CH 6603-MASS TRANSFER-II

UNIT-I: ABSORPTION

1. Define absorption factor and give its significance.

Absorption factor is defined as the ratio of the operating line to that of the equilibrium
curve. For values of A less than unity, corresponding to convergence of the operating line and
equilibrium curve for the lower end of the absorber.

A= L/mG

2. Name four packing materials used in absorbers.

 Chemical stoneware or porcelain

 Metals
 Plastics
 Wood
3. Define absorption and give example

Absorption is an operation in which a gas mixture is contacted with a liquid for the
purposes of preferentially dissolving one or more components of the gas and to provide a
solution of them in the liquid.

Example:

The gas from by-product coke ovens is washed with water to remove ammonia and
again with an oil to remove benzene and toluene vapors.

4. What is stripping factor and give its importance

The reciprocal of the absorption factor is called stripping factor S.

It is the ratio of the slope of the equilibrium curve to the operating line.

S=mG / L

5. Define HETP

Height Equivalent to a theoretical tray or plate (HETP) to give the required height of
packing to do the same jop.The HETP must be an experimentally determined quantity
characteristics for each packing.

6. What are the properties to be considered while selecting a solvent for absorption?

Gas solubility, volatility, corrosiveness, Cost, Viscosity, Miscellaneous

7. What is Henry’s equation and Henry’s law?

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 Henry's law is one of the gas law, formulated by William Henry in 1803. It states that
at constant temperature, the amount of a gas dissolved in a given type and volume of
liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with
that liquid.

Y*=p*/pi=mx

Where m is Henry’s law constant.

8. What is Raoult’s law?

Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is equal to the sum of the
vapor pressures of each volatile component if it were pure multiplied by the mole
fraction of that component in the solution. As a result, adding more components to a
solution decreases each partial vapor pressure because the mole fraction decreases.
Raoult's law can be used to calculate the molecular mass of an unknown solute

P*=px
Where
X is the mole fraction of the solution
P* is the partial pressure
P is the vapor pressure

9. Define an ideal or theoretical tray

Theoretical or ideal tray is defined as one where the average composition of all the
gas leaving the tray is in equilibrium with the average composition of all the liquid
leaving the tray.

10. Explain the effect of solvent viscosity on the gas absorption.

Low viscosity is preferred for reasons of rapid absorption rates, improved flooding
characteristics in absorption towers, low pressure drop on pumping and good heat-
transfer characteristics.

11. Draw the sketch for countercurrent absorption column.

12. Write few industrial application of absorption.

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  The gas from by-product coke oven is washed with water to remove ammonia
and again with an oil to remove benzene and toluene vapors.
 Absorption refrigeration cycle is used to remove heat from liquid

13. Draw a neat sketch of packed absorption tower.

14. What is the economical range of absorption factor?

A=L / mG

The most economical A will be in the range from 1.25 to 2.0

15. Write down the Kresmer equation and give its significance

Kresmer equation for absorption:

For stripping

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 UNIT II DISTILLATION

1. Define Distillation?
Distillation is a method of separating the components of a solution which
depends upon the distribution of the substances between a gas and a liquid phase,apllied
to cases where all components are present in both phases.

2. State Raoults law

For an ideal solution, the equilibrium partial pressure p of a constituent at a
fixed temperature equals the product of its vapor pressure p when pure at this temperature
and its mole fraction in the liquid. This is Raoults law.

PA*= PAX

3. Define relative volatility

Relative volatility is the ratio of concentration of A and B in one phase to that
in the order and is a measure of separability.

ά= (y*/ (1-y*))/(x/ (1-x*))

4. Explain flash vaporization.

It is a single stage operation where in a liquid mixture is partially vaporized.
The vapor allowed coming to equilibrium with the residual liquid and liquid phases are
separated and removed from the apparatus. It may be batch wise or continuous.

5. State Rayleigh’s equation.

It is given by

⌡dL/L =ln F/W = ⌡dx/(y*-x)

The integral is over the limits of L is W to F and x is XW to XF

Where , F-moles of charge of composition

W-moles of residual liquid of composition x

6. Define total flux?

At total reflux condition ,R=infinity ,Ln /(Gn+1) = Lm/(Gm+1)= 1 the operating
curves both coincide with 45 degree line on the xy plot , the points are at infinity on the
Hxy plot and the no.of trays required is the minimum value.

7. Define minimum reflux ratio?

The minimum reflux ratio Rm is the minimum ratio which will require an
infinite number of trays for the separation desired and it corresponds to the minimum
reboiler heat load and condenser cooling load for the separation.

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8. Discuss optimum flux ratio
Optimum flux ratio corresponds to a situation when the total cost for a
distillation process is minimum. A minimum reflux ratio, the no. of plates in the
column approaches infinity with increase in reflux ratio the no. of plates decrease the
minimum at total reflux

9. Give the use of open steam

When a coater solution in which the non aqueous component is more volatile
is fractionated, so that the coater is removed as the residue product the heat required
can be provided by admission of steam directly to the bottom of the tower. the
reboiler is then dispensed with.

10. Explain about partial condenser

When a partial condenser or dephlegmator is used the liquid reflux does not
have the same composition as the overhead product

11. What do you mean by constant molal overflow?

For most distillations the molar flow rates of vapor and liquid are nearly
constant in each section of the column and the operating lines are almost straight. this
results from nearly equal molar heats of vaporization so that each mole of high boiler
that condenses as the vapor moves up the column provides energy to vaporize about
1mol of 1000 boiler. This is known as constant molal overflow

12. Define q in feed condition

The quantity q is defined as the heat required to convert 1 mole of feed from
its condition HF to a saturated vapor ,divided by a molal latent heat HG-H L

13. give various operating conditions of feed

a. cold feed q>1
b. feed at bubble pointed , q=1
c. feed partially vapor , 0<q<1
d. feed at dew point , q =0
e. feed superheated vapor ,q<0
14. Explain about differential condensation.
This is a similar operation where a feed vapor is slowly condensed under
equilibrium conditions and the condensate withdrawn as rapidly as it forms. the equation
for this is

i. ln F/D =⌡dy/(y-x*) (limit from yF to yD)

where, F-moles of feed composition yF

D- vaporous residue of composition yD

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15. Define overall efficiency
It is the ratio of the no. of ideal plates needed in an entire column to the
number of actual plates

16. Define murphree efficiency

It is defined as

ή M= (yn –yn+1)/(yn*-yn+1)

Where yn- actual conc. of vapor leaving plate n

Yn+1– actual conc. of vapor entering plate n

Yn* -conc. of vapor in equilibrium with liquid leaving down pipe from plate n

17. Define local efficiency

The local efficiency is defined by

ή1= (yn!-yn+1!)/(yen!-yn+1!)

where yn!- conc. of vapor leaving plate n

yn+1!- conc. of vapor entering plate n at same location

yen!= conc. of vapor in equilibrium with liquid at same location

18. Give the limitations of distillation

 Distillation is applied to separation of liquids only
 the separation is based only on boiling point

19. Write the applications in McCabe Thiele method

 molar flow of vapor and liquid in the rectifying and stripping section remain
constant
 molar latent heat of the two components are equal
 sensible heat changes for vapor and liquid are considered negligible
 reflux is a saturated liquid
 heat of mixing of normal liquid is taken as equal to zero

20. What are the main criteria for a binary fractionation

 there is no azeotropic formation
 there is no reaction between components
 there is no decomposition or polymerization of one or more components
 the components are capable of vaporization at partial temperatures and
pressures

21. When is steam distillation recommended

 to separate appreciable quantities of higher boiling materials

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  to separate relatively small amounts of volatile impurity from a large amount of
material
 where use of dried – fired heaters is detrimental to the materials

22. Define azeotropic distillation

If the relative volatility of a binary mixture is very low, the continuous
rectification of the mixture to give nearly pure products will require high reflux ratios
and correspondingly high heat requirements. Hence a third component entertainer is
used in this distillation

23. Explain the use of entrainer.

when a third component called an entrainer is added to a binary mixture to
form a new low boiling azeotrope with one of the original constituents whose
volatility is such that it can easily be separated from the original constituent.

24. Give the choice of selecting an entrainer

a. Cheap and readily available
b. Chemically stable and inactive toward the solution to be
separated
c. Non corrosive toward construction materials
d. Non toxic
e. Low latent heat of vaporization
f. Low freezing point
g. Low viscosity
25. Explain about extractive distillation
This is a multi-component distillation method similar in purpose to azeotropic
distillation to a binary mixture which is difficult or impossible to separate by ordinary
means a third component termed as solvent is added which alters the relative volatility
of the original constituents thus permitting the separation

26. What are the requirements of a solvent used in extractive distillation

 High selectivity
 High capacity
 Low volatility
 Seperability

27. Give some examples for low pressure distillation

In the distillation of many natural products such as the separation of industrial
products such as plasticizers low pressure distillation is used

28. Explain about molecular distillation

This is a form of distillation at very low pressure conducted at absolute
pressures of the order of 0.3 to 3 N/m2 suitable for the heat sensitive materials.

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 The rate at which evaporation takes place from a liquid is given by the
langumuir equation.

NA=1006PA(2*3.14*MART)-0.5
where R-gas constant

29. Write Fenske equation to find number of plates

Nmin=log((xD/(1-xD/(xB/(1-xB))/log α

Where xD-mole fraction of distillate

xB-mole fraction of bottom product

α-relative volatility

30. Define invariant zone

At minimum reflux ratio, an acute angle is formed at the intersection of an
operating line and the equilibrium curve in each angle, an infinite number of steps is
called infinite number of ideal plates. In all of which there is no change in vapor and
liquid concentration from plate to plate. The term in varied zone is used to describe
these infinite sets of plates and more descriptive term is pinch point.

UNIT III

EXTRACTION

1. Define selectivity?
The effectiveness of solvent B for separating a solution of A and C in to
components is measured by comparing the ratio of C to A in the B rich phase to that in A
rich phase at equilibrium. For all useful extraction operations the selectivity must exceed
unity, the more so better. It varies considerably with solute concentrations. If the
selectivity is unity, no separation is possible.

2. State the applications of liquid extraction

 Metal separations such as uranium-vanadium,,zirconium and tungsten-
molybdenum and the fission products of atomic energy processes are more
economical by liquid extraction
 Many pharmaceutical products eg:- penicillium is produced in mixtures so
complex that only liquid extraction is a feasible separation device
 Long chain fatty acids can be separated by high vacuum distillation from
vegetable oils but more economically by extraction with liquid propane.

3. Give sketch for multistage crosscurrent extraction?

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4. Write the properties of good solvent
 The solvent should be non-toxic, non-flammable and of low cost
 Viscosity, vapor pressure & freezing point should be low for ease in handling &
storage
 The solvent should be inert toward the other components of the system and
towards common material of construction
 The solvent should be easily recoverable

5. Define extract and raffinate

In extraction operation, the solution which is to be extracted is called feed and
the liquid with which the feed is contacted is called solvent, the solvent rich product
of operation is called extract, the residual liquid from which solute has been removed
is raffinate

6. Define double solvent with example

Many complicated extraction processes may use two solvent to separate the
components of feed such process is called double solvent or fractional extraction

Eg:- a mixture of P- and O- nitrobenzoic acids can be separated by distributing

them between insoluble liquids chloroform dissolves water and ortho isomer is
dissolved in water.

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7. Define plait point
In system of three liquids one pair is partially soluble , the plait point P is
defined as last of tie line and point where A rich & B rich solubility curves merges
is ordinarily not at the maximum value of consolubility curve.

8. What are the factors to be selected while choosing a solvent for extraction
The following are the factors to be considered for selecting a solvent

 Selectivity
 Distribution coefficient
 Insolubility of solvent
 Density
 Recoverability
 Interfacial tension
 Chemical reactivity
 Viscosity, vapour pressure,freezing point
 Toxicity, cost

9. Define isotherms
The common type of system extraction is water (A) – chloroform (B) –acetone
(C) and benzene (A) –water (B) – acetic acid (C).the triangular coordinates are
called isotherms. The coordinates A ,B ,C in diagram of triangle at constant
temperature is called isotherm.

10. What is solutropic system

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 In a few extraction systems , the direction of tie line slope changes and one tie
line will be horizontal . Such systems are said to be solutropic system

11. Write about distribution coefficient

The ratio of y*/x is distribution coefficient usually greater than unity. It is ratio
at equilibrium larger values of distribution coefficient are desirable since less solvent
will then be required for extraction

12. What is equilateral-triangular coordinates

Equilateral-triangular coordinates are used extensively in chemical literature to
describe graphically the concentrations internally systems. It is the property of an
equilateral-triangle that the sum of the perpendicular distances from any point within
the triangle to three sides equals the altitude of triangle.

13. Give details about multicomponent systems

The simplest system of four components occur when two solutes distribute
between two solvent Eg:- the distribution of formic and acetic acids between the
partly soluble solvents water and carbontetrachloride

14. Write about solvent recovery by extraction

Most processes use distribution or evaporation to recover the solvent from the
product solutions of liquid extraction it is not uncommon to recover solvent by liquid
extraction.

Eg:- recovery of penicillium from acid feed fermentation both in which it

occurs by extraction with amyl-acetate as solvent followed by stripping of pecillium
from the solvent by extracting it in to an aqueous buffer solution.

15. Define stage efficiency

The performance of individual extraction stages can be described in terms of the
approach to equilibrium actually realized by effluent extract and raffinate streams.

UNIT -IV LEACHING

1. Write the application of leaching operations?

In metallurgical industries

 The gold is separated from its ore with aid of sodium cyanide solutions.
 In metallurgical processing of aluminium, cobolt nickel, manganese,
nickel and zinc.
 Sugar is leached from sugar beets with hot water.
 Tea and coffee are prepared both domestically and industrially by leaching
operations.

2. Differentiate leaching and decotion?

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 Leaching Decotion
i. Leaching originally referred to i. Decotion refers specifically
percolation of the liquid through a to the use of the solvent and
fixed bed of the solid. its boiling temperature.

3. Define elutriation?

When the soluble material is largely on the surface of an insoluble solid and is merely
washed off by the solvent. The operation is sometimes called elutriation or elution.

4. Write the principle of leaching?

Leaching is the removal of soluble fraction, in the form of a solution, from an

insoluble, permeable solid phase with which it is associated. The separation usually involves
selective dissolution, with or without diffusion, but in the extreme case of simple washing it
consist merely of the displacement of one interstitial liquid by another with which this
miscible.

5. Stage efficiency in leaching operation depends on______________?

 Stage efficiency in leaching operations on

 Liquid solid mechanical separations
 Solid leaving will retain some liquid.
 Solute incompletely dissolving because of inadequate contact time

6. Differentiate extraction and leaching?

Extraction Leaching
It is the separation of the constituents of It refers to the percolation of liquid through a
liquid solution by contact with another fixed bed of solid.
insoluble liquid.
Liquid extraction is often called as solvent Leaching is reverse of adsorption.
extraction.
E.g. Aromatic and paraffinic hydrocarbons E.g. Tannin is dissolved out of various tree
of near same molecular weight can be bark by leaching with water.
separated by extraction with so2 (l)

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7. Bollman- type extractor is used for_____________?

Bollman –type extractor is a leaching equipment used for flaky solids, eg.Extraction
soyabean.

8. Define heap leaching?

Low grade ores whose mineral values don’t warrant the expenses of crushing or
grinding can be leached in the form of run of mine lumps built into huge piles upon
impervious ground. The leach liquor is pumped over the ore and collected as it drain from the
heap. It is called heap leaching.

E.g. Copper has been leached from its ores in this manner in heaps containing as
much as 2.2x107 tons, using over 20,000m3 of leach liquor per day.

9. Define stage efficiency of leaching?

In simple batch leaching operations, where the solid is leached with more than enough
solvent to dissolve all the soluble solvent. The slurry of insoluble solid immersed in a
solution of solute in the solvent. The insoluble phase is than separated physically by
mechanical means. The mechanical separation of liquid and solid were perfect, these would
be no solute associated with the solid leaving the operation and complete separation of solute.
This would be equilibrium stage of 100% stage efficiency. In practice, it is less than this.

UNIT -5

ADSORPTION AND ION EXCHANGE

1. Define adsorption?
It is the ability of certain solids preferentially to concentrate specific substance
from solution on to surfaces.

2. What are the types of adsorption?

 Physical adsorption:
It is a readily reversible phenomenon and result of the intermolecular
forces of attraction.
 Chemical adsorption:
It is frequently an irreversible process and result of the chemical
interactions.

3. Differentiate physical & chemical adsorption?

Physical adsorption(physisorption) Chemical adsorption(chemisorptions)

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 It is otherwise called as Vanderwaals It is otherwise called activated
adsorption. chemisorptions.
It is readily reversible phenomena It is frequently irreversible.
It is the result of intermolecular forces It is result of chemical interaction
between molecules of solid and between solid and adsorbed substance.
substance adsorption.
Heat is adsorbed during physisorption. Heat liberated during chemisorption is
Heat evolved during exothermic very large, in order of heat of chemical
reaction is in order of heat of reaction.
condensation.

4. Define adsorption isotherm?

The adsorption isotherm is the equilibrium relationship between the concentration

in fluid phase & concentration in the adsorbent particles at given temperature.

5. What are different adsorption isotherms?

 The different adsorption isotherm is

 Linear
 Strongly favourable
 Favourable
 Unfavourable
 Irreversible

6. Define break through curves?

The profiles can be predicated & used in calculating the curve of concentration
vs time for fluid leaving the bed. The curve shown in figure is break through curve.

7. State the freundlich equation?

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 C* = K [V(CO-C*)]n

Where,

C* → equilibrium solute concentration.

k , n→ constants

V(CO-C*)→apparent adsorption per unit mass of adsorbent.

8. Where Freundlich equation is used?

The Freundlich equation is useful in cases where the actual identity of solute is not
known, as in the adsorption of coloured substances from such materials as sugar solutions &
mineral or vegetable oils.

9. Define elution.

Desorption of adsorbed solute by a solvent is called elution. The desorption solvent is

the elutant, called effluent stream containing the desorbed solutes eluting solvent is called
eluate.

10. What is meant by adsorbent hysteresis?

Different isotherm occurs depending upon whether a solute (vapour) is adsorbed onto
a fresh adsorbent or desorbed from an initially concentrated solid of adsorbent. This
difference gives rise to the HYSTERESIS phenomenon as shown in figure.

11. What is the requirement of an adsorbent?

 Adequate strength & hardness.

 Free- flowing
 Enormous surface area for adsorption.

12. Name some industrial adsorbents?

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  Fuller’s earth – decolourizing & drying of gasoline & kerosene.
 Activated clay – decourizing of petroleum products.
 Baucite – drying of gases
 Bone char – sugar refining.

13. List the factors responsible for influencing the shape and appearance of Breale- through
curve?

 Rate of the adsorption process

 Nature of the equilibrium
 The fluid velocity
 Concentration of solute
 Length of the bed.

14. Define Nt0G?

NtoG is defined as the number of gas transfer units overall. It is given by,

N = -----------

HtoG

Where,

2 →is the active height of adsorbed bed and

HtoG →is the height of one overall gas transfer unit.

15. What is principle of Ion Exchange process?

Ion Exchange operations are essentially meat the chemical reactions between an
electrolyte in solution and an insoluble electrolyte with which the solution is contacted.

The ion exchange solid first used were porous, natural & synthetic minerals
containing silica, the zeolites, such as Na2O.Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O.

16. Give applications of ion-exchange process?

i. Demineralization of water
ii. Separations of rare earth earth metals using chromato graphic techniques.
iii. Treatment of ore slurries for collection of metals valves.

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17. Explain the Ion – Exclusion technique in the Ion-Exchange process?

A resin is presaturated with the same ions as in a solution. It will then reject ions in
such a solution but at the same time absorbs non ionic organic substance such as glycerine
etc. This may also be in the solution.

18. What are factors affecting the ion-exchange process?

The rate of ion-exchange depends on

i. Diffusion of ions from the liquid bulk to external of exchanger.

ii. Inward diffusion to the exchange site
iii. Outward diffusion of released ions.
iv. Diffusion from surface to liquid bulk.

19. Define foam separation?

This is a process whereby surface- active compounds in a solution can be selectively

concentrated and separated by accumulation at the interface between the liquid and gas.

20. Define zone refining?

Zone refining is also called zone melting. It relies on the distribution of solute
between the liquid and solid phases to effect a separation. The molten zone can be passed
through an ingot from one end to another by either a moving heater or by slowly drawing the
materials to be purified through a stationary heating zone.

21. State thermal diffusion.

It involves the formation of concentration difference within a single liquid or gaseous

phase by imposition of a temperature gradient upon the liquid, thus making the separation of
the components of solution.

22. Define sweep diffusion.

If a condensable vapour (stream) is allowed to diffuse through a gas mixture, it will

preferentially carry one of the components along with it.

23. Define Electrolysis.

If an electromotive force is applied across the membrane to assist in the diffusion of

charged particles, it is called as electrolysis.

24. Define Reverse osmosis?

If pressure higher than the osmatic pressure is applied, the solvent will diffuse from
the concentrated solution through the membrane into the dilute solution and called as reverse
osmosis.

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