PART ONE: PERSONALITY Criteria for evaluating Personality Theories:

What is Personology?  Verifiability

 It is the other term for Theories of Personality  Heuristic Value
 Is the branch of psychology which focuses on the study of the  Parsimony
individual’s characteristics and of differences between people (Source)  Comprehensiveness
 It is an abstract concept which integrates many aspects that  Relevance
characterized what a person is

What is Personality? Basic Assumptions of Human Nature:

 Is the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and - the reference for all the theories of Personality
behavioral response patterns of an individual (Source)
 It is a mask which denotes a kind of role we play in everyday life Polarities:
 It is the dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a
person that uniquely influences his cognitions, motivations and Freedom VS Determinism
behavior in various situations Free choice is The human behavior is
quintessential part of determined by different
Common Features of the definition of Personality: what it means to be factors.
human being.
1. Individuality or distinctiveness Rationality VS Irrationality
2. Hypothetical Structure Behavior being largely Behavior is motivated
3. Focus on life history and development governed by cognitive primarily by irrational
4. Consistent patterns of behavior processes forces of which the
person is partially or
What is a Theory? totally unaware
 It refers to a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a Proactivity VS Reactivity
way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling the criteria Causes of behavior are Behavior is a reaction
required by modern science (Source) to be found from within to stimuli from the
 A set of interrelated statements proposed to explain certain outside world
phenomenon or set of observations of reality Knowability VS Unknowability
Individuals are Incorporate traditionally
Components of Personality Theory: knowable in scientific “unscientific” concepts
terms into theory
1. Structure Subjectivity VS Objectivity
2. Motivation Concerned with the Concerned with
3. Personality Development nature of the objective behavioral
4. Psychopathology individual’s subjective events 31
5. Psychological Health experience
6. Psychotherapy Changeability VS Unchangeability

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Focused on Focus on the enduring  experiences that are not conscious at the moment but which can
developmental changes, core personality easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with
forces that produce structure which minimum effort
behavior change, underlies the
concepts that explain individual’s behavior Unconscious Level
how people maybe throughout life  storehouse of primitive instinctual drives plus emotions and
discontinuous on their memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they
past and focus on have been repressed
ongoing personal  For Freud, this is responsible for much of our everyday behavior
growth  unconscious thoughts are completely inadmissible to awareness
Homeostasis VS Heterostasis yet they largely determine the actions of people
Concerned with the Emphasize the
nature and variety of integration of human Anatomy of Personality Structure
people’s basic drives, motives under self- The structural model of mental life
the various personality actualization, structure
mechanisms individuals oriented strivings and The Id
develop to reduce the various means by which comes from the Latin word for “it”
tension generated by a person seek growth it refers exclusively to the primitive, instinctive and inherited
these drives and fulfillment aspects of personality
it functions entirely in the unconscious and closely tied to biological
PART TWO: PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE (Sigmund Freud) urges, pleasure and free from all inhibitions

What is Psychoanalysis? Pleasure Principle – demands that an instinctual need be

 It is a theory of personality and psychopathology immediately gratified regardless of reality or moral considerations
 It is a method of therapy for personality disturbances (Abnormal Psychology: Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, Glossary - 17)
 It is a technique for investigating an individual’s unconscious
thoughts and feelings Two Mechanisms of the Id to rid the personality of tension:

Levels of Consciousness Reflex Actions

Our psychic life can be represented by three levels of consciousness.  id responds automatically to sources of irritation
These levels are used to describe the degree to which mental events vary in
accessibility to awareness. Example: coughing in response to tickling throat

Conscious Level Primary Process

 sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given moment  id forms a mental image of an object previously associated with
satisfaction of a basic need
Preconscious Level  it is an illogical, irrational and fantasy oriented form of human
31
 available memory thought characterized by the inability to inhibit impulses and t o
discriminate between the real and unreal, between me and non-me

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 Example: a hungry baby conjure up an image of mother’s The Instincts
breast or a feeding bottle It represents innate bodily states of excitation that seek expression
and tension release
The Ego It is the energizing force of the behavior
Latin word for “I”
responsible for decision-making, strives for the ideal, serves as the Two Basic Groups of Instincts
executive of personality
ensures the safety and self-preservation of the organisms Life Instincts
uses cognition and perceptual strategies in its endeavor to satisfy  they are collectively termed as “Eros”
the wishes and demands of the id  all forces that serves to maintain vital life processes and ensure
propagation of the species
Reality Principle – aim is to preserve the organism’s integrity
by suspending instinctual gratification until either an appropriate Libido – Latin word for “wish” or “desire”
outlet or environmental condition that will satisfy the need can be
found Libidinal energy – a term that came to refer to
the energy of the life instincts
Secondary Process – power of rational thought; reality-oriented
rational process Erogenous zone – potential sources of tension and that
manipulating these areas relieve the tension and produce
The Superego pleasurable sensations
Latin word of “over-I”
represents an internalized version of society’s norms and standards Examples: mouth, anal and genitals
of behavior
individualized reflection of society’s “collective conscience” Death Instincts
 termed as “Thanatos”
 underlies all the manifestations of cruelty, aggression, suicide and
Two sub systems: murder

Conscience Four Features of Instincts:

 acquired through the use of punishment by the parents
 it includes he capacity for punitive self-evaluation, moral Source
prohibitions, and guilt fee lings when the child fails to achieve what  the bodily condition or need for which it arises
he/she should be doing
Aim
Ego-ideal  is always to abolish or reduce the excitation deriving from its need
 is the rewarding aspect of the superego
 whatever the parents approve or value and leads the individual to Object 31
pursue standards of excellence which if achieved, generates a sense  it refers to any person or thing in the environment or within the
of self-esteem and pride individual’s body own body that provides for satisfaction

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  it may be susceptible to change over time  cheerful, optimistic, expects the world to mother him, seeks
approval at the expense of everything, gullibility, passivity,
Object Cathexis immaturity, excessive dependency
 attachment or investment of energy in an object Oral-sadistic personality
 illustrated by emotional attachment to other people, one’s  argumentative, pessimistic, bitingly sarcastic, cynical about
word or one’s ideals everything around them, exploit and dominates others
Anti-cathexis
 the obstacle preventing gratification of an instinct Anal Stage – 18 moths to 3rd year of life
 it is represented by external or internal barriers preventing  Young children derive considerable pleasure from both the retention
immediate reduction of instinctual drives and expulsion of feces and gradually learn to enhance this pleasure
Impetus by delaying bowel movements
 the magnitude of energy, force or pressure that is used to satisfy or  With the onset of toilet training the child must learn to distinguish
gratify instincts between the demands of the id and the social constraints imposed
by parents
Personality Development: The Psychosexual Stages
Anal-retentive personality
Two premises of the Psychoanalytic Theory  extremely obstinate, stingy, orderly and punctual, lacks ability to
make fine distinctions or to tolerate confusion and ambiguity
 The Genetic Approach which emphasizes that early childhood Anal-expulsive personality
experiences play a crucial role in shaping adult personality  destructiveness, disorderliness, impulsiveness and sadistic cruelty,
 That a certain amount of sexual energy is present at birth and perceived others as object to be possessed
thereafter progresses through a series of psychosexual stages that
are rooted in the instinctual processes of the organism Phallic Stage – age 3 through 6
 The child’s libidinal energy shifts to another erogenous zone, the
The Psychosexual Development genitals
 emphasizes the major factor underlying human development is the
sexual instinct as it progresses from one erogenous zone to another Oedipus complex – the boy’s sexual attraction to the mother

Fixation – represents a failure to move forward from one stage to another as Castration Anxiety
expected and leads to an overemphasis on the psychosexual needs that  boy’s imagined threat of retaliation from his father
were prominent during the fixated stage  this anxiety forces the boy to repress his sexual desire for his mother
and his hostility towards his father (Abnormal Psychology: Butcher, Mineka
Oral Stage – from birth to 18 months & Hooley, Glossary – 4)
 The central task of the infant during the oral-dependent period is to
establish general attitudes of dependence, independence, trust and Electra complex – girl’s attraction to her father
reliance in regards to other
31

Oral-passive personality Phallic types

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  strives to be successful, attempt to assert their masculinity and  It is an emotional response to threat that unacceptable id impulses
virility, unrelenting conquest of women, flirtatiousness, will become conscious
seductiveness, promiscuity  It is caused by the fear that the ego will be unable to control raging
 Males – behave in a brash, boastful and reckless manner instinctual urges
 Females – strives to be superior to men by becoming assertive

Latency Period Moral Anxiety

 occurs between ages 6 or 7 and the onset of early teens  The ego is threatened by punishment from the superego
 it is a period of comparative sexual quiescence  It occurs whenever the id strives toward active expression of
 a period of preparation for the important growth that will take place immoral acts and the superego responds with feelings of shame and
in the final psychosexual stage guilt
 it is the decline in sexual drive due to emergence of ego and
superego REFERENCES:

 it does not qualify as a “stage” since no new erogenous zone Theories of Personality
emerges and sexual instinct is presumed dormant Hall, Lindzey & Campbell

Abnormal Psychology
Genital Stage – adolescence to death 12th Edition
 The entry to this stage marks the most complete satisfaction of the Butcher, Mineka & Hooley
(Glossary)
sexual instinct
Websites:
Genital Character
http://sexandpsychology.wordpress.com/category/personology/
 the ideal type of personality http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality
 a person who experiences satisfaction through heterosexual love https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory

Anxiety
 According to Freud, is an ego function which alerts the person to
sources of impending danger that must be counteracted or avoided
 It enables a person to react to threatening situations in an adaptive
way

Primary Anxiety – it is a diffuse sense of impending peril that overwhelms

infants since they cannot control their new world

Types of Anxiety

Realistic Anxiety
 The emotional response to threat/perception of real dangers 31

Neurotic Anxiety PART THREE: ANALYTIC THEORY (Carl Gustav Jung)

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The Analytic Theory of Jung  A mask adopted by the person in response to the demands
 It differs from Freud’s theory of personality because according to of social convention and tradition and to his/her own inner
Jung, human behavior is conditioned not only by individual and archetypal needs
racial history (causality) but also by aims and aspirations (teleology)  A role assigned to one by the society, the part that society
 Jung’s theory is prospective in a sense that it looks ahead to the expects one to play
person’s future line of development  Public personality
 It is also retrospective in a sense that it takes account to the past  Equivalent to Freud’s superego
 It emphasizes racial origins of personality
The Anima
The Psyche – Jung’s term for total personality  The female archetype in man

Structure of Personality The Animus

 The male archetype in woman
The Ego
It is the conscious mind, the center of consciousness Shadow
It is responsible for one’s feeling of identity and continuity  Consists of the animal instincts that humans inherited in
their evolution
The Personal Unconscious  Responsible for our conception of the original sin
It consists of experiences that were once conscious but have been  Equivalent to Freud’s concept of Id
repressed, suppressed, forgotten or ignored
The Self
Complexes – organized group of feelings, thoughts, perceptions and It is the midpoint of personality
memories that exist in the personal unconscious It is life’s goal, a goal that people constantly strive for but rarely
reach
The Collective Unconscious
One of the most original and controversial features of Jung’s The Attitudes
personality theory These two opposing attitudes are present in the personality but
It is the storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from one’s ordinarily one of them is dominant and conscious while the other is
ancestral past subordinate and unconscious.
It is the psychic residue of human evolutionary development
Almost entirely detached from anything personal in the life of an Two Major Attitudes/Orientations of Personality:
individual and it is seemingly universal
Extraversion – extraverted attitude orients the person toward the external,
Archetypes objective world
 A universal thought form that contains a large element of
emotion Introversion – introverted attitude orients the person towards the inner,
 It is a permanent deposit in the mind of an experience that subjective world 31
has been constantly repeated for many generations
The Persona Four Fundamental Functions:

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  States that distribution of energy in the psyche seeks on equilibrium
Thinking or balance
 Ideational and intellectual
 Humans try to comprehend the nature of the world and themselves Self-realization
 Ultimate developmental goal toward which people strive
Feeling  Means the fullest, most complete differentiation and harmonious
 Evaluation function blending of all aspects of a human’s total personality
 Humans subjective experiences of pleasure and pain, anger, fear,
sorrow and love Development of Personality

Teleological Viewpoint
Sensing  Explains present in terms of the future
 Perceptual or reality function  Human personality is comprehended in terms of where it is going
 Yields concrete facts or representations of the world not where it has been

Intuition Causality or Finalistic Viewpoint

 Perception by way of unconscious processes and subliminal contents  Present may be explained by the past
 Holds that the present events are the consequences or effects of
Two Functions: antecedent condition or causes
 Rational Function – (thinking and feeling) They make use of reason,
judgment, abstraction and generalization. According to Jung, the present is not only determined by the past but it is
 Irrational Function – (sensation and intuition) They are based on the also determined by the future.
perception of the concrete, particular and accidental.
Synchronicity
Dynamics of Personality  Neither causality nor teleology
 These are events that occur together in time but that are not the
Psychic Energy cause of one another
 A manifestation of life energy that is the energy of the organism as a
biological system Example: mental telepathy, clairvoyance, paranormal phenomena

Principle of Equivalence Heredity

 States that if energy is expended in bringing about a certain  Responsible for the biological instincts that serve the purposes of
condition, the amount expended will appear elsewhere in the the self preservation and reproduction
system
 States that if energy is removed from one system, example the ego, Ancestral experiences – the potentiality of having the same order of
it will appear in some other system like the persona experiences as one’s ancestors
31
Principle of Entropy
Stages of Development

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Childhood
Determined by instinctual activities necessary for survival
Behavior is governed by parental demands

Young Adulthood
Psychic Birth
Extraversion is the primary attitude and consciousness dominates
mental life as the young person pursues the task of finding a mate
and a vocation

Middle Age
Need for meaning emerges
Need to find purpose for their lives and a reason for existence
Change from extraverted to introverted
Most decisive event in a person’s life

Old Age
Old persons gradually sinks in to the unconscious

Individuation Process
 The process of achieving a healthy, integrated personality, where
every system is permitted to reach the fullest degree of
differentiation, development and expression
Transcendent Function
 This function is enclosed with the capacity to unite all of the
opposing trends of the several system and to work toward the ideal
goal of perfect wholeness
 Aim is the revelation of the essential person and the realization, in
all aspects of the personality originally hidden away in the
embryonic germplasm; the production and unfolding of the original,
potential wholeness

REFERENCE:

Theories of Personality
Hall, Lindzey & Campbell PART FOUR: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY (Alfred Adler)
31
Individual Psychology
 To Adler, people are born weak, with inferior bodies – a condition
that leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence on
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 others. Therefore, a feeling of unity with others is inherent in other 4. Social interest
people and is the ultimate standard for psychological health. 5. Style of life
 This stressed his belief that each person is an integrated whole, 6. Creative power
striving to attain future goals and attempting to find meaning in life
while working harmoniously with others.
 Adler’s view of human nature is in direct conflict with Freud Striving for Success or Superiority

Summary of Differences between Adler and Freud Feelings of Inferiority

 Feeling of inadequacy and incompetence which emerged during
Freud Adler infancy and thus serve as the basis for striving for superiority
Emphasized unconscious Emphasized conscious
mind mind Reasons:
Future goals are Future goals are important  inferior organs
unimportant source of motivation  overindulgence
Biological motives are Social motives are primary  neglect
primary  abuse
Pessimistic about human Optimistic about human  mental limitations
existence existence
Dreams are used to detect Dreams are tools in Inferiority complex – exaggerated feeling of weakness and inadequacy
contents of unconscious problems
mindsolving Compensation
Personality is completely Personality is determined  attempt to replace feelings of inadequacy with feelings of adequacy
determined by heredity by the individual himself through development of physical and mental skills
and environmental factors  people strive for superiority or success as means of compensation
Ma ximized the Minimized the importance for feelings of inferiority or weakness
importance of sex of sex  Psychologist Alfred Adler suggested whenever people experience
Goal of Therapy: to Goal of Therapy: to feelings of inferiority; they automatically experience a
discover repressed early encourage lifestyle compensatory need to strive for superiority. As a result, people push
memories incorporating social themselves to overcome their weaknesses and achieve their goals.
interests (Source)

Main Tenets of Adlerian Theory: Two Avenues of Striving:

1. Striving for success or superiority Striving for Superiority 31

2. Subjective perception shapes behavior and personality
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent

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  The goals are personal ones, their striving are motivated largely by
exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority or presence of inferiority Organ dialect
complex  the deficient organ expresses the direction of the
individual’s goal
Superiority complex – exaggerated one’s importance in order to  body organs speak a language which is usually more
overcome inferiority expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion more
clearly than words are able to do
Striving for Success
 These are individuals who are concerned with goals beyond Conscious thoughts
themselves, are capable of helping others without demanding or  Those that are understood and regarded by the individual as
expecting personal payoff, are able to see others not as opponent helpful in striving for success
but as people with whom they can cooperate for social benefit
Unconscious thoughts
 Part of goals that is neither clearly formulated nor
Subjective perceptions shape behavior and personality completely understood by the individual

Fictions – subjective perception of reality or expectations of the future Social Interest

 Adler’s misleading translation of his German term
Fictional Finalism Gemeinschaftsgefuhl
 Idea that human behavior is directed toward a future goal of its own  Can be defined as an attitude of relatedness with humanity in
making general as well as empathy for each member of the community
 This guides our style of life, gives unity to our personality  adhesive that binds the society together
 The only gauge to be used in judging the worth of a person
Goals of Superiority or Success – the most important fiction, a goal we
created early in life and may not be clearly understood Gemeinschaftsgefuhl – a feeling of oneness with all humanity

Adler adopted a teleological view, one in which people are motivated by Style of Life
present perceptions of the future.  The term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life
 Includes a person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for other s and
The Philosophy of “As If” attitude towards the world
 By Hans Vainhinger
 Believed that fictions are ideas that have no real existence, yet they 3 Major Problems of Life:
influence people as if they really existed  Neighborly Love
 Sexual Love
Unity and Self-consistency of Personality  Occupation or Work
 Individual Psychology insist on the fundamental unity of personality
and the notion that inconsistent behavior does not exist Creative Power 31
 Thoughts, feelings and actions are all directed toward a single goals  People’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their own
and serve a single purpose personality

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  Freedom to create own style of Life  This enables people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain
their current style of life
Abnormal Development  Can be compared to Freud’s Defense Mechanism

Undeveloped Social Interest – one factor underlying all types of Freudian defense mechanisms operate unconsciously to protect the ego
maladjustment against anxiety whereas Adlerian safeguarding tendencies are largely
conscious and shield a person’s fragile self-esteem to public disgrace.
Neurotics Tends to:
 set their goals too high Safeguarding Tendencies:
 live their own private world Excuses
 have a rigid and dogmatic style of life  Most common, which are typically expressed in the “yes,
but” or “if only”
Three Contributing Factors to Maladjustment:  People first state what they claim they would like to do –
 Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies something that sounds good to others then they follow with
 Each person comes to the world blessed with physical an excuse
deficiencies and these deficiencies leads to feelings of  These excuses protect a weak – but artificially inflated –
inferiority sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing that
 This people developed exaggerated feelings of inferiority, they are more superior than they really are
tend to be overly concerned with themselves and lack Aggression
consideration of others  People use aggression to protect their exaggerated
 Pampered Style of Life superiority complex that is, to protect their self-esteem
 Pampered people have weak social interest but has a strong
desire to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic relationship Forms of Aggression:
they originally had with one or both parents  Depreciation – tendency to undervalue other people’s
 Characterized by extreme discouragement, indecisiveness, achievements and to overvalue one’s own
oversensitivity, impatience and exaggerated emotion  Accusation – tendency to blame others for one’s failures and
especially anxiety to seek revenge, thereby safeguarding one’s own tenuous
 They believe that they are entitled to be the first in self-esteem
everything  Self-accusation – self-torture and guilt; converse of
 Neglected Style of Life depreciation
 Children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to Withdrawal
borrow heavily from these feelings in creating a neglected  Safeguarding through distance
style of life  Some people unconsciously escape life’s problems by setting
 They have little confidence in themselves and tend to up a distance themselves and these problems
overestimate difficulties connected with life’s major Four Modes of Withdrawal:
problems  Moving Backward
 Standing Still 31
Safeguarding Tendencies  Hesitating
 Constructing Obstacles

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  Emphasize that “what people do with what they have is
Masculine Protest – that a male-dominated society is not natural but rather more important than what they have”
an artificial product of historical development

Areas of Application of Individual Psychology References:

 http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073382701/600511/feist7_sample_ch03.pdf
 Personality
Family Constellation/Birth Order Theory G. Tria & D. Limpingco
First Born Children
 intensified feelings of power and superiority
 high anxiety
 overprotective tendencies
 “dethroned monarch”
Second/Middle Child
 begin life in a better situation
 extremely ambitious, competitive, achievement-
oriented
 most fortunate position
Third/Last Born
 never experience dethronement
 usually spoiled, can never be independent, easily
loses courage
Only Child
 experience shock when he is not the center of
attention
 very sweet and affectionate
 difficulty interacting with peers, dependent, self-
centered
Early Recollection – are always consistent with people’s present style
of life and their subjective account of these experiences yields clues
to understanding both their final goal and present style of life
Dreams – it unveils the style of life, but it fools the dreamer by
presenting him with an unrealistic, exaggerated sense of power and
accomplishment Part Five: Other Theories
Psychotherapy
 Adlerian theory postulates that psychopathology results EGO PSYCHOLOGY: Erik Erikson
from lack of courage, exaggerated feelings of inferiority and  Erikson extends the study of the developing child beyond puberty,
underdeveloped social interest emphasizing that the ego continue to acquire new characteristics as 31
 The chief purpose is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of it meets new situations in life.
inferiority and encourage social interest
Ego Psychology
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  This concept emphasized the influence of the ego in healthy growth
and adjustment and as the source of self-awareness and identity III. Initiative VS Guilt (4 – 5 years)
 if the crisis is successfully resolved, DIRECTION and PURPOSE
Ego emerges
 The tool by which a person organizes outside information, test  if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of UNWORTHINESS
perception, selects memories, governs actions adaptively and emerges
integrates the capabilities of orientation and planning
 Positive ego produces a sense of self in a state of heightened well- IV. Industry VS Inferiority (6 – 11 years)
being  if the crisis is successfully resolved, COMPETENCE emerges
 if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, INFERIORITY emerges
Crisis
 Means a turning point V. Identity VS Role Confusion (12 – 20 years)
 Are special times in an individual’s life moments of decision  if the crisis is successfully resolved, FIDELITY emerges
between progress and regression, integration and retardation  if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, UNCERTAINTY emerges
 It may not seem dramatic or critical; an observer will see only later
that it was a major turning point that was reached or passed VI. Intimacy VS Isolation (20 – 24 years)
 if the crisis is successfully resolved, the capacity for LOVE emerges
Epignetic Principle  if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, PROMISCUITY emerges
 The development of our brain and other physical organs occur
according to a predetermined genetic blue print VII. Generativity VS Stagnation (25 – 65 years)
 The development is a result of the interaction of biological,  if the crisis is successfully resolved, CARE emerges
environmental and psychological factors  if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, SELFISHNESS emerges
 It states that a sequence of growth is genetically determined and
that each stage, once developed gives rise to the next VIII. Ego Identity VS Despair (65 – death)
 if the crisis is successfully resolved, WISDOM emerges
 if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of DESPAIR and
MEANINGLESSNESS emerges
Stages of Psychosocial Development:
The Identity
Psychosocial – influenced by social interactions or social agents or influences  The sense of who you are and where you are going in life
 The emergence of identity is the end of childhood and beginning of
I. Trust VS Mistrust (birth to one year) adulthood
 if the crisis is successfully resolved, HOPE emerges
 if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, FEAR emerges Positive identity
 Means a person is fully aware of who he is and what his goals in
II. Autonomy VS Shame and doubt (2 – 3 years) life are certainly not contrary to the goals of society
 if crisis is successfully resolved, SELF-CONTROL and WILL POWER 31
emerges Negative Identity
 if the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, SELF-DOUBT emerges  Having goals that are contrary to the goals of the society

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Identity crisis
 Is the crisis in the fifth stage of psychosocial development where an
individual gains either positive or negative identity

Four Parts of Identity:

 individuality or sense of uniqueness

 synthesis – coming together of all parts of ourselves
 continuity – idea that you were the same person today that you
were yesterday
 social acceptance - basically relates to being part of and similar to
others of the group we belong to and identify with

New Conception of Ego

 Ego as the executive of personality satisfy the impulses of the id
ideal with social and physical existencies of the external world

Dimensions of the New Ego Identity:

 Factuality
 Universality or Sense of Reality
 Actuality
 Luck or Chance

References:
 Personality by Limpingco and Tria
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell

Web Sources:
 http://www.angelfire.com/md2/psyc/personality/neofreud.htm
 http://www.zeepedia.com/read.php?
erik_erikson_anatomy_and_destiny_ego_psychology_goal_of_psychotherapy_personality_ps
ychology&b=94&c=13

FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY: Karen Horney

 Horney questioned Freud’s libido theory and Freud’s hypothesis of
penis envy
 She pointed out that men and women may develop fantasies about
castration in their effort to cope with oedipal situation.
31
Two factors that stimulated the formulation of Feminine Psychology:
 Psychoanalysis was created by a male who spoke almost entirely of
boys and men.
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  Certain clinical observations appeared contradictory to Freud’s
theory of libido
Ten Neurotic Needs and the Primary Adjustment Techniques:
Woman Envy
 A man expresses jealousy over women’s ability to bear and nurse Adjustment Neurotic Needs Personality type
children Techniques
Moving Towards Neurotic need for affection Compliant Type
Two Needs of a child that needs to be satisfied: People and approval - the individual
 Need for satisfaction – satisfaction of basic psychological needs Neurotic need for a partner wants to be liked,
(water, food, shelter) “If I give in, I shall who will run one’s life wanted, desired,
 Need for Safety – need to be cared of, being wanted, loved, not be hurt” Neurotic need to live within loved, accepted and
protected and being valued narrow limits approved but is
basically hostile
Basic Hostility Moving Against Neurotic need for power Hostile Type
 Happens when needs are not satisfied People Neurotic need to exploit - capable of acting
 Motivated by feelings of helplessness, fear, love or guilt others polite and friendly
“if I have power, Neurotic need for social but is used as means
Basic Anxiety none will hurt me” recognition to an end;
 Anxiety caused by emotional neglect in childhood whereby the child Neurotic need for personal friendliness is
feels helpless and isolated in a hostile world admiration superficial and is
Neurotic need for ambition based on repressed
Neurosis and personal achievement aggressiveness
 A form of psychological suffering involving unconscious inner Moving Away from Neurotic need for self- Detached Type
conflicts around basic anxiety and is partially determined by cultural People sufficiency and independence
factors. “If I withdraw Neurotic need for perfection
nothing can hurt and unavailability
me”

The Six Principles of Horney’s theory:

The Real Self
 Optimism – Positivism Principle – human’s capacity to change  Things that are true about us at any particular time
 Society – Culture Principle – personality is a product of interaction
with others The Ideal Self
 Character – Structure Principle – people create structural character  The concept of what we would like to become
which maybe changed  The goal we like to reach in the future
 Self-concept Principle – awareness of one’s self as a human being
 Contemplation – Conflict Principle – major and minor adjustment For neurotic people, it is a wish instead of reality, unrealistic immutable 31
techniques dream.
 Self-analysis Principle – the capacity to analyze their own defects
with rough skills to solve many but not all of their problems
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“Tyranny of the Should”  when an issue arises that have no clear solution, the
 Are unrealistic and absolute person arbitrarily chooses one solution, thereby
 “Rigid shoulds” cause self-hatred ending in debate
 When life is directed to unrealistic ideal self-image, one is driven by
what “should be” rather than by what it is.  Elusiveness
 never making a decision about anything
Secondary Adjustment Techniques:
 Blind Spots  Cynicism
 denying or ignoring certain aspects of an experience  does not believe in anything
because they are not in accordance with one’s
idealized self-image Goals of Psychotherapy
 compatible with Freud’s notion of repression  To create a realistic relationship between the real self and the ideal self;
 they allow a person to maintain the consistency of to make clients accept themselves for what they really are and thus
one’s self-image by ignoring experiences not develop realistic goals for the future.
compatible with it

 Compartmentalization Reference:
 Personality by Limpingco and Tria
 dividing one’s life into various compartments with
different rules applying to them Web Sources:
 http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/horney.html
 http://www.terrapsych.com/karenhorney.html
 Rationalization
 good reasons to excuse conduct that are otherwise
anxiety provking of emotion

 Excessive Self-control
 guarding against anxiety by controlling an
expression
 similar to neurotic need to live a life with narrow
limits

 Externalization SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY THEORY: Erich Fromm

 feeling that all of the major influences in life are  Human beings create society in order to fulfill the basic needs that
external to one’s self arise from the development of one particular culture
 the person does not feel responsible for himself or  Human personalities develop in accordance with the opportunities
his actions that a particular society allows
 same with projection
31
 Arbitrary rightness The Idea of Freedom
 This is the central characteristic of human nature

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Idea of Individuality Exploitative Type
 Associated with isolation, alienation and bewilderment  sadistic behavior pattern
 aggression, conceit, arrogance, seducing, assertive, proud,
Concept of Loneliness captivating
 To be human is to be isolated and lonely
 Represent the basic condition of human existence and separates Hoarding Type
human from animal nature  tendency to keep and save
 stinginess, possessiveness, stubbornness, unimaginative,
Dichotomies steadfast, economical, practical
 Is a two horned dilemma or problem that has no solution because
none of the alternatives present is entirely satisfactory Marketing Type
 treats one’s self as a commodity, obeying law of supply and
Three ways in which we Escape Freedom demand
 Authoritarianism – to submit to the power of others or become an  lack of principle, aimlessness, opportunism, childish,
authority yourself tactless, social
 Destructiveness – brutality, vandalism, humiliation, crimes,
terrorism or suicide Productive Type
 Automaton Conformity – become like a social chameleon who takes  values himself and others for what they are and experiences
the color of the surrounding security and inner peace
 open-minded, loyal and flexible
Two kinds of Unproductive Family:
 Symbiotic Family – members of the family are “swallowed up” by Productive Orientation – refers fundamentally to an underlying attitude, a
other so they do not develop their own personality mode of relatedness that governs the productive person’s relationship to
 Withdrawing Family – cool indifference if not cold hatefulness the world

Basic Needs of Human Existence: Three types of Relationship between Child and his Parents:
 Relatedness  Symbiotic Relatedness – failure to attain independence and signifies
 Transcendence immaturity and pseudo forms of love
 Rootedness  Withdrawal Destructiveness – negative relatedness or distance and
 Sense of identity indifference
 Frame of Reference or Orientation  Genuine Productive Love

Five Character Types: Essential Elements:

 Care – active concern for life and growth of the loved person
Receptive Type  Responsibility – ability and readiness to respond the needs
 from the masochistic orientation expressed of the person who is loved 31
 passivity, lack of character, submissiveness, cowardliness,  Respect – ability to see the other person as he is and at the same
wishful, accepting and optimistic time accept his unique individuality

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  Knowledge – experience of union with other person with full
awareness of the total being of his loved one

Necrophilous Character – similar with Freud’s death instinct

Biophilous Character – seeks to further the growth of living things

Humanistic Communitarian Socialism

 The ideal society for Fromm
 Humanistic – oriented towards human beings
 Communitarian – composed of small communities as opposed to big
government
 Socialism – everyone is responsible for the welfare of everyone else

Reference:
 Personality by Limpingco and Tria

Web Sources:
 http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/fromm.html

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: ALBERT BANDURA

 He believes that psychological functioning is best understood in
terms of a continuous reciprocal interplay among behavioral,
cognitive and environmental influences.
 Bandura emphasizes the importance of self-generated influences as 31
a casual factor in all aspects of human functioning – motivation,
emotion and action.

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  According to him, people can also learn by observing or
reading/hearing about other people’s behavior. Method
The participants in this experiment (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1961) were 36
Reciprocal Determinism boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University nursery school. All children
 That environment causes behavior and behavior causes were between the ages of 37 months- 69 months. The children were
environment as well organized into 4 groups and a control group. 24 children were exposed to an
 The world and a person’s behavior cause each other aggressive model and 24 children were exposed to a non-aggressive model.
The two groups were then divided into males and females which ensured
Triadic Model of Reciprocal Determinism that half of the children were exposed to models of their own sex and the
 Indicates that while behavior is influenced by the environment, the other half were exposed to models of the opposite sex. The remaining 24
environment is also partly a product of a person’s own making, so children were part of a control group.
that people can exercise some
influence over their own behavior. For the experiment, each child was exposed to the scenario individually, so
as not to be influenced or distracted by classmates. The first part of the
experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In
the playroom, the child was seated in one corner filled with highly appealing
activities such as stickers and stamps.The adult model was seated in another
corner containing a toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. Before
leaving the room, the experimenter explained to the child that the toys in
the adult corner were only for the adult to play with.
During the aggressive model scenario, the adult would begin by playing with
the toys for approximately one minute. After this time the adult would start
to show aggression towards the Bobo doll. Examples of this included
hitting/punching the Bobo doll and using the toy mallet to hit the Bobo doll
in the face. The aggressive model would also verbally assault the Bobo doll
yelling "Sock him," "Hit him down," "Kick him," "Throw him in the air," or
"Pow". After a period of about 10 minutes, the experimenter came back into
the room, dismissed the adult model, and took the child into another
playroom. The non-aggressive adult model simply played with the other toys
for the entire 10 minute-period. In this situation, the Bobo doll was
completely ignored by the model, then the child was taken out of the room.
The next stage of the experiment, took place with the child and experimenter
Observational Learning in another room filled with interesting toy such as trucks, dolls, and a
 The process through which the behavior of one person, an observer, spinning top. The child was invited to play with them. After about 2 minutes
changes as a function of being exposed to the behavior of another the experimenter decides that the child is no longer allowed to play with the
which is the model toys, explaining that she is reserving that toy for the other children. This was
31
 Usually called the Social Learning Theory done to build up frustration in the child. The experimenter said that the child
could instead play with the toys in the experimental room (this included both
Excerpt from the Bobo doll studies: aggressive and non-aggressive toys). In the experimental room the child was
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allowed to play for the duration of 20 minutes while the experimenter The experimenters came to the conclusion that children observing adult
evaluated the child's play. behavior are influenced to think that this type of behavior is acceptable thus
weakening the child's aggressive inhibitions. The result of reduced
The first measure recorded was based on physical aggression such as
aggressive inhibitions in children means that they are more likely to respond
punching, kicking, sitting on the Bobo doll, hitting it with a mallet, and
to future situations in a more aggressive manner.
tossing it around the room. Verbal aggression was the second measure
recorded. The judges counted each time the children imitated the aggressive Lastly, the evidence strongly supports that males have a tendency to be
adult model and recorded their results. The third measure was the amount more aggressive than females. When all instances of aggression are tallied,
of times the mallet was used to display other forms of aggression than males exhibited 270 aggressive instances compared to 128 aggressive
hitting the doll. The final measure included modes of aggression shown by instances exhibited by females (Hock 2009: 90). Source:
the child that were not direct imitation of the role-model's behavior http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment
(Bandura, Ross & Ross 1961).
Results Steps involved in the Modeling Process:
Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more  Attention – if you’re going to learn anything, you have to pay
likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed attention
to the aggressive model. For those children exposed to the aggressive  Retention – ability to retain or remember what you have paid
model, the number of imitative physical aggressions exhibited by the boys attention to
was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls (Hock 2009: 89). The results concerning  Reproduction – translating images or descriptions into actual
gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are behavior; ability to imitate
more influenced by same-sex models. Results also showed that boys  Motivation – you have some reason for doing it
exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than
boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive Positive Motives:
male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys  past reinforcement – traditional behaviorism
averaged 104 compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who  promised reinforcement – incentives
were exposed to aggressive female models.  vicarious reinforcement – seeing and recalling the model being
reinforced
While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less
drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of Negative Motives:
aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7 compared to 36.3  past punishment
aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male
 promised punishment
models.
 vicarious punishment
Bandura also found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were
more likely to act in verbally aggressive ways than those who were not Self-regulation – a person’s capacity to exert influence over his own
exposed to the aggressive model. The number of imitative verbal behavior
aggressions exhibited by the boys was 17 times and 15.7 times by the girls
(Hock 2009: 89). In addition, the results indicated that the boys and girls Three Steps of self-regulation:
who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited far less non-imitative 1. Self-observation 31
mallet aggression than in the control group, which had no model. 2. Judgment
3. Self-response

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  alter your environment
Live Modeling – refers to observing models in “flesh” (physically present)
Self contracts
Symbolic Modeling – involves being exposed to models indirectly, such as  you arrange to reward yourself when you adhere to
characters in a movie, reading materials, oral description n of a person’s your plan, possibly punish yourself when you do not
behavior
Modeling Therapy
Three Stages of Observational Learning:  if you can get someone with a psychological disorder to observe
a. Exposure – observation of action someone dealing with same issues in a more productive fashion, the
b. Acquisition – learning of an activity first person will learn by modeling the second
c. Acceptance – whether or not the observer uses modeling as a guide for  used first with herpephobics (persons with fear of snakes)
his behavior
Reference:
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell
Three Effects of Observation and Imitation:
 Modeling Effect – an observer attends to and imitates a model that We b Sources:
is new  http://www.jku.at/org/content/e54521/e54528/e54529/e178059/Bandura_SocialLearningTh
eory_ger.pdf
 Disinhibitory Effect – releases a whole class of behavior that is  http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html
usually inhibited
 Eliciting Effect – matching the behavior of the model with responses
that are already in the observer’s repertoire or have been learned
before

Anticipated Consequence
 The expectancy based on prior experience that performance of a
certain behavior will lead to a specific outcome

“In Bandura’s view, people form a cognitive image of how certain behaviors
are performed through the observation of a model and on subsequent
occasions this coded information served as a guide for their actions.”

Self-control Therapy
 The incorporation of self-regulation into therapy
 Quite successful with relatively simple problems of habit
Behavioral charts HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: Abraham Maslow
 self-observation requires you to keep tabs on your  His position fell within the broad province of Humanistic Psychology
behavior both before you begin and after  There is practically in every human being an active will towards
 behavior diaries health, an impulse towards growth, towards actualization of human 31
potentialities
Environmental Planning  People have inborn nature that is essentially good or at least neutral

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  When humans are miserable or neurotic, it is because the
environment has made them so through ignorance and social
pathology or because they have distorted their thinking

Neurosis – the failure of personal growth

Deficit Motivation – basic needs aimed at eliminating organismic tension

Growth Motivation – higher level needs associated with the urge to actualize
one’s potential

Metapathologies
 indicates psychological disorder resulting from failure to satisfy
one’s metaneeds
 Physiological Needs – basic needs
Metaneeds  Safety Needs – security, protection, stability, freedom from fear and
 are instinctoids or biologically necessary to avoid illness anxiety, need for structure and limits
 Love and Belongingness – need for family and friends, relationships,
Self-actualization being part of a group
 person’s desire to become what the person is capable of becoming  Esteem Needs – refers to reaction of others towards the individual,
 actualizing your own potentials need for favorable judgment
 desire to become more and more what one is idiosyncratically is,  Need for Self-actualization – the tendency to feel restless unless we
to become everything that one is capable of becoming are doing what we think we are capable of doing

Self-actualizing people exhibits: When all the four basic deficiency needs have been satisfied “a new
discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing
a. Perceive reality accurately and fully. what he, individually is fitted for.”
b. Demonstrate a greater acceptance of themselves, others and nature in
general. Characteristics of a Self-actualizing Person:
c. Exhibit s spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness.  more efficient perception of reality
d. Tends to be concerned with problems rather than with themselves.  acceptance of self, others and nature
e. Have a quality of detachment and need for privacy.  spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness
f. Autonomous, tends to be independent of their environment and culture.  problem-centered
 detachment: need for privacy
 autonomy and independence
Hierarchy of NEEDS:  continued freshness of appreciation
 peak or mystique experience 31
 social interest
 profound interpersonal relationship
 democratic character structure
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  discrimination between means and ends  At any given moment it is made up of conscious and unconscious
 philosophical sense of humor experiences
 great fund of creativeness
 resists conformity Consciousness – symbolization of some of our experiences
 transcends the environment
Subception – the organism discriminates and reacts to an experience that is
Personality Syndrome not symbolized
 A structured, organized complex of apparently diverse specificities
(behavior, thoughts, impulses to action) The Conceptual Framework of Pure Phenomenology
 What a person experiences or thinks is actually not reality for the
References: person; it is merely a tentative hypothesis about reality, a hypothesis
 Personality by Limpingco and Tria
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell that may or may not be true

Web Sources:
The Self
 http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
 The organized, consistent conceptual gestalt composed of
perceptions of the characteristics of the “I” or “me” and the
perceptions of the relationships of the “I” and “me” to others and to
Person-Centered Theory: Carl Rogers various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these
 Rogers identifies himself with the humanistic orientation in perceptions.
contemporary psychology. For him, humanistic psychology is more
hopeful and optimistic about humans. Ideal Self – which is what the person would like to be
 The major stimulus to his psychological thinking was “the continuing
clinical experience with individuals who perceived themselves or are  Congruence of Self and Organism – when the self faithfully mirrors
perceived by others to be in need of personal help.” the experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted,
 The principal orientation of this conceptualization of the therapeutic mature, fully functioning, able to think realistically
process is that when the client perceived that the therapist has  Incongruence of Self and Organism – makes individuals feel
unconditional positive regard for them and an empathic threatened and anxious; they behave defensively and their thinking
understanding of their internal frame of reference, a process of becomes constricted and rigid
change is set in motion.

Organism – locus of all experiences

Experiences – includes everything potentially available to awareness that is

going on with the organism at any given moment

Phenomenal/Phenomenological Field 31
 The individual’s frame of reference that can only be known to the
person
 Not identical with the field of consciousness
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  The major emphasis of the theory is upon traits with attitudes and
intentions given an almost equivalent status.

Personality
 brief definition: “what a man really is”
 The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to
his behavior

dynamic organization – emphasizes the fact that personality is

constantly developing and changing although there is an
organization that binds together and relates the various components
of personality

psychophysical – personality is neither exclusively mental and

exclusively neural
According to Rogers, the organism has one basic tendency and striving – to
actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism.
determine – personality is made up of determining tendencies that
play an active role in the individual’s behavior
Single motivating force – self-actualizing drive
Single goal of Life – to become self-actualized or whole person
Character – has implied some code of behavior in terms of which individuals
or their acts are appraised
According to Roger’s model – psychopathology or emotional distress occurs
in individuals who have been exposed to conditional positive regard. The
Allport suggested “we prefer to define character as personality evaluated,
associated conditions of worth lead to self-experience incongruence. This
and personality as character devaluated.”
incongruence generates anxiety as it approaches awareness. The individual
responds with denial or distortion.
Temperament
 Ordinarily refers to those dispositions that are closely linked to
Denial – means falsifying reality either by saying it does not exist or by
biological or physiological determinants and that consequently show
perceiving it in a distorted way.
relatively little modification with development
Reference:  It is the raw material along with intelligence and physique out of
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell which personality is fashioned
Web Source:
 http://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html Trait
 also known as common traits
 Neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli
functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide equivalent forms of 31
adaptive and expressive behavior

Trait Psychology: Gordon Allport

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Personal Disposition  includes bodily senses, self-identity, self-esteem, self-extension,
 also known as morphogenic traits sense of selfhood, rational thinking, self-image, propriate striving,
 Generalized neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render cognitive style and function of knowing
many stimuli functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide  it is in this region of personality that we find the root of the
consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior consistency that marks attitudes, intentions and evaluations
 all have phenomenal warmth or sense of importance
Attitudes  it is important in organizing the mature “generic conscience”
 is linked to a specific object or class while the trait or disposition is
not Two types of Conscience
 usually implies evaluation (acceptance or rejection) of the object  Must Conscience – like Freud’s, it is the internalization of parental
toward which it is directed while the trait does not and cultural rules
 Should Conscience – not governed by external prohibitions or fear
Types of punishment but by the positive structure of the propriate
 are idealized construction of the observer, and the individual can be strivings
fitted to them
 represents artificial distinctions that bear no close resemblance to Seven Aspects in the Development of the Proprium or Selfhood:
reality and traits are true reflections of what actually exists  First three years
 Sense of bodily self – awareness of bodily
Cardinal Disposition sensations and physiological systems
 so general that almost every act of a person who possesses one  Sense of continuing self-identity – who I am;
seems traceable to its influence relationship with others
 unusual and not be observed by many people  Self-esteem or pride – exploration of his world;
tendency to assert one’s self
Central Disposition
 more typical, which often represents tendencies highly  Ages 4 to 6 years old
characteristic of the individual  Extension of self – concerned with importance of
 often called into play and are easy to infer possession; deeper contact with things
 Self-image – awareness of social expectations
Secondary Disposition
 more limited in its occurrence, less crucial to a description of the  Between 6 to 12 years old
personality and more focalized in the responses it leads to as well as  Self-awareness – (the self as a coper) find various
the stimuli to which it is appropriate solutions to problems

What the individual is trying to do is the most important key to how the
person will behave in the present.  Adolescence
 Propriate strivings – long range purposes, intentions
The Proprium and distant goals 31
 propriate functions of the personality

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Functional Autonomy  Their behavior fits into a congruent pattern and at the core of this
 States that a given activity or form of behavior may become an end pattern lie the function Allport termed as “propriate”
or goal in itself, in spite of the fact that it was originally engaged in  But not all adults achieve full maturity
for some other reason Mature Personality
 Regards adult motives as varied and as self-sustaining contemporary A mature personality must possess the following:
systems, growing out of antecedent systems but functionally
independent of them  Extension of the self – his life must not be tied narrowly to a set of
activities that are closely linked to their own immediate needs and
Two Levels of Functional Autonomy duties
 Perseverative Functional Autonomy – includes addictions, circular  Relate himself warmly to others – respect and appreciate rights of
mechanisms, repetitious acts and routines others
 Propriate Functional Autonomy – acquired interests, values,  Possess fundamental emotional security and acceptance of self –
sentiments, intentions, master motives, personal dispositions, self- optimistic point of view
image and lifestyle  Realistically-oriented – self objectification
Two components:
Three Origins:  Insight – capacity of the individual to understand
 Principle of Organizing the energy level – healthy people need himself
activities to absorb the energy left over after their opportunistic  Humor – implies not only the capacity to find
needs have been gratified enjoyment and laughter in the customary places
 Principle of Mastery and Competence – suggests that motives that but also an ability to maintain positive relations to
lead to feelings of competence tend to become self-sustaining oneself and loved objects, at the same time being
 Principle of Propriate Patterning – those motives most consistent able to see incongruities and absurdities connected
with or experiences of the self becomes autonomous; self-structure with them
demands it  Unifying “Philosophy of Life” – sense of purpose, belief or goal in
life
Development of Personality
Opportunistic Functioning –satisfy biological survival needs
Infancy Propriate Functioning –what we do in life is a matter of being who we are
 Allport considered the newborn infant almost altogether a creature
of heredity, primitive drive and reflex existence Reference:
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell
 He did not consider the neonate to possess a personality
 Some of the infant’s behavior is a forerunner of subsequent patterns
of personality

Adults
 A person whose major determinants of behavior are set of
organized and congruent traits 31
 Normal individuals know as a rule what they are doing and why they
do it

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PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY: GEORGE KELLY
 Kelly rejected motives as labels we imposed on others.
His Basic Assumptions:
Two types of Motivational Theories:
Constructive Alternativism – there are always some alternative  Push Theories – drive s, motives or even stimulus
constructions available to choose among in dealing with the world  Pull Theories – construct as purpose, value, needs

Kelly was proposing that people are free to make choices about how they Personal Construct – a construct in a way in which some things are
will view the world and their behavior flows from those choices. construed as being alike and yet different from others

Man-the-scientist – his point is that we should think of people living their Two Objections to the formulation about the Self:
lives in a manner analogous to how scientists’ formulate and test theories  They often function as mask behind which we hide from ourselves
and others.
 Good scientist –changes hypothesis that are disconfirmed by data  Kelly thought of one’s self-image as fluid, not a predetermined
and the healthy person changes personal constructs that give rise to reality or truth that we must somehow reveal.
predictions that disconfirmed by experience
 Bad scientist – has a theory about consequences that does not Constructs – defined by identifying a distinction on which two objects are
work, but the person cannot or will not change it similar and different from a third object

The key to understanding human behavior is recognizing that people are Distinctive Features of Constructs:
trying to anticipate the consequences of their actions, and the key to  Bipolar – our basic construal of the world is in terms of dichotomous
personality is identifying the personal constructs that people use to generate either-or alternatives
their predictions.  Range of Convenience – limited range of application
 Focus of convenience – class of objects to which it is not relevant
Focus on the Construer  Differ in Permeability – ease with which they can be extended to
 When a person makes a statement about the world, we should new objects or events
understand that statement as revealing more about the person who  Preemptive Construct – nothing else about the object matters
utters it than about reality.  Constellatory Construct – triggers other construct without additional
 How individual construe/understand the world. information
 Propositional Construct – would lead to any other judgment
Motivation – an unnecessary and redundant construct  Core Construct – central to a person’s sense of who he is and such
they are relatively resistant to change
Two Fundamental Objections:  Peripheral Construct – less fundamental and amenable to change
 Motivational models are used to explain why a person is active
rather than inert.

“Forming constructs may be considered as binding sets of events into 31

convenient bundles which are hardly for the person who has to lug them.”
According to Kelly people are active by definition, so we don’t need
to explain why they’re active; they’re active because they’re alive.
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Kelly said that constructs provides a “pathway of movement” in the sense of  Choice Corollary – a person chooses that alternative in a
a dichotomous choice between alternative perceptions or alternative dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the greater
actions. possibility for extension and definition of his system.
 Individual Corollary – person differ from each other in their
Constructs limit our possibilities and provide us with “pathway of freedom of construction of events.
movement.”  Commonality Corollary – to the extent that one person employs a
construction of experience that is similar to that employed by
Fundamental Postulates and Corollaries: another, his psychological processes are similar to those of the other
 Fundamental Postulate – a person’s processes are psychologically person.
channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events.  Sociality Corollary – to the extent that one person construes the
 Construction Corollary – a person anticipates events by construing construction process of another he may play a role in a social
their replications. process involving the other person.

Two Basic Positions: Reference:

 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell
 By construing, use the system of personal
constructs to place an interpretation on an event Web Sources:
where that interpretation gives meaning to the  http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/kelly.html

event
 By replication, we experience to identify recurrent
themes in meanings of events

Constructing expectations based on experience, not the simple

categorization of events is the heart of Kelly’s model.

 Organization Corollary – each person characteristically evolves for

convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing
ordinal relationships between constructs.

Individual arranges his construct into a hierarchical system that

characterizes that personality.

Ordinal relationships – meant that one construct may subsume

another as one of its elements

 Fragmentation Corollary – a person may successively employ a

variety of construction subsystems that are inferentially
incompatible with each other. 31
 Experience Corollary – a person’s construction subsystems varies as
he successively construes the replications of events. OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY: B. F. SKINNER

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Functional Analysis  He recognized that a person does not always exhibit the same
 It is an analysis of behavior in terms of cause and effect behavior to the same degree when in a constant situation and he
relationships, where the causes themselves are controllable, that is, believed that general recognition of this is the principal reason for
stimuli deprivation and so on. the development of our concept of motivation.
 There is no necessity to talk about mechanisms operating within the
organism. Behavior can be explained and controlled purely by the Development of Personality
manipulation of the environment that contains the behaving  He believed that an understanding of personality will develop from a
organism and there is no need to take the organism apart or make consideration of the behavioral development of the human
any influences about the events that are going inside the organism. organism in continuing interaction with the environment.
 He argued that behavior can be best studied by considering how it
is related to antecedent events. Classical Conditioning
 To reinforce behavior is simply to carry out manipulation
Independent variable – is the one that is manipulated by the experimenter that changes the probability of occurrence of that behavior
Dependent variable – is a variable that may be change as a result of the in the future
manipulation  a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable
Structure of Personality of bringing about a previously unconditioned response now
 Skinner focused on modifiable behavior called conditioned response.
 He argued that an organism’s sensitivity to reinforcement itself has a
genetic basis, having evolved because of the survival advantages of
being able to learn about important events in the environment.
 Any given species or individual, some behaviors may be more easily
conditioned than others.
 He also suggested that the process of evolution shapes the innate
behavior of a species just as an individual’s learned behaviors are
shaped by the environment.
 Skinner also chose to specialize in the “experimental analysis” of a
behavior.

Operant – emitted in the absence of any eliciting stimulus

Respondent – is elicited by a known stimulus and is best illustrated by a Ivan Pavlov – discovered the principle of reinforcement as it applies
response where there is known and relatively invariable response associated to classical conditioning
with a specific stimulus
Edward Lee Thorndike – first one to investigate about
instrumental/operant conditioning
31
Dynamics of Personality
Thorndike’s Law of Effect – this law states that responses that produce a
satisfying effect become more likely to occur again in that particular
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situation and responses that produce an unsatisfying effect become less Conditions present in Operant Conditioning:
likely to occur in that situation.  Antecedent (environment)
 Behavior ( behavior of the subject)
Skinner’s Empirical Law of Effect – a reinforcing stimulus is an event that  Consequence (reward)
increases the frequency of the behavior with which it is paired with no
reference to “satisfaction” or any other internal event. Reinforcement
 anything within the environment that strengthens a behavior
Operant Conditioning  increases the likelihood of occurrence of a behavior with which it is
 The immediate reinforcement of a response; organism first paired
does something and then is reinforced by the environment
 The reinforcer is not associated with an eliciting stimulus as Types of Reinforcement:
it is when the respondents are conditioned instead it is
associated with the response  Positive Reinforcement – any stimulus that, when added to a
 On the other hand, when an operant response is situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur
conditioned it is essential that the reinforcer be presented or repeated
after the occurrence of the response  Negative Reinforcement – removal of an aversive stimulus from a
situation also increases the probability that the preceding behavior
will occur or repeated

A behavior can be reinforced by the removal of an aversive stimulus,

however in which case we refer to a negative reinforcer.

Primary reinforcer – satisfies biological motives like food, water, sex

Secondary reinforcer – environmental stimuli that are not by nature

satisfying like money, praise, and promotion

Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of Schedules of Reinforcement:
behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired
response. 1. Continuous Schedule – organism is reinforced for every response,
increases the frequency of a response but is an inefficient use of the
Three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior: reinforcer.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase 2. Intermittent Schedule – produces responses that are more resistant to
nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. extinction; based on either the behavior of the organism or an elapsed time;
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability they can be either set at a fixed rate or can vary according to a randomized
of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. program. 31
• Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of
a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

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  Fixed ratio – the organism is reinforced intermittently
according to the number of responses it makes (the number Extinction
might vary on a random basis)  the decrease in responding that occurs when the reinforcement
following the response no longer occurs
Ratio – refers to the ratio of responses to reinforcers  the tendency of a previously acquired response to become
progressively weakened upon non-reinforcement
 Variable-ratio – reinforces after the nth response on the
average Superstitious Behavior – type of conditioning in which there is no causal
 Fixed interval – the organism is reinforced for the first relation between the response and the reinforcer
response following a designated period of time (interval is
changing) Social Behavior – is characterized only by the fact that it involves an
 Variable-interval – one of which the organism is reinforced interaction between two or more persons
after the lapse of random or varied period of time
Skinner repeatedly asserted that the goal is simply to replace abnormal
Punishment behavior with normal behavior and this can be done by direct manipulation
 presence of aversive stimuli; impose to prevent people from acting of the behavior.
in a particular way
 it decreases the likelihood of the behavior He also attempted to modify the undesirable behavior by manipulation of
the environment in a manner determined by the techniques of operant and
Punishment stimulus – an aversive stimulus, which when occurring after an respondent conditioning.
operant response, decreases the future likelihood of a behavior/response
Reference:
 Theories of Personality by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell
Effects of Punishment:
 Suppress the behavior Web Sources:
 Conditioning of a negative feeling  http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
 http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
 Spread of its effects  http://explorable.com/classical-conditioning
 http://stalecheerios.com/blog/dog-training/bf-skinner-and-shaping-behaviors/
Shaping
 the principle of successive approximations
 start by reinforcement of a behavior toward the final behavior and
then gradually reinforce successively closer approximations to the
final behavior
 start with a very low criteria and gradually increase your criteria
until you reach your target behavior

Operant Discrimination – each person has a history of being reinforced by

reacting to some elements in the environment but not to others 31

Stimulus Generalization – a response to similar environment in the absence

of previous reinforcement
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