MUGWE MARTIN//NEW BIOLOGY EXTRA//0700759093//0780280584

TOPIC 2.0
TOPIC TWO: VIROLOGY/KINGDOM AKARYOTAE
INTRODUCTION TO KINGDOM AKARYOTAE/VIROLOGY
Major concept
o Learners should be able to describe the general structure of viruses.
Specific objectives
o Describe the general structure of viruses
o Describe the life cycle of viruses
o State different examples of viral diseases
1) State the essential features of viruses
o Extremely small compared to bacteria;
o They are not of cellular construction/a cellular;
o Reproduce inside specific host cells only/endoparasites;
o Highly specific to the type of the cell they invade;
o They contain either DNA or RNA;
o Contain protein coat, capsid;
o They have no metabolic system of their own;
2) Why are viruses referred to as non-living
o Lack metabolic activity of their own;
o Active and multiply only inside living cells;
o Survive as obligate parasites;
o A cellular/ lack cellular construction;
3) State features that shows that viruses are living
o Possess nucleic acid; either DNA or RNA;
o They reproduce only inside living things;
o They synthesize proteins using ribosomes and nutrients of host;
o Mutate to survive changes in environmental conditions;
o Have high degree of specialization;
o They are antigenic; able to stimulate antibody production;
4) State the criteria based on when classifying viruses
o Type of genetic materials, DNA/RNA(riboviruses and deoxyriboviruses)
o Shape of the capsid; (Icosahedral/ binal and helical)
o Number of capsomeres;
o Presence or absence of the nuclear envelope;
o The host; plants or animals; (plants/pytophages and animals/zoophages)
o Type of diseases produced in the organism and special clinical features
produced;
o Diameter of the virion;

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o Intracellular viral location; blood/nervous tissues/muscles;

o Basing on specific parasitism towards an organ for example skin are called
dermatotrophic and respiratory are called Adenoviruses;
5) Describe the general structure of a virus
o Core;having either DNA or RNA; surrounded by protein coat, capsid;
having protein subunits, capsomeres; Enveloped viruses with additional
lipoprotein envelope;
o Bacteriophage has complex protein tail;
6) Describe the different geometric shapes of capsid
o Icosahedral;several triangular faces and corners; (eg bacteriophage)
o Helical/cylindrical; capsid is helical/ cylindrical;( such as of the tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV))
o Complex/binal; having two shapes, Icosahedral or helical;
7) Describe the chemical composition of viruses.
o Nucleic acid; either double stranded DNA or single stranded RNA;
o Proteins; in capsid as capsomeres;
o Lipids; in enveloped viruses; (such as HIV)
o Polysaccharides; located in envelope;
o Polyamines; (neutralize acid groups of nucleic acid; allows close packing of
nucleic acid in the capsid)
o ATP and Ca2; (bound on the tail of bacteriophage; aids in the contraction
during penetration of the host)
8) Describe the structure of bacteriophage
Strategy
Structure requires mentioning the subunits/components and describing their
shapes/arrangement
Questions require only drawable aspects of the bacterio-phage.
Bacteriophages are viruses that affect bacteria
o Head; prism-like/ellipsoidal; polyhedral; containing either DNA or RNA;
o Tail; long; narrow cylinder; hollow core; surrounded by sheath;
o Neck; short; with collar;
o Base plate; hexagonal plate; with tail fibres; usually 6 in numbers;
o Head, core and sheath have lipoprotein;
(Escherichia coli are attacked by T4 phage)

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9) Describe the life cycle of bacterio- phage

Strategy
Have two life cycles: Lytic; and lysogenic cycles;
Lytic life cycle of virulent phage
Attachment/ adsorption of the phage to host cell by means of its tail fibres;
injection or penetration of viral genetic material to the cell of the host; eclipse
period, during which synthesis of new phage DNA and protein coat take place;
assembly of phage DNA into protein coats; lysis of the host cell and releases of
infective progeny phages; (such a phage is virulent/Lytic phage since it is infectious
and cause death of the host cells; eg T2 phage)
Lysogenic cycles
Phage attaches to the bacterial wall; DNA is injected in the bacterial cell;DNA
becomes incorporated in the hosts DNA; bacterial cell divides to produce two cells
whose DNA is still incorporates the viral DNA; each cell continues to divide many
times to give large numbers of cells; which may under special circumstance enter a
Lytic phase whereby phage replication takes place, the cell bursts and phage particle
escape; eg lambda phage;
10) Explain why the HIV virus is referred to as a Lentivirus and retrovirus
Lentivirus because it has a long incubation period, months/years;
Retrovirus because it can synthesize DNA from RNA using reverse
transcriptase/enzyme; catalyses reverses of transcription which synthesizes DNA
from RNA;
11) State ways of preventing animal viruses/zoophages
o Avoid sharing sharp objects, eg razor blades;
o Abstinence from sex;
o Quarantine measures, eg for avian flue;
o Isolation of diseased/infected from healthy ones;
o Spraying vectors using chemicals, eg mosquitoes;
o Immunization eg measles and small pox;
o Protection of susceptible animals;

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12(i) How are the animal viruses spread?

o Through air/airborne route eg avian flue;
o Direct or indirect contact with infected blood;
o Hereditary; passed from one generation to another eg varicella
o Mother’s milk; through breast feeding;
o Vectors eg mosquitoes /blood sucking arthropods/dog/bat(rabies);
(Ii) The graph below shows the development of an infection with human
immunodeficiency virus over a period of 10 years. The changes in the number of
lymphocytes T4 cells, are also shown

a) Describe the changes in the number of HIV particles over a period of

10 year.
Strategy:
Changes/variations we quote arrange of values (Eg From 0 month to 2 months) and
later a description follows.
From 0 to about 6 months, HIV particles increases rapidly; to a
maximum/peak;continued to decrease rapidly in the next 6 month; to
minimum;from 1 to about 91/2 years, number of HIV particles increased
gradually; from 91/2 to 10ths year, remained almost constant;
b) Describe two ways in which the curve of T4 cells differ from that of HIV particles
T4 curve starts higher while that of HIV is lower; from 0 to 6 months T4
cells increases rapidly while that of HIV increases very rapidly; after four
years higher number of HIV particles while lower number of T4 cells; HIV
curve has a minimum while T4 cell curve lacks; HIV concentration reaches
maximum earlier than T4 cells;

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c) Suggest an explanation for the differences between the number of T4 cells in the
blood and the number of HIV particles over the period.
on the entry of HIV particles, rapidly reproduce; increasing in the
number; which stimulates T-cells; to rapidly multiply and increase in
numbers; and start immune response by stimulating killer cells and
antibodies from B-cells; which destroys viral infected cells; causing a
rapid decrease in number of HIV particles because most of HIV particles are
destroyed; T4 cells infected by virus; latency period, more T4 cells killed
as virus slowly increases; virus number reach plateau/constant, few T4 cells
left/almost natural immunity lost;
C) Compare the two curves above
Similarities
o Both increase to maximum;
o Both decrease after the peak/maximum;
o Both have peaks;
o Both have same number at about 11/2 months and 31/2 years;
o Both numbers do not start from zero;
Differences
Number of T4 cells Number of HIV particles
From o month to 6 months Numbers increases very rapidly to
numbers increase rapidly; maximum;
Peaks earlier; Peaks later;
From 4 months to 10 years numbers Numbers increases gradually;
decreases gradually;
From 6months to 1 year numbers Numbers decreases rapidly to
increases gradually; minimum;
Has a maximum at 1 year; Has a minimum at year 1;
Starts higher; Starts lower;
d) Using the graph above explain the occurrence of the opportunistic infections
at later stages of an individual’s life.
The number of T4 cells decrease to very low numbers; low stimulation of
the B-cells to produce plasma cells; which manufacture of
immunoglobulins/antibodies; against other infections and HIV particles;
low immune response/break down of immunity; every disease gets a
chance/opportunity to attack the individual;

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e) How HIV particles can be prevented from getting into your body.
o Avoid sharing sharp objects, eg razor blades;
o Abstinence from sex;
o Being faithful to your sex parterners;
o Using barriers such as condoms;
f) Explain the adaptations of the HIV to its parasitic mode of life
o Capsid; protein coat encloses and supports Viral RNA and enzymes;
o Envelope membrane made up of lipids; which anchor receptors(gp41
glycoprotein);
o Envelope membrane; fuses with host cell to allow the HIV enter target
cell;
o Reverse transcriptase enzyme; transcribe the viral RNA molecule into
section of DNA integrated into host cell;
o Intergrase enzyme; required to cut and insert viral DNA into host
DNA;
o Glycoproteins spikes; enable the virus to bind to receptors on the
surface of susceptible cell eg TH cells/ macroglial cell/Macrophages;
o Protease enzymes; cleavage large proteins into subunits for viral coat
assembly;

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Extension for reading:

Differences between TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus) and T2 bacteriophage
TMV T2 bacteriophage
Capsid is helical structure; Icosahedral head;
No tail fibres; Tail fibres/base plate present;
Simple cylindrical rod shape; More complex structure/binal;
RNA present; DNA present;
ENTRY OF ANIMAL VIRUSES INTO THE CELL(S)
The virus binds to specific receptor proteins on the plasma membrane of target host
cell;taken up by receptor mediated endocytosis; delivered to the endosome; acidic
medium in the endosome activates the fusogenic protein in the viral envelope to fuse with
membranes of the endosome; allowing escaping intact viral particle into the cytostol of
the host; viral protein and nucleic acid penetrate into the host cells;
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
BACTERIA VIRUSES
Living things; Both living and non-living;
Contain DNA only; Contain either DNA or RNA;
Multiply inside and outside the host; Multiply only inside host cells;
Have ribosomes; Lack ribosomes;
Unicellular; A cellular;
Form Endospores; Donot form Endospores;
Smaller in size; More smaller in size;
Cannot crystallize; Crystallize when outside host cells;
Donot cause lysis of cells; Lytic phages causes lysis of cells;
Cell walls contain murein; Lack cell walls;
Have plasmids/episomes; Lack extra-pieces of DNA;
Can form groupings; Donot form groupings;
Controlled using antibiotics; Some controlled using vaccines;
DETAILS OF THE SYMMETRY OF VIRUSES
o Icosahedral symmetry; spherical; cubical; or polygonal shape; or 20 sided;
depends on the assembly of capsomeres; consists of pentameres/hexamares;
viruses include: polyoma virus; herpes virus; papilloma;
o Helical/cylindrical; rod shaped helical caspid; eg TMV; numerous identical
capsomeres arranged in helical shape;
o complex symmetry; with complex capsid shape of two shapes; eg T-even
phages of E-coli; T2 phage has Icosahedral head, helical tail sheath; hexagonal
end plate; and rod shaped tail fibres;

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Quick check
1) What are the viruses? Write an essay on the viruses ( 20 marks)
2) Describe the life cycle of the virus. (20 marks)
3) What is a lysogenic phage? (2 marks)
4) Describe the structural peculiarities of prokaryotic organization (10
marks)
5) Write an essay on bacteria. (20 marks)
6) Write differences between viruses and bacteria (10 marks)
7) “Structural complexity of eukaryotes is reflected in their sub cellular
structures” discuss (20 marks)
8) Comment about the following
(I)Bacteriophage
(II) Viroid
(III) TMV
(iv) Blue green bacteria
(v) PPLO (10 marks)
9) Describe the chemical composition of viruses (6 marks)
10) Compare prokaryotes and eukaryotes (8 marks)
11) Explain the criteria used in the classification of viruses ( 5 marks)
12) Explain the different geometric shapes of capsid. (5 marks)
13) Draw different shapes that are exhibited by viruses. (9 marks)
14) Explain different ways how viral diseases can be curbed. (5 marks)
15) Explain how animal viruses/zoophages enter animal cells. (6 marks)
16) Explain why viruses are termed as obligate endoparasites (5 marks)
17) Explain the role of the enzyme intergrase in viruses. (3 marks)
18) Explain why the usage of antibiotics and vaccines may not be feasible to
treat viral diseases. (6 marks)
19) Explain why viruses are classified as a border line between living and
nonliving things. 6 marks)
20) Explain the origin of viruses. (4 marks)
21) Explain the role of reverse transcriptase enzyme (5 marks)
22) Explain how viral replication can be inhibited. (2 marks)
23) State signs of a person having AIDS ( 10 marks)
24) Explain the sequence of immune responses that occur when virus enters
body cells.
25) Make a drawing show a bacteriophage. (5 marks)
26) Compare TMV and bacterial phage. (6 marks)
27) Compare Lytic and lysogenic cycles. (9 marks)

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