 134-136 Leak test, Double Checker, 74
Integral fan Dual-FuelTM burner, (figure) 34 Lean, premixing, 168
Interface, definition 395 Lean mixture, definition 397
Interlock, definition 395 Lean ratio, definitjon 397
Intermittent pilot, 11 Ledge bluff bodies, flame stability, 7
Interrupted ignition, definition 395 beq (Equivalent sound pressure), [table) 186
Interrupted pilot, 11, 72, 78 Lifting, definition 398
Inviscid fluid, defi'nition 395 Light emitting diode (led), definition 397
Light fuel oil, definition 398
Light oil system, branch circuits, 99-103.
Jamb, definition 396 control zones, 99-101
Jet, boundary layer, for noise control, 196 difference from heavy oil system, 101-104
Jet description, flame, (figure) 5 schematic piping diagram, (figure) 100
Jet flame, (figurc) 4-5 starting flow, 101
444 NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION HAiVDBOOK
Light-up, definition 398 Main oil circulating loop [continued]

Limit control, definition 398 initiating circulation, 99
Limiting orifice, definition 398 oil storage tanks, 94-99
Limiting orifice valve, deJinition 398 Main return line, light oil systems, 99
nozzle mixing burner, 106 Makeup air, definition 400
1,inear valve characteristic, 43, (figure) 44 Makeup air heat exchangers, 121, (figure) 122
Line burner, definition 398 Makeup water, dejinition 400
Line pressure regulators, 58 Malleable pipe fittings, (table) 336
Linkages, adjustable, airlfucl ratio, (fig.) 48 Manholes, oil storage tanks, 94
Lintel, definition 398 Manifold, definition 400, 87
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), def. 398, 173 design for uniform flow distribution,
Liquid fuel burner, 29-32 (figure), 88
Litre (I.), definition 397, 398 preferred pnsitinn for. 86, 87, (figure) 88
Load, boiler, definition 398 Manometer, dejillition 400, 90, 112
Load coupled combustor, definition 398 M.ulual ignition, definition 400
Load preheating, batch furnace, 120 Manual reset fuel shutoff valve, def. 400, 73
t)oiler, 120 light oil systerx~s,Y Y
collti~luousfurnace, 120 power interruptions, 74
c:cmveyor furnace, 120 Manufactured gas, definition 400
die casting mclter, 120 Mapp gas, definition 400
heat recovery, 120-121 Mass flow control system, definition 400, 55
Logic controllers, programmable, advanced Matter, definition 400
process control, 148 Mean stack temperature, definition 400
1.08 mean temperature diflere~lce(LM'l'D), Mcchanical draft, definition. 400
definition 398, 129-131, 132 Mechanical mixer. definition 400. 16
Long flame, 24, (figu~e)4-5 Mechanical aiornizing burner, def. 400
Loop, main oil circulating Medium-frequency sound, 181
(see Main oil circulating loop) Melter, aiurnin~irri,application-specific control
proc:ess control, 141 systems, 152
Loop controller, process, 141 next to prehealing oven, 3.20, (figure] 121
single, advanced process control, 145 Melting point (mp), definition 400, 402
Loudspeaker, sound generation, 177, (fig.) 178 Membrane system
Low Btu gas, definition 398 source of oxygen, 213
Lower heating value (lhv), definition 399 value, (example) 214
Low fire, definition 399 Mercury (Hg), rlffinitiolz 392
Low-fire start, definition 399 Mesh, definition 401
Low-frequency sound, definition 399,180,190 Metals, properties, [tables) 260-261, 264-276,
Low NOx, injectors, definition 398, 166 (figures) 262-263
strategies, 163 Metering orifice, 1 1 2
Low pressure air, definition 399 orifice balancing and, co~nbustionsystems,
Low pressure air atomizing oil burner, 111-112
definition 399, 29-30, 52 piping location, (figure) 89
Low pressure air system ..., definition 399 Methane (CH,), definition 401
Low pressure gas, definition 399 burning velocity, (table) 225
Low pressure switch, definition 399 effects of oxygen enrichment, on flame
LP gas, 173 velocity for, 225
Lp (see Sound pressure level [Lp or SPL]) effccts of oxygen enrichment o n flamma-
Luminous flame, 24, (figure) 4-5 bility limits, 223, 226
Luminous flame burner, definition 399 flammability limits*, (table) 224
L, (see Sound power level [L, or PWL]) ignition temperature" for, (table) 223
pollution fac:tors, (table) 321
Methane gas flame velocity,
Main air, defi~inition399 effects of air prchcoting on, (table) 226
Main oil circulating loop, definition 399 effects r)f oxygen enrichment, [table) 226
- -

Methanol, definition 402 Natural gas (continued)
conversion factors for, (table) 321 conversion factors for, (table) 321
Metre (m), definition 401 products of combustion, 131, (figure) 1 3 0
Metric pipe, (table) 336 properties, (table) 315
Microbar, definition 401 n-C,H,, (Butane), bunling velocity *, (table) 225
Microcomputers, process control, 141 flammability limits*, (table) 224
Micron (p), definitiorl 401 Net heat, 124
Millilitre, definition 401 Net heating value (nhv), rle]:li'njtion 403
Millimetre, definition 401 Neutral atmosphere, definition 403
Millivolt thermocouple tables, 329-330 Nine-inch equivalent, definition 403
Mineral, definition 401 Nitric oxide (NO), definition 403, 157-162
Mineral matter, defirtilion 401 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2], dcf. 404, 157-162
Minc Safety and Health Administration, Nitrogen oxides (NOx), def. 404, 157-162
noise reduction, 185 chemical, 159-160
Minimum firing rate, definition 401 comparison of actual and equilibrium con-
Minimum ignition temperature, definition 401 centrations, 158-162, (figure) 159
Mixer, piping location between nozzle and, 89 (:orrl[~arisonof readings, 155,
Mixer, gas, definition 401 (table) 156
Mixer throat, 16 colltrol techniqucs, 163-170
Mixing, 3, 6, 173 cooling, 162
delaycd, incomplete soot-containing flames dilute oxygen combinatic~r~ method and,
172-173 227-228
Mixing rate, flame, (figure) 5 dilution correction, 153-157
Mixture, lean, definitiorl 401 effect r)f tinle, 1 6 2
Mixture, rich, definition 401 emissions, 227-229
Modified parabolic valve characteristic, 43 flue g;lsrt?c:irculatioi~method and, 227
Modulating control, definition 402 formation of, 158
Modulus of elasticity, definition 409 fuel, 159-161
Modulus of rupture, definition 402 implernentatiori standards, 155
Molecular weight, definitiorl 402 measuring concentrations, specifications,
Molecule, definition 402 153-155, 174, 321
Mole, volume, (table) 315 mechanisms of formaiion, 158
Momentum, definition 402 pollution control, 153, 163-170
Monolithic lining, definition 402 pollition factors, (tdble) 321
Morris couplings, 90 prevention, 163-170
Mortar (refractory), definition 402 problems from, 157
Motors, electric current, (table) 359 prompt, 159
Mounting plate, burner backworks, 11 thermal, 158-159, 163, 167
Movement, of noise source, 189-190 Noise, definition 404, 177
Muffle, definition 402 afflictions, 183-184
Mullite refractories, definition 402 air jet, in combustion systems, 202-203
ambient, 187
correcting sound level measurement for,
Naphtha, definition 403 (table) 187
Naphthenes, definition 403 blower, components, control, 198
Natural convection, definition 403 casing, 198, 199
Natural draft, definition 403 sound power level, (formula) 199
Natural gas, definition 403 combustion, 203-207
acfh of products of combustion*, community response to, 184
(formula) 201 ( ; t l ~ l t r 01,
~ l 189-198
average, available heat*, (figure) 217 combustion systems, 198-203
products of combustion for percents of effects of on humans, 182-185
oxygen concentration in air-oxygen mixes physiologiciil/psychological aspects,
for, 216 182-183
* See also Volume 1

Noise (continuer]] Nozzle-mix burner, definition 404, 14

exhaust, 199 industrial, flamc holding arrangement,
fan, components, control, 198 (figure) 9
hurnan toleration icvcls, 183 radiation type, 23, (figure) 4
intake, 198, 199 Nozzle-mix convection burner, 17,
sound power level, (fnrniula) 199 (figure) 18, 19
liability for reduction, 185 Nozzle mixing burner, blccder, 106, (fig.) lfl7
mathcmatics of sound, 185-189 impulse line, 106, (figure) 107
measurement of sound, 189 linliling orifice valve, 106
minimization of, 177-210 ratio regulator, (f~gure),107
fundamentals of sound, 177-182 Nozzle mixing gas burncr, 16-23
opnri fan iritake, 199 iidvantages over premix burners, 16-17
outlet, 198-199 Nozzle nose, as burner component, 1 0
physical effects, 183 Null balanced system, definition 404
physics of sound, 185-189
piping system, 199-202
predicting sound power levels of burners, 0, (see Oxygen)
207-209 Observation port, 78, 84, (figure) 86
propagation of sound, 1x9 as burncr component, 1 2
radiated fa11 (:asirip, 199 I~urner,86
sound power level, correction for, 199 gas pilot, (figure) 11
source of, blocking for noise corrhol, 195-196 pilot, 86
in combustion systems, 198-203 Occupational noise standards,
reduction of, for nnisc control, 196-297 relaxation of, 183
NO (Nitric oxide), 157-1 62 Occupational Safety and Heath Administra-
NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide), 157-162 tion (OSHA), 185
c:omparist111of ~(:tlialand equilil~rium exposure time to noise, (table) 197
concentrations, 158-162 oec (oxygen-enriched combustion),
comparison of readings, 155, (table) 156 advantages versus disadvantages, 240-241
control techniques, pollution control, applications, 234-240
163-170 economics, 239-240
cooling, 162 fuel savings, 236-239
effect of time, 162 specific fuel savings, 237-339
formation of, pollution control, 158 Oil (see also Heavy oil system; Light oil
fuel, 159-161 systenl)
measurement of, pollution control, distillate, flowmeters, 112, (figure) 113
153-155 distillate fuel, percent available heat* and
mechanisms of formation, 158 adiabatic flame temperature* for,
pollution control, 163-170 (table) 221
thermal, 158-159 dripping through burners, 91-92
Nonane (C,H,,), definition 404 Oil burner, combined with gas burner, fuel-
Nonoxidizing, definifion 404 burning equipment, 33-42
Nonprogramming flame supervising system, high pressure air atomizing, 30-32
78-79 low pressure air atomizing, 29-30
Normal cubic metre (nm3), definition 403 steam or air atomizing, 30-32
Normal thread engagement, definifion 404 Oil circulating loop, main (see Main oil
Nose, as burner component, 1 0 circulating loop)
NOx (see Nitrogen oxides [NOx]) Oil expansion, in pipelines, 92
Nozzle, definition 404, 1 Oil filter, light oil systems, 99
air, boundary layer, for noise control, 196 main oil circulating loop, 95
burner, gas pilot, (figure) 11 Oil fuel train, 115, (figure) 116
premix burner, piping location mixer and, Oillair ratio regulator, 52,115
(figure) 89 Oil handling systems, 91-104
premix gas burner, 12 Oil header, 87

Oil limiting orifice valve, 101 Overfiring, definition 405
Oil line, air in, 91 Overheating, protection from, recuperators,
dead end type, for light oil only, 115 132-133
dual-fuel combustion system, 115 Overload of motors, definition 405
steam-traced, 102, (figure) 103 Overrate firing, definition 405
Oil piping, 92 (see also Piping) Oxidizing atmosphere, definition 405
diagrams, (figures) 93, 95, 97, 98, 100, Oxidizing flame, definition 405
103, 105 Oxy-fuel, available heit, (Iomnlula) 124
Oil pour point, temp., oil, storage tanks, 92 Oxy-fuel burners, 331-332
Oil pressure atomizing burner, def. 404, 32 Oxy-fuel combustion. definition 405
Oil pressure-reducing regulators, 58 Oxy-fuel firing, 211-243
(figwe) 59 applications, 234-236
Oil storage tanks, 92-94 burner, NOx control, 229
main oil circulating loop, (figure) 93 economics, 234-241
Oil systems, large, 104 effects of oxygen on c:ornbustion, 214-229
Oil temperature limit switch, definition 404 methods for comb. with oxygen. 229-233
Oil-to-gas converter system, defir~ition404, oxygen enrichment and, 211-243
40-41 oxygen sources, 21 2-214
Oil train, derinition 404 Oxygen, t ~ u r n i r ~vclocity
g with, gaseous fucls,
Oil vaporizing burner arrangements, 40-41 (table) 225
Oil volume, circulating in loop, 9 7, 103 cunlxxlarcial, volume flow rate of, 215
Olerms, definition 404 comparison of sources, 212-213
On-off control, definition 405 effects of, nn combustion, oxygeri enrich-
On-ratio, definition 405, (table) 331 ment and oxy-file1 firing. 214-229
Open burner, definition 405, 11, (figure) 1 5 effects of, on NOx, 154-157, 158, 165
large port gas, 13 flammability lirnits in, for several f i ~ ~ l s ,
Open fan intake noise, 198, 199, 223, (table) 224
Open loop, Process Reaction Curve Method, ignitirln terrlperalure in, for gaseolls fuels,
144-145 222, (table) 223
Optimal cross-connection, gas pilot, 11 methods for combustion, 229-231
Optimum air supply, definition 405 modes of operation, 232-233
Organic fluids, (figure) 290, (table) 291 oxygen enrichment and oxy-fuel firing,
Organ pipe, sound generation, 177, (figure) 178 229-233
Organ pipe effect, 200 liercent concentration in air-oxygen mix,
Orifice, definition 405, (figure) 216
areas, (table) 347-355 products of combustion with air-oxygen
Orifice balancing mixes for average natural gas,
metering systems and, combustion systems, (figure) 216
111-112 pure, calculation of equivalent, 213-214
Orsat analyzer, definition 405 required per unit volume of fuel, stoichio-
Oscillation, pipe system noise, 201, metric combustion, [formula) 214
Ultimate Period Method, 142-143 required volume flow rate, (formula) 214
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health purity of, 212
Administration), 185, (table) 362, sources, 212-214
exposure time to noise, (table) 207 volume concentration of, in total volume
Outlet noise, 198 of enriched mixture, (formula) 215
sound power level, (formula) 199 Oxygen-air mixing, volume flow rate of,
Oven, flame supervising system, 80 (formula) 21 5
preheating, next to aluminum melter, 120 Oxygen-air nozzle mixing, 230
recirculating, 22 Oxygen-air upstream mixing, 230
Overall boiler eff~ciency,definition 405 Oxygen concentration, definition 405
Overall coefficient of heat transfer, U, Oxygen content of air, (table) 292
definition 405 Oxygen-enriched combustion (oec),
Overfeed stoker, 2, (figure) 3 definition 404, 406
Oxygen-enriched combustion [continued) Periodic dryer, definition 407

advantagesldisadvantages, 211, 240-241 Periodic kiln, definition 407
applications, 234-240 Periodic table elements, (tablc) 294-299
available heat with, (formula) 124 Periodic time (in acoustics), definition 407
burners, 42, 228, 231 Permeability, definition 407
economics, 236-241 pH, definition 407
effects on flame velocity of methane gas, Photocell flame detector, definition 407
225, (table) 226 Permissible exposure limit (PEL),
effects on flammability ljrrlits of rr~ethane noise reduction, 186
gas, 224, (graph) 226 Personal computers (PC's),
flame temperature, 222 advanccd process contrr)l, 149
fuel savings, 236-239 Personnel, alternating, for noise control, 198
productivity improvement, 234-236 Photocells, 75
ratio control systems, 56, 71, 108 pic (products of incomplete combustion), 173,
specific fuel savings and, 237-339 definition 407
Oxygen lancing, 211, (figure) 231 gaseous, aldehydes, 170
Oxygen process, definition 406 carbon monoxide, 170
Oxygen sensor, definition 406 pollution control, 170-171
Oxygen sources, 212-214 pico, abbreviated p, definition 407
Oxygen trim ( 0 2trim), definition 406 PID (ProportionaI/integral/derivative [PID],
algorithm), 141
tuning, 145
pac (preheated air combustion), def. 406 calculation of parameters, 142
advantages/disadvantages, 240-241 process control, 142-145
economics, 239 Pilot, definition 407, 72, 76-78
PAC (polycyclic aromatic compound), def. 406 constant, continuo~as,11, 72
Parabolic plug, characteristic of sliding plug intermittent, 11
valve, 45 interrupted ignitic~n,11, 72, 78
Parabolic valve characteristic, 43 location relative to main flame, 77
Paraffins, definition 406 observation port, 86
Parafinic and mineral oils, (table) 291 premix gas burner, 12
Parallel flow, definition 406, recuperator, standby, standing, 11
advantages vs. counterflow, 129-131 Pilot arrangement
combined with counterflow, 131 low pressure air and gas, (figure) 11
Particle size, effect on noise, 205 Pilot tip, 13, (figure) 11
Particulate density charts, (figure) 360 Pipe, color codes and labels, [fig~ue)340-341
Particulate emissions, 172-173 expansion, (table) 337
soot-containing flames, 172-173 fill, oil storage tanks, 94
Parts per million (ppm), definition 409 fittings, (table) 336
Pascal (Pa), definition 406 flange dimensions, (figure) 338
PCE (pyrometric cone equivalent), def. 406 hot air, insulation, heat recovery, 117
PCs (Personal computers), metric sizes, (table) 336
advanced process control, 149 nipple lengths, (table) 336
PEL (Permissible exposure limit), resonance in, 199-200
noise reduction, 185 size, hot fluids, heat recovery, 117-118
Percent air, definition 406 thread engagements, (table) 336
Percent e (volume concentration of oxygen in velocities, 332
total volume of enriched mixture), 215 vent, oil storage tanks, 94
Percent excess air, definition 406 Pipe branch, required length from control
Percent oxygen concentration i n air-oxygen valve, (figure) 89
mix, (figure) 216 Pipe burner, definition 407
Perfect combustion, definition 406 Pipe dope compound, 90
Perfect gas, definition 407 Pipelines, oil expansion in, 92
Period, sound pressure = periodic time, 180 Pipe resonance, 200-202
Pipe system noise, detuning, 200 Pollution control (continued)
Piping, 88-90 (see also Oil piping) oxides of sulfur, 171-172
accessories, 90-91 particulate emissions, 172-173
air metering orifices for multiple burners, reduction of NOx &om industrial combus-
(figure) 112 tion, 163-170
burner, definition 407, 86 United States standards, 155-157
preferred position for, 86, (figurc) 87 example, 157
combustion systems, 86-91, 114-116, units, 155, 321
(figure) 113 Polycyclic aromatic: compourld [PAC), def. 406
couplings, 90-91 Polymerization, definition 408
dual-fuel combustion system, 115, (fig.] 113 Polynuclear aromatic (pna), dc,f 408, 170
.:, 90-91
flanbFt-s Porous silencers, for noise control, 190
gas metering orifices for multiple burners, Port, definifion 409, 78
(figure) 112 as 11urriercomponcnt, 10, 12
general practice, 86-91 bypass, 13
heavy oil system, 104, (figure) 105 gas pilot, (figure) 11
integral burnt:r-regenerator. (figure) 28 large, gas burner, 12-14
light oil system, 99-101, (figure) 100 observation, 78
main oil circulating loop, 95-96 as burner r:ori~ponent,12
prcnlix burner, 90 sillall, prcmix gas burner, 12
requirements, 90, (figure) B'J Ported manifold burner, definition 40.9, 12
schematic, (figure) 97 Positive displacement pump, definition 409
suc:tion, main oil circ:ulaLing loop, testing, Post combustion NOx cleanup, 169
Y 5-96 Post-purge, definition 409
sylnbnls, (table) 339 Potential flow, definition 409
thermal expansion, (table) 92 Pound mole, v o i ~ ~ mof,
c ! (Lable) 315
unions, 90-91 Pounds force (#fl,definition 384
Piping system noise, 199-202 Pouring-pit refractory, definition 409
Piston rod, sheave, 65, (figure) 66 Pouring temperature, defirinitioll 409,
Pitch, definition 407 of metals, (tables) 260-261
Pitot tube (impact tube), definition 384, 408 Pour point, definifian 409
l'iI transducer, definition 408 Power, definition 409
Plasma jet, definition 408 Preheated air, definition 409
Plastic refractory, definition 408 Preheated air conlbustion (pac), def. 406
plc (pressure loss coeWcienl), definition 408 advantagesldisadvantages,240-241
PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), burners for, 35-36
advanced process control, 148 economics, 239
Plenum or plenum chamber, definition 408 firing burner with, NOx control, 165
Plug fan, definition 408 fuel requirement, (figure) 57
Plug flaw, definition 408 heat, (figure) 236
Plug valve, definition 408 fuel savings, 236-239
PM-10, definition 408 ratio control systems, 108, (figure) 109-110
poc (products of combustion), def. 408, 117 Preignition purge, definifion 409
dew points, variation, 118, (figure) 119 Premix burner, definition 409
waste heat boiler, 121, (figure) 122 flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9
Poise, definition 408 flashback, 7
Pollutant conversion factors, (table) 332 piqing, 90
Pollution control, 153-174 ratlo regulator, 106, (figure) 107
fomnlation of nitrogen oxides, 158-161 tunnel, flame holding arrangement, (fig.) 9
products of incomplete combustion, Premix burner nnzzle
170-171 piping between mixer and, (figure] 8 9
measurement of nitrogen oxides, 153-157 Premixers, definition 409, types of, 14-16
nitrogen oxides, 158-160 Premix flame, 7
prevention, 163-170 flammability limits, 223
Premix gas burner, 12-16 Process Reaction Curve Method (continued)

pilot, 12 calculation of proportionallintegrallderiva-
ratio regulator, 106, (figure) 107 tive algorithm parameters, 142, 143-145
Premix tunnel burner, large port, (figure) 15 Process variable (PV),141
Pre-purge, deJi/inition410 Producer gas, definition 41 0
Pressure-balanced alf ratio control, Products of combustion (poc), def. 440, 117
definition 410 acfh with natural gas, (formula) 201
Pressure burner, definition 410, 12-14 dew points, variation, 118, [figure) 119
Pressure control, definition 410, for various air-oxygcn mixes, 215-216
of ;iir/fuel ratio, 49-53 rccuperator approach connet:tion, 132
Pressure controllers, 58 waste heat boiler, 121, [figure) 122
Pressure controls, automatic furnace, 58-69 with oxygen enrichment, 214-218
Pressure drop, definition 410 Products of incomplete combustion (pic),
across burner, affects noise, 205 carbon monoxide, 170
l'ressure equivalents, (table) 318 , gaseous, aldehydes, 170, 173
Pressure gauge, 90 pollution control, 170-171
light oil systcms. 99 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs),
main oil circulating loop, 98 advanced process cnntrc~l,1 4 8
Pressure gauge tap Programming flame supervising system, 79-80
pipe leiigth to fittings or valve, (figure) 89 burner lighting sequence, (figure) 79
Pressure luss, definition 410 Prompt NOx, 159
combustion system, 201-202, 332 Propane (C,H,), definition 410
Pressure loss coefficient (plc), definition 408 burning velocity*, (table) 225
Pressure recovery, dcjinition 41 0 commercial, conversion factors, [table) 321
Pressure-reducing regulator, definition 410, spreadsheet of equivalents, (table) 161
53, 58, (figure) 59 flarn~nat~ilitylimits*, (table) 224
oil, 58, (figure) 59 ignition temperature*, (table) 223
steam pressure, oil tracing, 103 Proportional control, definition 410
Pressure regulator, 58 Proportional/integral/derivative(PID),def. 407
light oil systcms, 99 algorithm, 141
Pressure-relieving regulator, def. 410, 58 tuning, 145
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA), 212 calculation of parameters, 142
Pressure switch tap, proc:ess control, 142-145
pipe length to fittings or valves, (figure) 89 Proportioning, definition 410
Pressure type gas burner, 12-14 Proportioning valve [pv) system, def. 410
Primary air, definition 410 46, 48-49
Primary element, definition 410 Propylene (C,&), definition 41 0
Process control Psychrometric charts, (figures) 251-252
advanced, 145-149 Psychometry, definition 41 1
digital era, 145-147 Puffing, in air systems, 199
features, 149-150 Pulse combustion, definition 41 1
safety, 150 Pulse-controlled firing, definition 41 1
basic, 141-142 Pulsing, in air systems, 199
implementation, 152 Pulverized coal burner, 1
integrated, 151-152 Pumping, in air systems, 199
loop, 141 Pumping power, heat recovery, 118
microcomputers, 141 Pump lift, definition 41 1
optimization, 141-152 main oil circulating loop, 96
proportional/integraI/derivativealgorithm, Pumps, capacity, 96-97
142-145 approximation, 96-97
Processing temperatures, (table) 303-308 main oil circulating loop, 96
Process loop, 141 Pure oxygen, 213-214
Process Reaction Curve Method, required per unit volume of fuel, stoichio-
calculation, (figure) 145 metric combustion, (formula) 214

INDEX
Purging, definition 41 1 Ratio control systems (continued)

Purple peeper, definition 41 1 nozzle mixing burner, 106, (figure) 107
PWL (scc Sound power level [L, or PWL]) oxygen enrichment, 108
Pyrometers, differential, 36, (figure) 37 piping for, (figure) 5 1
Pyrometric cone, definition 41 1 preheated air, 108, (figures) 109, 110
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE), premix gas burner, 106, (figure] 107
definition 406, 41 1, (table) 328 Ratiotrol, 52
Ratiotrol, pipe lcngth to burner centcrline,
52, (figure] 89
Quad, definition 412 Ratio regulator, definition 4 12
Quarl, definition 412, 167 RatiotrolTM, definition 412
Quarl angle, definition 412 Reactive silencers, for noise control, 194
Quarter Decay Ratio Response, 142, 145 Recirculating air heater, dryer, oven, 22
Quarter wave tube, for noisc control, 190-191, Recirculating type oil system, definition 41 3
wave cancellation in, (figure) 191 Recirculation, flamc, (figure) 5
Quenched flame, dr?finition 412 Reclaimed oil, definition 4 2 3
soot-containing flame, 166, 173 Rectification, definition 4 13
Quenching of metals, definition 412 Recuperator, definition 413, 35
Quick opening valve characteristic, 43-44 cross-flow, (figure) 132
furnace, schematic diagram, (figure] 126
heat recovery, 1 2 9
R or OR (Rankine or degrees Rankine), integral-burner vs. heat reclaimer, 136
definition 4 12 parallel flow, dividing wall temperature,
KIICT, definition 412 131
Radiant burner, defi~ition412, 6, (figure) 23 parallel flr~wvs. counterflow, [figure] 130
Radiant tube, resonant, 202 products of combustion approach
Radiant tube burner, definition 412, 25 connection, 132
flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9 protection from overheating, 132-133
Radiant tube burner-regenerator, uses, 137 thermal expansion, 132-133
Radiated fan casing noise, 199 two-stage, using 1)rlth parallel and
sound power level, (formula) 199 counterflow, (figure) 131
Radiation, definition 412 waste gas approach connection, 132
Radiation burner, definition 4 12, Recuperator systems, for multiple zoncs
6, 23, 37, (figures) 23, 38 with preheated air, (figure) 110
Radiation-dominant furnace, 236 Reduced port butterfly valve, 46
Radiation type nozzle-mix burner, Reducing atmosphere, definition 413
(figures) 4, 23 Reducing flame, definition 413
Rain, acid, 157, 171 Reflecting tube, for silencing duct burner,
Ramming mix, definition 412 (figure) 193
Rangeability, definition 412 Reflectors, for noise control, 192-193
Rankine or degrees Rankine, definition 412 Refractories, definifion 41 3
Rate control, 141 Refractory block, definition 413
Ratio control systems, 104, 106-111 Refractory-lined burner, 3 5, (figure] 36
airlfuel, for integral regenerator burner, Refractory regenerator, 133
(figure) 110 Refractory tile, block g u a ~ d ,7, 207
for multiple zones of burners with around large burners, (figurc) 85
preheatcd air, (figure) 109 as burner component, 1 0
aidgas, 106 burner failures, 83
airloil Rati~trol'~,52, (figure) 54 burner installation, 83-86
balanced pressure, (figure) 50 construction details for preventing
combustion systems, 104, 106-111 damage, 83, (figures) 84, 85, 86
control zones, light oil system, 101, expansion joints, 83
(figurc 51) failure in shear due to unequal expansion,
hookups, 106 (figure) 83
Refractory tile [continued) Ring burner, definition 414

failure in tension as result of bowing or Ringleman charts, (figure) 360
buckling, (figure) 83 Rise of a n arch, definition 414
furnace failures, 83 Rivefed Pipe Manufacturers (KPM),
gap, 84 (see RPM flange)
i~lstallationof, (figure) 84 Rockwell hardness equivalents, (table) 356-357
method for installing through fiber-lined Rotnmeter, definition 41 5
wall, (figure] 85 distillate oil, 112, (figure) 113
observation port design near b u r ~ i e with
r Rotary burner, delinifion 41 5, 32
negativo tile pressure, (figure) 86 Rotary drum, 2
Refractory wall, 83-84 Rotary dryer or kiln, definition 415
Refuse, definition 413 Rotary plug valves, &[inition 415, 45-46
Regenerator, definition 413, 27, 35 as shutoff valvr:~,91
checkerwork, 133, 134 V-port oil, 45-46
effectiveness vs. recuperators, (figure) 136 Rowlock cnurse, definition 416
furnace sc:hematic, (figure) 126 RPM flange, defii~itjon415, (table) 339
heat recovery, 133-137
integral-burner, 134-137
direct-firing, (figure) 134 Safety controls, irony of, 81
indirect-firing, (figurc) 135 Sagger, definition 415
rt:fractory, '133 Sankey diagram, defilijtion 41.5, 122-324
Rcgeneratorhurner, airlfuel ratio control, Saturated air, de[inition 415,
(figure) 110 (figures) 251-252, (tables) 253-255
Regulator, definition 413, sizes, 90-91 Saturated steam, def. 415, (tat~les]256-257
Regulator, gas pressure, dcfinition 41 3 Saturation pressure, dcjinition 41 5
Reheat furnaces, sled, application-specific Saturation temperature, definilion 41 5
control, 152 Saybolt Furol, definition 415
Relative humidity (rh), definition 413, Saybolt Universal, definifion 415
(figures) 251-252, (tables) 253-255 Scaling resistance, (Lable) 358
Relief valve, dcfinition 413, 58 Schlieren, definition 416
diaphragm, main oil circulating loop, 98 SCR (Selective catalytic reductiun),
pumps, main oil circulating loop, 96 xfter-fix treatment, NOx control, 169
Required volume flow rate (Frpo),of pure Sealed-in type burner, definition 41 6, 11
oxygen, (fornlula) 214 large port gas, 13
Reset control, 141 large port premix tunnel burner, (fig.) 15
Residual fuel oil (#6) available heat* and flame Secondary air, dej5nifion 41 6
temperature, definition 41 3, 221 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), def. 416,
Resistance, definition 41 4 after-fix treatment, NOx control, 169
Resolution, definition 41 4 Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR),
Resonance, definition 41 4 after-fix treatment, NOx control, 169
Resonators, Self-piloting burner, 1 3
Helmholtz, for noise control, 190-192 Semimuffle furnace, definition 41 6
Retort stoker, 2, (figure) 111 Sensible heat content, definition 416,
Return line, definition 414 dry flue gases, 124
main, light oil systems, 99 Sensitrol'", definitinil 41 6
main oil circulating loop, 98 Sensor, process monitor, 141
oil storage tanks, 94 Setpoint, 141
startup, light oil system, 101 Shafl furnace, definition 41 6
Reverberation, definition 424 Shaf?kiln, defin~tion41 6
Reynulds number, dcfinition 41 4, 226 Shape factor, definition 416
Ribbon burner, definition 41 4 Sheet metal gauges, (table) 333
Rich mixture, definition 414 Shielded cable, definition 41 6
Rich ratio, definition 414 Shock loss, delinition 41 6
Riddle tile, dcfinition 414 Shutdown, definition 41 6

Shutoff switches, main oil circulating loq), 98 Sound [continued)
Shutoff valve, 91 notation tcrms, (table) 186
burner, 101 oscilloscope depiction, 180, (figure) 181
manual reset fuel, light oil systems, 99 physical effects, 183
pumps, main oil circulating loop, 96 physics of, noisc, 185-189
Shuttle kiln, definition 426 predicting power levels of in burners,
Silencers, porous, for noise ctlntrrll, 190 207-209
reactive, tor noisc control, 194 propagation of, 189
Silicon carbide, definition 41 7 physiologicallpsychological effects, 182-184
Simultaneous gas-oil burner, definition 41 7 velocity, 182, (table] 315
Single port burner, definition 41 7 wavelength, 179
Sinter bed, 2 Sound alrsorption, definitron 41 8
Sintering, definition 41 7 Sound intensity, 181
Siren, sound generation, 177, (figure) 178 Suund level measurement
Skewback, clefinition 41 7 correction for ambient noise, (table) 187
Slagging of refractories, definition 41 7 Sound level meters, 188-189
Sliding plug valve, 44-45 Sound power level (L,, SPL,PWLI, dcf. 418
Sludge, definition 41 7 186-188
Slurry, deJinition 41 7 casing noise, (formula) 199
Small port premix gas burner, def: 41 7, 12 co~nibustionnoise, l~lower,198-199
Smog, 157, 171 exhaust noise, (formula] 199
Smoke density charts, (figure) 360 fan, 198
SNG,substitute natural gas nr synthetic intake noise, (formula) 199
natural gas, definition 41 7 jet noise, (forniulas] 202-203
Snubber, definition 41 7 outlet noise, (formula) 199
SO, (Sulfur dioxide), 171-172 prediction in burncrs, 207-200
SO, (Sulfur trioxide), 171-172 radiated fan casing noise, (fnrrnula] 199,
Soak (soaking), definition 417 (table1 186
Solder course, definition 41 7 Sound pressure, cfeJinition 418
Sonic atomizer, 32 Sound pressure level (Lp or SPL), def. 41 8,
Sonic velocity, definition 41 7 181-182, 185-186
Soot, definition 41 7 mathematics, 186
formation, 172, 173 Sound readings, 186
incineration, 173 Sound wave, 178
Soot-containing flames pure, (figure) 180
delayed mixing, 172-173 real, [figure) 181
Sound, definition 41 7 Sour gas, sour oil, definition 418
blocking, for noise control, Source values, of NOx, 155-157
(figures) 195-196 SOX, def. 414, pollution factors, (table) 332
characteristics, 177 Space heating, definition 418
combining multiple sources, (table) 186 Spalling of refractories, definition 418
frequency, 179-380 Spanner tile, definition 41 8
fi~ndamentalsof, minimization of noise, Sparging, definition 41 8
177-182 Spark ignited tip, gas pilot, definition 418,
generation, 177, (figure) 178 (figure) 11
high-frequency, 181 Specific fuel savings, (example) 239
travel of, 189 oxygen-enriched combustion, 237-339
human threshold, 182 with various air preheat temperatures, 238
human toleration levels, 183 Specific gravity (sg), definition 41 6, 41 8
low-frequency, 180 Specific gravity of a liquid, definition 41 8
travel of, 189 Specific heat (sp ht), definition 418
mathematics of, noisc, 185-189 Specific heat at constant pressure (cp)
measurcmcnt of, 179, 185-186, 189 definition 378
medium-frequency, 181 Specific volume, definition 418
Specific weight, definition 438 STOIC program, printouts, 124

Speed of sound, 182 Stoke, definition 420
SPL (see Sound pressure level, Lp, or PWL) Stoker(s), 2
Spreader stoker, 2 , (figure] 3 coal size ranges. 2
Spring line or spring of refractory arch, overfeed, 2, [figure) 3
definition 418 retort, 2, (figurc), 111
Spring-loaded relief valves, pumps, main oil spreader, 2, (figure) 3
circulating loop, 96 types of, coal size ranges for, (figurc) 3
Sprung arch, definition 41 8 underfeed, 2, (figurc) 3
Spud, definitiolz 419, 15 stp (sfandard temperature and pressure),
Squares, square roots, (table) 345-346 definition 420
Stability, as burner characteristic. 6-8 stp flow rate, de$inition 420
Stability, combustion, definition 419 stp volume, definition 420
Stability, oil, deJYnition 419 Strainer, definition 420
Stack, venturi, 67, (figure) ti6 main oil circulating loop, 95
Stackbonded, definition 41 9 siztls, 90-91
Stack loss, definitiorl 419 Strcet elbow, definition 4211, 00
Staged air entry, (figure) 9 Stretcher, definition 420
Stagcd combustion systems, definition 41.9,167 Sublimation, definition 420
Staging air, NOx control, 167 Substitute natural gas or synthetic natural
Staging fuel, NOx control, 168 gas (SNG), definition 417
Stainless steels, scaling, (table) 358 Suction line, definition 420
Standard air, definition 419 Suction line inlet, oil storage tanks, 92
Standard atmosphere, d e f i n i t i o ~41
~9 Suction pipkig, testing, main oil circulating
Standard barometer, definition 418 loop, 95-96
Standard cubic foot (scf], definition 419 Suction type mixer, dejinition 420
Standard cubic metre, definitior~419 Sulfur, effects of on dew point, 118, (fig.) 119
Standard pressure, definition 419 oxi'des of, polluticin control, 171-172
Standards, ambient, 155 Sulfur dioxide [SO,), 171-172
pollution control, (examples) 155-157 Sulfuric acid (H,SO,), 171-172
Standard temperature, definition 419 Sulfur trioxide (SO,), 171-172
Standard temperature and pressure (stp), Superduty fireclay brick, definition 420
definition 420 Superheated steam, def. 420, [tables) 258-259
Standard volume, definition 41 9 Supervising gas valve, definition 420
Standby, standing pilot, def. 407, 11, 72 Supervising valve system, 75
Startup return linos, light oil system, 101 Surface coefficient, definition 421
Starved air principle, incineration, 2 Surface tension, definition 421
Static pressure, definition 419 Surge, acoustic, in air systems, 199-200
Steady state, definition 419 Suspended arch, definition 421
Steam, generating, heat recovery, 121-122 Swirl, definition 421, flame, (figure) 5
Steam atomizing burner, definition 420 flame stability, 7
Steam or air atomizing oil burner, 30-32 Swirl combustor, 2
Steam header, 87 Synthetic gas, definition 421
Steam pressure, pressure-reducing regulator,
heavy oil line, 103
Steam-traced oil line, 102, (figure) 103 Taconite, definition 423
Steel reheat furnaces, application-specific Take-off lines, definition 421
control systems, 152 main oil circulating loop, 98
Stefan-Boltzman law, definition 420 Tank heaters, oil storage tanks, 94
constant, (table) 3 15 Tank volumes, (table) 361
Step bluffbodies, flame stability, 7, (figure) 9 Tap, impulse, pipe length from control valve,
StepFireTM system, definition 420 fitting, gauge, (figure) 89
Stoichiometric.combustion, definition 420, 13 pipe length from valve, fitting, pressure
Stoichionietric ratio, definition 420, (table] 331 switch, (figure) 89
INDEX
TEFC (totally enclosed fan cooled), def. 421 Time-weighted average (TWA),
Teflon pipe thread sealing paste, 90 noise reduction, 185
Teflon tape, 90 Tip, 1
Temperature, branch circuits in heavy oil T/I transducer, definition 422
system, 102 T/I transmitter, definition 422
combustion air, changes in, 54-55 TLV (threshold limit values), definition 422
dividing wall, parallel vs. counterflow toe, definition 422
recupcrator, 131, (figure) 130 Tonne, definifion 42.3
effect on NOx, 161-162 Ton, short, delinition 422
intlustrial process, (table) 303-308 Torque, definition 423
measuring minimum ignition energy, 222 TORR, definition 423
oil pour point, 92 Total heat content, moist air, (figures) 251-252,
resistance, [table) 358 (tables) 253-255
Temperature scale conversions, Totalizer, definifion 423
(tables) 319-326, (figure) 327 Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEPC), dej: 421
Tempest@, definition 421 Total pressure, definifion 423
tera, abbreviated T , definition 421 Town gas, definition 423
Tertiary air, definition 421 Trains, file], light oil systems, 99
Thenretical air, rlefinition 421 Tramp air, definition 423
Theoretical drafi, defjnition 421 Transducer, definition 423
Theoretical flame temperature, 222 Transmitter, definition 423
Therm, definition 421 Triatomic gases, definition 423, (figure) 132
Thermal conductance, ilefinitiorl 422 'hi-fuel fire tube boiler, (figure) 111
Thermal conductivity (k), definition 422 TSC (two-stage combustion],
air, (tablcs) 247-249 burner, NOx control, 167-168
Thermal de-NOx, definifion 422 Tubes, immersion or radiant, resonant, 202
Thermal expansion, definition 422 -el burner, definition 423, 14, (figure) 15
piping, (tal~les)92, 3 3 7 large port, (figure) 1 5
recuperators, 132-133 Tunnel kiln, definition 423
Thermal NO, definition 422 'Ihnnel premix burner,
Thermal NOx, 158-159, 163, 167 flame holding arrangement, (figure) 9
Thermal shock, definition 422 T k b o blower, definition 423
Thermie, definition 422 Turbulence, definition 423, 3, 6
Thermistor, definition 422 Turndown, definition 423
Thermocouple, definition 421 as burner characteristic, 8, 1 0
millivolt tables, 329-330 oil pressure atomizing nozzle, 32
process monitor, 141 Turndown range, of burners, 1 0
Thermophysical constants, (table) 315 co~ltrolvalve, 43
Thermopiles, definition 422, 75 Turndown ratio, 8, 1 0
Threaded manual butterfly valve, (figure) 47 Tuyere, definifion 423
Threaded pipe fitting dimensions, (table) 333 TWA (time-weighted average),
Thread engagement lengths, pipe, (table) 336 noise reduction, 185
Three mode, control equipment, 141 TwinBedQ, definifion 424
Threshold limit values (TLV), definition 422 TwinBedD regeneratorhurners, (figure) 28
Throttling valve, definition 422 'Itvo-staged combustion (TSC) burner, 167-168
Thrust, jet strearn of hot gases, 8 Two-stage recuperators, using advantages of
Thrust controlled flame, definition 422 parallel and counterflow, (figure) 132
Tight combustion chambers, 7
Tiles (see also Burner tiles; Refractory tiles)
as burner component, 1 0 Ultimate analysis, definition 424
Tile-stable burners, 7 Ultimate %CO,, definition 424
Time, forlnula, 180 Ultimate Period Method, calculation of
reduction of exposure, for noise control, 197 proportionaliintegrallderivative algorithm
Timed trial-for-ignition, definition 422 parameters, 142-143
Ultimate Period Method (continued) Valve (continued)

oscillation, (figure) 143 leak test, 74
test, (figure) 143 limiting orifice, nozzle mixing burner, 106
Ultrasonic atomizer, 32 manual reset fuel shutoff, 73
Ultraviolet detector tubes, 76 light oil systems, 99
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 76 power interruptions, 74
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), 170 oil limiting orifice, light oil system, 101
Underfeed stoker, 2, [figurc) 3 pipe length frnnl gas metering orifice,
Undersl~otlancing, of oxygen, 231 pressure gauge, tlr switch, (figurc) 89
Unions, piping, 90 proportioning, 49
Unit conversions, equivalents, (tables) 315-326, reduced port butterfly, 46
328-332, (figure) 327 mlinf, 58
United States standards, main oil circulating loop, 96
pollution control, 155-157 rotary plug, 45-46
Units, pollution control, 155-157 as shutoff valves, 91
Universal fitting, gas pilot, (figure) 21 V-port oil, 45-46
Universal gas constant, (table) 315 shutoff, light ojl S Y S ~ R I99
I~S,
Universal, Saybolt, definition 415 main oil circulating loop, 96
Unsaturated fuel, soot-containing flames, shut-off, burner, i n 1
172-173 sizcs, 90-01
Unstable burner, 6 sliding plug, 44-45
Updraft flue arrangement, characteristic, 45
autc~mlaticfurnace pressure controls, 64 shape of plug, 45
Upper limit of flammability, definition 424 spring-loaded relief, p~lrnps,main oil
IJpstream valve, pipe length from metering circulating loop, 96
orifice, gauge, or switch tap, (figure) 89 threaded manual butterfly, (figure) 47
U.S. Bureau of Mines, vent, 75
noise reduction, 185 wafer type butterfly, [figure] 47
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), VaIve characteristic, 43
noise reduction, 185 equal percentage, 43-44
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health fixed port, (figure) 44
Administration (OSHA), 185 linear, 43, (figure) 44
exposure time to noise, (table) 197 modified parabolic, 43
parabolic, 43
quick opening, 43, (figure) 44
Vacuum Swing Adsorption (VSA), 212 V-port, 45, (figure) 44
Valve, air, gas pilot, (figure) 11 Valve control, definition 424
automatic reset fuel shutoff, 72-73 of air/fuel ratio, 46, 48-49
wiring, (figure) 73 Valve handle position, flow rate versus, 43,
blast gates, as shutoff valves, 91 (figure) 44
butterfly, 44, 46 Vanadium, definition 424
characteristic, 43, 46, (figure) 44, 47 Vapor, definition 424
integral electrical drive, (figure) 47 Vaporization
reduced port, 46 branch circuits in heavy oil system, 102
wafer type, (figure) 47 requirements for after atomization, 2 9
control, characteristic, 43-46, (figure) 44 Vaporizing burner, definition 424, 29
diaphragm relief, main oil circulating Vapor lock, definition 425, 103
loop, 98 Vapor pressure, definition 425
file1 shutoff, 72-76 Velocity, burning 5 fuels in air or oxygen, 225
automatic reset, 72-73 Velocity, jet stream of hot gases, 8
gas train component arrangement, Velocity head, definition 425
(figure) 74 Velocity of sound, 182
manual reset, 72-73 i n air, (table) 315
gate, as shutoff valves, 91 Velocity pressure, definition 425
Velocity profile, definition 425 Warmup time, definition 426
Vena contracta taps, definition 425 Waste gas approach connection, recuperators,
Vent, definitior~425 132
Vent line pipe, 75 Waste gases, definition 426
Vent pipe, oil storage tanks, 94 Waste heat boiler (whb), 121, (figure] 122
Venturi, defiition 425 Waste incinerating burner--fume, 40
Venturi stack, 67, (figure) 66 Waste incinerating burner--liquid, 39
Venturi throat, 1s Water and sediment, rleJinition 426
Vent valve, 75 Water (blue) gas, definition 426
Viscosity (visc), definition 425 Watcr column, definition 426
air, gases, (tables) 247-249, 277-289 Water, gauge (wg), definition 427
Viscosii;, absolute, defirliiion 425 Water, heating, heat recovery, 121-122
- . kinematic.. definition
Viscositv. , 425 Water, properties, (table) 315
Viscous friction, dejirlitirnn 425 Water vapor, in saturated air, [tables) 247-249,
Vitiated air, definition 425 253-255, (figures) 251-252
Vitrification, definition 425 Watt density, defiilition 426
Volatile, definition 425 Watt-secnnds, definition 426
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Wavelength, definition 426, 179
definition 425, 170 Wax, definition 426
Volt (V), definition 424 Weather, effect or1 alf ratio, 54-55
Volume, combustion, definition 425 Weight flow rate, deJiz~ition426
Volume concentration of oxygen i n total Weight, specific, definition 426
volume of enriched mixture (Percent e), Welding pipe fittings, (table) 334-335
(formula) 215 Well-stirred reaction, definition 427
Vnlume equivalents, (tahle) 918 Wet basis, definition 427
Volume flow rate, definition 426 Wet bulb temperature (wh), definition 427
Volume llow rate of blower air (F,),215 Wire gauges, (table] 343-344
Volume flow rate of commercial oxygen (F,,), Wobbe Index, dtfinitiorl 427
(formula) 21 5
Volume flow rate of oxygen-air mixture (F,,),
(formula)215 XSAir (excess air), definifion 427
Volume in hnrizontal tanks, (t;il,le) 361 Xylene (C,H1,J, definition 427
Volume, specific, definition 426
Volumetric analysis, defi~itiurl426
Vortex shedding, definition 426 Zeldovich mechanism, nitrogen oxides, 158
V-port plug, characteristic of sliding plug Zero gas, definition 427
valve, 45 Ziegler and Nicholls Method,
V-port valve characteristic, 43 calculation of proportional/integral/
derivative algorithm parameters, 142-143
Wafer type butterfly valve, (figure) 47 oscillation, (figure) 143
Wall loss, definition 426 test, (figure) 143
Zone control, definition 427

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What is the book about?

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North American

A Practical Basic Reference on the

Volume 11: Combustion Equipment, Controls, Systems,

NORTH AMERICAN Mfg. Co.

COPYRIGHT, 1952, 1965, 1978, 1982, 1986, 1995

All Rights Resewed.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

First Edition, 1952, 1957, 1965 55 000 copies

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The purpose of this handbook is to provide users of combustion equipment with:

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDlTION,Volume II

Richard J. Reed, Technical Information Director

Part 8. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

Burner Installations .................................................. 83

Fundamentalsof Sound ............................................... 177

Moving the noise source ............................................189

Predicting Sound Power Levels of Burners .............................. 207

This is a handbook of engineering practice and

No patent liability is assumed with respect to

property can develop from incorrect operation of com-

In addition to releasing a great quantity of heat (for productivity), man

As the wind blows out a candle

The fire that's closest kept

Purposes of a fuel-burning system are: I ) to position flames at areas of

Primary functions of a burner (sometimes called a tip, nozzle, fire-bed) are

Solid fuel-burning equipment. Solid fuels, such as coals, lignite, wood,

Friable fuels such as coals can be pulverized to 100 micron-sized particles

Finely ground particles of solid fuels can be satisfactorily conveyed pneumat-

Crushed and ground particles may be burned in a cyclone combustion

U S standard sieve designation--&- ~ o u n dhole screen, in.

Flame Shape. For a given burner, operating variables such as changes in

Figure 6.2. Common industrial flame types.

Flame type Gas t Oil t

A conventional forward (feather)

F Long, luminous, lazy -

Figure 6.2. (concluded)

Swirl Recirculation Jet description Mixing rate Uses

none, or weak little or none axial moderate to fast all purpose

some, between primary primary jet penetrates moderate

considerable, hot reverse flow secondary jet intense cubical combustion

high, cold secondary jet intense

none none fuel andlor atomizing stretched out for uniform

low small scale flow contained by fast to drive into loosely-

Stability is achieved by meeting the requirements for combustion, at least on

Air le) flat flame burner

(f) air heating induct burner

air or -GRID PLATE

(c) generalized flow field

Fl (g) fume-incinerating burner

The maximum input rate is limited by a form of instability known as flame

To obtain proportional air inspiration a t high mixture pressures, the venturi

Clean-out tip of straight p~pe

Pilot and flame rod ooeninas

inspirator capacity and increase the probability of flashback. Accurate airlfuel

2) A wider range of airlfuel ratios is possible. Premix burner must operate