938_Cover_18mm Rücken 30-06-09:938_Cover_23mm Rut

cken go 30.06.2009 14:38 Uhr Seite 1

Handbook of Burner Technology for Industrial Furnaces

Joachim G. Wünning/
Ambrogio Milani (Editor)

Handbook of
Burner Technology
for Industrial
Furnaces

Fundamentals – Burner – Applications

Fundamentals
Burner
Applications
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite I

Handbook of
Burner Technology for Industrial Furnaces
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite III

III

Joachim G. Wünning / Ambrogio Milani (Editor)

Handbook of
Burner Technology
for Industrial
Furnaces
Fundamentals
Burner
Applications

VULKAN VERLAG
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 01.07.2009 14:19 Uhr Seite IV

IV

Bibliographic information published by Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication

in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at

http:/dnb.ddb.de.

ISBN 978-3-8027-2950-8

© 2009 Vulkan-Verlag GmbH

Huyssenallee 52-56, D-45128 Essen, Fed. Rep. of Germany
Tel.: +49 (0)201 8 20 02-0, Internet: http://www.vulkan-verlag.de
Cover picture: WS Wärmeprozesstechnik GmbH
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyrights hereon may be translated,
reproduced or copied in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including
photocopying, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems – without written permission of
the publisher.
The listing of utility names, trade names, descriptions of goods etc. without special marking or
designation in this book does not allow the presumption that such names are considered free in
the sense of the trademark and trademark protection laws and can, consequently, be used by any
person.
This book was prepared with much care and devotion. Nonetheless, authors and publishing
company do not assume responsibility for the correctness of data, comments, suggestions and
possible printing errors.
Managing Editor: Dipl.-Ing. Stephan Schalm
Email: [email protected]
Producer: Norbert Nickel
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite V

Foreword V

Foreword
The demands made on the energy-efficiency and pollutant emissions of
industrial furnaces are rising continuously and have, following the recent
increases in energy prices and in view of the discussion concerning the
climate changes for which CO2 emissions are, at least in great part,
responsible, attained a new high priority. In numerous companies, includ-
ing many in the steel industry, and in enterprises operating heat-treatment
installations, the saving of energy is now a top-ranking consideration. For
this reason, this work focuses unequivocally on the fields of energy-
efficiency and emissions reduction.
This book is intended to assist in bridging the gap between theory and
practice and thus to be of use both to the committed practitioner and to
those in the fields of research and teaching.
The opening chapters of the Handbook of Burner Technology for Industrial Furnaces examine the
fundamental theoretical principles of combustion theory, fluid mechanics and heat transfer, focus-
ing only on those aspects of significance for burner systems. Subsequent chapters then deal in
more detail with this technology, discussing combustion concepts, pollutant generation and
reduction, and the recovery of heat for use in preheating of combustion air, the minimum require-
ment for enhancement of energy-efficiency. The "Industrial burners" chapter then examines,
citing examples, the more important types of industrial burner and their integration into the fur-
nace-system concept. This is followed by chapters on standardization and regulatory legislation,
suggestions for further reading, relevant research institutions and an annex containing pertinent
physical data.
A large range of tasks will need to be solved in the coming decades to enable mankind to main-
tain high production levels as resources become ever scarcer. The rational requirement for the
lowest possible environmental impact from industrial combustion processes will constitute one of
the most important of these challenges. Developments in the field of combustion technology are
striding forward extremely rapidly at present, and many of the technical solutions advanced in this
book will, without doubt, have been augmented by further developments and innovations within a
few years; the underlying principles will remain valid, however. It is therefore vital to remain
informed on new developments at all times, and the book thus closes with an attempt to highlight
some of the potential sources of further information.
I am particularly grateful, in completing this work, to my two mentors from my period of study in
Aachen. The essays on combustion theory (Prof. G. Woelk) and heat transfer (Prof. U. Renz) treat
the essential principles of combustion systems in depth. A large range of individuals and compa-
nies contributed text and illustrations for Chapter 8, and to them I also extend my most sincere
thanks. I also wish to thank Dr. Beneke for the whole of Chapter 9, on Standardization. My grati-
tude is also due to my co-editor, Dr. Milani, whose ever positive approach and untiring industri-
ousness again and again contributed to making the drafting of this title less strenuous work, and
more a pleasure.

Renningen, 2009 Joachim G. Wünning

00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite VI

WISSEN für die ZUKUNFT

azines
2 mag tbook
Expand your knowledge x
+ 1 te al price of
e i
c
at a sp
0
on heat processing € 64,9
twice as effective VULKAN-VERLA
G · ESSEN
3
2008

H E AT
ISSN 1611-616X

2 x HEAT PROCESSING
International magazine for industrial furnaces,
P R OCESSING ISSN 1611-616X

L FURNACES
· HEAT TREA
VULKAN-VERLAG
TMENT PLAN
TS · EQUIPMEN
T
· ESSEN
4
heat treatment plants and equipment INTERNATION
AL MAGAZIN
E FOR INDUSTRIA 2008

® H E AT SSING

P
Visit HEAT PROCE

R OCESSING
in Hall 1 G08

1 x Pocket Manual of Heat Processing

Messe Essen
Germany
ber m
23.-25. Septem ing-online.co
.heatprocess
http://www
INTERNATION
AL MAGAZIN
E FOR INDUSTRIA
L FURNACES
· HEAT TREA

Fundamentals Calculations Processes TMENT PLAN

JASPER
TS · EQUIPMEN
T
Visit us:

HEAT PROCE
SSING
in Hall 9b /
Booth 11932

This compact-format book, with its plethora http://www.

heatprocess
ing-online.co
m

of information, is an indispensable reference 0$ )2'0-3&'

for everyone involved in thermal processing %-0
0-2 07
'$
02'

%30, "$
2$"',-
technology and industrialfurnace enginee- *-&7
ring and operation. Rotary hearth
furnace with
your pusher-type zone separation
furnace plant.) to replace
"0 1*2
20$4!.*!0%'
H2 Booth 2B02

#(%%$0$
0/$,2
'$
"8. *!.#%!2%..0-&0 +1
5(2 '!

!.)*4
2+$,2

Interest in heat engineering has increased Sep. 23.-25.

Essen, Germ
any
!/!((/$"0
7**%*#$1/!.

!(






  
'

0.//!
20$
-,$
"' 


3
!/!


2+$,2
8-,$
*$
0&(,&
,#
#(1"
/,!.#)
22&11(!*$
12 2(-,
.-
# .2 !*$






,&2'1
$+)
' 0&(,&


*-5$0
" .(2

$,$0&7
"-,13
*
"-12
,#

+ (,2$, ,"$
$6
.$,1$1
+.2(-,





2 *-5$0
#3$
2-
"$0
+("
20 71

during times in which industrial-furnace %04 ,-
$620
20 71
,$$ 0$+ (,(,&
(,
4
!(0%*#
, #$#
%-0

%30, "$


0+
,!.
$+.27(,&
%30,
3.
2-


0$#
1(0%!(0!.5 +!#6
4/0!)
*(&'2$0
20 71
"$ %*--0
1. "$
0$/3
3"2(-,
(,

,#
"$0
!-1%,,!
2%0$
13..-021
5(2'
(,#(4(# +("

3,. 0 **$*$#
( (0$#
"' 0&(,&
%-0
'(&' 3 *
#(1 ,
.* ,2
,#

technology is booming but costs for gaseous $0
,$2
2'0-3&'.32 .0-"$11
4 (*

'(&'$0
0$*( !(*(27
!(*(27
5(2'
%$5



1'-02$0
+ $0
#0(4$1
(,(+3+
"7"*$

2(+$
Visit us!
fuels and electrical energy are rising. 902$0$()-**-
"2-!$0


/3(3+




($1!

 **


2 ,#


#$,

Readers are provided with a detailed 
'$0+.0-"

'-,$



$11
+!

+

("'2!-&$,






 

11$,

overview of principles, calculations, terms

(,%-*-((2 *(+.( 6





$0+ ,7
,2(#$

555*-  
((2 *(+.( ,2("-+

and processes in industrial heat

engineering, and thus with important aids
for daily work.
1. Edition 2008, 608 pages, paperback

Vulkan-Verlag GmbH
HEAT PROCESSING is published by Vulkan-Verlag GmbH, Huyssenallee 52-56, 45128 Essen, Germany

Order now by fax: +49 (0)931 / 4170-492 or send in a letter

Yes, please send me two successive issues of Heat Processing and the Pocket
Manual of Heat Processing at the special price of € 64,90. Company/Institution
If I do not wish to subscribe, I will give notice within 14 days upon receipt of
the second issue at the latest. Otherwise I am prepared to read the magazine on
a regular basis for at least one year (4 issues) at a price of € 96,- plus shipping First name, Surname of recipient (department or person)
(within Germany: € 12,- / outside Germany: € 14,-).
Price offer for students (proof of entitlement) € 46,50 plus shipping.
Street/P.O. Box No.

Leserservice Heat Processing Country Postcode Town

Postfach 91 61
97091 Würzburg Phone Fax

GERMANY
E-Mail

Branch/Profession
Please note: According to German law this request may be withdrawn within 14 days after order date in writing at Leserservice Heat Proces-
sing, Postfach 91 61, 97091 Würzburg, Germany. After the first period the agreement can be terminated in writing with 2 months notice to the
end of each year. In order to accomplish your request and for communication purposes your personal data are being recorded and stored. It is 
approved that this data may also be used in commercial ways by mail, telephone, fax or email. This approval may be withdrawn at any time. Date, Signature PAHPR0109
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite VII

VII

Authors
Dr. Franz Beneke
Fachverband Thermoprozesstechnik im VDMA
Lyoner Straße 18
60528 Frankfurt am Main / Germany
Kapitel 9

Dipl.-Ing. Jörg tom Felde

promeos GmbH
Am Weichselgarten 21
91058 Erlangen / Germany
Kapitel 8.1.5

Dr. Ing. Ambrogio Milani

Sal inf san Barnaba 10
16 136 Genova / Italy
Kapitel 2, 4

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Renz

Meischenfeld 77
52076 Aachen / Germany
Kapitel 3

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Günther Woelk

Eenbesweg 4
6291CA Vaals / Netherlands
Kapitel 1

Dipl.-Ing. Gerrit Wohlschläger

Elster Kromschröder GmbH
Strotheweg 1
49504 Lotte (Büren) / Germany
Kapitel 8.1.1 – 8.1.2

Dr.-Ing. Joachim G. Wünning

WS Wärmeprozesstechnik GmbH
Dornierstr. 14
71272 Renningen / Germany
Kapitel 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite VIII

THE GAP IS CLOSED

- 81 authors - 842 pages
- 662 figures - 91 tables
“The new Bible for industry and academia.
The work of this distinguished group of
authors is a tribute to their
commitment to the
thermoprocess industry.”
Paul. L. Huber
Former President of IHEA

“...this book will be established as the

standard work in its field.”
Dr. Gutman Habig
General Secretary of CECOF

“A very high and competent state of the art

description for all manufacturers and users of
thermoprocessing equipment.”
Prof. Dr. Axel von Starck
Editor and Chairman of the Exhibitors Council
for the trade fair Thermprocess in 2003

Edited by A. von Starck, A Mühlbauer, C. Kramer, published

by Vulkan Verlag, Essen, Germany 2005. 16,5 x 23 cm, 842 pages,
662 figures, 91 tables, hardcover, € 160,00

Content (Main chapters):

Fundamentals of heating processes; Thermoprocesses with gas
circulation; Thermoprocesses with heat from electric energy; Melting
and casting of metals; Heating and heat treatment; Components;
Safety; Standards, etc.

ORDERFORM FAX +49(0)201/82002-34

copy/copies Handbook of Thermoprocessing Technologies

2005, 820 pages, hardcover, ISBN 3-8027-2933-1, € 160,-

Your contact person: Silvia Spies Name/company:

Phone: +49 (0) 201 82002-14
Telefax: +49 (0) 201 82002-34
E-mail: [email protected] Street address/P.O.B.:
Vulkan-Verlag GmbH
P.O. Box 10 39 62
D-45039 Essen Postcode/Zip, Town/City:

Or visit our website: Date: Signature:

00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite IX

IX

Contents
Foreword ...................................................................................................................... V

Authors ........................................................................................................................ VII

1. Combustion .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Stoichiometry .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Reaction elements of technical fuels ...................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Characteristic values for the composition of gaseous fuels .................................. 2
1.1.2.1 Characteristic amount of atoms for gaseous fuels ................................................ 2
1.1.3 Combustion calculation .......................................................................................... 4
1.1.3.1 Calculation of the air requirements ........................................................................ 5
1.1.3.2 Calculation of the exhaust gas amount and exhaust gas composition ................ 7
1.2 Energy flux in the furnace ...................................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Characteristic furnace interfaces ............................................................................ 10
1.2.2 Characteristic energies and heat flux .................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Energy balance ...................................................................................................... 13
1.2.4 Efficiency factors .................................................................................................... 13
1.2.4.1 Combustion efficiency ............................................................................................ 14
1.2.4.2 Furnace efficiency .................................................................................................. 16
1.2.4.3 Heating efficiency .................................................................................................. 16
1.2.5 Saving of fuel with preheating of the air ................................................................ 16

2. Fluid Dynamics .................................................................................................... 19

2.1 The ideal gas .......................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Equation of continuity ............................................................................................ 21
2.3 Equation of Bernoulli .............................................................................................. 22
2.4 Turbulent free jet .................................................................................................... 25
2.5 Pressure losses in pipings ...................................................................................... 26

3. Heat Transfer ...................................................................................................... 28

3.1 Mechanisms of heat transfer .................................................................................. 28
3.2 Heat radiation ........................................................................................................ 30
3.2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum ...................................................................................... 30
3.2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann’s law .......................................................................................... 31
3.2.3 Planck’s distribution law ........................................................................................ 31
3.2.4 Reflection, absorption, transmission ...................................................................... 32
3.2.5 Kirchhoff’s law ........................................................................................................ 33
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite X

X Contents

3.2.6 Radiation from a diffuse surface and direction-dependent radiation .................... 34

3.2.7 Radiation transfer .................................................................................................. 34
3.2.7.1 Radiation flux .......................................................................................................... 34
3.2.7.2 Radiation transfer between two bodies .................................................................. 34
3.2.8 Gaseous radiation .................................................................................................. 39
3.3 Heat conduction .................................................................................................... 39
3.3.1 Differential equations of the temperature field ...................................................... 39
3.3.2 Steady state, one-dimensional heat conduction .................................................... 40
3.3.2.1 Plane walls with given surface temperatures ........................................................ 40
3.3.2.2 Plane walls with convective heat transfer .............................................................. 41
3.3.3 Unsteady state heat conduction without heat sources .......................................... 41
3.3.3.1 Bodies with high values of thermal conductivity .................................................... 41
3.4 Convection .............................................................................................................. 43
3.4.1 Application of the dimensional analysis for heat transfer ...................................... 44
3.4.2 Cylinders in a flow parallel and perpendicular to their longitudinal axis ................ 45

4. Burner Technology .............................................................................................. 49

4.1 Combustion techniques .......................................................................................... 49
4.1.1 Wood fire ................................................................................................................ 50
4.1.2 Ope grate fire .......................................................................................................... 50
4.1.3 Simple furnace ........................................................................................................ 50
4.1.4 Firing with burners .................................................................................................. 51
4.1.5 Flame formation ...................................................................................................... 51
4.1.6 Flame velocity ........................................................................................................ 53
4.1.7 Subdivision of flames ............................................................................................ 54
4.2 Classification of burners and flames ...................................................................... 55
4.2.1 Air supply ................................................................................................................ 55
4.2.2 Fuel and fuel preparation ........................................................................................ 55
4.2.3 Way of stabilization ................................................................................................ 55
4.2.4 Flame colour .......................................................................................................... 56
4.2.5 Air or fuel staging .................................................................................................... 56
4.2.6 Flame shapes .......................................................................................................... 57
4.2.7 Flow velocity .......................................................................................................... 57
4.2.8 Direct and indirect heating .................................................................................... 58
4.2.9 Air preheating .......................................................................................................... 58
4.2.10 Stoichiometry .......................................................................................................... 59
4.2.11 Turndown ................................................................................................................ 60
4.3 Flameless oxidation ................................................................................................ 60
4.3.1 Principle .................................................................................................................. 61
4.3.2 Computations and experimental results ................................................................ 64
4.3.3 Field measurements .............................................................................................. 66
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 02.07.2009 10:41 Uhr Seite XI

Contents XI

4.3.4 Applications ............................................................................................................ 69

4.3.5 Essential features .................................................................................................... 70

5. Computer Simulation ........................................................................................ 71

5.1 Assembly of input data .......................................................................................... 71
5.1.1 Computational mesh .............................................................................................. 71
5.1.2 Stationary and non-stationary calculations ............................................................ 73
5.1.3 Material properties .................................................................................................. 73
5.1.4 Boundary conditions .............................................................................................. 74
5.1.5 Computing models ................................................................................................ 75
5.2 Solution of equations .............................................................................................. 77
5.3 Presentation of the results ...................................................................................... 78

6. Reduction of Pollutants ........................................................................................ 81

6.1 NOx reduction by flame cooling .............................................................................. 83
6.2 Lean premixed combustion .................................................................................... 84
6.3 Flame staging ........................................................................................................ 84
6.4 Recirculation of combustion products .................................................................. 85
6.5 Oxygen combustion ................................................................................................ 86
6.6 Limits of air-preheating .......................................................................................... 86
6.7 Reduction of fuel NOx ............................................................................................ 86
6.8 NOx – removal ........................................................................................................ 87
6.9 NOx Units ................................................................................................................ 87
6.10 NOx measurements ................................................................................................ 87

7. Heat Exchangers ................................................................................................ 90

7.1 Basic design .......................................................................................................... 91
7.2 Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 94
7.3 Determination of the efficiency .............................................................................. 97
7.3.1 Determination of the idle value .............................................................................. 97
7.3.2 Measurement of the air preheating temperature .................................................... 101
7.3.3 Measurement of the flue gas temperature ............................................................ 101

8. Industrial Burners .............................................................................................. 103

8.1 Cold air burners ...................................................................................................... 103
8.1.1 Premix burners ...................................................................................................... 103
8.1.2 Nozzle mix burners ................................................................................................ 103
8.1.3 Fan burners ............................................................................................................ 108
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 02.07.2009 10:41 Uhr Seite XII

XII Contents

8.1.4 Surface burners ...................................................................................................... 108

8.1.5 Porous burners ...................................................................................................... 109
8.1.6 Flat flame burners .................................................................................................. 110
8.1.7 Burners for low calorific and special fuel gases .................................................... 111
8.1.8 Multi-fuel burners .................................................................................................... 111
8.1.9 Burners for oxygen-enriched air ............................................................................ 113
8.2 Hot air burners ........................................................................................................ 114
8.2.1 Proportionally controlled hot air burners with central recuperator ........................ 117
8.2.2 Pulse-fired hot air burners with central recuperator .............................................. 118
8.2.3 Hot air burners with central regenerator ................................................................ 124
8.2.4 Steady controlled hot air burner with zone recuperator or regenerator ................ 124
8.3 Recuperative burners ............................................................................................ 126
8.3.1 Recuperative burners with eductor ........................................................................ 129
8.3.2 Recuperative burner with flue gas valve ................................................................ 132
8.4 Regenerative burners ............................................................................................ 132
8.4.1 Regenerative burners pair ...................................................................................... 133
8.4.2 Regenerative burner .............................................................................................. 136
8.5 Radiant tubes .......................................................................................................... 137

ECOTHAL®
The Efficient Gas Solution
ECOTHAL SER-burner (Single-Ended Recuperative) is designed
for high efficiency, reliability and low emissions. This gives you the
possibility to increase your productivity due to higher power and
efficiency based on a favourable air/gas and exhaust flow.

So start saving money by taking advantage of the higher efficiency,

power and productivity as well as the reduced maintenance and
operation costs.

Kanthal – a Sandvik brand

Aschaffenburger Str. 7 a,
64546 Moerfelden-Walldorf
5FM



t

XXXLBOUIBMDPN
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite XIII

Contents XIII

8.5.1 Types of radiant tubes ............................................................................................ 137

8.5.2 Heat recovery with radiant tubes .......................................................................... 140
8.5.3 Temperature uniformity .......................................................................................... 143
8.5.4 Control of radiant tubes .......................................................................................... 144
8.5.5 Arrangement of radiant tubes ................................................................................ 145

9. Standardization for Industrial Burners .......................................................... 148

9.1 Introduction and principle ...................................................................................... 148
9.2 Standards organizations and designations of standards ...................................... 148
9.3 Standards and their domain .................................................................................. 149
9.4 Fundamentals about European standardization work ............................................ 150
9.4.1 New approach ........................................................................................................ 150
9.4.2 Connection between directives and standardization ............................................ 151
9.4.3 Application of European harmonized standards .................................................... 152
9.5 Machinery Directive (MD) ........................................................................................ 152
9.5.1 EU declaration of conformity for machinery .......................................................... 153
9.5.2 Declaration by the manufacturer ............................................................................ 154
9.5.3 CE-Marking ............................................................................................................ 154
9.5.4 New Machinery Directive dated 26 Feb 2009 ........................................................ 155
9.6 Additional EU - Directives ...................................................................................... 157
9.6.1 Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) ...................................................................... 157
9.6.2 Gas Appliance Directive (GAD) .............................................................................. 157
9.7 Operation of plants and accident prevention regulations ...................................... 158
9.8 Standardizations structure for the machine directive ............................................ 158
9.9 Important standards for Type A and Type B standards for industrial burners ...... 160
9.9.1 Important Type A standards for thermoprocessing equipments and industrial
burners .................................................................................................................... 160
9.9.1.1 EN ISO 14121-1 ...................................................................................................... 160
9.9.1.2 EN 60204 - 1 .......................................................................................................... 160
9.9.1.3 EN ISO 12100 - 1 .................................................................................................. 160
9.9.1.4 EN ISO 12100 - 2 .................................................................................................. 161
9.9.2 Important Type A standards for thermoprocessing equipment and industrial
burners .................................................................................................................... 161
9.9.2.1 EN ISO 13850 ........................................................................................................ 161
9.9.2.2 EN ISO 13732 - 1 .................................................................................................. 162
9.9.2.3 EN 953 .................................................................................................................... 162
9.9.2.4 EN 61496 - 1 .......................................................................................................... 163
9.10 Important Type C standards for industrial burner .................................................. 163
9.10.1 EN 746 - 1 .............................................................................................................. 163
9.10.2 EN 746 - 2 .............................................................................................................. 164
9.11 Standards for components of industrial burners .................................................. 165
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite XIV

XIV Contents

9.11.1 EN 161 .................................................................................................................... 165

9.11.2 EN 225 - 1 .............................................................................................................. 165
9.11.3 EN 225 - 2 .............................................................................................................. 165
9.11.4 EN 230 .................................................................................................................... 165
9.11.5 EN 264 .................................................................................................................... 166
9.11.6 EN 298 .................................................................................................................... 166
9.11.7 EN 1643 .................................................................................................................. 167
9.11.8 EN 1854 .................................................................................................................. 167
9.11.9 EN 12067 - 1 .......................................................................................................... 167
9.11.10 EN 12067 - 2 .......................................................................................................... 168
9.12 Standard for package burner ................................................................................ 168
9.12.1 EN 267 .................................................................................................................... 168
9.12.2 EN 676 .................................................................................................................... 168
9.13 Standards for thermoprocessing equipment .......................................................... 169
9.13.1 EN 746 - 3 .............................................................................................................. 169
9.13.2 EN 746 - 4 .............................................................................................................. 170
9.13.3 EN 746 - 5 .............................................................................................................. 170
9.13.4 prEN 746 - 6 .......................................................................................................... 171
9.13.5 prEN 746 - 7 .......................................................................................................... 172
9.13.6 EN 746 - 8 .............................................................................................................. 173
9.13.7 EN 1547 .................................................................................................................. 173
9.13.8 EN 1539 .................................................................................................................. 174
9.14 Principles for the design of a standard .................................................................. 175
9.14.1 How does one read a standard .............................................................................. 175
9.14.2 Structure of a type C standard according to the machinery directive .................. 176

Appendix ............................................................................................................................ 178

Heat table .............................................................................................................. 178
Heat processing keywords .................................................................................... 193
Further technical information .................................................................................. 196

Index ................................................................................................................................ 199

Index of Advertisers .......................................................................................................... 203

00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:48 Uhr Seite XV

All you ever wanted to know

on Refractory Materials

REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Design, Properties, Testing
Gerald Routschka, Hartmut Wuthnow (Editors)

The book aims to provide in a compact format

basic knowledge and practically oriented information
on specific properties of refractory materials, on their
testing and inspection, and on interpretation of test results.
Tables and illustrations are used to clarify fundamental concepts
on a comparative basis.

This pocket-format manual provides an overview of the diverse range

of modern refractories and their application-relevant properties. Its main
feature is a series of practice-derived articles by well-known authors in the
field on the various material groups and their characteristic property data.
The content has deliberately been kept concise and instructive, abstracting
and more detailed works are referenced.

ORDERFORM FAX: +49 (0) 201 / 8200234

Company
Ex. Pocket Manual Refractory Materials
Design-Properties-Testing Name

Editor:
Gerald Routschka und Hartmut Wuthnow Street address/P.O.B.

3. edition 2008, 625 pages, plastic,

(EUR) 60,00 Postcode/Zip, Town/City

ISBN 978-3-8027-3158-7
Phone Fax
Date of Publication:
30.05.2008 E-Mail

Preferred payment method Standing order Bill

I will receive a € 10,- credit Vulkan-Verlag GmbH Bank name, Town/City

note after using the secure and Leserservice
safe payment method by Postfach 10 39 62 Bank account number Giro account number
standing order. 45039 Essen
Date Signature
00_Brennert_2950_S_I-XVI:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:49 Uhr Seite XVI

www.esapyronics.com
01_Brenner_Kap_01_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:53 Uhr Seite 17

1. Combustion 17

(1.57)

If a heating process is performed both with and without preheating of the air, then the chosen
operating method influences only the combustion efficiency. The furnace heat flux must remain
the same for both methods as the same heating process is to be accomplished in the furnace.
For a constant furnace heat flux, therefore, an increase in the combustion efficiency necessarily
permits a reduced delivered energy and thus lower fuel volume flow.
This fact enables a "fuel saving factor" or more simply a "fuel saving" to be defined as follows:

(1.58)

Fig. 1.10: Saving of fuel with pre-heating

of the air

Delivery temperature of the fuel = 20°C

Delivery temperature of the air = 20°C
Water vapour content of the air = 1.39 %
Air factor λ = 1.1

whereby PA,O refers to operation without pre-heating and PA,V to operation with pre-heating. If the
variables are inserted into equation 1.58 in accordance with the definition equation for the com-
bustion efficiency (Equation 1.53), and if it is observed that the heating energy PB without pre-
heating is equal to the delivered energy PA, then the following is obtained:

(1.59)

The fuel saving factor is illustrated in Fig. 1.10.

A recuperator, even if it could be operated without losses, is unable to recover the whole enthalpy
out of the exhaust gas of a furnace. This is due to the fact that the capacity flux of the exhaust
gas is almost always greater than that of the air and because even an ideal recuperator can only
push the pre-heating temperature of the air to at most the exhaust gas temperature. Consequently,
even the best recuperator is unable to compensate all exhaust losses.
01_Brenner_Kap_01_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 9:53 Uhr Seite 18
02_Brenner_Kap_02_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 13:47 Uhr Seite 19

2. Fluid Dynamics 19

2. Fluid Dynamics
Joachim G. Wünning and Ambrogio Milani

Fluid dynamics is a very interesting but complex technical domain. The shape of many products
derives from fluid flow requirements. Good examples are airplanes, race cars or sailboats. Fluid
dynamic design requires a good knowledge of the basic principles but also much experience and
even creativity. Suitable fluid dynamic shapes often feature even aesthetic shapes.
Technical fluid dynamics is in many respects quite relevant for burner technology. Examples are:
• Determination of pressure drop in gas pipes
• Flow rate measurements
• Prediction of mixing pattern
• Jet expansion from burner nozzles
In this book no comprehensive introduction of the fluid dynamic techniques is provided. Never-
theless, some physical laws are mentioned here because of their relevance to burner design.

2.1 The ideal gas

The assumption that real gases behave like ideal gases is accurate enough for most technical
design and calibration of burner systems. According to Avogadro’s law, an ideal gas that contains
a certain number of molecules at a known pressure and temperature occupies a well defined vol-
ume. In the first chapter (Combustion Fundamentals) the number of oxygen molecules required for
the complete combustion of a known number of fuel molecules was determined (stoichiometry).
As a consequence of the above statement, this molecular ratio is directly proportional to a volume
ratio. This circumstance is also the reason why for burner technology (with the exception of gas
turbines) the use of normal cubic metres as quantity of gas flow rates is preferred. A gas flow rate
is therefore defined by the number of normal cubic meters per hour, that is the volume flow at a
pressure 1013 hPa and a temperature of 0°C.
The density of ideal gases at constant temperature is proportional to the pressure

(2.1)

with
ρ density [kg/m3]
ρ pressure [absolute pressure - Pa)

Furthermore, at constant pressure the density is inversely proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture measured in Kelvin K.

(2.2)

with T absolute temperature [K]

02_Brenner_Kap_02_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 13:47 Uhr Seite 20

20 2. Fluid Dynamics

The absolute temperature is referred to the absolute zero at –273°C and measured in Kelvin.
For most materials the density can be read from diagrams and tables, but the density of gases can
be derived from the law of the ideal gas. Only at high pressures and very low temperatures does
the behavior of real gases deviate noticeably from the ideal gas.

(2.3)

with
molar mass m [kg/kmol]
general gas constant R = 8413 Joule/(kmol K)

The pressure is approximated with the normal atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar in many appli-
cations. Only at great altitudes is this pressure considerably less than the normal pressure. The
pressure decrease with different altitude depends on composition and temperature distribution of
the air column and therefore an international acknowledged standard atmosphere has been
defined. Using this standard, the pressure can be computed with the following formula

(2.4)

with the height above sea level “h” is expressed in meters. If more accurate values are required,
the pressure must be measured on the field, as it is well known that the air pressure can oscillate
by several hundreds Pa depending on weather conditions. For instance, if combustion equipment
has to be installed in Mexico at 3000 m above sea level, the air pressure is approximately 700 hPa
instead of 1013 hPa.
The molar mass is the mass of a defined number of molecules of a substance and for most gases
can be simply determined as follows:
hydrogen mH = 1 kg/kmol
carbon mC = 12 kg/kmol
nitrogen mN = 14 kg/kmol
oxygen mO = 16 kg/kmol
The molecular mass of multiatomic molecules is calculated from the number of atoms in the mol-
ecule. For instance the molar mass of :
molecular hydrogen mH2 = 2 kg/kmol
molecular oxygen mO2 = 32 kg/kmol
molecular nitrogen mN2 = 28 kg/kmol
molecular water vapour mH2O = 18 kg/kmol
For gas mixtures the following is valid:

with m = molar mass of mixture [kg/kmol]

fraction of component i: xi [1]
02_Brenner_Kap_02_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 13:47 Uhr Seite 21

2. Fluid Dynamics 21

molar mass of the component i: mi [kg/kmol]

The fraction of a component in an ideal gas corresponds to the volume fraction.
For standard air, consisting of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen, one obtains:
fraction of oxygen: xO2 = 0.21
fraction of nitrogen: xN2 = 0.79
mair = 0.21 · 32 kg/kmol + 0.79 · 28 kg/kmol
mair ~ 29 kg/kmol
For air at a pressure of 1013 mbar and 25°C one obtains:

(2.5)

The molar mass of combustion products can be determined in a similar way. The molar mass of
flue gases from natural gas is about
mflue ~ 28 kg/kmol

2.2 Equation of continuity

The continuity equation states that the mass flow rate in a stationary flow without mass addition
or subtraction between two control sections 1 and 2 must remain constant.
The equation is

(2.6)

or
w1 A1 ρ1 = w2 A2 ρ2 (2.7)

with :
.
mass flow rate M [kg/s]
average flow velocity: w [m/s]
flow cross-section: A [m2]
density: ρ [kg/m3]

Example:
As an example for the continuity balance consider a tube piece where a gas flows with the veloc-
ity of 10 m/s. Then the diameter is reduced as shown in Fig 2.1 from D1 = 100 mm to D2 = 50 mm.
The density can be considered constant in the flow restriction, then:
w2 = w1 ( A1 / A2)
or
w2 = w1 ( D1 / D2)2
and the flow velocity in the restricted area is 40 m/s.
02_Brenner_Kap_02_2950:001_VorspannSeite_I_XXXII 29.06.2009 13:47 Uhr Seite 22

22 2. Fluid Dynamics

Fig. 2.1: Equation of continuity

2.3 Equation of Bernoulli

The conservation of mechanical energy along the streamline of a frictionless flow is expressed by
the Bernoulli equation:

½ w2 + ρ g h + pst = constant

with:
density: ρ [kg/m3]
flow velocity:: w [m/s]
acceleration of gravity: g = 9.81 m/s2
height: h [m]
static pressure: pst [Pa]

The Bernoulli equation is also referred to as pressure equation because it states that the sum of
static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure remains constant. This sum is also referred to as total
pressure.
The statement of the Bernoulli equation can be better explained with a simple example. Water
flows out of a large reservoir filled up to a height of 1 m (Fig 2.2). If the room pressure is taken as
reference pressure, then:
density of water ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
acceleration of gravity: g = 9.81 m/s2
height of the water level above discharge opening: h = 1 m

Fig. 2.2: Bernoulli's equation