Fundamentals of Horticulture PDF

Textbook of General
Horticulture
Julian Claude Schilletter

Harry Wyatt Richey
Biotech Books
Textbook of
GENERAL
HORTICULTURE
by
Julian Claude Schilletter
Harry Wyatt Richey
BIOTECH
2005
Biotech Books
Delhi - 110 035
First Indian Impression 1999
Second Indian Impression 2005
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ISBN : 978-81-7622-030-9
ISBN 81-7622-030-2
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PREFACE
The object of the present book is to set forth the essential prin-
ciples of horticulture in a manner suitable for a general introductory
college course.
Horticulture, although one of the oldest arts, is a young science.
Ideas are changing so rapidly from year to year that no uniform
practice has been established for the textbook treatment of subject
matter. Difficulties arise in deciding the proper emphasis to be placed
on the various phases of horticulture, and there is a natural tendency
to overstress those particular fields in which the writer's or teacher's
special interests lie.
A need for a textbook in general horticulture has existed for
many years. Particularly 'is this true in the agricultural colleges
that require such a course in many of the departmental curriculums.
This general course in horticulture varies ;.i l the agricultural colleges.
Some departments give the student a choice between a course
in vegetable crops and a course in fruit crops. Some give
plant propagation as the general course. Some term the course
"general horticulture" and then proceed to devote most of the work
to fruits or to vegetables, depending upon the personal interests of the
instructor. Again, there are instances where the course is handled
by several instructors during the semester or quarter. In the latter
instance a fruit specialist will give the fruit work, and a vegetable
specialist the vegetable work and a florist may give the ornamental
phases.
The authors h5.ve had several years' experience in teaching a
general course in horticulture, and the present text is an attempt on
their part to accord each division of horticulture such treatment as
.will result in a well-balanced presentation of the subject matter as
a whole.
Although this volume is written for the student who may desire a
general knowledge of horticulture rather than for the one who intends
to specialize in the subject, it is felt that the book offers a background
of ·material that will be of value to the student who desires to take
special work dealing with fruits, vegetables or ornamentals. This
volume presupposes but little biological knowledge on the part of
the student. Even if he has had elementary courses in such subject
V'
vi PREFACE
materials, it has been found advisable to refresh his memory on certain

fundamental facts, particularly those concerning structures and func-
tions of the plant. This general basic knowledge is necessary in order
that he may have a clear understanding of the reasons for performing
the various horticultural practices in a particular manner. The
approach to the subject matter is from the viewpoint of fundamentals
rather than from the culture of individual crops. Although the
methods of performing certain practices are described in many
instances, the emphasis has been placed on the reasons for the prac-
tices rather than on how they are performed.
Two sets of questions are presented at the end of each chapter.
The first is designed to call the student's attention to certain facts that
it is believed should be a part of his general knowledge. The second
set is designed to stimulate his curiosity by presenting practical
problems, to test his knowledge of facts and to train his judgment in
selecting the essential facts and properly evaluating them in solving
practical horticultural problems. No general horticultural text will
be perfectly adapted to all sections of the United States. In some
instances a particular section might require several volumes, and in
other cases local conditions might necessitate specialized treatments
for certain crops. The text material is widely applicable, but the
instructor should be responsible for a knowledge of local horticultural
practices, and the student responsible for a knowledge of the funda-
mental principles influencing such practices.
The first four chapters deal with rather broad subjects in an effort
to present a picture of the field of horticulture-how it fits into the
field of agriculture and how it enters into the economic, political and
social life of the individual. The remaining chapters deal almost
entirely with the fundamental plant processes and their application to
horticultural practices.
Since free use has been made of much of the published material
pertaining to the subject matter of the text, specific acknowledgment
would be impossible, but the authors wish to acknowledge this valuable
assistance. In particular are they indebted to Dr. E. S. Haber of
the Department of Horticulture of Iowa State College, who contributed
some of the material incorporated in the manuscript.
JULIAN CLAUDE SCHILLETTER,

HARRY WYATT RICHEY.
-~ - - - ------
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE . . . . • • • • • • . V
CHAPTER
I. GENERAL HORTICULTURE. 1
II. HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE WORLD. 14
Ill. HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE UNITED STATES 36
IV. HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOME. '. • . . 66
V. STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS . 109
VI. GROWTH OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS. • • • • • • . . . 129
VII. THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE 144
VIII. THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO MOISTURE . 161
IX. THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO LIGHT . 172
X. THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO SOIL . 181
XI. PROPAGATION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS. . 194
XII. SOIL MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 224
XIII. TRAINING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 249
XIV. PRUNING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS. 270
XV. PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 284
XVI. CONTROLLING PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS . 322
XVII. HARVESTING AND STORING THE PRODUCTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 342
INDEX 355
TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL
I-IORTIOULTURE
CHAPTER I
GENERAL HORTICULTURE
Horticulture is that division of agriculture which relates to the

culture of those plants commonly known as "fruits," "vegetables"
and "ornamental plants." Etymologically the word "horticulture"
(hortu8, "garden," and cuUura, "cultivation") means the culture of a
garden or enclosure in contrast to the word" agriculture" (agri, "field,"
and cuUura, "cultivation") which means the cultivation of a field.
Obviously this distinction, although satisfactory during feudal times, is
no longer valid, for many single horticultural crops are now produced
in larger areas. The layman usually thinks of horticulture as being
synonomous with gardening or the intensive culture of plants in small
areas, but horticulture is much more than gardening. It is an industry
and occupies important economic and cultural positions in the field of
agriculture.
Agriculture generally divides itself into two broad groups-animals
and plants. Subjects in agriculture dealing with plants include
horticulture, agronomy and forestry. Each of these subjects is an
applied science and naturally considers the practical application of its
scientific endeavor to a much greater degree than does botany, which
focuses its attention on the fundamental principles of plant life.
Again, horticulture, agronomy and forestry are accepted as industries,
and the industries look to these fields for the solution of practical
problems. The facts that determine whether a particular plant
belongs to the subject of horticulture, agronomy or forestry are (1)
type of culture, (2) custom and (3) purpose for which grown. .
Horticultural crops are often considered as those which require
intensive culture and are grown in small areas in contrast to agronomic
or field crops which require extensive culture and are grown in large
areas. The foregoing distinction does not always hold true, as there
are horticultural crops grown in large areas and field crops, such as
1
2 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
tobacco, that require intensive culture. Crops receiving intensive

culture, however, as contrasted with crops receiving extensive culture
becomes the principal line of separation between agronomic crops and
horticultural crops. Custom sometimes establishes a crop in one field
or another. For example, Irish potatoes and sweet corn are generally
classed as horticultural crops, but some sections of North America
class them as field crops. Again, custom establishes tomatoes and
melons as vegetable crops in North America but as fruit crops in
Europe. The purpose for which the particular plant is grown may
confine it to one field or another. ' Pecans and walnuts, when grown
as orchard crops, are associated with horticulture; and when grown for
wood production they are associated with forestry. Bluegrass, when
grown as a lawn crop, is considered horticulture; but when grown as a
pasture crop it becomes agronomic. Other examples might be cited,
but sufficient evidence is presented to show that there are borderline
cases and that the student rightfully becomes confused. In order that
the beginner may become familiar with the materials that horticulture
proposes to study and with the terminology of the field of horticulture,
a classification of horticultural crops is given later in this chapter. The
classification makes no attempt to list the names of all horticultural
crops.
Horticulture has been, is now and will c~ntinue to be of great
economic, political and social importance to mankind. The edible
products of horticulture plants furnish essential vitamins and necessary
food for man and often furnish the chief if not the sole diet for con-
siderable groups of people. 'Approximately 25 per cent by weight of
the food consumed by man in the United States is from horticultural
crops. Although the figures given at the end of this chapter indicate
the magnitude of the horticulture of the United States as based on com-
mercial value, a second or amateur phase has affected more directly
the lives of a greater number of people. It would be hard to estimate
the number of people growing horticultural plants just for the sheer
joy derived from the beauty of the plants and the skill required in
growing them satisfactorily. In this group of amateur horticulturists
will be found great contrasts, varying from the individual growing one
geranium plant in a tin can in a crowded city tenement, to the individual
producing many different kinds of plants, witn each kind receiving the
special treatments best adapted to its particular culture.
CONCEPT
Horticulture might be defined as the culture of fruits, vegetables
and ornamental plants. Su~h a definition, although correct, is so
GENERAL HORTICULTURE 3
broad and vague in meaning that it does not present a clear picture of
the term. Any general definition would be similarly vague, and a
specific definition would become very involved, complex, and at times
questionable, if not contradictory. It is much better, therefore, for
one to have a concept or an understanding of the term "horticulture"
rather than a dictionary definition. Horticulture is both an art and a
science. It is an art because propagating, pruning, spraying, etc.,
require special techniques which must be mastered if the work is to be
done satisfactorily. The skills attained through practice develop into
an art. The scientific reasons underlying these techniques which
explain why the various operations are performed in particular fashions
constitute a true science.
The primary objective of horticulture is to find ways by which
horticultural plants can ' be made to yield the optimum benefits to
mankind. In order to attain this objective, the horticulturist obtains
facts relative to the geographical distribution of horticultural plants;
the sources and uses of such plants about the home; their structure and
manner of growth; the influence of climate and soil on their develop-
ment; the manner in which they are propagated or reproduced; the
manner, time and degree of pruning the various plants; the pests that
trouble the plants and the means of controlling them; and the manner
of harvesting, storing, transporting and using the finished product.
DIVISIONS
Horticulture divides itself somewhat naturally into the culture of
fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants and the production of nursery
stock and seeds, which constitute a special type of horticultural farm-
ing. The horticulturist refers to these coordinated groups as pomol-
ogy, olericulture, ornamental horticulture, nursery stock and seed
production.
A classification of horticultural crops might be made upon the basis
of botanical relationships, in which case they would be arranged in their
evident places according to similarity of parts. The horticultural
plants might be grouped according to use or according to temperature
requirements. In other words, it is hardly possible to give a classifica-
tion that will hold under all conditions. The one suggested here is
based upon plant growth. This is done in order to bring about uni-
formity in a consideration of the crops studied in the various branches
of horticulture. In the classification of horticultural plants an attempt
is made to group most of the important fruit and vegetable crops
according to the terms commonly used rather than on the strictest
scientific basis. No attempt is made to list all the important ornamen-
tal plants, because there are hundreds of them widely scattered over
the world.
FRUITS
To the botanist a fruit is a ripened ovary, but the horticultural

concept of the word is more difficult to define. To the horticulturist
some botanical fruits are only seeds; in other cases the ovary may be
but a small part of the fruit, and in still others the horticultural fruit
may not possess seed. To a horticulturist a fruit is the edible product
usually of a woody plant, which in its development is closely associated
with a flower. The horticulturist recognizes two large groups of fruits:
tree fruits and small fruits. Tree fruits are produced on trees, while
small fruits, in general, are produced on shrubs or vines. Both tree
fruits and small fruits are produced on deciduous and non-deciduous, or
evergreen, plants. Deciduous plants are those which drop their leaves
during the dormant season, but evergreen plants never become entirely
denuded of functional leaves, although some of the older leaves drop
each year. The horticulturist recognizes various types or kinds of
fruits that in some instances are entirely different from those recognized
by the botanist.
Horticulturally fruits may be true fruits or false fruits. True fruits
are those which are developed wholly from tissues of a single ovary.
Such fruits are also simple fruits, as the peach, plum and orange. An
aggregate fruit is formed when several ovaries of a single flower develop
independently but remain attached to their common stem, as in the
case of the raspberry. A false fruit, as the apple, pear and strawberry,
is one that is composed of tissues in addition to those of the ovary. A
multiple fruit is a false fruit that is formed when several adjacent
flowers and their adjacent tissues unite to form a single fruit, as is true
of the pineapple.
The horticulturist often speaks of fleshy fruits as "drupe" fruits,
"pome" fruits and "berries." A drupe fruit is a true simple fruit in
which only a single ovary of the flower is involved in its composition,
as in the peach, plum, apricot and other so-called stone fruits. The
part of the ovary surrounding the seed of drupe fru1t becomes.hard and
stony and is known as the" pit" ; the outer layers usually become soft
and succulent, as in the peach, or dry and leathery, as in the almond .
. A pome fruit, as the apple, is a false fruit in which the receptacle, calyx
or other parts of the flower in addition to the ovary are involved in its
development. A true botanical berry is a true or simple fleshy fruit
that has seed embedded throughout the pulpy ovarian tissues. Most
horticultural" berries" are not 'true botanical berries at all, but custom
has established such fruits as the raspberry, blackberry, cranberry and

strawberry as berries.
Fruit plants may be grouped as follows:
1. Tree fruits.
A. Deciduous.
1. Pome (false fruits).
Apple, pear, quince, medlar, etc.
2. Drupe (simple fruits) .
Peach, cherry, plum, apricot, etc.
B. Evergreen.
1. Citrus (simple fruit).
Orange, grapefruit, lemon, lime, etc.
2. Avocado (simple fruit).
3. Mango (simple fruit) .
H. Small fruits (including vine fruits).
Grape (simple fruit-a true berry).
Strawberry (false fruit).
Currant (simple fruit).
Gooseberry (simple fruit) .
Red raspberry (aggregate fruit).
Black raspberry (aggregate fruit).
VEGETABLES
No convenient or accurate definition can be given for the great

group of horticultural plants known as vegetables. Since the term is
used widely and includes a large number of diverse plants, it is well to
form a concept of it as used by horticulturists. This concept differs,
since the line of demarcation between fruits and vegetables is not a
clear one; for in the Unit.ed States tomatoes and melons are considered
as vegetables, and in Europe t.hey are considered as fruits. As gen-
erally accepted, however, the term refers to two groups of commodities:
first, those products of herbaceous plants which afford fresh material
for culinary purposes or which are normally cooked before consump-
tion; second, those products of herbaceous plants, such as lettuce and
tomatoes, which are consumed without being cooked and which are
known as "salad plants."
Vegetable crops may be grouped as follows:
Tuber.
Potato, Jerusalem artichoke.
Root.
Chinese artichoke, sweet potato, turnip, rutabaga, beet, carrot, parsnip,
radish, horseradish, celeriac, salsify.
Bulb.
Onion, shallot, garlic, chive.
Stem.
Asparagus, kohlrabi.
Leaf.
Cabbage, brussels sprouts, kale, spinach, chard, mustard, lettuce.
Petiole.
Celery, sea kale, rhubarb.
Inflorescence.
Globe artichoke, cauliflower, broccoli.
Seed.
Pea, bean.
Fruit.
Tomato, muskmelon, watermelon, cucumber.
OftNAMENTALS
Ornamental horticulture confines itself to those plants which are

grown for their aesthetic value. Horticulturally, a plant is classified
as an ornamental when it is used to decorate the landscape or when it is
grown because it or its product satisfies the desire for beauty. The
purpose for which the plant is grown determines whether or not it is
classed as an ornamental plant. For example, many people grow apple
trees, and even vegetable plants, for their aesthetic value. If grown
for this purpose, such plants would be classified as ornamental plants;
however, custom generally establishes an apple tree as a fruit plant and
a red cabbage as a vegetable regardless of the purpose for which they
are grown. Ornamental plants may be grouped as follows:
1. Flowers.
A . Annuals, or perennials treated as annuals.
Zinnia, petunia, cosmos.
B. Biennials.
Columbine, hollyhock.
C. Perennials.
Dahlia, peony, tulip, iris.
11. Shrubs and vines.
A. Deciduous.
Spirea, honeysuckle, deutzia.
B. Evergreen.
1. Narrow leaf.
Mugho pine, Pfitzer juniper.
2. Broadleaf.
Rhododendron, laurel, boxwood.
Ill. Trees.
A . Deciduous.
Elm, maple.
B. Evergreen.
1. Narrow leaf.
Spruce, pine, cedar.
2. Broadleaf.
Magnolia, citrus.
SOURCES OF PLANTS
When the Norsemen discovered North America, they named the

that
new contine nt "Vinel and" because of the abunda nce of grapes
they found growing so profusely. Early Spanis h, French and English
explorers and settlers also mentio n many kinds of horticu ltural plants
y in
found on the new contine nt. The presen t horticu ltural industr
the United States, however, is largely depend ent on plants that were
introdu ced from other parts of the world. The introdu ced plants
were crossed with native sorts, and the presen t list of horticu ltural
s
p.lants is comprised of native species, import ed species and hybrid
between some of the native and import ed species .
The fruit industr y of the United States would rank very low in
is
value today if it consisted of only the native species. This fact
species of fruits with the
indicat ed when one compares the native
introdu ced species. Many species of the raspber ry, blackb erry, dew-
berry, strawb erry, cranbe rry, blueberry, huckle berry, gooseberry,
curran t and grape are indigenous to or hybrid s with native species
to
of the United States. Species of the plum and apple are native
various sections of this country , but their fruits are decided ly inferior
the
to those of the introdu ced species. The chief commercial fruits of
quince, peach, plum, cherry, apricot ,
United States, as the apple, pear,
orange, grapefr uit, lemon, lime, kumqu at, fig, pomeg ranate, mango,
and
avocado, pineapple, date, Europe an grape, Persian walnut
almond, have been import ed from other lands.
Althou gh the early settlers of North America found certain vege-
of
tables being grown by the Indians , it is significant to note that none
on of Jerusal em ftrticho ke, was indigen ous to the
them, with the excepti
s,
United States. Several import ant vegetables, such as corn, pepper
tomato es, Irish potatoe s, sweet potatoes, and beans, are of New World
origin, but most other vegetables of any import ance are of Old World
an
origin. A vegetable as import ant as the tomato , now produc ing
annual cash income of around 25 million dollars in the United States,
did not come into general use until after 1840.
An investi gation of the nativit y of the orname ntal plants listed in a
represe ntative nursery catalogue of the United States reveals that most
of the herbaceous annual and perennial plants and about 70 per cent
of the woody trees and shrubs are of foreign introdu ction.
Althou gh hundre ds of species and varieties of horticu ltural plants
into
have been introdu ced into the United States, the search continues
ls that may be valuab le in
all parts of the world for plant materia
horticu lture.
COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE
From the early beginnings of horticulture in the United States
steady progress has been made, until today horticulture has become
more than a billion-dollar industry. The importance of this industry
can best be appraised by noting the value of the products that it sells
and the extent to which these products are used.
TABLE I.-AVERAGE CASH I NCOME* IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS FROM SALE OF
FARM PRODUCTS, 1935--1937t
Commodity 1934 1935 1936 1937

- - - - - - - --
Fruits and vegetables . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . 870 913 1,050 1,165
Cotton nnd cottonseed .. . .... . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. 777 690 905 864
Grain .. . . . . . . ... . . .. . .. ... . .. ..... . .. . . .. . 626 598 824 1,073
Other crops .. . . . ... .. .. . ... .. .. .. ...... .. .. 614 612 683 780
- -- - - - - - - - --
All crops ....... . . . ..... . . . .. ... .. . .. . . .. 2,887 2 ,813 3,462 3,882
---
Meat animals . . . .. .. .. . ...... . . . . ....... . .. 1,199 1,679 2,001 2,013
---
Dairy products . ... . . ...... .. .. . . . . . ... . .... 1, 133 1, 289 1,417 1,475
Poultry and eggs . .. . .. ..... ... . . . . .. .. . .... 467 620 617 635
Other livestock and products . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 106 136 149
- -- - - - - - - - - -
All livestock and products . .... . ...- . . . . . . . . . . 2,905 3,694 4,173 4,272
-- - - - - - - - - --
Total crops and livestock . .... .. . . .... . . . 5,792 6,507 7,633 8,154
* Cash income relates t o the value of quantities actually sold off the farms ' of the state where
produced.
t GAY, M . C., Marketing Fruits and Vegetables Cooperatively, Farm Credit Admin. Cir. C-llO,
p. 2, 1938.
During the last decade fruits and vegetables combined ranked third
among agricultural commodities as producers of cash income. In 1937
the farmers' cash income therefrom represented 14 per cent of the total
cash income from agricultural products of that year. The exports of
fruits and vegetables grew in importance from 16 per cent of the total
value of food-products exports in 1926 to 46 per cent in 1936.
Unlike some other agricultural commodities, fruits and vegetables
are used primarily for human food or beverages. Although hundreds
of uses are found for cotton and its by-products, most fruits and vege-
tables must find their ways to the table to maintain places of economic
importance. The uses of fruits and vegetables as raw materials for the
manufacture of industrial products is insignificant.
Fruits and vegetables contain important vitamins and minerals
and are prominent in the diets of many people. Although there is a
popular belief that the per capita consumption of these products has
greatly increased during the past thirty years, there are no official
statistics to prove this to be a fact. Unfortunately official statistics

for all fruits and for all vegetables were not available until 1918, and
even these figures do not give the production of these crops which were
FARM VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CROPS. 1936
MILLIONS OF
~
--300
200- -
100
50 - _ 25
10- ~ 5
o
FIG. l.-Principa.! areas of fruit and vegetable production are found on the Eastern
seaboard and Pacific coast states.
TABLES GROWN FOR SALE AND KOME USE

Value. 1929
FIG. 2.-Va.!ue of vegetables grown for ea.!eand home UI!Ie. (U.8. lHpa.rtment oJ
Agriculture.)
raised in home gardens and used locally. Although the figures shown .
in Tables 2 and 3 are of necessity only rough approximationS of act~al
consumption, they do · serve to show l!IomeintereatiDg trends in per
capita consumption. It will be noted in Table 2 that the apparent
TABLE 2 .-ApPARENT UNITED STATES CONSUMPTION OF IMPORTANT

FRESH FRUITS*t
Pounds per capita

Commodity
1923-1925 1933-1935
Apples ... ...... .... . .. . .. . . . . . . ... . .. . 60.2 46 .3

Apricots .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... .. . . . .. . . . 0.3 0.2
Bananas .... . . ... . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . .. . ... . 18 .5 17 .1
Cherries .. . . . .. . .. . ... . ..... . . ...... . .. . 0 .8 0 .8
Grapes . .. . .. . . ... . . ... .. . . . . . . . . ..... . . 9 .8 8.8
Grapefruit .. . . .... .... . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . 6.0 6 .9
Lemons . ..... . . . . . ..... . .. .. .. . . ." .. . . . . 3 .7 3.6
Oranges . ......... . .. . . 19 .4 26 .2
Peaches .. .. ..... ... . . . . .. . . 14 .3 11.6
Pears . . .. .... . . . . ... . . 5 .9 4.8
Plums and fresh prunes . ... .. ... .. . . . . . . . 2.0 1.6
Strawberries . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . . . . 3.4 3.1
• Includes fruit that may have been wasted, canned in the home. etc.
t THOMP8oN. J . M .• The Orange Indus try-An Economic Survey. CaliJ. Agr. Exp. SIG. Bm. 622.
p . 23. 1938.
total per capita consumption of 12 principal fresh fruits shows a slight

decrease during the past decade. These figures do not include the
processed fruit; if these were added to the total, there would probably
be no change in the total per capita consumption during the period
indicated. Data of thirty years ago are rather meager, but they indi-
cate that the consumption of fresh fruit has changed very little and.
that any increase during the last thirty years is perhaps due to the use
of processed fruit, as there was an increase from 71b. per capita in 1899
to 25 lb. in 1927. It is of interest to note in Table 2 that there has been
a striking increase in the per capita consumption of oranges, apparently
at the expense of apples.
Note in Table 3 that the total annual per capita production of 16
important vegetables shows an increase from approximately 275 lb.
in the 1918-1921 period to approximately 290 lb. in the 1932-1936
period. The slight increase in per capita production is not important,
but certain shifts in food habits are of interest. It will be noted that,
with the exception of the Irish potato and the sweet potato, the per
capita consumption of each of the 16 vegetables listed shows an
increase. Rather striking increases have occurred in the consumption
of leafy and green vegetables. This is notably true of lettuce which
increased approximately 150 per cent in per capita production from
1918-1921 to 1932-1936. Except in a few cases, official statistics are
not available for comparing present vegetable consumption with that

of thirty years ago. These figures indicate a decline in the per capita
consumption of Irish potatoes from 190 lb. in the 1902-1906 period to
144 lb. in more recent years and a threefold increase in the per capita
consumption of canned vegetables, or an increase from 9 lb. per capita
in 1899 to 27 lb. in more recent years.
TABLE 3.'-PER CAPITA PRODUCTION OF SIXTEEN VEGETABLES BY SPECIFIED

PERIODS, 1918-1936*
Pounds
Commodity Market Manufacture Total
1918- 1921 1932-1936 1918-1921 1932-1936 1918-1921 1932-1936
Asparagus . ..... 0.5 1.8 0.4 0.8 0 .9 2.6

Beans, snap ..... 1.0 3 .0 0 .6 1.0 1.6 4.1
Cabbage ........ 14 . 0 15 .2 1.4 2 .2 15 . 4 17 . 4
Muskmelons . . . . 5 .6 6.5 . .. . . ... 5 .6 6 .5
Cauliflower ..... 0 .8 2.2 ... . ... . 0.8 2.2
Celery .... . ..... 3.6 6 .5 ... . '" . 3 .6 6.5
Corn, sweet ..... . ... . . ... . 9 ,8 8.7
Cucumbers . .. . . 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 2,6 3.0
Lettuce . . ....... 4.4 11.2 . .. . .... 4.4 11 ,2
Onions . .. . . ... . 9.1 11 . 4 ... . '" . 9.1 11.4
Peas, green .. . .. 0 .2 2,0 2 ,5 2 .8 2,7 4 .7
Spinach . .. ..... 0 .6 1.7 0.4 0 .7 1.1 2 .3
Sweet potatoes . . 35 . 2 30 ,5 . .. . .. .. 35 . 2 30.5
Tomatoes .... . . , 5 .4 8.1 20.0 23.4 25.4 31.5
Watermelons .. . 11.4 12 . 3 . . .. .... 11.4 12 ,3
Irish potatoes ... 155.0 144.0 ... . ... . 155 . 0 144 . 0
* Per capita data obtained by dividing average production for the period from figure. reported by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture by the total average population for the period. Data on the
Irish potato Were taken from U.S. Depl. AQr. Miac. Pub. 267, p. 83.
TABLE 4.-RECEIPTS FROM SALES OF ORNAMENTAL CROPS·
Millions of dollars
Commodity
1919 1929
Flowers and flowering plants .. . ....... .. ..... . 62 98

Nursery stock .............................. . 20 58
Flower and' vegetable seeds . ........... . . .. .. . 14
Bulbs ........ . ...... . ... ..... . .. . ... .. ... . , 5
* Horticulture, Fiheentb CaD8UB of the United States, pp. 13, 57, 91, 109.
The data in Table 4 indicate a marked increase in the value of orna-

mental plants, but the total value remains insignificant when compared
to that of the horticultural crops used for food.
During recent years there has been a marked increase in the per-
centage of nursery sales of ornamental plants, with a decrease in the
percentage of sales of fruit plants. The data in Table 5, although for
but one year, are representative of this trend. This is undoubtedly
due to the more widespread interest in ornamental gardening. It
has been reported, however, that the average home grounds are only
22 per cent planted when compared with an established standard for a
well-landscaped home.
TABLE 5.-PERCENTAGE OV SALES OF VARIOUS NURSERY PRODUCTS, 1927-
Ornamentals: Fruits:
Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20 . 30 Apples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 . 41
Evergreens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17.79 Plums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3. 56
Ornamental trees. . . . . . . . . . .. 12.37 Peaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.95
Roses ........ .... ......... .. 11 .21 Cherries .................... 4 . 31
Perennials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 . 07 Small fruits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.84
Bulbs... . ... ...... . ... .. ... 2 . 09 Nuts .............. : . .... ... 0 . 45
Forest seedlings. . .. . . . . . . . .. 1. 65 Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.52
TotaL ................... 74.48
- Survey of U.S. Nurseryman Association, 1927.
Review Questions
1. What factors place a particular plant in the field of horticulture?
2. What is the concept of horticulture?
3. What is the difference between intensive and extensivA r.ulture when used
in reference to plants?
4. What is the primary objective of horticulture?
6. What are the divisions of horticulture?
6. Give a botanical definition of a fruit.
7. Give a horticultural definition of a fruit.
S. Distinguish between a fruit and a vegetable.
9. Define the following terms and give a horticultural example of each:
a. Annual.
b. Biennial.
c. Perennial.
d. Deciduous.
e. Evergreen.
10. Are many of the present commercial fruits of the United States indigenous
to the United States?
11. Are many of the present commercial vegetable crops of the United States
indigenous to the New World?
12. Has the annual per capita consumption of fruits in the United States
increased materially during the las~ decade?
13. What particular fruit in the United States shows a material increase in the
annual per capita consumption during the last decade?
14. Has the annual per capita. consumption of vegetables in the United States
increased materially during the last decade?
16. What particular vegetable in the United States shows a material increase
in the annual per capita consumption during the last decade?
Problems
1. State and discuss one specific horticultural problem of economic significance
in your home community.
2. State and discuss one specific horticultural problem of political significance
in your home community.
3. State and discuss one specific horticultural problem of social significance in
your home community.
4. Make a block graph showing the percentage of the total cash income for
each of the following during 1937: fruits and vegetables, cotton and cottonseed,
grain, meat animals, dairy products and poultry and eggs.
Suggested Collateral Readings

1. BAILEY, L. H., "The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture," Vo!. Il, pp.
1501-1523, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1925.
2. CORBETT, L. C., et al., "Fruits and Vegetables," pp. 107-124, "U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Yearbook," 1925.
3. KNOTT, J. E., "Vegetable Growing," pp. 29-36, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia,
1935.
4. MARTIN, J . N ., "Botany with Agricultural Applications," pp. 77-88, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1920.
5. "U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook," 1937.
CHAPTER II
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE WORLD
Horticultural crops have been important sources of human food
since the dawn of history. They have been and are important as a
group rather than as individual crops; and none, with the possible
exception of the Irish potato, has attained the importance among world
crops of wheat, which is used for bread, or of cotton, which is used for
clothing. For example, according to government reports, the produc-
tion of fruit reported -by countries for which estimates were available
averaged 66 million tons per year in the three-year period 1933-1936.
During the same period, the world production of corn averaged 122
million tons per year. The world production of fruits was greater than
that of either cotton or tobacco. The world figures for vegetables as a
group are not nearly so complete as for other agricultural crops, but
they indicate a larger total than even that for fruits. The world
production of Irish potatoes alone was estimated at more than 216
million tons during each year of the period 1927-1931.
The staple crops of wheat, corn and cotton are of greater monetary
importance as world crops than any of the individual horticultural
crops, such as apples, onions or potatoes. Every student of agriculture
should be familiar with those horticultural crops which are important
sources of food to large populations in various parts of the world and
with the important ones that enter into national and international
trade. A study of world production of particular crops is most enlight-
ening, not only from the standpoint of the adaptations of the particular
crops to climatic and soil conditions but also from the standpoint of
world markets.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Climate, soil and markets are all important factors which combine
to concentrate the commercial production of horticultural crops into
limited areas in various parts of the world. In general, the ability of a
region to produce a crop successfully is limited by climate and soil.
CLDL\.TE
Temperature and moisture, the two chief agencies of climate, which

is considered as the average condition of the atmosphere, must be
favorable for the successful growing of horticultural crops, as either
14
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE WORLD 15
alone can limit production. The absence of adequate available water

limits plant distribution on the earth more definitely than does
temperature.
Temperature.-Of the climatic agencies influencing plant growth,
temperature is one of the most important. Its effect may be modified
by several factors, such as duration of high or low temperatures and the
rapidity of temperature changes as well as the amount of moisture in
the air, in the soil and in the plant.
Moisture.-Although many horticultural areas of the world depend
upon rainfall to supply adequate moisture, there are also many areas
where irrigation is being used to supplement the natural precipitation,
and many others where irrigation is depended upon entirely for the
water. Irrigation is generally a costly practice, but this fact does not
seem so important when it is remembered that generally the profit per
acre from horticultural crops is higher than that from agronomic crops.
Artificial climates are created for crops grown in glasshouses. The
cost of maintaining artificial heat in these houses generally limits this
type of enterprise to the production of special horticultural crops. It
is of interest to note in Table 6 the area under glass and the kinds of
crops that are grown in a few principal countries of the world.
TABLE 6.-AREA UNDER GLASS IN A FEW PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD,
AND PERCENTAGE OF AREA DEVOTED TO FRUITS, VEGETABLES
AND FLOWERS, 1930*
Crops
Area,
Country Percentage of total area
square feet
Fruits Flowers Vegetables
Netherlands ...... . ............ 190,082,563 t 80.0 20 .0

United States ...... . .......... 173,371,536 .... 46 .0 45 .2
Belgium . ....... . . ..... ... .. 65,639,120 48 .2 19.5 23 .4
Denmark .. . . ....... .. ... . .... 13,982,760
Sweden ......... . ........ .. ... 13,85~,908
Norway ...... . .. ... . ... . . .. .. 4,142,245
Alaska ... ... . . . . . . . ..... . .. .. 1 43,873
* "lnt~rnational Statistics of Agriculture," consisting of separate reports by countries based
on 1930 census.
t Some grapes grown under gl.....
SOIL
The soil may be the limiting factor in the production of particular
or all horticultural crops in any given area. It may be too infertile,
16 TEXTBOOK OF GENERA/. HORTICULTURE
too wet or too dry or too heavy or too light for profitable productipn of
horticultural crops. Anyone of these soil factors mll-Y be a limiting
factor in the profitable production of a selected crop.
IMPORTANT HORTICULTURAL CROPS IN WORLD TRADE
The distribution of the important horticultural enterprises of the
world will be briefly reviewed here. These enterprises will include (1)
fruits, (2) vegetables, (3) ornamentals, (4) nursery stock and seeds.
FRUITS
Commerce in fruits on a large scale is of comparatively recent devel-

opment but has become one of the important and widespread branches
PERCENT ,-----y----r----,r-----.----,.---..-----"
INDEX NUMBERS
(AV. IU&·27-,930· 31·'OO)
140
130
120
110
100
90 AV. 1931. 32 "34. 35 '36·37 ' 37.38

FIG. a.-World production of 14 principal fruits ; 4 principal citrus fruits ; and 4 prin-
cipal deciduous fruits. (U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
of national and international trade. Although fruit production is

increasing in many of the chief importing countries, these countries
have not attempted to stimulate the production of fruit to the same
extent as they have stimulated the staple products such as wheat and
rye. Moreover, many of the densely populated countries cannot spare
the land required, even if climatic conditions were favorable for fruit
production.
Fresh fruit can nowadays be brought to ' markets 5,000 miles away
from 'producing areas within one month after harvest. As a result,
areas in South Africa, Australia and South America have grown in
importance for the production of fruits because they can ship their
fruit products to markets at great distances from the producing areas.
. The estimated total world production of fruits including grapes
used for wine and raisins averaged 65 million tons yearly in the period
1932-1937. Of this total, grapes comprised 52 per cent; apples, 15
per cent; oranges, 9 per cent; pears, 6 per cent; plums, 5 per 'cent;
bananas, 3 per cent; 'and a.ll other fruits, 10 per cent . .
The trend in the world production of 14 principal fruits, excluding
grapes for wine and raisins, is upward. The increase, however, is
principally the result of the rapid increase in the production of citrus
fruits.
The principal fresh fruits entering into world trade are grapes,
apples, oranges, pears, plums and bananas. The principal nut fruits
l<la. 4.--<.;ovent Garden Market. London; horticultural products from all parts of the
world are Bold on this market. (CourtlJ8Y Blue Anchor.)
entering world trade include almonds, Brazil nuts, chestnuts, coconuts,

filberts, pecans and walnuts. In addition to these fresh fruits and
nuts, it should be remembered that great quantities of processed fruit,
such as canned fruit, dried fruit and wines, enter world commerce.
Practically every country of the world produces fruit of one kind or
another, but comparatively few export it in any great quantity. Some
countries export the surplus of one kind of fruit and then import the
kinds that they cannot produce. For example, Canada exports apples
, .but imports citrus fruits. Chile, Argentina, South Mrica and Aus-
tralia depend largely npon the export trade for the sale of fruit) and
their fruit areas have grown rapidly, mainly because of the demand
from such countries as England, and Poland and Finland (until their
recent conquest).
Fruits from all over the world are sold in the markets of European
countries. Great Britain imports a greater variety and quantity than
any other country in Europe. Covent Garden Market, situated in
the heart of London, is known as the "hub of the produce world."
Moreover, most of the best known firms in the fruit, flower and vege-
table trade-firms of international reputation-make Covent Garden
their headquarters. If any country, be it the United States, South
Africa, Chile or Japan, has a new horticultural product or a new pack-
age to test, it consigns the experimental sample to Covent Garden, and
the verdict from that market may determine if the product or the
package will be of any value in international trade.
The fresh or processed fruit of the United States is known over most
of the world. During recent years, fruit exports have maintained
third rank among all agricultural exports, outranked only by cotton
and tobacco and outranking grains and meats. On a value basis in
1935-1936 fruits made up 11 per cent of all agricultural products
exported, as compared with 3 per cent for grains and grain products
and 5 per cent for meats, including animal fats and oils.
Fruit crops may be classified geographically as follows: those of
temperate regions, those of the subtropical regions and those of the
tropical regions. There are more species of fruits in the tropics than
in any other region, but most of them are of local importance and
because of their highly perishable nature do not enter into world
commerce.
Fruits of Temperate Regions.-Although many kinds of fruit are
grown in temperate regions, the most important include the grape,
apple, peach, pear, plum and strawberry. The distribution and pro-
duction of the first three in the temperate regions of the world will be
discussed briefly.
Grape.-More grapes are produced in the world than any other
fruit. They are grown in nearly every country of the temperate
region; and the total production, including grapes for table use, for
wine and for drying, is almost as large as the total of all other fruits
produced in the temperate regions combined. Many species of grapes
are grown in various parts of the world; but from the viewpoint of
world culture, one species is of great importance. This is known as
the" European grape" CVitis vinifera) and is used for fresh fruit, for
dried fruit and for wine making. Many people in the United States
refer to this type as the" California grape," because most of the acreage
in the United States devoted to this species is in California. Its great-

est commercial value is reached in those countries of the world noted
for their wines, such as France, Italy and Spain.
FIG. 5.-Grape vines planted on terraces in Uermany.
The wine grape is grown in many countries of the world, but the
requirements of its culture for satisfactory wine are rather exacting.
It must have a long summer; a moderately fertile, well-drained, warm
SHORTTONSr-----------------------------------------------~
'THOUSANDS)
,2.000
"'"
OTHERS
1.600
FRANCE
1.200 BULGARIA
--- SYRIA
___ LEBANON
SPAIN
800
ARGENTINA
RUMANIA
4qO
UNITED ST.ATES
o
AV.1926·30 1931 ' 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936
FIG. 6.-Table grapes: total production in leading countries reporting. (U.S. Depart-'
ment 0/ Agriculture.)
soil; a relative low water supply during the growing months--even less
with relatively high temperatures--and bright sunshine during the
three months in which the fruit matures. In Europe a mean tempera.-
ture of about 60°F. in the month of September is one of the reasons for
production of high-quality wine.
Apple.-The apple is the most important tree fruit in the world.
The tree itself is quite resistant to low temperature and adapted to a
wide range of climatic and soil conditions. Most of the apples are
produced in countries of temperate regions. The main groups include
. dessert and culinary, cider and crab apples. Dessert and culinary
apples form the main bulk of the production in most countries, but the
largest part of the crop in Germany, France and the United Kingdom
consists of cider varieties which are too astringent for raw consumption.
GALLO·NS . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
C BILLIONS.
4
OTHERS
RUMANIA
ARGENTINA
3
SPAIN
ALGERIA
2
ITALY
FRANCE
o
AV.1926·30 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936
FIG. 7.-Wine: total production in leading countries reporting (excluding the United
States). (U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
Apples are marketed as fresh, dried and canned fruit and are also used
in making a long list of products such as vinegar, brandy, candy, pectin,
cider and jelly.
The United States is the largest producer of apples in the world,
responsible for over one-third of the total world production in 1931-
1936. It also exports the most. Definite data are lacking for such
important countries as China, Belgium and the U.S.S.R., but impor-
tant countries other than the United States include France and Ger-
many, where the bulk of the crop is consumed at home.
Canadian apples offer the most competition to American apples in
foreign markets. Other countries competing for foreign markets
before 1939 included Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Italy and Austria.
The major importing countries were the United Kingdom, France,
Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium.
Peach.-Peaches are widely grown and rank seventh in world fruit
production. Because of the fresh fruit's tender character, it plays a
minor role in foreign trade, but considerable quantities of canned and

dried peaches enter international trade. The peach tree, unlike the
apple, yields well only in restricted localities and under special climatic
BUSHELS , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ; . - - - - - - - - - - . ,
CMILLIOM.'
OTHERS
450
ENGLAND AND
· WALES
400
350
GERIIANY
' 300
250
FRANCE
200
150
UNITED STAtES
100
TAnd 01
p1"odfjctiOlJ in
p,I"c;"' .llportin,
50 CO".,,;•• compel/Ill
w/lb cA.
UIlItHSt.t,..·
o
-,.w""".• , • GAIIUA. "U.ntAU.i. AU'T.'A,If'ALr. If• • ZaAUIID.AHD Sffln •• U11l1
FIG. S.-Apples: total production in the leading countries reporting. (U.8. Department
01 Agriculture.)
conditions. It is more subject to early spring frost and to winter kill-

ing of the buds than is the apple.
, The United States is the world's largest producer of peaches,
accounting for around 60 per cent of the total. European peach grow-
ing is confined to the warmer areas of Portugal, Spain, France and
Italy. In Germany, Holland, Belgium and the north of France and

Great Britain the tree is grown under the artificial conditions of hot-
houses or trained on the south side of walls.
FIG. 9.-General vi~w of an orchard in Cape Province. South Africa. in September;

pears. oranges with peaches in background in full bloom. (Courte8Y F. W. Alien.)
BUSHELS , . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
t MILLIONS )
lOP
80
OTHERS
60 : : :rRANCE
ITALY
40
UNITED STATES
20
o
AV.1 926·30 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936
FIG. lO.-Peaches : total production in leading countri('s reporting. (U.S. Departm ent
of A.(Jriculture.)
The peach also doE's ,yell in the south temperate zone, as Chile,
Australia, Kew Zealand and South Africa. Owing to the difference
in seasons, peaches are shipped from these countries in February and
March.
Fruits of Subtropical Zones.-The regions where subtropical fruits

are produced are between the true tropics, where frost never occurs,
and the temperate regions, where normally the temperature falls below
freezing and stays below for a considerable part of the winter season.
In these subtropical, or intermediate, zones the temperature occasion-
ally goes below freezing but not as a rule below 25°F. The influence of
large bodies of water and the protection of mountain ranges, or planting
where topography gives good air drainage, sometimes extend this type
of region as "islands" into territory beyond the usual subtropical
regions.
The types of fruits grown in subtropical regions merge into those
grown in the true tropics; and no hard-and-fast division can be drawn
on the basis of fruit types except that forms possessing resistance to
light freezing temperature are of major importance in the subtropics.
Diverse types are cultivated, but the orange, grapefruit and lemon are
the most commonly known. Dates, figs and olives are also important.
Many true tropical fruits such as the avocado, mango, papaya and
even the pineapple are also grown on a commercial scale in the sub-
tropical regions.
Orange.-The orange is the second most important commercial
tree fruit grown in the world and is widely distributed in both tropical
and subtropical regions. The principal types include sweet, mandarin
and sour; the sweet orange is the most important. According to
government reports for 1927-1931, commercial production of all
oranges was important in 27 countries of the world, with the United
States the largest producer. Other principal producing countries were
Spain, China, Japan, Brazil and Italy. Spain was the largest exporter
of oranges followed by Palestine, Italy, the United States, Brazil and
the Union of South Africa.
Date Palm.-The prophet Mohammed said, "Honor your maternal
aunt the palm for it was created from the clay left over after the crea-
tion of Adam on whom be peace and the blessings of God." The fore-
going statement indicates the importance of the date palm to the
people inhabiting the Sahara Desert and the desert areas of Arabia
which are made habitable because of the date palm. In fact, the palm
is said to have 800 different uses for the people of desert areas. It
might be classed as a shade crop for fruits, as it furnishes shade for the
growth of such plants as the fig, apricot, pomegranate and peach.
Beneath these smaller trees are grown beans and other vegetables-
a three-story agriculture.
Its geographical distribution is throughout the hot, arid regions of
the world, but the date palm requires much water at certain times and
is really a tree of the oasis, some of which are said to have been in
cultivation for over 2,000 years. The greatest date-growing section
of the world is that around Basrah on the conjoined Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. Although the plant will survive a range of tempera-
BOXES
(MILLIOn,
us
200
175
ISO
125
lOO
75
Srnil
P.leSfin.
SOllfhAfric.
AI,eri.
/r.l:/
50
25
o
AV. 1927 ' 31 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937
• PRELlAfINAIfY
FIG. ll.-Qranges: tot.al production in leading countries reporting. (U.8. Department

of A.ariculture.)
ture from 4 to 125°F., it will not fruit unless it. has a hot summer. It is
deep rooted. and is tolerant of alkaline soils and even of salt water.
The irrigation water of northern Africa in summer commonly has a tem-
perature of 75°F.; occasionally, in the cases of hot springs, the water
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE WO,Rl,D 25
will be 95°F. In general, then, the expression "head in the fire and
feet in the water " is a good summary of the climatic requirements of
the date palm.
The countries growing the date palm include Arabia, Iraq, Egypt,
Tripoli, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, northwest India, Baluchistan,
FIG. 12.-Fig trees growing under partial shade afforded by date palms, Algeria.
(U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
Iran, southern Spain and Brazil and in the United States, California
and Arizona.
Fruits of Tropical Regions.-There are hundreds of kinds of tropical
, fruits, but only four are of great commercial value-the banana, the
pineapple, the coconut and the Brazil nut. Others, such as the mango,
avoca.do, papaya, guava, sapodilla, cherimoya, soursop and sweet-
,sop, would be of greater importance if they could be shipped more
26 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICuLTURE
readily. Less important tropical fruits include the jujube, ceriman,

cashew nut, tama.rind, feijoa, and breadfruit.
Some of the fruits mentioned are of great importance to the people
of specific areas. For example, the mango is as important to the people
of India as the apple is to the inhabitants of temperate regions. The
FIG. 13.-Papaya orchard in Hawaii. (U.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
people of Guatemala. hold the avocado in great esteem; Guatemalans

say that a cup of coffee, a tarantella and an avocado make a meal. Of
the papaya Pope remarks, "Excepting the banana there is no fruit,
grown in the Hawaiian Islands that means more to the people of this
territory than the papaya, if measured in terms of comfort and enjoy-
ment f'rrnished the people." This also applies to the papaya in other
tropical countries. The Polynesians of the Pacific could hardly exist
without the breadfruit.
Banana.-The banana is the great starch food of the tropics.

Shipments go to all parts of the world. Bananas can be grown in sub-
tropical zones, but the major production areas occur in tropical climates
with considerable rainfall. Irrigation is practiced in certain districts;
the water requirement of the banana plant is enormous, however, and
consequently irrigation is feasible only where an abundant supply is
available.
FIG. 14.-Harvesting the banana. (Ur.i,ted Fruit Co.)
Bananas are produced in great quantities in Central and South

America and the West Indies. They are grown in the tropics of Africa,
Asia and Austr-alia where the rainfall is plentiful; also in the Canary
Islands, Hawaiian Islands, Philippine Islands, Malay Archipelago, Fiji
Islands and various other islands of the Pacific within the torrid zone.
The Atlantic coast of Central America offers ideal conditions for
banana culture. A few miles back from the Carribean Sea, at an eleva-
tion of not more than 250 ft., is a region that has hot days, humid
nights and an annual rainfall of 80 to 200 in. This region, which was
almost uninhabited fifty years ago and is now a section of large banallll.
farms, owes its present development to the banana.
VEGETABLES
On account of the large bulk and perishable nature of fresh vege-

tables, they do not enter world commerce so extensively as do some of
the fruit and nut crops. Many vegetable crops, however, are grown
for canning, and large quantities of the canned products enter world
trade. Fresh vegetables important in world trade include potatoes,
onions and tomatoes.
Large quantities of fresh vegetables are shipped into England from
France, Spain and Italy. When business is normal, the whole region
north of the Alps receives early vegetables from these southern regions.
France has a considerable traffic from Algeria, which is sheltered from
the cold north winds by the waters of the Mediterranean. Egypt
ships tons of early onions between March and May to Liverpool,
London, Hull, Hamburg, Trieste and even the United States. Even
though vegetables do not enter world commerce extensively, many
kinds are grown throughout the world, and the crops are important in
the local commerce of all countries.
No attempt will be made to list all the vegetable crop plants of the
world, as hundreds of them are cultivated, particularly in the case of all
the tropical sorts. Many vegetable crops are not known outside cer";
tain small areas. The different kinds grown in the temperate regions
are numerous, but only a few of them will be mentioned.
Vegetables can be grown commercially in localities great distances
from the original habitats of the plants. This widespread production
is possible largely because many of the plants are annuals and the length
of the growing season may be modified to mature the crop. This may
be done by starting the plants under protection and later transplanting
them to the open, or the growing may be altered by the use of shades.
It is not intended to give a detailed classification of all vegetable crops
based upon their temperature requirements and length of growing sea-
son; but attention will be directed to the world distribution of a few of
the most important. The two big groups comprise the cool-season
crops and the warm-season crops.
Cool-season Crops.-There are many kinds of cool-season vege-
tabl~ crops, but the most important are the potato, cabbage and onion i
hence attention is called to the distribution and production of these
crops in the principal areas of the world.
Potato.-The Irish potato ~s probably exceeded only by bread in
the number of times per year that it is eaten by the average European
and American. It has definitely established itself as a great cool-
climate starch food for human consumption. It is probably the plant
most universally grown in the vegetable gardens of Europe and
America, but its growth as a money crop is quite restricted. Although
quick-maturing varieties are grown as fall and spring crops in southern
latitudes, its greatest concentration occurs in the most suitable north-
ern latitudes. The most favorable temperature, moisture and soil
requirements for the potato are found chiefly in northern United States,
southern Canada and northern Europe. The potato is grown in Ire-
land and on the plains of north Europe, reaching froI,Il the northwest
point of France, through Holland, Belgium, Germany, Poland (before
1939) and other Baltic states and Russia to the Ural Mountains.
Germany with her cool temperature and favorable soil finds the potato
one of the best food crops to be grown.
On account of the great bulk and weight of potatoes in proportion
to value, and because of their perishable nature, they are much more
important in domestic than in international trade.
TABLE 7.-IRISH POTATOES: TOTAL A CREAGE AND PRODUCTION I N LEADING
COUNTRIES REPORTING, AVERAGE 1927-1931*
Average Average
Percentage Percentage
area, production,
Country of total of total
millions of billions of
acreage production
acres pounds
Russia (Europe and Asia) ... ... .. 14 101 30 23

Germany . . . . . . .... .. .. ... ..... 7 92 15 21
Poland . . ...... . .. . . .. . .. .... . . 6 65 14 15
France ..... . . . . .. . .... . . . . .. .. 3 33 8 8
United States ... . . ... . . . . ... . . . 3 22 7 5
All others . .. . . .. . . . .. .. ... . .. .. 14 119 26 18
Total. ... . ..... : . . .... .... .. . 47 432 100 100
* .. International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics. 1938." pp. 282-283. Rome. 1938.
Cabbage.-Cabbage grows to perfection in cool damp climates but
is alse:> successfully cultivated on the edge of the torrid zone during the
wet cooler seasons and is found under cultivation in a broad zone all
around the world near the twenty-fifth parallel.
Onion.-For its best development the onion requires cool weather
during the early part of its growing period and moderately high
temperatures during the latter part. During its early growth it also
requires an abundance of moisture. At the present time onions are
TABLE 8.-CABBAGE: TOTAL ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION IN LEADING COUNTRIEIi

REPORTING, AVERAGE 1934-1935*
Average
Average area
production Percentage Percentage
1934-1935,
Country 1934-1935, of total of total
thousands
millions of acreage production
of acres
pounds
United States . ....... . . 193 2,572 24.0 27t

yugoslavia .... ... . .. .. . 93 565 11.0 6t
Italy ...... .. . . .. . . .. . . 80 679 10.0 5t
Germany ........ . ..... 78t 1,630t 10.0 17t
Rumania ........ . ..... 68 545 8.0 6t
Hungary ......... . . . .. 66 221 7.0 2t
Czechoslovakia ......... 56 791 7.0 8t
All others ....... . . . .. . . 182 2,561t 23.0 27t
TotaL .............. 816 9,564t
* .. International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1937," Rome, 1937.

t Includes only white cabbage.
t Of the 18 countries reporting acreage Austria, England and Wales, Scotland, Czechoslovakia
and Japan did not report production.
grown in all the temperate regions of the world. The crop is of con-
siderable commercial importance in Spain, the United States, Japan
and Egypt.
FIG. 15.-Grading onions, Egypt. (Courtul W. V. Cmus.)
Warm-season Crops.-Some of the most important warm-season

crops include the tomato, sweet potato, beans, corn, cucurbits, egg-
plant and peppers.
TABLE 9.-ONIONS: TOTAL ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION IN LEADING COUNTRIES
REPORTING, 1934-1935*
Average
Average area, Percentage Percentage
production,
Country thousands of total of total
millions of
of acres acreage production
pounds
Spaint .......... ...... 94 1,466 16 24t

United States ........ .. 92 1,365 15 23t
Japan . ............. ... 74 961 12 16t
Turkeyt·· ········· ··· . 54 152 9 3t
Rumania ..... ...... ... 50 205 8 3t
Yugoslavia t ..... .. ..... 49 161 8 3t
Java and Madeira.·. .... 43 + 7 t
Egypt ................. 39 534 7 9+
Italy ................. . 19 174 3 3t
Germany ........ .. . ... 16 + 3 +
All others .............. 73 1,029t 12 16t
TotaL .............. 603 6,017+
* "International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1937," Rome, 1937.

t Includes garlic.
t Of 24 countries reporting acreage Java, Madeira and Germany did not report production.
Data are based only on production reported.
Tomato.-The tomato is widely cultivated in Great Britain, Hol-

land, Belgium, the Canary Islands, Italy, the Mediterranean region,
Africa, Australia, North and South America and Asia.
. Tomatoes are grown extensively under glass in England, Scotland
and the Netherlands. Considerable quantities are imported into
TABLE 10.-ToMATOES: TOTAL ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION IN LEADING COUNTRIES
REPORTING, 1934-1935*
Average
Average area, Percentage Percentage
production,
Country thousands of total of total
millions of
of acres acreage production
pounds
United States .......... 609 4,226 69 48t

Italy .................. 109 1,915 12 22t
Spain . ...... . ..... . . . . 63 1,563 7 18t
Mexico ..... ........... 35 114 4 It
Yugoslavia .. ....... .. .. 18 101 2 It
All others .......... . . .. 49 840t 6 lOt
TotaL .. .... . .. ... , . 883 8,759t
* "International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1937," Rome, 1937.
t Of the 14 countries reporting acreage only Germany did not report production. Data are
based only on production reported.
England from the Canary Islands and the Netherlands. In the United
States and in the Mediterranean regions tomatoes form a most valuable
crop for the home markets. Canned tomatoes, tomato juice and
ketchup are exported from the United States in large quantities, and
canned tomato puree is exported by Italy.
SweetPotato.-Because of the abundance of starch-producing plants
the tropical zone is often said to have great possibilities for the support
of human life. One of these plants is the sweet potato, which is a.
perennial in frostless regions. Although the United States has the
largest recorded production, the sweet potato is a universal food crop
in the tropical regions, whether it be in the Spanish-speaking settle-
ments of South America, the English-speaking Honduras, the West
Indian islands, the coast of Africa or the Malay Peninsula.
ORNAMENTALS
The commercial production of flowers is a part of the agriculture

of many countries of the world, but world trade in flowers is relatively
FIG. I6.-Holland is noted for the production of flowering bulbs. Typical tulip field
near Haarlem in northern Holland. (CourtellY Dell Moinell Register.) .
unimportant. Statistical information on the production of flowers in

various parts of the world is quite incomplete; however, 12 countries ·
considered it of sufficient importance to give the extent of acreage
in the "International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics" for the
years 1935 and 1936. These countries in order of importance are
United States, Italy, England and Wales, Bulgaria, Germany, Nether-
lands, Australia, French Morocco and Luxemburg. .
HORTICULTURAL .ENTERPRISES OF THE WORLD 33
The most important ornamentals entering world trade consist of

various kinds of bulbs; and the most important country exporting these
products is the Netherlands, which reported a yearly average export
of approximately 97,000 lb. for 1934-1936 valued at approximately
15 million dollars per year. The only country listing export of cut
flowers in its total of all exports in the Report of the U.S. Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce for 1937 was Italy. It reported an
average yearly export of over five million pounds of cut flowers for the
period 1934-1936 valued at approximately two million dollars per year.
NURSERY STOCK AND SEEDS
One of the important branches of horticulture in all parts of the

world is the nursery business. Shipment of nursery stock, however, is
relatively unimportant in world trade. Countries reporting acreage
designated as nurseries in the" International Yearbook of Agricultural
Statistics" in 1935 and 1936 include the United States, Germany,
France, Netherlands, England, Australia and Egypt. The principal
products in international trade are rose stocks, cuttings of various kinds
of plants, seedlings and seeds. .
TABLE l1.-IMPORTS OF TREES, PLANTS, CUTTINGS AND SEEDLINGS FOR THE
UNITED STATES, 1934, 1935, 1936*
Aunount, thousands
Commodity
1934 1935 1936
Fruit stock-less than . ...... . . ....... .. ...... 500 6 1

Rose. stock and plants ...... . . . . . ... . ..... .. .. 6,371 7,001 6,661
All other ..... .. .. ................. : . . . . ..... 921 765 604
* U.S. Buroau 0/ Foreign and Do_.lic Commerce. S,ati.'ical Ab.tracl 0/1& UnWod Statu, 1937.
Associated with the vegetable industry, the flower industry and the
nursery industry is the seed industry. Horticultural seed firms of
world-wide reputation exist in many countries. In the United States
the principal districts for the production of onion, lettuce, carrot, rad-
ish, sweet pea, zinnia and many other seeds are located in California.
Similar kinds of seed are produced in some quantities around Saint-
Remy, France, where the climate is comparable to that of the California
districts. Denmar~ produces quantities of cauliflower seed; the
Netherlands, culinary peas; and France and Italy, quantities of celery
seed. England is noted for the production of cabbage, broccoli and
Brussels sprouts seeds.
Labor costs ·constitute the most important item in seed production,

and this factor has been notable in keeping the production of low-
priced vegetable seeds, such as spinach and turnips, in those sections of
Europe where the climate is especially favorable and the .labor costs
low. Most of the vegetable seeds planted in the United States, with
the exception of spinach, cauliflower and celery, are produced in this
country.
TABLE 12.-VEGETABLE SEEDS: IMPORTS, FOR CONSUMPTION INTO THE UNITED
STATES, 1932-1934* ·
Imports, thousands of pounds

Kind of seed
1932 1933 1934
Beet, garden . ... . . ... . ...... . .... ... ...... . . . 179 572 362
Cabbage ..... .. ... .. ......... .. ............ . 172 174 193
Carrot .... : . . ................ . .. . ... . . . . . .. . 34 60 29
Cauliflower ... .... . .. . . . ................ . .. . . 13 11 12
Kale . .... . .... ... . .. ..... . . . . .. .... .. .. . .. . . 49 48 84
Kohlrabi. ........ .. ........................ . 12 15 14
Onion .. . ..... . .............. . ..... . . . .. . .. . 230 160 210
Parsley . . .. .. . ... ... .. ....... . .. ....... .. . . . 179 44 99
Parsnip ........ . . ... . . . . .. . .. . .. ........ . . . . 13 24 21
Pepper .. .... .. ....... . .. . ... . ... . ....... . . . . 1 1 4
Radish .... .... ........ . ........ .... ........ . 565 445 341
Rutabaga ..... . .... . ...... . ... . . . ... . ...... . 93 288 125
Spinach . .. . . ... . . .. . . .... .. ..... . . . . . ... . .. . 2,386 3,783 3 , 402
Turnip ................... . .. . ....... . ... . .. . 482 1,212 1,012
* U.S. D.p4. A"". Bur. A"". Econ. S . ed Statistic. prepared by the Hay, Feed and Seed Division,
Table 99, p . 56, Washington, D.e., 1936.
Review Questions
1. What major phases of life are touched by the horticultural enterprises of
the world?
2. What are the two principle environmental factors that determine the geo-
graphical distribution of horticultural crops?
S. What are the two principal agencies of climate?
4. What factor has been largely responsible for the decided increase in inter-
national trade in fresh fruits since 1900?
15. List in order the five most important fruit crops in the world.
S. Name five important fruits grown in the temperate region.
7. Characterize the climate of, and name some of the important fruits pro-
duced in, the subtropical zones.
8. Name the most· important fruit of the tropical region, and justify its
importance.
9. Name three important cool-season vegetable crops.
10. Name three important warm-season vegetable crops.
11. What vegetable of the tropical region is as important for human food as
the lrishpot&to is in the temperate region? .
12. What important tropical vegetable plant is important for forcing in the
temperate region?
lS. What country is famous for international tr:l.de in flowering bulbs.?
U. Is the importation of nursery stock into the United States of much imoor-
tance in our international trade?
16. Does the United States import much of the vegetable seeds that it uses?
Problems
1. Make a bar graph showing the percentage of the total world production of
table grapes, wine grapes, apples, oranges and peaches produced by the highest
producing country for the year 1935.
2. Make a. bar graph showing the percentage of total acreage and the percentage
of total production of potatoes, cabbage, onions and tomatoes in the various coun-
tries. Which countries show the highest yield per acre for each crop?
S. A number of years ago the federal government found it advisable to prohibit
the importation of tulip bulbs. What climatic and soil conditions would one seek
in which to produce such bulbs? Where in the United States would one be likely
to find such conditioJl8?
,. If you were a large commercial fruit grower, would you advocate a high
tariff on fruits? Explain.
6. State and defend your opinion of the federal purchase of fruits and vegetables
for distribution to people financially unable to pay the full market price.

1. GOOD, RONALD, "Plants and Human Economics," pp. 67-84, Cambridge
University Press, London, 1933.
2. ROBBINS, W. W., "The Botany of Crop Plants," P. Blakiston's Son & Com-
pany, Inc., Philadelphia, 1924.
3. SMITH, J. R., "Industrial and Commercial Geography," pp. 226-285.
Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1925.
4. WILLIS, O. R., "Practical Flora," American Book Company, New York,
1894.
5. "World Fresh Fruit Production Statistics," U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Government Printing Office, Washington,
August, 1938 (mimeographed).
CHAPTER III
,HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE UNITED STATES
Horticulture ha.s participated in the general agricultural and indus-

trial expansion that ha.s taken place in the United States during the
la.st half century. New enterprises have been inaugurated and
. developed; established ones have been eXpanded and extended into new '
territory until practically every known phase of horticulture ha.s been
tried and almost every available area ha.s been tested.
Historically it is important to remember that the United states wa.s
a pioneer in stock raising and grain farming long before it wa.s possible
to test the country out on a large scale for its suitability for fruits and
vegetables. The rallroads and river barges transported grain and
livestock from the earliest days. The former carried fuel into the
plain and prairie and made their habitation possible. The same trains
took back grain and livestock. It wa.s not until the development of
artificial ice and mechanical refrigeration that the railroads, the water-
ways and the oceans themselves figured largely in the movement of
fresh fruits and vegetables to market. In general, the entire United
States, except in the vicinity of the large ea.stern cities, is less than fifty '
years old in the commercial production of fruits and vegetables. The
production of greenhouse products and nursery stock began in those
area.s adjacent to the large cities; and although these same enterprises
are scattered widely over the country today, they still remain concen-
trated in the area.s close to large centers of population.
TRENDS IN HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES
During the pa.st thirty years the production of horticultural prod-
ucts ha.s shifted from home and small local enterprises to large com-
mercial enterprises designed to supply not only local but distant
markets. The student should note the trends that have taken place
in the production of' fruits, vegetables and ornamentaIs since 1909.
FRUIT
Although rapid expansion occurred in various fruit enterprises in

several sections of the country, it will be noted in Fig. 19 that the aggre-
gate production of fruit for the country a.s a whole cea.sed expanding
36
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE UNITED STATES 37
after 1915. It should be remembered, however, that although the
fruit production of the country as a whole shows no great expansion
since that period, production did increase rapidly in certain areas.
For example, in California the acreage in fruit expanded by half from
1909 to 1925; the produc~ion of grapes, apples and peaches practically
doubled from 1909 to 1936; and the production of oranges more than
FIG. 17.-A fruit enterprise in the Appalachian Mountains. (Hardie and Co.)
doubled.. The Northwest area also saw a great expansion in fruit dur-
ing the first half of the period 1909-1936. Apple production alone
increased from 10 million bushels per year at the beginning of the period
to a level of about 40 million from 1921 to 1936. Other instances
might be cited where rapid expansion occurred, such as the citrus area
FIG. 18.-A seed farm in California. (Ferry-Morae Seed Co.)
of Texas and the peach area. of the Carolinas, but the foregoing exam-
ples are sufficient to indicate that expansion has occurred in many
specialized areas.
VEGETABLES
Vegetable production, in contrast to fruit production, showed a

rapid expansion during - the period 1900-1926, at which point it
remained rather constant. This is true for fresh vegetables as well at

those processed in various ways. Again rapid expansions occurred
o f40
£ 120
.... ~--- ~~ FruNs and nufs --- ---
~
10
g:; 100
80
'-.....~--
-," '
-- :-
I,.,;..~- - Vegefab/es for manuTocfun
<t-
60 ~
1----1;..... 1
o
~ ~. --------- :,
'-Vegefables Tor'l0rl-ef
~ 40
1909'10 '15 '20 '25 '30 1935 36
WPA-Notionol Research Project
FIG. 19.-Trends in the production of fruits and nuts,l vegetables for market,' vege-
tables for manufacture.'
FIG. 20.-A floricultural enterprise under glass. (Metropoluan Co.)
in certain areas, notably in various areas in the South and in California

where vegetable acreage expanded from 38,000 acres in 1909 to 496,000
acres in 1936.
1 Includes 13 principal fruits and nuts.
'Includes 15 principal vegetable crops for market but excludes Irish potatoes
and sweet potatoes.
a Includes eight principal vegetables for manufacture.
ORNAMENTALS
Official statistics to show trends in the production of omamentals

are available only for census years, and some indication of the expan-
sion in these enterprises is indicated by the increase from approximately
81,000 acres in nurseries in 1909 to approximately 141,000 in 1929-
about 56 per cent. The area under glass devoted to both flower and
vegetable production increased from about 115 million square feet in
1909 to 173 million square feet in 1929. During this same period the
area under glass devoted to vegetables decreased as developments in
FIG. 21.-A nursery enterprise. (Shenandoah Nurseries.)
certain parts of the United States accompanied by improved trans-

portation facilities made it possible to produce some vegetables
satisfactorily in the open that formerly had been produced for the
out-of-season market only under glass. The increased area under
glass is now devoted chiefly to flowers.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE TRENDS
Both the economic and the physical factors underlying the estab-
lishment of horticultural enterprises in the United States are so numer-
ous and so complex that detailed discussion would require considerable
space. The utilization of the land for horticultural enterprises has
always been determined principally by pressure of economic forces
against the physical conditions of soil and climate. The student should
note a few of the important economic influences that resulted· in the
expansion of certain commercial horticultural enterprises. These

fa.ctors include (1) increase in urban population; (2) development of
artificial ice, mechanical refrigeration and improved transportation;
(3) artificial stimulus of promoters; (4) shifts in food habits; (5)
shifts in types of farming and (6) increased interest in amateur
gardening.
ECONOMIC
The development of commercial horticultural enterprises in the

United States first began in the East in the vicinity of large cities.
With the increase in population in certain areas which accompanied
the centralization of industrial enterprises, the demand for horticultural
products rose to the place where they could no longer be produced in
sufficient quantities in small gardens. As a result the establishment
of commercial horticultural enterprises began on a larger scale.
The stimulation of commercial production of fruit and vegetable
products in areas at great distances from consuming centers came about
with the more generaJ. use of artificial ice, mechanical refrigeration and
improved transpo$tion facilities. Although irrigation made it possi-
ble to produce ma.n.y of these perishable horticultural crops in the arid
West, there would have been no outlets ha4 it not been for the afore-
mentioned developments.
The establishment of the Floral Telegraph Delivery service made
it possible to send flowers hundreds of niiles awa.y within a few hours.
This service is both national and international in scope. For exam pie,
if someone in San Francisco decides to send flowers to someone in New
York City, he simply calls his florist, who in turn wires aNew York
florist who is a member of the F.T.D. service, and the New York
florist delivers the order. Similarly, flowers may, for example, be
sent from Chicago to London.
The exploitation of land has been to a considerable extent responsi-
ble for the complicated and unsatisfactory economic situation that
now surrounds the horticultural industry of the country. Land pro-
moters have long used fruit growing as an advertisement for the land.
As early as 1887, people were flocking to California to buy tracts of
land that had been planted to orange trees. Many groves were planted
with no other thought in mind than to attract the eye of the buyer.
Oranges were actually left on the trees for many months to add to the
attractiveness and to induce the unsuspecting purchaser to buy an
orange orchard. No historian has recorded even the outlines of the
Georgia Peach Rush, the,Georgia Pecan Rush, the Texas Onion Rush,
the Northwestern Apple Rush, the Asparagus Rush or any of the many
smaller rushes that took place in the United States. Many who rode
the crest of the waves made fortunes; others who were caught by the
undertow of receding prices met disaster. '
The recent readjustments of cotton acreages through soil-conserva-
tion and crop-control measures have resulted in a revival of agitation
for planting vegetables on some of the acreages released from cotton.
This is taking place in some districts wholly unadapted to vegetable
production, in spite of the fact that such ventures resulted in failure
less than twenty years ago at the time of the boll-weevil infestation.
Even if these crops could be produced successfully in the new areas, it
would only result in adding to surpluses already produced in areas of
established production. It is one thing to produce a commodity
successfully and quite another to sell it to advantage. As is usual
with exploitation, it was frequently overdone, and as a result the nor-
mal growth of legitimate crop production has been diverted frequently
and in some cases retarded. By increasing production and by devel-
oping marginal territory; promoters have been responsible for at
least a part of the present unsatisfactory economic situation that
exists in many horticultural enterprises.
Shifts in food habits have undoubtedly been partially responsible
for the stimulation of production of such crops as oranges and head
lettuce. Earlier in the text it was shown that the per capita consump-
tion of oranges had increased apparently at the expense of apples.
Also, the shift to the consumption of green vegetables was apparently
at the expense of Irish potatoes. The phenomenal increase in the
per capita production of lettuce would not have occurred had it not
been for the fact that lettuce was made available every month of
the year; yet other products that were available over a long season
showed no phenomenal increase., Consequently, the shift to the con-
sumption of oranges, lettuce and other green vegetables at the expense
of other fruit and vegetable products was largely responsible for
stimulation of production in the aforementioned crops.
Shifts in types of farming usually resulted when it was diScovered
that a certain crop was more profitable than another. This faetor
was important in the shift of acreage from cotton to vegetables in
certain areas of the South when the ravage of the boIl weevil made
cotton farming a precariol.1s enterprise. As a result, vegetable produc-
tion in the South, to supply Northern markets with out-of-season
vegetables, increased tremendously.
No discussion of the expansion of American horticulture would be
complete without "mention of amateur gardening. This interest has
developed gradually during the last twenty years. It is important to
note that, although it has be.en chiefly of great social value, it has also
been of economic value to the ornamental horticultural enterprises
of the country. This is reflected in the fact that the sales reported by
nursery companies in 1929 were 184 per cent greater than in 1919 and
that the acreage devoted to such horticultural crops increased 174 per
cent.
PHYSICAL
Generally speaking, in areas with favorable climate and soil, crop

specialization yields the most profitable return from the production of
horticultural crops. Crop specialization in these areas has charac-
terized the horticultural industry as much as any 9ther single factor
during the past twenty-five years. The degree is vividly pictured
when it is realized that the state of California produces 40 to 50 per
cent of all fruit consumed in the United States, over 90 per cent of the
dried-fruit output of the nation, about 70 per cent of the canned-fruit
pack and approximately 45 per cent of the fresh fruits. Other exam-
ples of specialization are indicated in the production of cabbage, with
about 40 per cent of the total commercial acreage located in Wisconsin
and New York; and of head lettuce, with 75 per cent of the commercial
acreage in Arizona and California. Many of the specialized areas
producing horticultural crops are important not because they can
produce better crops or larger yields than other regions but because
tbey can produce them during periods of the year when other regions
cannot. For example, cabbage, celery, onions, peas and other crops
are produced more cheaply in the North than in the South, but the
South can produce them at a time when the North cannot. The
production of head lettuce on the Pacific coast and in the high altitude
of Colorado during the summer months is another example of certain
favorable areas' being able to produce a lettuce crop when most areas,
cannot.
Many commercial areas for the production of horticultural crops
were developed by a gradual readjustment of general farms when it "W88
discovered that particular horticultural crops were adapted to th& soil
and climate of the area. Certain fruit sections of New York, Vinginia;
Michigan and the CaroIinas are largely the result of farmers inding
fruit growing more profita.ble than other agricultural enterprises and
gradually extending the area devoted to fruit, until fruit; growing
became the dominant enterprise of the community. ~or e:am.ple, one-
of the famous apple sections of the country, known' as Cl Apple Pie
Ridge," located close to Winchester, Va., had its beginning more than
sixty y.>a,rs ago when a farmer planted a large field of apples, which
brought ridicule from the neighbors but eventually thousands of dollars

to the owner. This started the neighbors to planting apple trees until
now this ridge for a distance of 25 miles is almost one continuous apple
orchard. In regions such as those just described, fruit farming will
vary from the specialized fruit farm, which is devoted nearly exclu-
sively to the production of fruit, through the fruit general farm on
which fruit growing is the main but not sole cash-crop enterprise, to
the general fruit farm on which fruit growing is of minor importance
as a cash crop, being subordinate to dairying, poultry raising, the
production of one or more kinds of livestock or _the growing of one or
more agronomic crops.
The utilization of land for horticultural crops is determined prin-
cipally by the pressure of economic forces against physical conditions.
These physical conditions, such as temperature, moisture and soil
underlying the establishment of horticultural areas, are generally of
greater significance t.han with many other agricultural crops. For
example, horticultural crops are generally concentrated in smaller
areas than such crops as corn, cotton and wheat. Although these
physical conditions will be discussed in detail in the chapters en those
subjects, it is felt that the student will get more from a study of the
maps in the latter part of this chapter if he has a few specific examples
where the physical conditions have been most important in the estab-
lishment of horticultural areas. These will be discussed under the
topics of climate and soil.
Climate.-Temperature is one of the most important of the complex
elements of climate that influences the geographical distribution of the
commercial production of horticultural crops. Although there . . are
broad regions in the United States in which horticultural crops are
grown, there are minor variationS that make one part of a region better
suited for their production than another. A few examples of horticul-
tural enterprises will be mentioned that are located in rather specialized
areas because of favorable local temperatures. Such suitable tempera-
tures are due to proximity to large bodies of water, favorable winds,
local altitude and topography. On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan
is a large commercial "fruit belt" which varies in width from less than
2 to over 20 miles, whereas on the corresponding western shore in
Wisconsin fruit is not grown to any extent. The location of the area
in Michigan is largely influenced by temperature that is modified by the
prevailing windS that pass over Lake Michigan during most of the
winter and spring months. Water and ice change their temperatures
much more slowly than do air and the surface of the soil. During
the winter the winds may leave Wisconsin at a temperature of 30 or
44 . TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
40° below zero but absorb heat as they pass over the unfrozen water in
Lake Michigan and arrive at the fruit belt on the Michigan side at a
temperature but slightly less than zero. In the spring the atmosphere
over the land and the surface of the soil warms more rapidly than ·do
the ice and cold water in the lake, and the plants would start to grow
if the breezes coming across the lake did not absorb cold from the cold
water and melting ice and keep the atmospheric temperature of the
Michigan fruit belt low enough to retard plant growth until much of
the danger due to late frosts is over. The width of this belt is influ-
FIG. 22.-Harvesting cabbage in April at Crystal Springs, MiBB. (U.S. Department 01

Agriculture.)
enced greatly by the topography of the land in the vicinity of the lake.
As a rule, the ameliorating influence on the temperature is of little
significance back of the crest of the slope toward the lake, arid this
accounts for the variation in the width of the fruit belt. The width
and depth of the body of water affects the extent of its ameliorating
influence on the temperature of the adjacent land. :Lakes Seneca and
Canandaigua in New York, which are only about 4 Iniles wide but very
deep, have fruit belts from ~ to ,2 miles in width about their shores.
These deep bodies of water act more or less like sponges, absorbing heat
when the temperature of the air is higher tha.n that of the surfa.ce of
the water and liberating it when the temperature of the air is lower than
that of the surface of the wat~r. Consequently, the water absorbs heat
during all the warm days of summer and liberates it slowly in the fall to
the cooler atmosphere. This keeps the temperature of the atmosphere
about the lake warmer for a longer period in the fall, with the result
that the fruits are matured properly and harve&ted before danger of
injury by frost.
The location of commercial vegetable-producing areas at various
places about the Great L~kes is due largely to the fact that such areas,
often extending several miles back from the lake, do not receive a fall
frost until two weeks later than similar districts whose · temperatures
are not influenced by bodies of water. The waters of the Gulf of
Mexico and the Gulf Stream modify the climate of the Gulf coast and
the entire Atlantic coastal region, and this fact is partially responsible
for the vegetable areas in these sections. The trucking areas around
Providence, R. I., and Boston, Mass., are greatly influenced by the Gulf
Stream, thus making it possible to grow vegetables in those regions
both early and late in competition with sections much farther south.
Temperature is influenced also by the altitude of the land, and this
factor affects the location of certain horticultural areas. For example,
head lettuce can be grown to advantage between elevations of 5,000
and 11,000 ft. in certain parts of Colorado and at sea level or even below
in the Imperial Valley of California. The hi,gh elevation of Colorado
provides cool temperature conditions suitable for the production of
head lettuce from June to November, whereas the low elevations and
location of the Imperial Valley provide suitable temperature condi-
. tions during the winter months. Apples, which are relatively a c001-
season crop, are grown commercially in the higher elevations of the
Appalachian Mountains of northern Georgia and Alabama which
otherwise would be too warm for their production.
Rainfall, irrigation and atmospheric moisture are all important in
determining the geographical distribution of horticultural enterprises.
The distribution of rainfall was an important factor in retarding the
development of vegetable-crop production in the East and in the South,
but within recent years irrigation has been adopted to supplement the
rainfall during the growing season and has been an important factor
in the progress of vegetable enterprises in these areas. An inadequate
supply of rainfall and difficulty of protitable means of irrigatioI;l have
resulted in the comparative absence of impor,tant fruit enterprises in
the Great Plains area. Many horticultural areas of the West, how-
ever, were established when economical irrigation made it possible to
supply adequate moisture for the growth of the plants. Reports show
that 45 per cent of the commercial apple crop of the United States, 40
per cent of the peaches, 65 per cent of the oranges and 60 per cent of
the entire commercial fruit crop of the United States is now produced
on land that a generation ago was supporting a scant growth of sage-
brush, chaparral, and bunch grass. Much of the vegetable acreage
of the West is dependent wholly or in part upon irrigation for a satis-
factory water supply.
Humidity, especially when considered in relation to temperature,
has also played a part in determining the suitability of an area to cer-
tain horticultural enterprises. Humidity may work directly through
its effect on the water requirement of the plant or indirectly through
its effect on insects and fungi which prey upon the plants. The
amount of water transpired by a plant is greater in dry than in humid
atmosphere. Georgia and Alabama might ship early pears the way
California does were it not for the prevalence of a disease known as
"fire blight," which is particularly virulent under the combination of
heat and high· humidity in Georgia and Alabama. The presence of
leaf spot and brown rot, two fungous diseases, precludes the commercial
production of sour cherries in the Southern states.
Soil.-Boil types hl;we been important in the successful establish-
ment of many horticultural areas. One of the most outstanding exam-
ples is that of the apple enterprises in the adjoining corners vf the
states of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri. It is probably the
occurrence of the loess soil in this area that accounts for apple enter-
prises of considerable size. This soil allows the deep penetration of
root systems, which may be a factor in saving trees during several years
of successive droughts. The physical characteristics of the sandy loam .
soils enable them to warm up quickly and to be worked in early spring,
and these have been important factors, particularly in the distribution
'of areas producing early vegetables along the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Peat soils were first used by the Hollanders around Kalamazoo, Mich.,
for starting early plants in hotbeds and coldframes. From this begin-
ning it was soon discovered that they were adapted to profitable pro-
duction of vegetable crops. Many vegetable areas in Michigan,
Minnesota, Iowa, New York and Florida have been developed on these
peat soils.
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES IN Tn UNITED STATES
The horticultural industry contains the most complicated and
highly intensified specialties in the field of agriculture. It is generally
observed that qualifications of successful producers of horticultural
crops differ from those oi producers of field crops or livestock. Many
farmers cannot adapt themselves to the specialized, painstaking and
accurate practices required in the successful production of horticultural
crops. They prefer the types of farming that give a wider spread of
time for harvesting operations and that do not require the degree
of skill needed in such operations as necessary spraying and pruning.
It is well, then, to review the various types of production that are
included in each of the divisions of horticulture. These enterprises
will include fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and nursery stock and
seeds.
FRVI'l'
Fruit growing concerns itself primarily with the production of fruit

crops for sale whether as the fresh or as the processed product. The
processing of fruit in drying, canning, wine making and freezing is an
important phase of the industry. According to the Fifteenth Census
of the United States the total value of fruits was roughly 656 million
dollars. This included all small fruits, grap"es, orchard fruits, sub-
tropical fruits and nuts. Their relative importance based"on value is
shown in Table 13.
TABLE 13.-PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF SPECIFIED FRUITS FOR THE
UNITED STATES, 1929
Percentage Percentage
Commodity of Total Commodity . of Total
Apples """" .... . . . .. ' .' . . . . . .. 24 . 2 Cherries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .6
Oranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . 6 Apricots ..... : ... " . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .9
Grapes . ... ............... .. . 8 .6 Walnuts (English or Persian)... . 1.9
Peaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8.4 Raspberries .................. . 1.5
Lemons ... . " ........ " .. .. . . . 6 .6 Figs .. . ... . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Strawberries . """ . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 .6 Pecans (cultivated and wild). .. . 0 .7
Pears .............. " ... " .. .. 4 .6 Almonds .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 0 .3
Grapefruit . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 .5 All other ... ".. . ...... ".. ... . .. 2 .2
Plums and prunes ....... " ... . 2 .8 TotaL ........... . .. . . . . .. .. 100
Fruit farming is generally classified in one of the following types :

1. Home fruit gardening. Fruit produced only for home use.
2. Specialized fruit farms. Farms that specialize in the 'production of.one or
more kinds of fruit for the commercial market and whose chief source of incOme
is from the production of fruit. .
3. Fruit general farms. Farms that produce one or more kinds of fruit for the
commercial market . Fruit growing is but one of the major ~urces of income. It
is carried on in conjunction with other major sources of income, such as the raising
of cattle, the production of poultry, the operation ofa dairy, the growing of grain
crops.
4. General fruit farms. Farms where fruit growing-is of secondary importance
as a source of income to other f!.gricultural enterprises as mentioned above.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables constitute the most valuable group of horticultural

crops. The Fifteenth Census Report shows that the value of all vege-
tables, including potatoes, reported for 1929 was over a billion dollars-
FIG. 23.-Land in fruit orchards, vineyards and planted nut trees, acreage, 1929.
(V.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
VALUE ACREAU
DOLUII. (.'LLIO•• ' Aears (THOUS. . . . I
10 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400 500
TOIIATOU ~-------
COIIII ,s.lI1I - - - - --
CAlIAUI - - - - - - - -
IIAIIS 'STa'"oa ..."
unUCI ---------
CILERY ---------
_ cAIITALOUPS-------
01110111 (DU'------
PlAS (. .11.' ------
ASPARAGUS -- --- - --
WATtIIMlLOIIS - -- --
CUCU"ERS ----.---
SPlIIACH .--------
'IPrERS ----- --_.
CAUU'LOWIR - -- --
CARROTS-"--- - ----
IEET$ . "----------
SOUASHU --~-----
TURII.,S ---------
RHUIARI---- ----~
MIXEDVl4IETAILE. -- "t--+- ,\ ,
ALL O~R- ~- - - - - - ':::;:;=_-L-_~
I -+~-.l~-'L';';""'-'-_-'-_-'-_-'-_-'
.UCLUDIN~ . M1f'ATO." AND a."EETPOTATO••
FIG_ 24.-Valueand acreage of principal vegetabte crops grown for sale, United States,
1929~ (V.S. Department of :Agriculture.)
35 per cent grea.ter than that of all fruits and nuts combined. The
tOtarvalue of the vegetable crops was greater than that for the wheat
crop.. Some idea relative to the importance of the staple vegetable
crops may be gained by an examination of Fig. 24.
FOR HOME USE AND FOR SALE
Value. 1929
IXCLUDINO POTAT06S
AND SWKnl'OTAT08S
E.ob. dot npn••nt.

'0.000 doIJ.,.. ,
vegetable areas, excluding Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes, as indicated by value, 1929. (U.S. Department 01
Agriculture.)
Vegetable growing is generally classified under one of the following

types:
1. Home gardening. Small gardens near city, suburban or farm homes that
produce vegetables only for that home.
2. Market gardening. Rather large areas (generally in the vicinity of large con-
suming centers) devoted to the production of commercial quantities .of a rather
large number of different kinds of vegetables for the local market. Market
gardening is still expanding near large cities, but the competition of motor-truck
shipments from distant areas with more favorable conditions for the production of
specific crops makes "this type of vegetable gardening less lucrative than formerly.
FIG. 26.-Location of establishments producing flowers under glass and in the open,
1929. (U.S. CenBUS.)
3. Truck crops. Extensive areas specializing in the production of a very
limited assortment of vegetables. These areas are located where the climatic and
soil conditions are especially favorable for the production of the specialized crops.
They may be many miles from the market.
• 4. Canning crops. Extensive areas growing specialized vegetable crops under
contract for a cannery located in the near vicinity.
5. Vegetable forcing. Growing specialized vegetable crops under glass out of
their normal season for that location. Greenhouses are employed largely in
Northern sections, but hotbeds and cold frames are satisfactory in Southern regions.
ORNAMENTALS
Few people think of agriculture as concerned with the production

of beauty; but according to the 1930 census, American agriculture had
invested 290 milIion dollars in farms and nurseries engaged in growing
flowers and ornamental plants outdoors and under glass. There were
13,088 commercial florists producing flowers under glass and in the
open. In addition 1,935 farms reported growing flowering bulbs
commercially. The number of farms producing flower seeds only' was

not reported.
Flower growing may generally be grouped under one of the follow-
ing types:
1. Amateur floriculture. Small privately owned gardens and greenhouses
devoted to the production of flowers for personal use and enjoyment. Immense
numbers of people are interested in this phase of floriculture.
2. Commercial floriculture. Areas of various sizes devoted to flowers for sale.
The crops may be produced under glass or in the open. Some commercial florists
could be compared with the market gardeners in that they produce small quantities
of a large assortment of flowers for the local trade; others are similar to the growers
of truck crops in that they specialize in the production of large quantities of a few
kinds of flowers.
3. Conservatory plants. Conservatories in which plants are grown for exhibi-
tion purposes only are an integral part of many city, state and national parks and
botanical gardens.
NURSERY STOCK AND SEEDS
The nursery enterprise has developed from a small localized busi-

ness to a national industry in which the sales, according to the 1930
census, amounted to over 58 million dollars. Some idea as to the
growth of the nursery industry is indicated in Table 14.
TABLE 14.-NURSERIES-COMPARATIVE SUMMARY FOR THE UNITED STATES,
1899, 1909, 1919, 1929*
1899 1909 1919 1929
Area, acres . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59,492 SO,618 51,453 141,133
Increase over preceding census, per cent .. ...... 35.5 -36.2 174.3
Increase in receipts over preceding census,

per cent .......................... .. ...... 107.9 -2.9 184.7
* Fifteenth Census of the United States, Vol. IV.
The nursery and seed-producing business may usually be grouped
under one of the following types:
1. General nurseries. Areas devoted to the production of a large number of
different kinds of plants primarily for the local trade. This type of nursery may
be compared with the market vegetable garden and the general commercial florist.
It often does not grow all its stock but purchases much or all of it from various
specialized nurseries. General nurseries sell only to the retail trade.
2. Specialized nurseries. Areas of ,various sizes devoted to production of large
quantities of specialized crops, as fruit plants, ornamental trees and shrubs, ever
greens, hardy perennials, grass. These nurseries, like the truck gardens, are
located where the climatic and soil conditions are suited to the production of their
special plants. Some of these specialized nurseries, kn!>wn as "propagating nur-

series," propagate only plants and sell them while still too small for the retail trade
to other specialized nurseries known as "growing nurseries." Some sell oply by
wholesale to the general nllt:Beries, but others cater to both the wholesale and the ·
retail trade.
3. Seed nurseries. The production of seeds of vegetable and ornamental
plants is UfI1.lally a specialized enterprise carried on in regions where the ·climatic
conditions are especially favorable for the proper maturing and economical har-
vesting of the. seeds. Tomato seed can be grown successfully under a wide range
of conditions and is often produced in those localities where the tomato is grown·
in large quantities. The same is somewhat true of the cantaloupe, but much. of
that seed is produced in the Rocky Ford district of Colorado. Other plants, such
FIG. 27.-Location of establishments producing nursery stock, 1929. Note that

the areas are concentrated in each state. 7207 establishments were reported in 1929.
(U.S. Cemua.)
as the onion, carrot, parsnip, lettuce, pea and zinnia, are more exacting and require
long, dry, warm, windless periods for the satisfactory maturing and harvesting
of the seeds. For example, 80 per cent of the onion-seed acreage is located in
various sections of California. The seed grower occupies an important position
in the horticultural industry because he produces the seeds by which many of the
plants are reproduced, and to his lot falls the opportunity to improve the plants
by hybridizing, selecting and inCI:8asing the seed of the most desirable varieties.
Especially during the last thirty years the production of seeds for horticultural
crops has been concentrated in those locations which are best adapted for the
production of such seeds.
Large quantities of seeds are grown; but because of the fact that the
common practice of seed companies is to contract with growers in those
areas adapted for seed production, there are few specialized seed farms.
Individuals no longer save their own seed stock to any extent. The
percentage of the total acreage reported in the 1930 census devoted to
the production of vegetable and flower seeds by states is indicated in

Table 15.
TABLE 15.-PERCENTAGE OF VEGETABLE- AND FLOWER-SEED ACREAGE OCCURRING
IN VARIOUS STATES IN 1929
Percentage
Commodity States
of acreage
Sweet pea ............ California Practically all

Nasturtium. . . . . . . . . .. California Practically all
Carrot. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. California 99
Celery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
California 99
Lettuce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
California 99
Spinach. . ... . . . . . . . . . . Washington 99
Turnip, g~rden . . . . . . . . Washington 99
Beet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Washington and California 97
Muskmelon. . . . . . . . . .. Colorado 95
Radish . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Michigan and Wisconsin 94
Parsnip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . California 90
Aster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..California 87
Zinnia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Colorado 87
Onion set. . . . . . . . . . . .. Illinois 83
Onion seed .... '...... " California 80
Cucumber. . . . . . . . . . .. Colorado 80
Sweet corn ...... .. . . .. Ohio, Nebraska, Michigan, Minnesota,
Iowa 75
Garden pea .... . ... .. , Idaho and Montana 72
Cabbage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washington 50
Tomato. . . . . . . . . . . . .. Indiana 35
A GRAPHIC SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL HORTICULTURAL CROP AREAS
A graphic summary in the form of maps is now presented to show

the location of the principal horticultural crop areas in the United
States. No attempt is made to show them all. Table 16 shows that
there are many different kinds of fruits and vegetables and that there is
a wide seasonal distribution in these products.
TABLE 16.-ToTAL CARLOT UNLOADS (INCLUDES TRUCK RECEIPTS) OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ON THE CmCAGO MARKET 01
H>-
BY MONTHS, 1937
Commodity January February March April May June July August September October November December Total
- - - - - - --
Ani.e ... . ........................ 2 1 . .. .. ..... . .... . ... . 2 6
Apple .............. .. .......... . 287 318 300 270 192 138 244 197 444 924 565 411 4,290
Apricot ............ ; .. .. . .. ... . .. . .. .. ... .. 25 54 21 100
Artichoke .... ..... .. . ..... . . .. ...
Asparallul ..........•............
13 10 2 . .. . . 28 ~
t>q
25 292 94 55 8 8 15 397
Avocado . . .. ..... .... ... • ..... .. .
Banana .. . .. ..... ...... . ........ .
2
355
1
369 515
1
539 552
2 1
635
.....
546 478 454 452 397 357
r
5,649
~
C
Bean ... . .. .•. .. ..... .. ......... , 127 79 53 99 104 157 137 129 H)O 99 112 91 1,287 C
Beet . .. . ...........•.. . ..... ... . 19 19 25 18 18 65 50 36 ::2 23 17 19 331 ~
Blackberry ....................... ..... ..... .....
~
0
Broccoli .... .. .. . . .. : ..... ....... 26 18 . 24 9 2 .. . .. ..... 6 27 46 42 200
Bruasels sprout ...•............... 16 12 2 ..... ..... ..... .. ... 2 7 22 20 81
Cabbage ..... . . . .... •..•.... . ....
Can tal ou pe . .. . . .. .. .. ...... .. . ..
Carrot .. . ........................
Casaba melon ...... ...... . . .. . ...
Cauliflower ................... . ....
259
177
94
237
205
98
274
218
173
252
190
143
266
13
157
87
321
532
144
..... . .... .....
92
136
729
89
45
113
199
63
62
164
342
78
130
194
89
100
1
108
161
130
4
224
253
141
155
2,630
1.905
1,692
1,411
5
I
~
t:-<
Celery ..... . ..................... 227 204 240 225 228 139 124 87 71
~
109 151 162 1,967
Chinese cabbag •....... . .. ... . .... 4 3 ..... ..... .... . ..... 2 4 7 4 13 37
Cherry . .... . ........ ... . . . ... .•. 22 88 72 5 187
..... ..... "'3
Chickory and endive . ..... .. ..... . 18 17 21 10 1 6 13 14 19 12 131 .....
Cranberry . .. .. ...... ..... ... ... . ..... ..... ..... ..... 20 40 77 16 153 C".)
Corn, green . .... . . ... .... . .... .. .
Cucumber . .... ... .............. . 15 16 39 95
2
146
26
244
81
244
111
103
58
60 28 31. 15
278
1,036
8"'3
Currant . ........................ ... .. ..... ..... 10 3 13 <::l
Date ............... ·............ . ..... ..... . .. .. ..... 0 ::tl
Eggplant ..... ......... , ......... 1 3 3 1() 14 46 25 12
t>;l
116
E,earole . .. .. ...... . ..... ....... . 10 6 1 2 2 9 8 8 11 li8
Fig ..... ......................... . .... .. ... 1 . .... l'
Garlic ...................... . . . .. 3 2 2 2 2 2 6 11 16 7 8 3 64
Grapefruit .. ..................... 272 306 332 285 196 .3 17 17 67 225 227 265 2,252
Grap . ... .. . . ... .. ......... .. ... . 16 3 8 9 13 6 84 198 li21 1,085 512 95 2,550
GOOleberry. .............. . . ..... . ... . . .... ..... 0
Commodity January February March April May June Juiy Augu.t September October November December Total
Honeyball melon ........ . .. .. . ... ,

--- - - --
. .... .....
--6 --27 - -11- 2 1 47
Honeydew melon . .. ..............
Horaera<li8h ............ .. . . ......
2 . .... 7
..... ... .. . .... .....
106 88 79 67 13 3 367
0 ~
Kohlrabi.. , . .•...... . ..... ... .... . .. .. ..... 32 35 3 3 73 ~
C":)
~mon .... '. " . f: ·.··.· ·· · ···· ··· 69 81 78 84 86 182 153 128 94 50 58 86 1,149
Lime ... . " . ... , ........ .. ... . . ..
Lettuce ..... ,', .. 326 330
2
352
4
529
6
556
14
542
10
478
6
383
5
371
2
380
2
388
5
414
56
5,049
8'"3
Nectarine ...... , , •...• . ...... ... . . ... . ..... . .. .. 8 31 3 42
§
Olive . .......... ,.". " ......... . . .... ..... ... .. .. .. . 3 1 .4
Onion ... .. .... . .. ,. '/'.'::' ~ .... .
Oranle. , .... .. . .. , . , . , • , • . .....•
169
454
193
485
99
611
1a8
566
324
527
329
441
225
294
170
280
491
285
338
388
161
569
147
693
2,784
6,493
~
Parsley ..... , ... . .. " " .. , ..• , . . .
Parsnip ., . . . , .............. .. :, ..
1
13
2
12
4
12
6
7
9
2
7 15
..... .... .
22
1
13
4
15
13
16
10
13
23
123
97 ~'"3
Peach ....... . .... . . , . .. . , . , . , .•. 78 248 752 320 20 1 1,419
Pear .. . . ....... , .. " ............
Pea, green .. . .. , . , . , ....... , .... , .
22
21
17
15
12
21
5
55
3
115
1
118
74
93
230
79
284
48
168
31
84
32
38
34
938
662 ~
~
Peppers .. ......... , .. . , . . " ...... 41 36 32 31 17 20 25 61 40 41 41 28 419 ....
Persian melon . . . .. .... . ... . .. . . , ,
Persimmon ...................... .
..... .... . .... . .....
... .. . .... ..... . . . ..
5 8 4
8 1
11
9
~
~
Pineapple ........ . ........ , .. .. .. 19 9 18 66 229 99 5 8 5 1 5 6 410
Plum and fresh prune , ..... , ...... ..... .... . 37 112 71 165 35 426 ~
Pomegranate . ... .......... ... , . .. ..... . .... ..... . .... 16 3 19
'"3
Potatoes, Irish ......... . .. , ... , ... 1 , 039 1 , 021 1,135 1 , 113 1 ,529 1,920 1 ,482 1 ,238 1 , 592 1,697 1 , 350 1,070 16,252
Quince ............ .. ..... , ...... .. . . . ..... ..... ... . . 5 5 ~.
Radish ..................... .... . 18 14 32 92 110 95 53 43 27 25 33 19 561
Raspberry ..... . ..... ..... . ... . . . .... ..... 17 3 20
c::::
Rhubarb ........ . ........ , ....... 31 38 31 16 61 71 30 7 3 3 6 3 366 ~
Rutabaga .... ....... .. ... .. .. ....
Shallot , ......... . .' .. . .... .......
93
18
75
23
12
31
33
34
20
57
32
66
31
58
21
42
58
21
95
11
84
6
73
7
687
374 ~
t:::;j .
Spinach ...... . . .. ....... . ... . .. . .. 101 113 129 153 156 93 57 80 46 120 119 82 1,249
Squash .......... . ...... , ........ 8 1 2 ..... 4 10 21 33 18 29 ~
20 166
Strawberry .. ........... : . . . .. ....
Sweet potato .. ... .. . . .. .. ........
65 94 62 182 467 569 45 2 1,486 ~
.~
129 147 103 86 44 21 15 53 132 198 236 183 1,347
Tanlerine ..... ... , ... ,. , ....... .. 90 71 12 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2 113
!IQ
Tomato. , .......... . 119 174 189 208 317 542 671 451 501 323 191 142 3,940
Watermelon ....... . .... . .. . ' ..... 1 19 239 1,462 733 162 3 2,619 C'II
0.
POTATOES
E.clt dot represent5

1.000.cres
FIG. 28.-':The districts of heaviest production of potatoes lie in latitudes north of the corn belt. This is partly because the quality
and yield of potatoes are better in cool climates and partly because corn requires labor at the same time, is very productive and on the
average has given a better return. Many of the potato-producing centers are in districts of sandy or loamy soils. Aroostook C"'.)unty,
Maine; Long Island. New York; New Jersey; eastern Virginia; western Michigan; central Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota are leadinfl
areas of production. In recent years potato production has become more important in the South and there is now a fairly continu8ua
gradation of regions which dovetail into each other in shipping season as early, intermediate and late. (U.S. Department of AgricuUure.)
SWEET POTATOES HARVESTED

Acreage, 1929
UNITED STATES TOTAL

650,000 ACRES
FIG. 29.-Sweet potatoes are a warm climate crop but are grown in sandy soils as
far north as MU8catine County, Iowa, and southern New Jersey. In the eastern and
central cotton belt sweet potatoes larg,ely replace Irish potatoes as a staple food of thE'
people. It will be noted that the four intensive areas of sweet potato production are
western Tennessee, southern Louisiana, and the eastern shore area of Virginia, Mary-
land and Delaware. (V.S. Department of Agriculture.)
FIG. 30.-Muskmelons require a fairly long frost-free season, plenty of sunshine and
heat, dry atmosphere and sufficient soil moisture. California is the leading state in
acreage followed by Arizona and Colorado. There ' are 26 states of importance in the
production of cantaloupes and muskmelons. (V.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
ONION'S GROWN FOR SALE

Acreage. 1929
FIG. 31.---Onions for the best development require cool weather during the early
part of the growing seasqn and moderately high temperature during the latter part.
Onions are grown mainly on sandy loams, silty loams and muck. An abundance of
moisture is required in the early growth of the plant, and the soil should be kept moist
so that the plant will continue to grow, for when growth is checked and then stimulated
again it often call8e8 splits and doubles. Although onions are produced in Several
rather concentrated districts, Texas, Michigan and New York ship half the nation's
commercial crop. (U.S. Department oJ Agriculture.)
CABBAGE GROWN FOR SALE

Ac~eage, 1929
FIG. 32.-Cabbage is a cool-season crop doing best in localities where it can grow to
maturity under moderately humid and cool conditions. It is grown as a late fall and
winter crop in the South, as a summer crop in the North and as a spring and fall crop
in the intermediate states. The largest late cabbage districts are in western New York
and eastern WiscoDllin. Intermediate areas are Long Island, New York, and southern
New JerseY'; southwestern Virl§inia; and Muscatine County, Iowa. Early cabbage is
raised mostly in Texas, California, the Gulf states, the Carolinas and the Tidewater
area of V;r~nia. (U.8. Department oJ Agriculture.)
LETTUCE GROWN FOR SALE
FIG. 33.-Lettuce requires a relatively cool temperature. It is principally an early

spring, fall and winter crop in the South and a summer crop in the high a.ititudes of the
West and near the coast in Ce.i.ifornia, Oregon and Washington. Ciilifornia is the
leading state in production, followed by Arizona, Colorado and New York. (U.S.
Department of Agriculture.)
FIG. 34.-The tomato is a warm long-season crop. Good crops are produced on a
wide range of soils but sandy soils are usually selected for early crops, heavy soils for
late market and canning crops. Muck and peat soils which are high in nitrogen usu-
ally give an excessive growth of vines. Some of the principa.i states producing tomatoes
include Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Virginia, Indiana and Arkansas.
Florida, southern Texas and California produce the winter crop_ Copiah County,
Mississippi, and Cherokee County, Texas, are important early districts. ; U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.)
APPLE TREES OF BEARING AGE

Number. April 1.19<50
FIG. 35.-The apple requires a comparatively cool, long growing season, but can be
grown on a wide variety of soils. The southern boundary of BUCC6BBful commercial
'production is limited by a mean summer temperature of 79° F., which extends only a
little beyond the northern limit of cotton, and the northern boundary is limited by a
mean winter temperature of 13° F. Most of the apple trees in the East are located in
the Appalachian Mountains and the Piedmont Region, and around the shores of the
Great Lakes where spring frosts are leBB injurious than in the interior. (U.S. Depaf't-
ment of Agriculture.)
FIG. 36.-The strawberry is a short cool-se~n crop and this factor plus adaptibility
of specific varieties to definite areas makes it poBBible to grow it in every state in the
United States. The early areas are in Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana. As the
eeason advances the districts in eastern North Carolina, TenneBBee, and in White
County, Ark&n&&8, begin shipping; still later the large Ozark region, southern Illinois
and the important Norfolk-Eastern Shore district ship; and later southern New Jersey
places her crop on the market. Productiun areas of the late crop are' widely scattered ,
only western Michigan and the north PacifiCCQ&8t showing notable ()oncentratiQIl,
(V.S, Department 0/ Aj11'icuUuT(I.)
FIG. 37.~The grape produced in the eastern United States is a cool-season crop,
but the grape (V. 'DiniJera) produced in California requires a warm season for its best
development. Nearly nine-tenths of the nation's s,rape production is in Ca.iiIornia.
Roughly 22 per cent of the tonnage is of wine varieties, 18 per cent table varieties, and
60 per cent raisin varieties of which only about thret-fourths are dried. The·eastern
grapes, produced principally in New York, Pennsylvani,\, Ohio and Michigan are mostly
consumed fresh or made into grape juice. (U.S. Department oJ Agriculture.)
PEACH TREES OF BEARING AGE

Number. April 1.1930
FIG. 38.-The peach is a warm-season crop adapted to lighter soiJ.s than the apple.
Cold dry winters prevent peach production northwest of a line diawn from Chicago
to Omaha and thence to Amarillo, Texas. Note the location of peach districts on the
leeward shore of the Great Lakes, where winter temperatures are moderate and growth
in spring is retarded until danger of frost is past. California is the largest producer of
peaches. producing nearly all of the canned peaches. Georgia generally ranks second
in production. Other important centers of production are lIOuthern New Jersey, the
Appalachian Mountains and the Piedmont sections, the Lake Ontario shore of 'New
York, the Lake Michipn Ihore of Michipn, lOuthern Dlinoil and Indiana, upland
Ar.kansas and eastern Texu. (U.8. Department 01 A(I1'imU.tuTe.)
ORANGE AND GRAPEFRUIT TREES.19.35 AND

LEMON TREES.1930
£ .. ch dOl represents 100,000 trees
.
LEMON TREES 1930
GRAPEFRUIT TREES .1935
8
, 20 ••
.....
CAlIFO:NIA.
,,
~
b ,
.... ~.:: "
. "
---- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --- -, - --,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
,'-----------
ORANGE TREES
1935
FIG. 39.-Citrus fruits are adapted to a subtropical climate. Practically all of

the citrus fruits of the United States are grown in California, Arizona, Florida and the
Gulf coast. California produces two-thirds of ·the oranges andnearly all the lemons.
Florida produces nearly one-third of the oranges and two-thirds of the grapefruit.
Texas and Arizona both produce considerable quantities of grapefruit. Production .of
citrus fruit has developed from a few small areas, until now it equals that of the com-
mercial production of apples. (U.8. Department 01 Agric.-ulture.)
WALNUTS, ALMONDS, AND PECANS

Number of Tr .... April I; 1930
ALMONDS
UNITED STATES TOTAL

J,5Z1,OOOTREES 4.410.000tREES
UNITED STATES TOTAL 9, I47,OOOTR[ES
Each dot represent. 10,000 tn ..
FIG. 40.-Nuts are principally warm-season crops. Almonds aild walnuts are grown
almost entirely in the Pacific states and principally in California. Pecans, on the other
hand, are a product principally in the southern states from Texaa to the Carolinaa but
also extend northward to southern Indiana, Illinois and Mil58Ouri. Much of the pecan
crop in Texas and Oklahoma is from wild trees. Walnuts (English, French or PerSian),
are produced in southern California, the valleys of central California and in the Wil-
lamette Valley of western Oregon. Almonds ·are grown mostly on the foothills of the
Great Valley and San Luis Obispo County. California. (U.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
64 TBXTBooK OF GE?fERAL HORTICULTURE
RECEIPTS FROM SALE OF NURSERY STOCK. FLOWER

AND VEGETABLE SEEDS, AND BULBS. 1929
'1,217;000 DOLLAas
FIG.41.-The Bay counties and Los Angelea, Calif., aupply most of the nursery
stock for that state and moat of the flower and vegetable seeds of the United States.
The lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas and central Florida also supply much sub-
tropical nl1f86ry stock. . In general, the principal nursery areas are near large cities.
(U.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
RECEIPTS FROM SALE OF FLOWERS. PLANTS. AND VEGETABLES GROWN

UNDER GLASS, AND .FROM FLOWERS GROWN IN THE OPEN. 1929
FIG. 42.-Moat of the greenhouse products and cut flowers are produced in the
northeastern quarter of the country adjacent to large citiee. The major belt of pro-
duction includes the Atlantic coast from Baltimore to Boston. Next in importance is
the Great Lakes Belt from Rochester to Milwaukee and Chicago. Then come the river
cities of Cincinnati, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, and the Twin Cities, St. Paul and
Minneapolis. More important, however, are the Pacific coast cities, Los Angelea, San
Francisco, Portland and Seattle. The three inland cities of Denver, IndianaiJolis and
Columbul!I deeervenotice. (U.8. Department oJ Agriculture.)
Review Questions
1. Did the horticultural industry in t.he United States develop before or after
the commercial production of grains and livestock?
2. What has been the trend in the production of fruit crops in the United
States since 1915?
S. What has been the trend in the production of vegetable crops in the United
States since 1910?
4. What was the trend in the production of ornamental horticultural plants
in the United States from 1909 to 1929?
6. What two major factors have influenced the location of horticultural enter-
prises in the United States?
6. What six important economic factors influenced the expansion of horti-
cultural enterprises in the United States?
7. What two physical factors are largely responsible for the production of
horticultural crops in localized areas?
8. Name and define the various types of fruit farms.
9. Name and define the various types of vegetable farms.
10. Name and define the various types of floricultural enterprises.
11. Name and define the various types of nurseries.
Problems
1. How can one justify the commercial production of Irish potatoes in Florida
and cabbage in Mississippi when these crops can be produced so much more
economically in New York?
2. Mr. A is considering the purchase of a farm for the production of peaches.
He has the ()hoice of two farms equally suitable from the standpoint of soil, market.
and price. One is located near Kenosha in southeastern Wisconsin, and the other
directly across Lake Michigan near Benton Harbor, Mich. Explain to Mr. A
which farm you would advise him to buy.
S. Outline a tour for a foreign delegation through the principal commercial
horticultural areas of the United States.
4. Mr. A lives in Alabama where cotton is the major crop. He is advised to
shift to the production of vegetables, as they are more profitable. Advise him
what to do.
6. Using Table 16, make a bar graph showing the monthly carlot arri'lals of
apples, bananas, oranges and strawberries on the ¥hicago market in 1937.

1. CORBETT, L. C., et al., "U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook," pp.
125-131, 151--452, 71~727, 1925.
2. GARDNER, V. R., et al., "Fundamentals of Fruit Production," pp. 701-771,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
3. LAURIE, ALEX, and L. C. CHADWICK. "The Modern Nursery," pp. 1-32,
The Macmillan Company, New York, 1931.
4. WARE, G. W., et al., "Southern Vegetable Crops," pp. 1-10, American Book
Company, New York, 1937.
5. WHITE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 1-13, The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1933.
CHAPTER IV
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOME
The horticultural features of a home are integral parts of its devel-
opment. The basic problem in planning the home grounds is to create
an effect in which the various features, including buildings, plants,
walks and drives, are developed in an orderly, logical manner with
regard for both convenience arid appearance. It is beyond the scope
of this book to discuss the many problems associate~ with the arrange-
ment of buildings, walks and drives and with the principles of design,
but the student should know some of the basic and elemental principles
involved in planning the home grounds. Consequently the problem is
approached from the viewpoint of the home grounds as a whole; and
planning the fruit garden, the vegetable garden and the ornamental
plantings, respectively, is a part of one unified plan for the horticultural
plantings about the home.
It should be emphasized that no two home developments will be
exactly alike. For example, the number, sizes and uses of farm build-
ings will vary with conditions found on farms of different types, such as
dairying, cattle raising, general farming and fruit growing. Homes
vary in style of architecture; in size of house and in size, shape and
topography of the surrounding land. Finally, the tastes and desires of
individuals vary sufficiently to warrant different types of develop-
ments. Regardless of the section of the ,country, the size of the
property or the type of property or individual tastes, the few basic
principles remain the same.
THE PLAN
To avoid errors in arrangement and costly alterations a well-pre-
pared plan drawn to scale is a prerequisite for the satisfactory develop-
ment of the home grounds. This should show first the locations of the
permanent features, which will include the buildings, roads and walks.
One may then proceed to locate those features which call for the use of
plant materials, such as the lawn, shade trees, shrubbery, flowers, fruits
and vegetables.
.BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE PLAN
The primary consideration in planning the home grounds, whether

it is a farmstead or a city lot, is the combining of usefulness with attrac-
66
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOME 67
tiveness. Since the grounds should be both useful and beautiful,- it is

well to consider some of those factors which are related t!J the attaicing
of these characteristics.
Utility.-The factors contributing to utility in the plan are (1)
arrangement of buildings in relation to exposure and to the routing of
routine work, (2) arrangement of plant units for convenience and (3)
maintenance of building and plant units.
If a new home is being planned, the first consideration is the loca-
tion of the house. This, in the case of a farmstead, should be built 100
ft. or more from the highway upon a spot having good natural drainage
and providing pleasant views. The location should allow ample space
for the barns and feed lots to leeward of the prevailing summer winds.
In the Middle West, as a rule, the prevailing breezes in spring and sum-
mer are from the south, southwest and west; and in order to avoid the
objectionable odors from the barns and feed lots, these areas should
. not be placed to the windward of the house.
Any house should be planned to provide the sunniest exposure and
best views for those rooms most frequently occupied by the family.
Facing the house toward the road may not produce these conditions.
In the Middle West the long axis of the barn should be north and
south in order to give each side of the barn the benefit of sun for one-
half day during the winter and to allow for cooling summer breezes
through the barn during the summer. The hog houses and poultry
houses should face south and run east and west, thereby giving the
animals benefit of the south sun and some protection from prevailing
winds during late winter. The corncribs should run north and south
for the best circulation of air and maximum sunlight.
The machine shed, shop, dairy house, garage and scales should be
arranged for functional convenience. The machine shed should be
located close to the lane from the fields; the shop, close to the machine
shed and garage. The water trough, the well house and the dairy
house should be close together and along the path to the barn, and the
scales should be so located as to be easily accessible. The garage
should be close to the house.
The fruit and especially the vegetable garden should be placed con-
veniently close to the hou.se. The outdoor living area in which there
may be flowers and other ornamental plants should also be in a con-
venient place and connected in some easily accessible way with the
living room. A windbreak is used on many farmsteads in the colder
regions and should be located along the north and west of the farmstead
and about 200 ft . from the buildings as a protection from cold north~
west winds during the winter.
If the grounds about the home have been well planned and planted,
good maintenance will insure the permanency of the work that has been
done. On every farm there will gradually be an accumulation of wire
fencing and posts; parts of machinery too valuable to discard and other
bulky, little-used equipment that does not justify shed storage. This
unattractive collection of useful material can be suitably protected and
effectively concealed by the proper planting of trees and shrubs.
Foresight will save an individual much expense in the maintenance
of garden areas. The type of development that looks best with the
minimum of expense for maintenance consists mainly of lawn with
trees and shrubbery grouped informally. The cost increases with
formal hedges which require clipping, with pergolas and arbors which
must be painted and with ornamental vines which require training.
Flower borders add to both the beauty and the cost of upkeep. ' Formal
gardens are almost prohibitive to the individual of average means and '
limited time.
Unity.-The home grounds should possess unity. Unity requires
the complete orderly arrangement of th~ buildings and entire grounds
and presents a pleasant picture from whatever position the homestead
is seen. It demands that from every viewpoint there should be a
central feature with details properly subordinated to the main feature
and to one another. For example, the lawn should not be spotted with
showy flower beds or specimen shrubs which claim more attention than
the central feature, the house. The buildings should have a unity in
design, and the plantings should be used to tie the various buildings and
other permanent features together in one harmonious unit.
A few localities in the United States have developed rather typical
styles of farmstead architecture. Examples are found in New Eng-
land, with the house and barn connected by a woodshed; in central
New York, with a story-and-a-half house and a moderate-sized barn;
in southeastern Pennsylvania, with the bank barn of stone, stable high
with an "overshoot" on the south and a moderate-sized dwelling; in
the South, with large houses and other farm buildings subordinated;
and in the Middle West, with its large barn and attached silos.
Regardless of the locality or the type of development or whether it be a
farmstead or a city lot, the house is always the center of interest of the
home grounds. If a barn or any other farm building or group of plant-
ings attracts more attention than thiS' central' feature, the principle of
unity~violated.
The masses of plants used on the home grounds should possess
unity in relation to the grounds as a whole and in relation to each
individual group of p1ant&. For e~mmplel a flower bed might posseSfJ
unity in itself yet when planted in the middle of the front lawn be
entirely out of place in relation to the grounds as a whole. A similar
flower bed might be used in a formal area as a point of interest and not
violate the principle of unity. It is important to keep in mind tha.t
the general effect of the mass of plants is of more importance than
individual specimens. For example, tall slim plants such as the Lom-
Machine
shed
BUILDING ARRANGEMENT
SOUTH FRONT FAII1MSTEAD
Farm home
0204060
...............
Scale
FIG. 43.-Skeleton plan showing buildings and walks of a farmstead. (SuccelJs/ul

Farming.)
bardy poplar, drooping plants such as the weeping willow and sym-
metrical formal-looking plants such as firs should not be planted too
close together. Each would attract too much attention, and thus no
single point of interest would be established. When a variety of plants
of different textures and widely differing shapes are used, they may
be united by placing plants of intermediate characters between them.
The lines of the different parts of the mass should flow into one another
without too great contrasts. Transitions in color and texture should
also be gradual.
TYPE OF PLAN
The first step in making a plan for the home grounds, whether for
a new place or for one that is to be remodeled, is to determine the type
or style of the design. Most garden desig1lS are considered as formal
or informal, although elements of both types are often found in the same
plan. The informal design is often termed the "natural style" and
characterized by irregularly curved lines. This type of design con-
forms most nearly to the arrangement of plants as they are found
in nature. AB stated previously, this style is the more economical
both in the first cost and in maintenance. It is well adapted to the
needs of the farm home and to the small city home, although the latter
may use a more formal design. Formal designs are characterized by
straight or symmetrically curved lines, level surfaces, geometric balance
of similar areas, clipped plants and architectural embellishments.
Pure forms of this style are generally confined to city homes, parks or
small areas on large estates. The design should be appropriate for the
particular conditions. A garden design suitable for a city home may
be incongruous when transferred to the informal charm of the country
atmosphere. . The creation of a farmstead with the atmosphere of the
country is a desirable objective.
PRINCIPAL AREAS
Fundamentally there are but three basic areas in any home plan,
be it for a large estate, a farmstead or a small city lot. These are the
public area, the private area and the service area. Certain features
are inherent to each, but the three should be so arranged and combined
that the entire plan constitutes a serviceable and attractive unit.
Public.-The public area comprises the foreground of the house
which is open to or in view of the public. It furnishes a setting for the
home. In the case of a fannstead it may contain the open lawn to
the front of the house and an orchard toward the front and side or a
show or display field for stock at one side. In this case the public area
merges into the service area. In the informal plan the public area
should never contain flower beds, specimen plants, statuary or other
geometric~yarranged architectural features. It should be bordered
by trees and shrubs which serve to give privacy to the other areas.
The walks arid roadway that may be in this area are utilitarian in pur-
pose and should attain their objects in the most direct way. A curved
walk or drive ~thout reason is unjustifiable. '
Private.-This area is an outdoor living room reserved for the
private enjoyment of the family and friends. It is enclosed by trees,
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOMB 71
shrubs and other features that will provide privacy from the casual
passer-by. It should be easily accessible from the house, be attractive
and possess features of convenience and comfort, depending upon the
type of development and the personal wishes of the family. Some may
wish only a good turf, an attractive shrubbery border and shade trees
..
FIG. 44.-Division of the grounds of a farmstead into the three are_public, private
and service. (Adapted from Iowa Ext. Serv.) .
and a play area; others will desire flower borders or gardens, a pool,
garden furniture, an outdoor fireplace or other features that would
add to their enjoyment.
/\' Service.-Tpe service area is strictly utilitarian. On the city lot
it will include the drive, the garage, the laundry yard and the vegetable
_garden. On the farm it will be the largest of the three. Other than
the house, all the buildings, the feed lots, the kitchen garden and the
fruit garden will be in this area. It should be attractive and be a part

of the entire plan although screened somewhat by suitable plantings.
The basic principle dominating this part of the general plan is con-
venience in arrangement and suitability of construction to facilitate
+- PA.sTU~
fIELD
.P,..........,.... ,.................... ;,........,...
fIELD
FIG. 45.-A suggested plan for a farmstead. (Succe8sjul Farming.)
the efficiency of the work to be done. It should be emphasized that

careful planning of this area on the farm home in relation to the routine
of the work to be done on that particular farm will be found decidedly
economic~ of both time and labor.
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRJSES OF .THE HOMB 73
PREPARING THE PLAN
Mter deciding upon the style of design, the next step is to place the
plan on paper according to scale. A simple method is first to locate
those features which are permanent-the house, the garage, drive,
FIG. 46.-Divillion of the grounds of an urban home into the three lIl'8_publio,
. Better Homu and GardeM.)
private and service. (SU(/(/eBted from .
FIG. 47.-Principal area.s of home grounds showing main axis. (SVt/(/6IIted from Better
HomU and Gardem.)
walks, existing features that are to remain and possibly some trees.
As it takes many years to grow a tree, all large trees that are suitable
should be retained. Mter the permanent features are located, the
grounds may be divided into the three areas by a series of three ovals,
each indicating one area: public, private .or service. Theoretica.lly,
all the space indicated within the ovals should be planted to grass;
all the space outside the ovals should be planted with trees, shrubs and
flowers. This idea cannot be followed too literally, because many
.spots will be left for paths and open places where a planting might be
too wide or might screen a beautiful view of a distant wood, a field or
possibly an orchard. Each of the three areas can be subdivided by
FIG. 48.--CompIeted plan showing plant areas. (Suggested from Better Homes and
. Gardens.)
FIG. 49.-A more elaborate plan than that shown in Fig. 47. Note the axis and sub-
divisions of the private area. (Suggested/rom Better Homes and Garden8. )
other ovals to indicate special features. For example, the public area
of the farm grounds may be divided into an open area and a display
lot. The private area of either farm grounds or city grounds may be
subdivided to indicate the location of a flower garden, a pool or other
features. The service area may pe subdivided to indicate a laundry
yard or possibly a vegetable garden.
HORTICULTuRAL ENTERPRISES OF TIlE HOME 75
After establishing the three major areas with their chief subdivi-
sions, the next problem is to unite them into a harmonious unit.
Then the features within each of them must be combined in a similar
fashion to produce unity within .the separate areas. The procedure
here entails the establishment of areas or lines of view which bind the
FIG. 50.-Principal areas of home grounds showing possible subdivisions. (Suggested

from Bette:r Homes and Gardens.)
FIG. 51.-Completed plan showing plant areas. (Suggested from Bette:r Homes and
Gard~.)
various units together and about which other features revolve. Sub-
ordinate areas are established for each of the three major areas and
often for minor divisions within them. The method of handling the
private area will serve as an example.
This procedure entails the drawing of an axis, indicated by a line,
from a door or window of the house that has a view of the private area
76 TEXTBOOK. OF GENERAL HORTICULT'U RE
toa point of interest within the area. Generally the most logical place
to start it is from the living-room window. This axis is an imaginary
line which indicates a line of view and about which the garden centers.
If one looks out of an important window or door and obtains this
view, then the garden and house are tied together and make a unit.
If the view is screened, unity is incomplete. The axis connects two
things: the start of the view and the end of it. Some point of interest
should be at the end-a garden house, a rose trellis, a group of trees
or a distant view of the landscape. Whatever is used at the end of
the axis must have mass enough to hold the interest.
THE PLANTS
The plan of the farmstead in Fig. 45 shows the following horti-
cultural features: the lawn; ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers;
and vegetables and fruits. The lawn, trees and shrubs are essential
features; the flower garden, vegetable garden and fruit garden are
desirable ones.
SELECTING PLANTS
Attention is directed to the selection and arrangement of the plant

materials for those features which are essential and for those which are
usually desirable. Again it should be emphasized that good arrange-
ment of the home grounds takes into consideration usefulness, beauty
and convenience.
Ornam.entals.-The lawn is an essential feature of the home
grounds. It holds the same relation to them that the floor or rug does
to the living room. It is the setting or foundation for flowers, shrubs
and trees, helping to make the house the center of interest.
Every area has fixed grade points such as the foundations of build-
ings, the elevation of walks and drives and large trees. Gentle grades
should be established between the fixed points. The grade should
slope away from the house and from other areas where drainage is
necessary. It is difficult to grow and tend grass on steep terrace
slo~; and 'if the terrace area is small, it is likely to be drier than the
surrounding area. Proper preparation of the soil is essential for a
satisfactory lawn. The subsoil should be retentive of moisture but
must provide adequate drainage. ' The surface soil should be a fertile
friable loam at least 3 to 5 in. thick. Of over 30,000 species of grass,
only 30 are very satisfactory for turf purposes. The grasses differ in
their climatic and soil requirements, and one specific kind of grass or
a mixture of several kipds should be selected for a given locality. The
bent grasses do well in the moist, slightly acid soils and cool climate of
the northeastern United States and in a narrow strip along the western
coast north from San Francisco. Bermuda grass is limited to the
warmer southern part of the country. The fescues are quite variable
in their requirements and are often used as special-purpose grasses.
The bluegrasses are the most generally adaptable turf grasses and can
be grown successfully over most of the northern part of the United
States where the soil is neutral and fairly fertile.
The various lawn grasses may be grouped conveniently into three
classes: basic grasses, those which will live for many years and will
eventually predominate; nurse grasses, those short-lived grasses which
FIG. 52.-Map showing regions of the United States to which various grasses are
adapted; region 1, bluegrass--crosshatched areas represent those in .which bent grasses
are most likely to succeed; region 2, Bermuda grass; region 3, Bermuda grass and carpet
grass. (U.8. Department of Aqriculture.)
furnish favorable conditions for the development of the basic grasses;

and special-purpose grasses, those especially adapted to grow satis-
factorily in shady, wet, dry or sandy locations. Because of variations
in soils, exposures, etc., mixtures of grasses are often planted rather
than single species or varieties. Mixtures may contrun two basic
grasses but never more than 40 per cent of one or more nurse grasses
and should not contain any special-purpose grasses. A suitable seed-
ing on new lawns will be obtained by using 3 to 4 lb. per 1,000 sq. ft.
Only the basic or special grasses for particular areas, should be used
when reseeding an established lawn. The seed can be planted either
in early spring or in late fall, but best results are obtained when there is
It cool moist period for lli]C or more weeks after planting. The following
mixtures have proved successful when planted in favorable localities.

Mixtures are given on the basis of weight.
No. 1 No. 2
Bluegrass (Fertile Neutral Soil) Bluegrass
Per Per
Cent Cent
Kentucky bluegrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60 Kentucky bluegrass ..... . 80
Redtop .......................... 25 Redtop ....................... . 20
Chewing's fescue ................. 15
No. 3
Bent GraBII (Fertile Acid Soil)
Per
Cent
Colonial bent . .... . ... ... ... . .. 80
Redto,p ........ . ... . ...... .. . . . 20
Numerous other mixtures are used with success in the same and
different regions. In regions where bluegrass is the basic grass, 5 to
[1
----.
••
~~ Incorrect c: orrect
FIG. 53.-Trees planted to sides of house near the corners will provide shade and
frame the view to the house. (MarBhall'. NurBery.)
10 per cent of rye may be used as a nurse crop in spring plantings.

Bent-grass areas are often established by planting stolons of particuJar
strains of bent grass.
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THB HOME 79
Trees are an essential permanent feature of the home grounds.

They are used for framing views, as points of interest, as a background
for the house or other feature, for shade in summer, as protection from
cold winds in winter, to screen unsightly objects, as accent points and
as specimen pla.nts. Two or more of these objects may be served by
the same tree or group of trees. The selection of the kind of trees to
plant depends upon the purpO&es for which they are used and their
adaptability to the environment. Trees planted to the side of a house,
near the corners and at the back serv;e to frame a view to the house,
provide a background for it and supply shade. On fa.nils it is often
advisable to protect the farmstead from cold winter winds. For this
purpose, windbreaks or shelter belts of trees are planted to the west
and north of the buildings. Evergreens, such as Austrian pines, are
good trees for this purpose, but many windbreaks are composed of a
mixture of deciduous and evergreen trees. The effect of the wind-
break extends horizontally ten to twenty times its height.
Trees are often used alone or in conjunction with shrubs to scr~en
dnattractive objects and areas such as buildings, feed lots and farm
machinery. Columnar trees, as the Lombardy and Boleana poplar,
may be planted singly or in groups of three or five as accent points
in the skyline. Single trees may be planted as specimen plants and
furnish the special feature at the end of a garden axis. Many of the
evergreens, as the Colorado blue spruce, or a flo.wering tree, as a species
of crab apple, make good specimen trees.
Shrubs are used to separate areas, to screen unattractive objects
and areas, as foundation plantings, as specimen plants and as back-
grounds.
The shrub border usually designates the boundaries of the home
grounds. It is usually arranged informa.lly with higher growing plants
80 TBXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
at the back 'and lower growing sorts at the front. The back rOw is
generally planted in a straight line, but the plants in front of this row
should be staggered iD. order to break the monotony of a straight line
and form the bays and promontories that iend so much inter~t to the
informal style.
The informal shrub border should have a depth of 10 ft. at the
narrowest portion arid. 15 to 20 ft. at the wider portions if the space is
available and the materials employed require that much space for
suitable growth. Such a planting should form long flowing curves,
never short j~ straight lines. In some instances, however, the
design may call for a long straight line. The selection of materials
. for a shrub border is important. In the same planting it is better to
FIG. M.-Foundation planting-ground plan.
select materials from a few groups like lilacs, Philadelphus, viburnums

and spka.eas than to choose a wide variety of sorts. The problem of
harmonizing various colors of foliage, shapes of plants and textures
of twigs and leaves is much simpler with large masses of a few different
kinds of plants than it is with small masses of a large assortment.
Shrubs are used in both the trimmed and the untrimmed hedge.
The trimmed hedge is in keeping with the formal garden and requires
more care than the untrimmed hedge which is better &uited to the
informal garden. The hedge may be used to separate the various areas
of the home grounds, as a screen for the service yard and in place of a
fence for marking the boundaries of the gro~ and furnishing privacy.
It is really a form of border planting. Shrubs are sometimes used
singly or in groups to screen unsightly objects or areas. They are
used very commonly for close-to-the-house foundation planting, the
function of which is to harmonize the house with the rest of the grounds.
It shoUld knit the house to the lawn. The plants used around the
foundation of the house should be in harmony with those in the other
areas of the home groun~ and in harmony with the style of th.e house.
HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THJiJ HOME 81
When the house is high, low-growing shrubs should not be used, as

they will accentuate its height. A low, rambling house calls for low-
growing plants. The style of the planting may be formal or informal
depending upon the type of house. Formal evergreens do not go well
with an informal rambling type. A great variety of plant material is
available for use in the foundation planting. The foundation, how-
ever, should not be hidden completely; neither should it be embellished
with too many different kinds of plants. Complete hiding of the foun-
dation makes the house appear as though supported by a brush pile.
Generally three kinds of plants are sufficient for the average-sized
house; for a larger house, five kinds should be sufficient.
Set the plants in groups around the house. Place the taller growing
sorts at the corners and in the angles. This blends the perpendicu-
DJ
FIG. 56.-Foundation planting, perspective of ground plan shown in Fig. 55.
lar line of the house with the horizontal line of the ground. Low-
growing sorts may be planted under the windows and about the taller
types to tie them to the ground more smoothly. The type of plant
material use~ may consist of evergreens which are particularly desir-
able for winter effect, of deciduous material or of a combination of the
two. If only evergreens are used in the foundation planting and only
deciduous material is located on other parts of the grounds, the transi-
tion may be too great, dis.rupting the harmony of the planting as a
whole. A combination of deciduous plants such as lilacs with the _
mugho pine or Pfitzer juniper will work out well. Such plants as
spruces, pines and firs should not be used in a foundation planting, as
they eventually become too large. The average homeowner should
be careful in the selection of plants that require trimming in order
to keep them in proportion with the house, 'because neglect may pro-
duce plants that are not in harmony with the house. Shrubs may be
used 88 a background for the flower border and ruso for flower beds and
as specimen plants in a manner similar to that suggested for trees.
Many variable factors, as type of soil, amount of moisture, purpose
for which the plant is grown, enter into the question of planting dis-
tances for shrubs. The final spread of the shrub for a particular
locality generally determines the planting distance. A rule quite often
TABLE 17.-A SELECTED LIST OF HERBACEOUS BIENNIALS AND PERENNIALS
Height, Height,
Name of plant Color Name of plant Color
inches inches
Aster, hardy .. .. •.• . . 8 to 48 Various Flax ................ 18 Light blue

Bleeding heart ... , ... 18 to 36 Deep rose Forget-me-not ....... 8 to 12 Light blue
Campanula .......... 24 to 36 Various Oaillardia .......•... 15 to 24 Various
Candytuft, hardy •.... 6 to 10 White Oypsophila ....•..... 24 to 36 White, pink
Chrysanthemum ..... 18 to 40 Various Hollyhock .. . . ..... . . 60 to 80 VMious
COlumbine ..... ...... 18 to 36 Various Lupine ........••.... 15 to 48 Blue, varioua
COreopeie .......• .... 24 to 36 Yellow Oriental poppy ....... 24 to 36 Various
Cynogl088um ....•... 18 Blue Phlox ..... .... ••.••. 30 to 40 Various
Delphinium ....... ... 36 to 60 Blue, various Primrose, hardy ...... 8 to 15 Various
Dianthus (pinke) ..... 8 to 18 Pink, various Veronica .". .......... 8 to 18 Blue, white
Evening primrose..• .. 18 to 24 Primrose Viola . .. ........... . 6 to 8 Blue, various
TABLE 18.-A SELECTED LIST OF DECIDUOUS SHRUlIS
Height,
Name of plant Comments
feet
~rbe~ .............. 5 Use in border, hedges; hardy

Buddleia* ............. 6to 8 Best in shrubbery border; not hardy in cold
regions
Deutzia* .............. 5 White flowers; specimen or shrub border
Flowering quince ....... 6 to 8 Pink to red flowers
Forsythia .............. 10 Early; yellow; hardy
Honeysuckle ........... 10 Many forms; hardy
Kerria . .. ............ . 8 Yellow or white flowers; early summer to fall

Kolkwitzia ............ 8 Pale pink blossoms
Lilac ........... ....... 20 Many fine hybrids and original species
Philadelphus ... .. ...... 10 Several forms; shrub border; white flowers
Privet ................. 5to 7 Many forms; clipped hedges
Spiraea ................ 4to 6 Many forms for many places
Sweet shrub * .......... 6to 8 Chocolate-brown flowers

ViburnUEn ............ . 5 to 15 Many forms; shrub borders
Weigela* ..... . . .. . .... 5to 7 White, pink or red flowers
• Subject to winter injury in regione of long cold winters like the Middle West.
followed is to set the plants at a distance from one another that equals
two-thirds of their final height. If smaller plants are to be set close
to taller growing plants, allow for the spread of the taller growing plant
TABLE 19.-A SELECTED LIST OF EVERGREEN SHRUBS
-
Height,
Name of plant Comments
feet
Abelia ................ 2to 4 Pinkish-white flowers

Azalea· ................ 18 to 48 Must have acid soil
Boxwood· ............. 12 Great variety of uses
Common jUniper ....... 4 Wide-spreading; several forms
COtoneaster· ........... 1 to 5 Several practically evergreen species
Daphne· .............. 1 Fragrant pink flowers

Mountain laurel· ....... 5 to 15 Acid soil
Pfitzer juniper ......... 5 Spreading
Rhododendron· ........ 4 to 12 Many species and hybrids; acid soil
Sargent juniper ......... 2to 3 Spreading
• Subject to winterkilling in regions of long cold winters like tbe Middle West.
TABLE 20.-A SELECTED LIST OF ANNUAL HERBACEOUS FLOWERING PLANTS
Height, Height,
inches inches
African Daisy ...... 12 to 24 Various Gaillardia .... ... .. 24 to 30 Maroon. bronze

Ageratum . . . ...... 6 to 18 Blue Larkspur .......... 24 to 40 Blue, various
Alyssum ........... 4 to 10 White, lilac, Lobelia ............ 4 to 10 Blue, various
yellow Marigold .... .. .. . . 12 to 40 Yellow, gold
Aster, china. ; ..... 18 to 30 Various Nasturtium ...... . . 15 to 72 Various
Babies's breath •.... 12 to 15 White
Petunia ........... . 15 to 24 Various
Balsam ............ 16 to 30 Various Portulaca ......... 6 to 10 Various
Browallia ........ . . 15 to 30 Blue Salpiglossis ........ 20 to 30 Various
Calendula ......... 12 to 18 Yellow, orange Salvia ............. 24 to 30 Blue, red
California Poppy. 10 to 12 Various Scabiosa .......... 24 to 30 Various
Calliopsis .......... 18 to 36 Yellow, red
Snapdragon ...... . . 8 to 30 Various
Centaurea ......... 18 to 36 Various Stock ............. 12 to 20 Various
Candytuft ......... 10 to 18 Various Stra wftower . . .. . ... 12 to 24 Various
Clarkia ............ 24 to 36 Rose, various Verbena .... : ... ... 8 to 10 Various
Cosmos ... ... .. . .. 36 to 72 Pink, various Zinnia ........... . 15 to 36 Various
Drummond's phlox. 6 to 15 Various
in estimating the distance between the two. Many mistakes are

made in planting too closely. It is time well spent to study the growth
and spread of the particular plants in your own locality before deter-
mining the planting distance.
84 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORT,lCULTURE
TABLE 21.-A SELECTED LIBT OF ORNAMENTAL DECIDUOUS TREES
Height,
Name of tree COmment
feet
Beech ..' ..... ... ....... 25 to 80 Purple and European most popular
Black walnut .. .. ..... . 90 High branching; provides light shade
Dogwood ............. . 30 White or pink flowers.
Elm, American . . .. . .. . 90 One of best for all landscape purposes
Ginkgo ........ ...... . 60 Specimen and street use
Hawthorn ... . .. ....... 15 to 25 Specimen and hedge use

Hickory, shagbark .... . . 75 Picturesque; best in background
Honey locust ......... . 90 Rapid grower; best in groves and background
Horse chestnut . ....... . 50 Pyramidal; makes dense shade
Linden .... .. ... . .. .. . . 80 Symmetrical form; provides dense shade
Maple . .... ... . ...... . 50 to 100 Several species; mostly tall

Oak ......... . ........ 60 to 100 Several species; shade and specimens
Plane tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Often called "sycamore"; picturesque
Sweet gum . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Native; symmetrical; spreading
Tulip tree.. . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Mastlike trunk; specimen and shade
TABLE 22.-A SELECTED LIST OF ORNAMENTAL EVERGREEN TREES
Height,
Name of tree Comments
feet
American arborvitae ... . 50 Flat, fernlike foliage; specimen hedge; screen

American holly .... ... . 30 Red berries; specimen
Austrian pine .. . . . .... . 50 to 75 Dark glossy green; various uses
Canada hemlock ... .. .. . 60 Symmetrical; pyramidal
Carolina hemlock ... . , . . 50 More handsome than foregoing; specimen
Cedar . .. .... ......... . 30 to 50 Numerous varieties; slender tree; various uses

Douglas fir ........... . 60 to 75 Dark bluish-green foliage; specimen
Hinoki cypress . . ...... . 2 to 20 Dense dark green; many forms
Koster blue spruce . .. . . 40 to 50 Silver blue-green; background; diBtant accent
Norway spruce ........ . 60 Dark green; rapid grower; screen or wind-
break; tall hedge
Oriental arborvitae.. . . . 50 Dark green foliage; ~s same as American

Scotch pine. ... . . . . . . .. 30 to 40 Picturesque; specimen; background
White fir. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70 to 90 Concolor a variety; silvery-green foliage;
specimen; background; windbreak
TABLE 23.-A SELECTED LIST OF VINES
Height,
K ame of plant Comment
feet
American bittersweet . . . 15 Deciduous; woody; perennial

Boston ivy .. ......... . 50 Evergreen; woody; perennial
Clematis .......... , .. . 12 Herbaceous; annual
Englemann creeper .... . 50 Deciduous; woody; perennial; adhesive disks
English ivy . . . .. ... . . . . 50 Evergreen; woody; perennial

Morning-glory .... .... . 10 Herbaceous; annual
Virginia creeper .... . . . . 50 Deciduous; woody; perennial; requires sup-
port
Wisteria . ... . . ..... . . . . 40 Deciduous; woody; perennial
TABLE 24.-A SELECTED LIST OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS PROPAGATED WITH

BULBS, ROOTS, TUBERS
Height. H eight.
inches inches
Canna .. ... . . .. . .... 36 to 60 Various Oxalis . .. .. .. . ..... . . 4 to 6 Various

Crocus . . . ... .. . . . ... 4 to 6 Various Peony ...•. .. . .. .... 24 to 48 Various
Dahlia .... . . . ... .. . . 18 to 72 Various Royailily . .. . . . . . ... 48 to 60 White. tinted
Gladiolus . . .. . . .. .... 24 to 48 Various Scilla ... .. . ...... ... 6 to 10 Variou8
Grape hyacinth .. . . .. 4 ,t o 8 Blue. white Snowdrop . . .... . .. .. 4 to 6 White
Iris .... . .. . . ........ 24 to 48 Various Tiger lily • .• . ..... . . 48 Orange
Madonna lily .. .. . . .. 36 to 48 White Trill i um .... ....... .. 4 to 18 Various
Narcissus . .. .. ..... " 4 to 18 Various Tulip .. ... .... . .. . . . 6 to 30 Various
Perennial and annual herbaceous flowering plants offer a large

amount of plant material for color and bloom on the home grounds.
Due to the fact that most home grounds have an informal design,
flower borders meet the requirement better than flower beds. The
flower border should have a background. A mixed shrubbery plant-
ing, a hedge or a vine-covered fence may serve thi'l purpose. The
flower border may be from 3 to 12 ft. wide, but an average width of 6
to 8 ft. facilitates cultivation. The length is governed by the extent
of the home grounds and the desires of the owner. The sides of the
border may be straight and parallel or curved and variable in width.
The use of the flower border is similar to decorating the wall of a
room of a house with a picture, the background, such as the hedge,
taking the place of the wall, and the border becoming the picture .
. The arrangement of the flowers should be simple in design. Use tall
plants in the corners and in the middle of the back of the border,fol-
lowed by medium-height plants and low ones in front.
Other fa.ctors are involved in the planning of a flower border than

height of plant. One should note the length of life of the plants
(annual, biennial or perennial); growing habit (spreading, prostrate,
FIG. 57.-Arrangement of plants in a flower border. (Suggested from Mar.hall'.

Nur8ery.)
.
i
,
:
:
o
I
.
:
i-~ ______ ~~ ________ ________ ________
~ ~ ~
k..........."..................... --.--.. 20' . -... ---- .... •. - .. -. - - -•. - - --..•-.-.1

FIG. 58.:......Ari'angement of plants in the formal flower garden. The diagram shows one
half of two 8ugge8ted groupings. '
erect or climbing); time and length of flowering period; color and

texture of flowers and foliage; hardiness and method of propaga.tion.
It is important to use enough plants in a mass or group to give a
decided effect. The height of flowers used in a border planting depends
somewhat on the width of the border. In general, tall plants should
be used in wide borders. Some flowers should be in bloom in the
garden during the entire season, but not necegsarily all the same kind
in one place. Certain color combinations are more effective than
others. For example, good results are obtained when any .of the
following two colors are used together: scarlet and blue, orange and
violet, orange and blue and yellow and purple. White flowers may
be used to separate clashing colors.
Flower beds are suited to formal grounds and for areas from which
flowers are to be cut. Beds are usually more elaborate than borders.
Special kinds of gardens such as rock gardens, water gardens or pools
and wild-flower gardens are of interest to many, however, one should
be sure that the area is suited for such special gardens before construct-
ing any of them.
The distance at which flower plants are spaced varies according to
conditions previously discussed relative to spacing of shrubs. Again
a good general rule to follow is to keep the plants at distances of two-
thirds of their final heights.
Vines are not used so much in America as in Europe, but they do
give individuality to the home grounds and should be used more fre-
quently in this country. They are used as ground covers and to cover
trellises, walls, fences and pergolas. There are many different kinds
of vines. These include woody and herbaceous kinds, evergreen and
deciduous kinds and also annual and perennial types.
The selection of a vine for a particular purpose often depends upon
its method of climbing. Some vines, such as the English ivy, climb
with aerial roots which attach themselves to rough surfaces; others,
such as the Englemann creeper and the Boston ivy, climb by means of
adhesive disks which can cling to wood, brick or stone. Both these
types are good for covering walls. Vines, such as some species of the
grape, attach themselves to a support by means of twining tendrils.
Those like the clematis climb with the aid of leaf petioles which twine
around any suitable support. Those like the bittersweet twine their
stems around a support. The vines that twine their stems are adapted
for a variety of purposes but seem to do best on vertical supports such
as strings and slender poles.
Fruits.-The owner of a. farmstead as well as the owner of a town
or city lot often desires to grow fruit for home use. Some grow fruit
trees not particularly for the fruit but because of the pleasure of having
fruit trees in blossom around the place during the spnng. One must
keep in mind that the growing of fruit requires a certain amount of
intelligent care and that the old method of planting the trees and then
harvesting the crop is now past. Pests are more prevalent at present
than in the past, and the necessary means of controlling .such 'pests
should be considered seriously before planting a home 'orchard or fruit
garden.
The fruit garden for the average suburban or city lot usually con-
sists only of the small fruits, and the suggestions for the farmstead will
also apply here. The fruit trees on the small area may be placed at
the back or to the side of the lot. Also, some may prefer to use fruit
trees in places where others use ornamental trees. If one desires a
succession of fruits of different varieties, such as apples, he might
graft or'bud several varieties of apples on the same tree.
Perhaps the principal reason for a fruit garden or orchard on a
farm.stead is that the farm family will consume more fruit if a sufficient
quantity is produced at home than if it has to be purchased. The
orchard itself becomes a permanent point of interest and is associated
with country life. The fruit garden on the farmstead should be care-
fully planned. Generally the tendency is to overplant, which may
result in the whole planting's being neglected. It is better to plant
less and take care of it properly than to overplant and neglect proper
care.
The planting should be located near the farm home on land reason-
ably fertile and well drained. The advantage of placing the fruit
garden between the windbreak and the farm buildings, especially in
regions subject to severe cold, is that it lessens wind damage and injury
due to extremely low winter temperature. ,
The home fruit garden should include most of the kinds of fruit
adapted to the locality. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, peaches,
grapes, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries
and nuts are the principal kinds from which to choose in temperate-
zone regions. In the warmer parts of the temperate zone and in the
subtropical areas, figs, citrus fruits, etc., would be a part of the fruit
garden.
The choice of varieties should be based upon adaptability to the
location, high quality and personal preference. With some fruits,
such as the apple, attention should be given to succession in ripening
of varieties; because fresh fruit can then be 'provided for the table over
a greater period of time. A succession of apples, for example, may be
provided by a proper selection of summer, fall and winter varieties.
Because the home orchard should be kept small, only a few varieties
of each kind or fruit should be chosen. Varieties adapted to various
states and even to parts of the same state differ; hence it is suggested
that one obtain the recommendations or'the state experiment station
before making a final selection.
lIORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOME 89
Close planting is a common mistake in fruit growing. It results in

dwarfing the pla~t; makes spraying, pruning and harvesting difficult;
-...,.
~
1
~
~-
I
~/8'.!-36' -~
Fro. 59.-Square system for planting an orchard. Black area shows theoretically waste
or unoccupied land.
and causes poorly colored fnlit on lower halves of the trees. The
planting distances for different parts of the United States will vary
TABLE 25. -PLANTING DISTANf:ES OF FRUIT PLANTS
Name of Plant Distance Apart, Feet
Apple ....... . ............ _. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 30 to 40
Pear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 to 30
Cherry, sour ....... .. .... . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 to 20
Plum, European'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 to 35
Plum, other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 to 25
Peach ... ........... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 to 22
'G rape ...... ........... , ..... , . , . . .. . . . . . . 8 by 10
Red raspberry .. , , ...... , . . ....... . . . . , . . . . 8 by 3
Black raspberry, . .... . . ......... . ..... . , . . 8 by 3
Blackberry, ......... , . .................. , 8 by 3
Currant and gooseherry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 by 4
Strawherry .. , , .. , ..... , .. ... , .......... .. 3% to 4 by 1~ to 2
90 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE .
according to soil, climatic conditions and kind and variety of fruit.

The same variety will require more room on fertile than on less fertile
soils.
Choice of the planting plan rests with the grower. Orchard trees
are commonly set in squares, rectangles or equilateral triangles. The
first is the simplest and commonest method in use in home planting.
FIG. 6O.-Hexaaonal &yBtem of plantin& an orchard. Black area .hows theoretically

wute or unoccupied land.
In the hexagonal (triangular) method, trees are planted in triangles

and are the same distance from . each other. This system allows for
about 15 per cent more trees per acre than does the square system.
Dwarf fruit trees have been used in Europe for years and are now
gainirtg some attention in the United States. Where the space .is
limited, as jn backyards of city lots, and environmental conditions
per. dt,. dwarf apple and dwarf pear trees may be preferable to stand-
ard trees. .
For several reasons, dwarf trees are not used to any great extent at
, the present time: (1) They cost much more; (2) a great many more
trees are required to provide sufficient fruit than with standard trees;
(3) a limited number of varieties are available; (4) in regions of severe
winters dwarf trees are subject to damage from low temperature; (5)
one cannot be sure of getting true dwarf trees, as the stocks have not
been standardized.
In small gardens and in instances of intensive culture, strawberries
are grown in hills by removing all runner plants. The most usual
practice, 'however, is to grow the plants in matted rows, a system in
which many or all of the runners are allowed to set, but the plants
are kept in rows with cultivated strips between rows of strawberry
plants. In this system the matted rows of strawberry plants occupy
about half the land and the cultivated strips the other half. The
spaced runner system is a modification of the matted row in which
some of the runner plants are removed while young and those remain-
ing are spaced about 6 in. apart in the matted row.
Red raspberries and blackberries are usually grown in hedgerows
because of their habit of sending up new plants from the roots. The
hedgerows of plants are 18 to 24 in. wide (at the base) and are separated
TABLE 26.-ApPROXIMATE AGE AT INITIAL BEARING AND ApPROXIMATE YIELD

OF FRUITS IN THE HOME FRUIT GARDEN
. te Approximate annual
Approxlma , rod ' full
Kind of fruit · 'tial p . uctlOn at
a t 'Inl
ageb be'
anng age, Wit.h
eanng good care
Tree fruits:
Apple ......... ......... .... . 5 to 8 years 7 bu. per tree
Pear .. ..... ....... ....... . . 5 to 8 years 5 bu. per tree
Peach ... . ... ............ . . . 3 to 4 years 3 bu. per tree
Plum ....... ..... . . . .... . . . 4 to 7 years 2 bu. per tree
Sour cherry ................ . 4 to 5 years 60 qt. per tree
Sweet cherry ..... .. ........ . 5 to 7 years 70 qt. per tree
Sma.ll fruits:
Grape . ....... . ...... ..... . . 3 years 15 lb. per vine
Strawberry ............. . .. . 1 year 1 pt. per plant set
Black raspberry .. .......... . 2 years . 1 qt. per plant set
Red ra.spberry ... . ......... . . 2 years 1 qt. per plant set
Blackberry ................ . 2 years 1 qt. per plant set
~berry ........ ... ..... . 3 years 5 qt. per plant set
Currant ...... .. ... ..... ... . 3 yea.rs 5 qt. per plant set
~
t.:I
0 , 0 0 0 0 0
~
~
~
~
Lima beans Sfring beans Cl Peppers - - - - - ~

~
.. .. .. . .. . .
20 .. 4-
+
4- + + +
+
+ .
+
+ + 0
0
0
..
+ + +
+
+ +
...
•
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
o.
0 0 0
0
0
00"
0 0 • + +
+
+
+
+
...
...
...
+
+
+
+
...
+.
+
~
~
0
Muskmelons
21 +
Cucumbers
4- + + + .+ .. Summer
0 0 0 +++
Win fer squash
, ++++000
Wafermelons
00000++ .. . + ~
22 .. 4- 4- .. + . + + + 0
squash
0 0 + .. .. 000 o 0 Q 0+ .. + + + + ~
~
23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sweet pofatoes
o o o 0
FIG. 61.-Plail for a farm garden, 90 by 240 ft.
o
(Ill. Agr. Exp.Sta.)
o o
~
by cultivated strips 4 to 6 ft. in 'width. Since black raspberries and

the purple cane varieties do not sucker from the roots but reproduce by
tip layerage, these plants arc grown by what is termed the "linear
system." They are kept in rows with the cultivated strips between
the rows, and each year three to five canes are permitted to develop
from the crowns of each of the original plants in the row.
Vegetables.-The primary purpose of the home vegetable garden
is to supply fresh, canned and dried vegetables for the family table.
Whether on a farm or in the city, the home garden may become a place
of interest, pleasure and profit. The care of a vegetable garden is
easier if a well-organized plan is made which designates the crops to
be grown and their location and the distance between rows and plants
o 0 0 0 0 0
I . Asparagus .
LettuceSpinaCh followed/iy'cucumbersand bush squash. Radlshes--
1
2
3 , Onlonsers
Early furnips--&;/y beefs rOIl':!/!/jb~ lale ~abb';,ge Cress
15 - - - - - - - - E a r l y swee!corn fo/lowedby tumips - - - - - - -

16 Late sweet corn - - - - - - - - - - -
17 Dwarf Ilina beons-------.....---Peppe/$---
18 Tomatoes Egg plant - - -
o 0 0 0 0 0 0
FIG. 62.-Plan for a small home garden, 30 by 60 ft. (Ill . Aqr. Exp. Sw .)
in the row. The size of the garden will depend upon the number of
people who are to be fed and the amount of land available. A small
garden well cared for is better than a large one neglected. Regardless
of size, however, the garden should be planned to be economical of
labor. In the small garden the wheel hoe can be used, and in the large
one the rows should be far enough apart to permit horse cultivation;
particularly is this true in the large farm garden. In general, the rows
of the vegetable garden should run north and south for optimum light.
The perennial vegetables such as rhubarb, asparagus and globe
artichokes, which remain in one place for several years, should be
located on one side of the garden so that they will not interfere with the
cultivation and rotation of the land where the annual crops are grown.
A planting calendar is an aid in planning the home garden. Such a
calendar generally gives planting dates, spacing of plants, length of
, time to mature the crop and other useful information. It is generally
adapted to limited areas because of variations in climate and soil.
Satisfactory planting calendars are usually available at the different

state agricultural experiment stations, and suggestive ones are often
given in seed catalogues.
Succession cropping in the vegetable garden refers to the growing
of two or more crops in succession on the same land in a single season.
This method would include a greater variety of crops in regions where
the growing season is longer than where the growing season is compara-
tively short. For example, in some districts in the South, cool-season
vegetables, such as lettuce, peas, carrots, spinach and beets, are grown
during the winter and are · followed in the summer by warm-season
TABLlIl 27.-THE HOME GARDEN AND THE YEAB'S FOOD SUPPLY·
Amounts tQ plant
Quantity per person (with fair
Servings per person per yields under favor-
Foods (vegetables) person able conditions)
per
year
Weekly Yearly Spring Fall
I
Tomatoes ....... . . . . ..... 6 300 30 qt. 15 plants
Cabbage . . . . . ... . ... ... . .. .. . · .. ISO 50 lb. 18 plaots 18 plants

Lettuce ... ..... .. ....... 6 310 90 ... .. 1) ft. 6 ft.
Spinach .. . . . .. .... .. ... . ... . . .. 40 6 pt. 15 ft. 15 ft.
Carrots .. . ... ... ... . . . .. . ... . ... 120 30 lb. 15 ft. 15 ft.
7urnips ... .... . ... .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. 60 15 lb. 10 ft. 15 ft.
Beets .. . . . . . . .. ..... .... 6 315 60 10 lb. 10 ft. 10 ft.
Parsnips . . .. ... .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . ... 15 10 lb. 6 ft.
Onions ... . ... ... ...... . . ..... · .. 60 12 lb. 20 ft.
String beanS .. .. ... . .. .. . .... . .. . 15 8 qt. 60 ft.

Asparagus : ....... ...... . .. , .. .. . 10 ..... 8 crowns
Broccoli. . . . .. ... . . ..... . lto2 80 10 .... . 4 plants I 4 plaots
Celery . .. . ....... . ... .. . . ... . . .. 10 .. ... 8 plants.
Peas ...... . ...... . .... . . . .. . . · .. 30 4 pt. 45 ft.

Beans, dried . ... .... . . . . . 3 120 40 7 lb. 105 ft.
Corn, can . .. .... ... .. . . .. .... . · .. 50 10 pt. 100 ft
COm,.dry.: . . . ... . . . . . . . . .... . · . . 50 llb. 100 ft.
Potatoes, white . .. . .... . . ... . . ." 685 a bu. 400 ft.

Potatoes, sweet ; . .. .. ... . . ... .. . . . 50 ~bu. 50 ft.
Rhubarb .. . ..... ... . . • .. 15 815 50 4 qt. 1 plant 3 plaots
Squash . .. ... .. . .. .. . . . . . ... .. .. ,' 30 10 lb. I
• Rosa, R. Coo 41 al., Shall We Move to the Qountr)'1 Un;'. m. Cir. f79, p. 13, 1937.
crops such as tomatoes, melons and eggplants. In Iowa such crops as
bush beans, beets, early cabbage, radishes, carrots and cauliflower
occupy the ground for only a part of the growing season and can be
followed by late crops.
Companion cropping, which consists of growing two crops of vege-
tables on the land at the same time, may include the growing of quick-
maturing crops such as spinach, lettuce, green onions and radishes
between rows of slow-growing crops like peppers and tomatoes. The
city gardener often uses both successive cropping and companion
cropping because of a limited amoun.t of land.
OBTAINING PLANTS
The chief probleIns in obtaining plants are: (1) the quantities of the
various plants to obtain, (2) the source of the materials, (3) the quality
of the various plants and (4) the season of the year for purchase and
delivery.
Quantity.-Attention has been called to several factors that govern
the quantity of the various kinds of horticultural plant materials to
be obtained. Information was given for spacing distances of fruits,
flowers, vegetables and ornamentals and also for the amount of fruits
and vegetables required for each member of the faInily. Although
this information is a good guide for the quantity of material to
purchase, quite often the expense becomes a limiting factor. Many
farIns have sufficient space in the vegetable garden to set ornamental
plants known as "lining-out" stock. Lining-out stock is small plants
usually sold in quantities of not less than 100 to be grown under
cultivation for one or more years until they are sufficiently large to be
planted in their permanent locations. One may purchase considerable
quantities of plants cheaply and grow them in a home-garden nursery
plot.
Source.-Seeds are used to start annual flowers and most vege-
tables. Plants are used for other horticultural materials as trees,
shrubs, general herbaceous perennials, special vegetables as tomatoes
and cabbages, and those annual herbaceous flowers for which an early
start is desired.
The sources from which the plants are obtained depend upon the
kind of plant; but in general, plants will be purchased from nurseries
or from greenhouses, dug from native plaIl:tings or received as, gifts
from neighbors.
The success of a nursery depends upon its ability to continue to
produce and sell plants at a profit; therefore, the nursery is the most
reliable source from which to obtain trees, shrubs and general peren-
cc
0:.
TABLE 28.-PLANTING TABLE· FOR VEIlETABLES IN IOWA·
Seed per 100 ft. of Planting distance

Plant seed Days re-
row . between roWB, inches Depth Dia- quirecl to
~
Crop . to tanoe Transplant mature
-plant, in row, to field from
Seed Plante
Horse cul- Hand cul- inchee inchee
In open field I In hotbtod &eed
><
~
tivation tivation ~
8>:I
Asparagus roote . .. .. . . .... . ..... . 66 36 to 48 36 to 48 8 to 10 18 to 24 ... . . . .. .. ....... ..... ....... .... ... 3 years
Beans. bush .. .. ............. . ....
Beans. bush lima ; .. ... . . ....... . .
1 qt.
1 qt.
30
30
to
to
36
36
18 to 24 1 to 1~ 2to3 May I
18 to 30 1 to 2 ·4 to 6 May 1 to 15
....... . .. . .
. . . .... .. .. .. .
.... .. ..... ...
. .. . ... .... .
45 to 65
50 to 70
~
Beans, pole ... .. , .. . ... .' . ... ... .. ~ pt.
~pt.
36 to 48 36 1 to 2 36 to 48 May 1 ... ... .. ... ...
... . . . ..... .
....... ..... ...... .. .... ..
45 to 65 ~
~
Beans, pole lima ........ • ... . ..... 36 to 48 36 1 to 2 36 to 48 May 1 65 to 80
Beete . ... ... .. . ... : •. .• ..•.... .. 201. 24 to 36 12 to 18 I 2to3 Apr. 1 .... ..... ... .. ..... ... .... 60 to 110
Brueeela sproute . .' .. ........ . .. ...
Cabbala, early .. ............ . . .. '.
X 01. 66 36 20 to 28 Xto~ . 18 .. ........
... .......
Feb. 16 Apr. 1 to 16 90 to 110 ~
X 0•• 66 24 to 36 20 to 28 Xto~ 18 Feb. 1 to 16 Apr. 1 to III 90 to 120
~
Cabba,e. lata .. ........ . .... : . . .. X 0'. 50 to 65 36 to 42 24 to 32 ~ 24 to 30 June 1 ...... ...... July 1 to III 100 to 136
Cabbala. Chineae . . . .• . .. ••....... ~ 0'. 100 24 to 28 18 to 24 ~ 12 to 15 July {to III Feb. 16 Apr. 1 to 111 80 to 100
Carrote .......... ..... .. .... . ... . ~ 0 •• 24 to 28 12 to 18 ~ 2to3 Apr. It ...... ..... . ..... .. .......
60 to 120
~
~
Cauliflower . . •. . •.••••••.... . . •. . X 01. 66 36 to '2 24 to 30 ~ 18 .. ........ Feb. 15 Apr. 1 to 16 100 to 120
Celeriao : .... . . , . ........ ..... .. . X 01. 200 36 24 ~ 6 ........... Feb. 16 Apr. 1 to 15 125 8
~
CelerY . .. . .. ... . . ....... ..... . . . X 01. 200 36 to '8 20 to 24 ~ 'to 8 .. ..... ... Feb. 1 to Apr. l Apr. 16 to June 15 120 to 150
... . . ... .... ....... ..... ..
~
Chard, !!-.ria! ...... .......... .. . .. 10•. 24 to 30 15 to 18 1 6 to 8 Apr. 1 to 15 50 to 120
Corn, .weet . . .... .. .. .. ........ . . ~pt. 35 to 65 36 to ti 30 to 36 lto2 18 to 2' May 1 to 15 . ........... . .. .... ...... . 75 to 90
Cuoumber ........ ..... ........ . . ~ 0'. 20 to 25 '8 to 60 '8 to 60 1 48 to 72 May 15 . ..... . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. 90 to 130
Egp1.ant .. :.. . .. .. . ......... ...... .X 0.• . 50 30 to 36 2' ~ 2' Mar. 1 . . ....... .. . May 15 150 to 160
Endive .. .. . . ...... .. . . ..... . . ... ~ 0'. 100 2' to 28 a to 18 ~to 1 8 to 12 Apr. 1 . . .......... ..... .. . ... . . . 60 to 90
Horseradish toote .. ...... .. .... . . . 70 30 to 36 2' to 30 3to' 14 to 20 ....... ... . ... . ...... . Apr. 1 to 15 120 to 140
Kale ........... ..... •• . • .. . · .... ~ 00. 100 2. to 30 15 to 2. ;J.<l to·l 112t024 Apr.1t . ........ ... .............. 90 to 1.)0
Kohlrabi. .........•.••.....•.... ~ oz. 150 2f to 28 15 to 2f ;J.<l .to8 Apr. 1 Feb. 15 Apr. 1 to 15
IAek ... . .........•...••......... ;J.<l08. 2. to 28 12 to 18 1 .to6 Apr. 1 . .......... . .............. 60 to 90
Lettuce ............•.. .• ...... . .. ;J.<loo. 200 2f to 28 12 to 15 ;J.<l 4to8 Apr. It Feb. 15 Apr. 1 140 to 180
Muskmelon ....•. . .••..•.•.•...• ~ oz. 20 to 25 48 to 60 , 48 to 60 1 60 to 72 May 15 Apr. 15 May 15 90 to 120
Mustard .......... ..... , ......... ~ oz. 24 to 28 12 to 15 ~ 2 to 3 Apr.1t .............. .............. 60 to 90

~
::tl
Okr• . . . . ..... .. ....•••.... .. .... 10•. 50 30 to 36 30 to 36 1 24 May 15 . .. ......... ......... .... . 90 to 140 '"3
......
Onion, .eed .......... ... .... .. ... 100. 2f to 28 12 to 15 ;J.<l to 1 2 to 3 Apr. 1 Feb. 1 Apr. 15 140 to 160 ~
. ......... . . .. . . .. .... Apr. 1 45 to 75
Onion, set .........•...........•.
Onion, Bermuda ..................
2 qt.
100. fOO
2f
28
to
to
28
36
12
12
to
to
15
15
1
1
2 to 3
2 to 3 . ......... Feb. 1 Apr. 1 to 15 130 to 150 8'"3
Paraley .......... . . . ..... . ..... .. ~ oz. 100 to 200 28 to 36 12 to 18 ~ 3 to 6 Apr. 15 ' ... ..... . .. . .............. 90 to 100
c:::
::tl
....... ..... ..............
~
P.nnip... .......... ...... . .... .. ~ oz. 28 to 36 18 to 24 ;J.<l to 1 3 to 5 Apr. 1 to 15 140 to 160
Peas . ............ : ...........•.• 1t02pt. 30 to 36 2f 1 to 2 1 to 2 Apr. 1 . ... ........ ........ ...... 75 to 100
Pepper.. ...... . .. . ... ... .. ... . . .. ~ oz. 66 30 to 36 2f to 28 ~ 15 to 20 ..... . ... . Mar. 1 May 15 140 to 160 l.>j
Potato, Irieh ......... .... ........ 5 to 8 lb. 28 to 36 12 to 18 3 to 4 12 to 18 Apr. 1 t ............ .............. 120 to 140 !i!:
'"3
l.>j
Potato, .weet ... . . .... .... ..... .. 65 to 75 36 to 48 36 to 48 3 to 4 14 to 18 .......... Apr. 1 May 15 to 30 140 to 150 ::tl
Pumpkin ................. . ... ... ~ oz. 10 to 15 8 to 12 8 to 12 1 IM to 108 May 15 ............ ...... ...... .. 90 to 120 "t1
Radi8h .. ......... . .... ...... .... 1 oz. 24 to 36 12 to 18 ;J.<l to 1 1;J.<l to 2 Apr.1t .. ... ....... . ............. 30 to 65 ::tl
......
2 to 3 36 to 60 . . ....... . ........... . Apr. 1 365
~
Rhubarb plant•....•...•......... 33 36 to 60 36 to 60
Ba.l.sify . .. .. ....... •.. ........... 10•• 30 to 36 18 to 24 ;J.<l to 1 2 to 4 Apr. 1 ............ . ............. 140 to 160
/j;)
Spinach . ....... ......... .... .... 10z. 30 to 36 12 to 18 '2 to 4 Mar. 15 to 30 . ........... .... .......... 60 to 80
~
Spinach, New Zealand ............ 101. 30 to 36 30 to 36 1 12 to 18 Apr. 15 to 30 .... .. ... ... . ... .......... 60 to 150
Squash. summer . ......... .. . .. ...
Squuh, winter .........•........ .
~ 01.
;J.<loz.
20 to 40
10 to 35
36 to 48 36 to 48
84 to 108 84 to 108
1
1
36 to 48 May 15
84
...... ... ...
May 15 to 30 . . . . . . . . . . . .
..............
... ...........
60 to 65
125 to 140 ~.
Tomatoes ......... . .' ............ . . ~ 01. 25 to 35 36 to 60 36 to 48 ~ 36 to 48 . .........
Mar. 15 to 30 May 15 to 30 150 to 170
t:l:::
I'urnipe .................. : . ..... ~ 01. 24 to 36 18 to 24 ~toH Aug. it . ........... . ............. 60 to-80 C
Watermelon ..... .... . . . .. ....... 1 01 . 33 96 to 144 96 to 144 1 84 to 108 May 1f> to 30 Apr. 1 to 15 May 15 100 to 130
~
• BD __ , E. B., The Home Vegetable Garden, Iowa Agr. Expl. BIa. Cir. 115, pp. 12, 13, 1929.
t Sueceuion pl.ntinllll may be made.
t Plantinl date for fall crop.
CO
-J
nials. A nursery may deal in a large assortment of plants or specialize

in the production of a specific kind and be well known for its varieties
of roses, peonies, iris or dahlias. If one desires an extensive variety
of one kind or the latest improved varieties, it is desirable to buy them
from established specialized growers.
Genera.lly there is native material growing wild in every community
that is suitable for planting. These trees and shrubs are usua.lly more
difficult to transplant successfully than the same sorts purchased from
a nurseIY. This is because in the wild state the roots have never
been pruned and extend long distances without branching, with the
result that, when the plant is dug, a much larger proportion of the root
system is cut off and left in the soil than when the plant is taken from
a nursery where it has been root pruned frequently. Root pruning
results in a compact root system.
Trees, shrubs and herbaceous materials Inay often be obtained from
a neighbor, who when he decides to thin out or remove some plants
is pleased to have someone make use of them. Such plants may often
be divided into a number of smaller ones.
Seeds should be obtained from a first-rate firm, or they may be
ordered from catalogues of reliable seed houses. It is usually most
economical to buy good ones because such seeds are true to their name,
free of weed seeds and of high viability. Some save the seeds from
home-grown plants; although these may not always hold true to variety
and Inay not be so viable as purchased seed, they do offer a cheap source
of materials for planting the next season's garden.
Qua1ity.-Since the original cost of the plant is very little when
compared with its ultimate value, it is economical to buy only first-
grade nursery stock. Such stock is well grown, is free from insects
and diseases and possesses an adequate root system in relation to the
top, which enables it to withstand the shock of transplanting much
better than the poorer grades that do not have such satisfactory root
systeIns. With suitable plants the expense of replacing becomes
negligible, provided the necessary care is used in planting.
Ornamental deciduous trees up to 10 ft. are usually priced accord-
ing to height, and larger trees according to the diameter of the trunk
near the base. Ordinarily, first-grade deciduous shade trees 2 in. and
less in diameter have good root systeIns in relation to the top and make
a large tree more quickly than the smaller sizes.
In the selection of shrubs, the final height and spread to which they
will grow is an important consideration. Ornamental deciduous
shrubs are sold according to height. For shrubs whose final height is
low (2 to 4 ft.), purchase the 1,72- to 2-ft. size; for those of medium
HORTI CULTU RAL ENTER PRISES OF THE HOME 99
height (4 to 8 ft.), purchase the 2- to 3-ft. size; and for the higher. grow-
ing (8 to 15 ft.), purchase the 3- to 4-ft. size. Shrubs should hp.ve
e
bushy tops and bushy root systems. The heights specified indicat
first-grade stock which is generally from two to four years of age and
2
o
Q 4
~
6
5
.
FIG. 63.-Eve rgreens grouped accordin g to shape.
screen and windbre ak
Groul> 1. Adapted for specimen s on lawn; massing in groUl>S; Austrian pine
planting ; includes Douglas fir, white fir, Colorado blue spruce,
pine, globe arborvit ae
Group 2. Dwarf growers; more or less globular ; includes mugho includes Colorado
Group 3. Upright, columna r; used for accent; formal effects;
junipers, Chinese junipers, pyramid al arborvit ae
includes Pfitaer juniper,
Group 4. Dwarf growers; used for foundati on planting s;
Sabin juniper
Group 5. Pictures que; specimen , backgrou nd; Scotch pine
·whereve r a low carpet of
Group 6. Creeping varieties of juniper; used on slopes and
evergree n foliage is desirable ; includes all forms of !lr&:ping junipers
has been transpl anted or root pruned and top pruned at the proper
of
stages of development. Such stock easily withsta nds the shock
transpl anting.
Many different kinds of evergreen are produced by nurseries. To
JIlany people all evergreens are spruces or pines; to othE;lfs !loll ever~reen~
100 TEXTBOOK 01/ GENERAL HORTICULTURE
are similar in shape and final size. There are two big divisions of
evergreen: (1) the broadleaf kinds, such as rhododendron, mountain
laurel and boxwood; and (2) the narrow-leaf kinds, such as spruces,
pines, junipers and firs. The former group is restricted to rather
specialized areas, as they require acid soils and are not hardy to
extremely low temperatures. The latter contains many plants adapted
to extensive areas.
The best grades of evergreens have been transplanted frequently
in the nursery row and have been root pruned and when necessary the
tops staked and trained. All narrow-leaf evergreens should be balled
and burlapped. This means that the plant is dug with a ball of earth
surrounding the roots and the ball is wrapped in burlap for shipping.
Perhaps the most important factor in deciding the size to purchase is
price. Evergreens are quoted by height or by spread, depending on
whether they are erect growing or spreading. The expense of trans-
portation becomes quite great when large plants with their necessarily
large ballR of earth are shipped a few hundred miles.
Fruit-tree grades are based on size. Size is expressed as height in
feet or trunk caliper in sixteenths of an inch shortly above the ground.
Age refers omy to the top growth of the tree. The fact that the small
tree did Dot prosper in the nursery in competition with the others may
indicate that it is inferior. Nurserymen sometimes cut these smaller
trees back and allow them to remain in the nursery another year and
then sell them as one-year" cut-backs." Fruit trees are usually sold
when one or two years old. Generally the one-year-old tree is the one
to buy. It is cheaper; easier to transplant because it is smaller; more
likely to live because a larger percentage of the root system was retained
in digging than would have been the case with larger and older trees;
and fruits as early as the two-year-old tree.
Nursery stock often possesses specifications other than grade that
confuse the prospective purchaser. Among these are (1) budded or
grafted plants; (2) dO·lble-worked trees; (3) sports, strains and pedi-
greed plants. Choice between budded and grafted plants occasionally
presents a problem with apple trees and rose plants. In regions where
root killing is important because of low winter temperatures, root-
grafted apple trees are preferable. These are generally propagated
from a short root and a long scion, and when first planted most of the
scion is below ground. This places the point of union between stock
and scion several inches deeper in the soil in the permanent location
than it would be for budded trees. The underground portion of the
Reion may send out roots, and because of their favorable position they
may become the chief roots of the tree. If the variety selected is
hardier than the Reedling root used in its propagation, and if the scion
HORTICULTURAL EN7'ERPRISES OF THE HOME 101
eventually develops a root system, then it follows that the tree will
have a root system better able to resist cold. Apple trees grown from
whole seedling roots show no consistent advantage over those from
piece roots. Available data indicate no distinct advantage of grafted
over budded roses.
Double-worked trees are of particular value with certain fruits.
The term "double-worked" signifies twice grafted or budded. The
method used in propagating double-worked trees is discussed in the
chapter on Propagation of Horticultural Plants.
Bud-selected, or "pedigreed," stock means that the nurseryman
has selected either .scion wood or buds from so-called" high yielders."
Jonathan apple trees may be offered for sale that were propagated
from wood selected from a high-yielding tree. The latter might have
been planted in soil that was particularly fertile or well drained, or it
might have been on a seedli~g stock that was particularly congenial.
Actual evidence indicates no permanent yield variations arising from
a single branch of a tree or from an entire tree that would be inherent
in the scion. With citrus fruits, however, there is often considerable
variation in different parts of the same tree; and with these fruits the
selection of buds from desirable wood is a universal and highly desirable
practice.
Recent studies have rendered possible the identification of varieties
of the same kinds of plants in the nursery row by leaf, shoot, twig and
stem characteristics, thus permitting the elimination of plants not
true to variety. Some nurseries have had their stock plants inspected
and are offering plants propagated from these trees as "certified"
plants. This means that the plants are certified to be true to name.
Certified "seed" in the case of Irish potatoes means that the
tubers have been grown under specified conditions and are free of dis-
eases such as mosaic and spindle tuber. These potatoes are inspected
several times during the growing season and again after digging. If
they have been properly grown and meet the legal requirements of
freedom from disease, they are certified.
Time.-The time of the year for ordering seeds and plants varies
according to the section of the country and with the particular plant
material desired. Generally the order for plants should be sent to the
nurse~r several months before the planting season. A nursery often
depletes its stock of certain varieties and of certain kinds of plants
long before it fills all its orders.
PLANTING
The death of plants at the time of transplant.ing is due to drying out

·of either roots or stems before opportunity is given the plants to become
re-established in their new location. This drying may be due infre-

quently to improper handling before the plants are received. The
loss of plants that are in good condition when they are received from
the nursery, however, is generally due to improper handling by the
purchaser.
Where several days' delay may occur before trees and shrubs ·
received from the nursery can be set in their permanent places, the
crate or bundle should be opened, and the plants It heeled in" until
they c~n be planted properly. They should be separated, and the
roots placed in a. trench With the tops inclined to shade the trunks.
FIG. M.-TrlUlllplanting map of the United States. The white are811 indicate
where' fall is at le8llt as favorable a time 811 spring for transplanting most deciduoUll trees
and shrubs. In the darkly stippled areas transplanting should be done only in spring
unless care is exercised. In the lightly stippled are811 transplanting may be done
whenever moisture conditions are favorable. (U.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)
The roots should be covered with moist soil packed around them to
keep them from drying out.
Season of Year.-The season of the year for planting will vary
according to the kind of plant and the section of the country. The
U.S. Department of Agri.culture divides the country into 32 climatic
regions each of which differs in climate, soil and altitude. For that
reason it is difficult to give the exact season of the year for planting.
For every 100 ft. above sea level and for each 15 miles north, spring
arrives one day later, and fall arrives one day earlier. Seeds may be
soWn on the coast of South Carolina in March, but in the mountains of
the sa.me sta.te simiiP,r seed should not be eown qntil May.
HORTI CULTU RAL ENTER PRISES OF THE HOMB 103
The time for sowing seed also varies according to whethe r the seed
,
is sown directly in the field or started in a structu re such as a hotbed
coldframe or a contain er indoors . The time of sowing seeds for those
is
plants which are started early and transpl anted outdoo rs later
det.ermined largely by the time when it is desired to set the plants
in the field. In milder sections of the South, where winter produc tion
of vegetables is import ant, many plants are started in summe r or early
fall, whereas in sections farther north similar seeds are started under
protect ion in early spring. Many people start forcing . plants too
early, and this results in stunted plants or tall and "leggy " ones which
are difficult to transpl ant. Some plants like petunia s and cosmos
reseed themselves in the fall, and the seeds lie dorma nt over winter and
germin ate the following spring.
Spring-flowering herbaceous perennial plants, including the tulip,
crocus, daffodil, narcissus, peony and iris, are generally planted in late
summe r or fall, because if the plantin g is delayed until spring there
would be insufficient time for suitabl e growth to give early blooming.
Woody deciduous plants are planted in the fall, spring or winter
depending on the section of the United States.
All living plants are giving off moisture, whethe r the plant is in leaf
and growing or dorman t. Growing plants and dorma nt plants under
normal conditions are able to replace the loss of moistu re by absorption
throug h the roots. A consideration of this principle is the determ ining
factor in deciding the season of the year when plantS should be set.
s
Particu larly is this true with trees and shrubs. In those climate
where winter moisture is insufficient, plantin g should be done in the
spring. When the plant is set in the fall, it must develop enough new
If
roots to absorb sufficient water to keep the plant from drying out.
freezing weathe r occurs before the root has had enough heat and mois-
ture to develop sufficiently, the plant will dry out. Where winter
winds are very drying and the soil moisture is limited, evapor ation
from the stem of the plant is likely to be in excess "of the moistu re sup-
plied by the root, and the plant will die.
The month or six-week period just preceding freezing weathe r is the
of
best time for transpl anting deciduous trees and shrubs in large parts
eastern and southe rn United States and some areas on the Pacific
as
coast. The other most desirable time for plantin g is in the spring
soon as the ground is dry enough for suitabl e mechan ical operati ons.
Plantin g should be done as early as possible in order to give the root
r
system an opport unity to develop somew hat before warm weathe
forces the top into growth. Where cold temper ature rather than
lack of moisture is the limiting factor in time of planting, a heavy mulch
will often permit fall planting. The mulch delays the penetration of
frost, keeping the soil temperature higher later in the season and also
retarding the evaporation of moisture from the soil. Small evergreens,
such as those used for windbreaks, are generally planted with bare
roots, but larger ones are generally balled and burlapped. Balled and
burlapped evergreens are sometimes planted in the fall in the colder
regions of the United States after their active growth has ceased for the
season. When this practice is followed, it is always advisable to
mulch, for the reasons mentioned previously and also to prevent
alternate freezing and thawing of the soil, which causes heaving and
results in damage to the root system.. Deciduous trees may be pro-
tected from drying by wind by wrapping the trunks and large branches
with .burlap. Recently various waxy coverings have been applied to
• both deciduous and evergreen plants to retard evaporation.
Evergreens which are usually transplanted with a ball of earth
attached to the roots and deciduous trees which are sometimes moved
under similar conditions may be transplanted at any season of the year.
It is generally advisable, however, to transplant them at that season
when loss of moisture is at a minimum.
A tree of sufficient size to furnish shade can often be obtained
quickly by transplanting a large tree. In such cases it is advisable to
move the tree with a considerable amount of the root system pre-
served in a ball of earth. The character of the soil, the rooting habit
of the tree and the amount of preparatory treatment are all important
in determining the size of ball that is necessary to take. A suitahle.
tree 4 to 5 in. in diameter is a satisfactory size, although larger trees
can be moved successfully. In late fall a trench is dug around the tree
deep enough to cut off the side roots. The volume of soil inside the
trench, commonly referred to as the "ball," should be 4 to 5 ft. in
diameter for 5-in. trees. After digging this trench, pack it with leaves.
When the block of dirt is frozen, the rest of the roots are cut; and the
tree and the ball of dirt are pulled over at a sharp angle. The hole is
partly filled under the bal~ of di~, and the roots and the tree swung
back and forth a few times in thit:! way raising the ball of roots out
of the hole. The tree can then be rolled on a sled for transportation
to the new hole which should have been dug in the fall before the
ground was frozen. Defe<:tive crotches should be eliminated, and
the amount of leaf area reduced by thinning some of the branches.
This can be done before the tree is replanted.
Manner of Planting.-Death of plants due to carelessness on the
part of the planter in transplanting is quite common. The method of
planting will vary ar.r.ordimr to the type of plant and texture of the soil.
HORTicULTURAL ENTERPRISES OF THE HOME 105
Seeds may be sown in 'hills, rows or broadcast, depending upon the

kind of plant. The operation of seeding may be done by hand or with
a seeder. The average layman will most likely seed by hand or with
a mechanical hand seeder. Regardless of the method, secds should
be placed at the proper depth, and the soil should be left compacted
about them. The depth of planting seeds depends on the manner of
germination, size of seed, texture of soil, availability of moisture and
length of time required for germination. Under ideal conditions
seedlings will grow best when planted at a depth of about four times
their diameter. In a sandy soil which dries out readily and does not
form a crust after rains, seed should be planted approximately twice as
deeply as in a soil with a clay surface. When soil moisture is deficient;
~L-~-L~~~__~~~-L~~~~~~~~~~~~L-~~
inches I 2 3 4 5 Ei 7 8 9 JO " rz 13 14 15 16 TT J8 J9 20 21 22
FIG. 65.-Diagrammatic sketches showiug suggested depths and distances for planting
various bulbs.
seeds should be planted twice as deep as when ample moisture is

available. Some seeds germinate slowly and under dry conditions
should be planted more deeply than those which germinate quickly.
The average layman will use plants, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes or roots
in planting some of the herbaceous material that is used in the vege-
table and flower gardens. The depth of planting is an important
consideration in planting tubers, bulbs and rhizomes. Observa.tions
extending. over many years have established certain practices as being
best. Rhizomes of the iris are generally . set singly in sha.llow holeS
just deep enough to permit covering. When planted deeper they may
suffer from rhizome rot. Roots of the peony are set in holes large
enough for the root system but with the eyes or buds 2 in. below the
top of the soil. Deeper planting may keep them from' flowering.
Gladiolus corms are planted from 3 to 6 in. deep in heavy clay soil, 6
to 8 in. in light sandy soil. The size of bulb and texture of soil deter-
mine the depth of planting most of the plants propagated from bulbs.
In general, crocuses are planted at a depth of 3 in., tulips 4 to 6 in.,
narc~i 5 to 6 in. and lilies 6 in.
In transplanting petunias, cosmos, marigold, tomatoes, cabbage
and similar material that has soft succulent stems,care should be taken
to press the soil about the root after the plant is placed in the hole.
Pressure against the stems might injure or kill the plant. Water may
be applied after transplanting to settle the soil about the roots.
Shading the plants for a day after transplanting is also an advantage.
All the steps involved in setting. plants are performed in order to
facilitate the development of roots and the absorption of moisture and
thereby prevent the dessication and death of the plants. In order to
attain the foregoing objectives the following procedure is suggested
for trees.
In setting a tree one should dig a hole that is 3 to 6 in. wider all
around than the extent of the root system, The sides of the hole
should be straight or sloping slightly outward at the top.. The soil in
the bottom should be loosened to permit proper bedding of the root sys-
tem. The plant is then taken directly from the bundle or from where
it has been heeled in, and badly broken or injured roots removed before
it is inserted in the hole. Retain all the root system possible, because a
large part of it was lost when the plant was removed from the nursery.
Set the plant about 2 in. deeper than it stood in the nursery row, as this
further insures getting the root system well covered with soil. Fill the
hole about two-thirds full of fertile or surface soil while packing firmly
about the roots. If desirable the hole can then be filled with water,
after which sufficient soil should be added to fill it. Soil should not be
mounded about tree.
Deciduo~ trees and shrubs require pruning back of the tops at the
time of planting, but training and pruning of horticultural plants will
be discussed in later chapters of the text.
Review Questions
1. What are the two basic requirements of the plan for the home grounds?
2. What three basic factol'8 are required in obtaining utility in the plan for the
home grounds?
8. What are the requirements for unity in the plan for the home grounds?
,. What are the two principal types of plans for the home grounds?
I. What are the three principal areas of the plan for the home grounds?
6. What are the characteristic features of each area?
'1. What procedure is followed to combine the three areas into 8. unit?
8. What procedure is followed to combine the major feature of a single area
into a unit?
9. What kinds of horticultural plant material are used for the home grounds?
10. What basic grass should you recommend for your own locality?
11. What are seven uses of ornamental trees on the home grounds?
12. What are six uses of ornamental shrubs on the home grounds?
IS. How should the shrubs be arranged in an informal shrub border?
14. What determines the distance at which plants are spaced?
16. Name thrce kinds of each of the following: (a) deciduous ornamental trees,
(b) evergreen ornamental trees, (c) deciduous ornamental shrubs and (d) evergreen
ornamental shrubs.
16. Namc three kinds of each of the following plants: (a) annual herbaceous
flowers, (b) perennial herbaceous flowers propagated from seed or by division and
(c) perennial herbaceous flowers propagated from a tuber or bulb.
17. What chief factors should be considered in planning the home fruit and
vegetable gardens?
18. What determines the quantity of the horticultural plant material to be
used in the home plan?
19. From what sources can such material be obtained?
20. At what seasons of the year should deciduous plants be set?
Problems
1. Make a diagrammatic sketch, to approximate scale, showing the three
principal areas on your own or another known home grounds.
2. Make a diagrammatic sketch showing the kinds and locations of deciduous
shrubs used in making an informal border 100 ft. long used as a screen between the
private and the service areas in your home plan.
S. Draw a plan for a farm orchard in your locality showing the system of plant-
ing and the number, kinds and varieties of trees.
4. Place an order for the plants used in the foregoing plans.
6. You have a piece of land 378 by 350 ft. that you wish to plant to apple
trees. You wish to put the largest number of permanent trees possible on the
area, but all trees must be 36 ft. apart, and no tree must be closer than 18 ft.
from the boundary. Draw a sketch showing the arrangement of planting. Give
the number of trees planted. Show all figures used in the calculations.
6. You are intending to buy 1,000 Delicious apple trees. The nursery has
two-year-old trees which appear exactly alike, but one group was propagated from
a Delicious tree that has yielded an average of 10 bu. of good apples for the past
ten years, whereas the other was propagated from another Delicious tree growing
just 36 ft. from the first Delicious tree; but the second tree has produced an average
of but 1 bu. of good fruit per year for the same ten years. You can buy for $1 each
the young trees propagated from the high-producing tree, and the trees propagated
from the low-producing tree for 50 cts. each. State which you would buy, and
justify your choice.
1. BEACH, GEORGE A., Improving Colorado Home Grounds, Cow. Agr.E:ept.
Sta. Bul. 445: 1--49, 1938.
2. BOTTOMLEY, M. E., "The Design of Small Properties," The Macmillan
3. CHADWICK, L. C., Ornamental Evergreens, Ohio Sto,te Univ. Agr. Ext.
SeMI. Bul. 113: 1-56, 1936.
4. :FREE, MONTAGUE, "Gardening," Harcourt, Brace & Company, Ncw

York,1937.
5. HALLIGAN, C. P., Landscaping thc Home Grounds, Mich. State Col. Ext.
Bul. 199: 1-60, 1939.
6. JONES, H. A., and S. L . EMswELLER. "The Vegetable Industry," pp.
34-40, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1931.
7. MULFORD, FURMAN LLOYD, Transplanting Trees and Shruhs, U.S. Dept.
Ayr. Farmers' Bul. 1591: 1-34, 1929.
8. Sn,cox, F . A., et al., Possibilities of Shelterbelt Planting in 'the Plains
Region, pp. 33-38; 59-76, The Lake States Forest Experiment Station, U.S.
Forest Service, Washington, 1935.
9. VOLZ, E. C., "Home Floriculture," The Macmillan Company, New York,
1928.
10. WESTOVER, H. L., and C. R. ENLOw, Planting and Care of Lawns, U.S.
Dept. Ayr. Farmers' Bul. 1677: 1-18, 1935.
11. WYMAN, DONALD, "Hedges, Screens and Windbreaks." McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
CHAPTER V
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
A clear understanding of the principles involved in various horti-

cultural practices requires a knowledge of the principles of plant
growth. Such an understanding of the activities of the plant requires
an elementary knowledge of plant structure.
Most horticultural plants conform to one of three general forms:
trees, shrubs or herbs. Great variations exist, however, in the appear-
ance of these plants, because in some the stems are below ground; in
others they run horizontally on the ground; and in others they stand
erect. Stems may be woody or may be herbaceous and tender with
FIG. 66.-Diagram of a .cell. (Gardner, Bradford and Hooker .)
the woody tissue much reduced or absent. With all this variation
in form and structure, however, the many economically important
horticultural plants exhibit one fundamental body plan. Always there
is the general organization of the plant into the stem and root, each
with its characteristic appendages, and into those structures associated
with sexual reproduction, the flower and fruit. All plants are com-
posed of organs that are made up of tissues, and the tissues in turn are
composed of individual cells.
THE CELL
The cell is the structural unit of the plant. In the succeeding '
discussion, however, the term "cell" will be used to include not only
109 '
110 TEXTBOOK OF G~NERAL HORTICULTURE
true cells and their surrounding walls but also those elements which
are made up of similar kinds of cell of which, in many cases, only the
dead walls remain.
Cells vary in size, structure, composition, arrangement and func-
tion. They may be large or small, may have thick walls or thin walls,
may vary widely in their chemical composition, may be arranged close
together like bricks in a house or loosely with air spaces between; ~d
they may function as supporting cells, storage cells or conducting
cells. Cells of similar type combine to form a tissue which performs a
special function. There are "tissues for growth, for protection, for
support, and others for the conduction of water, mineral elements and
synthesized food.
PARTS OF THE CELL
A cell is generally defined as a protoplast which consists of a

nucleus, cytoplasm and various inclusions. Some authorities consider
the enclosing cell wall as a part of the cell.
Protoplasm.-Protoplasm is the living substance of the cell. It
appears to be a complex, ever changing colloidal protein. The portion
of the protoplasm outside the nucleus is known as the "cytoplasm,"
and the protoplasm within the nucleus is termed" nucleoplasm." The
cytoplasm constitutes the main mass of the protoplast and is sur-
rounded by a membrane known as the" plasma membrane." In very
young cells the cytoplasm is dense and contains numerous minute
vacuoles; but in older, larger cells these minute vacuoles have united
into one or more vacuoles which occupy most of the space within the
cell. The vacuoles are filled with cell sap.
The Cell Wall.-The cell wall is formed by the protoplasm. In
young, actively growing cells it is thin and is composed of cellulose, a
carbohydrate material which allows the wall to stretch as the proto-
plasm expands. In older plants, especially woody plants, lignin, a
complex chemical subst~nce, is deposited in the wall, and this gives
rigidity and strength. Fatlike substances are often deposited in the
cell walls of protective structures such as the bark of trees and the skin
of a potato.
, Inclusions.-The nucleus and plastids arf' the principal inclusions
of the cell.
The nucleus is a compact mass of protoplasm enclosed within a
membrane known as the " nuclear membrane.'; The nucleus contains
water, dissolved substances and chromatin. When cell division is
nbout to take place, the chromatin forms distinct bodies called" chro-
mosones." The chromosones, which undergo complex maneuvers "
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF HoRTICULTURAL PLANTS 111
during cell division, are believed to carry and transmit the heritable
characters of the plant.
In the cytoplasm occur a number of small bodies known as "plas-
tids." Plastids containing chlorophyll are known as "chloroplasts" ;
the colorless plastids are known as "leucoplasts." The yellow and a
few of the red pigments of many flowers and many vegetative struc-
tures may be localized in the plastids; other pigments responsible for
color in plants are in solution in the cell sap.
GROWTH OF CELLS
The number of cells in a single plant, as an apple tree, is incompre-

hensible. An idea can be obtained from the following illustration. If
a human being at birth should begin a journey toward one of the
nearest fixed stars at the rate of 1 mile per minute, he would have
covered half the distance by the time he was ninety years old. If this
passenger had taken an average-s~ed apple leaf with him on this
hypothetical journey and removed a cell from the leaf each minute of
his journey, he would discard the last cell of the single leaf on his
ninetieth birthday. It has been reported that an average-sized apple
leaf contains 50 million cells. When one recalls that an apple tree
contains thousands of leaves in addition to roots and stems, it is
difficult to estimate the total number of cells in a plant. The increase
in size of an organism and the modification of tissues that take place in
various organs are the sum of the activities of the cells. In general,
the life cycle of a cell involves cell division, cell enlargement and cell
maturation.
Cell Division.-Certain cells of the plant remain alive and retain
the ability to divide and form new cells. This multiplication accounts
for the principal increase in the size of the plant. Such live, dividing
cells constitute but a small percentage of the total cells in the plant.
These cells generally have quite definite locations in the plant and are
known as "meristematic cells" or, if grouped into tissues, "meriste-
matic tissues."
Cell Enlargement.-Cells located in various immature parts of the ,
plant have the ability to increase in size by stretching the cell walls.
Many cells just back of the growing tips of roots and stems and in th~
region of the cambium are in a zone of cell enlargement. The increase
in size of many fruits, after a certain period, is due to an increase in the
size of the parenchymatous cells and intercellular spaces rather than to
an increase in the number of cells. The increase in the size of a tomato
fruit after it is about U in. in diameter is due largely to the increase
in the size of the cells rather than to an increase in the number of cells.
Cell division in the fruit of the peach continues for about 30 days after
it is first formed, and further increase in size is due to the enlargement
of th08e cells. Cell division in the apple fruit mostly ceases about
six to eight weeks after the blossoming period, but during the remainder
of the growing season the small cells increase from seven to ten times
their size. This increase in cell size which is accompanied by con-
siderable enlargement in the intercellular spaces accounts for the great
increase in size of the developing fruit.
Cell Maturation.-Cell maturation is associated with both physical
and chemical changes that occur in them after they reach their final
size. The thickening and lignification of cell walls and the storage of
food are examples of maturation activities. The proper maturing of
cells is an important factor in lessening damage by low temperatures.
Climatic conditions and cultivation practices in the late summer may
stimulate the formetion of young tender cells which will be more sub-
ject to damage from low temperature than mature cells will be.
TISSUES
It is important to rememper that cells work in groups. A group

of cells of common origin having essentially the same structure and
function is known as a simple tissue. Aggregations of simple tissues
having structural orfunctional unity are generally regarded as complex
tissue. ' The cells constituting the principal tissues vary; hence atten-
tion is called to the characteristics of those constituting the principal
tissues of the multicellular plant. The principal tissues may be
grouped according to function into meristematic tissues, parenchyma-
tous tissues, conductive tissues, mechanical tissues, protective tissues.
The horticulturist is concerned with the characteristics and the
location of cells that constitute the tissues of a plant, because often
in the culture of the plant these tissues may be modified to increase
the size and number of organs that are used as food; or the tissue may
be modified in a particular organ to improve the quality of the product.
A few horticultural problems associated with modification of tissues,
.or with their locations and functions, will help to show the importance
of knowing something about tissues.
The fleshy part of pearS has unique cellular structures which are
called "stone cells," or "grit cells." The occurrence of these cells in
large quantities in a particular variety of pear known as the "Kieffer"
lowers its quality to the extent that few people like to eat it. If this
variety is harvested at the usual time and stored at a temperature of
60°F. until softened to 4 or 5 Jb. pressure test, it attains a good flavor
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 113
and much improved texture because the insoluble pectin substances

forming the grit cells become soluble.
Stringiness in celery is objectionable to the consumer. It is
associated with a particular tissue which is composed of cells known as
"collenchyma" which have thickened walls at the angles. This condi-
tion is more pronounced in some varieties than in others; and although
stringless celery does not exist at the present time, it may be obtained
in the future by proper breeding and selecting from the present
va'rieties.
The increase in size of fruits and vegetables after 0ertain penods is
due largely to the development of parenchymatous tissue.
To be performed intelligently, the horticultural practices of ringing,
pruning and grafting and budding require a knowledge of various
plant tissues.
Meristematic Tissues.-At the tips of roots and stems of plants
are groups of cells that have the ability to divide and ,grow. The
increase in length of both stems and roots is due to the division and
elongation of these cells. Just outside the cylinder of wood is a layer
of meristematic cells, known as the" cambium," which is responsible
for the increase in the circumference· of the stem or root. Another
cambium, sometimes known as the" cork cambium," arises from paren-
chymatous cells within the cortex and gives rise to the characteristic
bark formation. Meristematic cells are usually cubical in form and
are characterized by having dense cytoplasm, small or no vacuoles
and thin walls.
Parenchyma Tissues.-The parenchymatous tissues of the plant
are composed of cells that are closely related to meristematic cells.
Parenchymatous differ from meristematic cells in that they generally
have thicker walls, less dense ' cytoplasm and an apparently smaller
nucleus. Parenchyma cells occur scattered throughout various plant
organs, and they vary in shape, size and arrangement according to the
tissue of which they are part. Parenchyma occurs in the pith, cortex
, and rays of the stem; in the cortical and pith areas of the root; in
the tender edible parts of fruits and vegetables and in the leaf.
Parenchyma in the leaf containing chlorophyll is referred to as
" chlorenchyma."
The parenchyma tissues function in various ways. Being a poten-
tial meristem, its cells may divide to form other tissues. Roots, and
often adventitious shoots, arise from a parenchyma tissue known as
"pericycle." Chlorenc4yma in t4e leaf i!3 associated with the manu~
facture of carbohydrates: Parenchyma in the pith and cortex func,:,
tions in the storage of food. The large proportion of parenchymatous
tissue in the tubers of Irish potatoes is one of the principal char-

acteristics that renders this plant of great economic value as a food
plant.
Mechanical Tissues.-8trengthening tissues ofa plant are com-
posed of both live and dead cells; and although the cell types vary,
they generally are elongated and have much thickened walls. The
principal strengthening tissues are collenchyma, flbers and stone
cells.
Collenchyma tissue is composed of cells that have many char-
acteri&tics of parenchyma, the principal difference between the two cell
types being thickening of cell walls chiefly in the angles of the collen-
chyma.. Collenchyma cells retain their protoplasts at maturity and
are capable of division. The function of collenchyma is to afford
mechanical support, especially evident in the petioles of herbaceous
vegetables, such as celery and rhubarb.
Fibers after reaching maturity are composed of elongated dead
cells with much thickened walls. They occur in various parts of the
plant and are named according to their locations. In general, they
are elastic and can be stretched without losing their power to return
to their original length. Stone cells are similar to fibers but are not
elongated.
Conductive Tissues.-The longitudinal conductive tissues of the
plant are of two kinds, xylem and phloem, which occurring together
form a. vascular bundle. Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues.
The xylem tissue may include tracheids, vessels, fibers ~nd paren-
chyma. The chief function of the xylem is the conduction of water
and nutrients from the roots upward in the plant. This conduction
takes place in tissues (tracheids and vessels) composed of dead cells:
These conductive cells of the xylem were originally alive; but as they
matured, the walls became impregnated with lignin, and the proto-
plasm disintegrated. These cells form tubes or vessels in the plant
body and extend from the roots through the stems and into the leaves.
The phloem tissue may contain sieve tubes, companion cells or
parenchyma. cells. The main conductive tissue is the sieve tube, and
the principal function of the sieve tube is the conduction of synthesized.
food. The sieve tube cells are elongated and pipelike but do not have
the thick walls exhibited by the conductive elements of the xylem.
The end walls between successive cells are not completely dissolved
away but contain small openings through which food passes. The
sieve tubes also contain a small amount of protoplasm. Apparently
the upward movement of water and soil nutrients through the conduc- .
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTWNS OF H.O RTICULTURAL PLANTS 115
tive element of the xylem is more rapid than the downward moveillent
of food through the phloem. The phloem, like the xylem, extends to
all parts of the plant; and wherever in root, stem or leaf there is a
bundle of xylem cells, next to it is a bundle of phloem cells.
Protective Tissues.-The cells of the protective tissues usually
have thickened outer walls. The principal protective tissues are
known as "epidermis," "cortex" and "bark." The most common
of these is the epidernis. It may consist of one or more layers of
cells. Most plants first form an epidermis for protection. Later
this is replaced in the older portions of roots and stems by cork tissue,
which is .usually thicker than the epidermis. On young tissues the
epidermal cells excrete a waxy substance, known as "cuticle," which
forms 8: continuous protective covering .o ver all exposed parts of the
plant.
THE PLANT STEM

The stem of the plant is chieftyabove ground and is one of the two
principal parts of the plant. The primary functions of the stem are
the support of leaves and the conduction of food, water and mineral
nutrients to and from the leaves. Secondary functions are food manu-
facture and storage.
Attention was called earlier in this chapter to the fact that stems
vary in appearance. Those of horticultural plants that occur under-
ground are ref~rred to as "modified stems." Their tissues are similar
to those of aerial stems but have become modified to meet certain
functions. Underground stems of horticultural plants modified for
food storage include iris, tulip, asparagus, Irish potato, dahlia, peony
and banana.
DICOTYLEDONOUS STEMS
When based on structure there are generally two types of dicoty-

ledonous stem: the woody and the herbaceous.
The Woody Stem.-Woody stems exist in most trees and shrubs.
An examination of the cross section of the tr.unk of an apple tree will
give one a concept of a woody stem. The outer layer of a one-year
stem is called the "epidermis," and this is replaced by corky bark as
the stem grows older. This outer tissue serves as a protective coat
against evaporation and the entrance of destructive organisms. Under
the outer bark is the cortex, which is composed of parenchyma cells
which serve as a place for food storage. Lying next to the cortex is the
phloem which conducts the food upward and downward. Beneath

the phloem is thecambium. The true cambium is only one cell in
thickness, and it is responsible for the increase in the circumference
of the stem. New phloem cells are formed on the outside of the cam-
bium, and new xylem cells on the inside. Xylem cells are formed more
frequently than the phloem cells. The cambium varies in ~tivity at .
different seasons, being more active during the period of growth in
spring and early summer when more moisture is usually available
Most types of ringing and budding are done . when the cambium is
active and the bark can be easily
E'~mi$ separated from the wood. On the
tindCorlu
inside of the cambium is the xylem,
Phlotlm which conducts water and nutrients
amlJium upward. The portion of the stem
on the inside of the cambium ·is
commonly called wood and is often
divided into sapwood and heart-
wood. The sapwood, in which are
FIG. 67.-Diagrammatic sketch of the located the xylem vessels, is next
cr088 section of a woody stem.
to the cambium. The heartwood,
which is composed chiefly of non-functioning xylem, is older and il;!
generally distinguished by its darker color, which is due to the
deposition of resins and guml:l. The heartwood is composed of dea.d
cells and functions only in giving strength.
Ray cells, which originate from the cambium and radiate much as
do the spokes of a wheel from a hub, serve as passageways for the
horizontal transfer of food and water in the stem. They are also
important in food storage. These parenchyma-ray cells extending
into the xylem are termed "xylem rays," and those extending into the
phloem are known as "phloem rays."
The Herbaceous Stem.-The aboveground part of the stems of
most of the annual and perennial vegetables and flowers are her-
baceous and die after the growing season. These stems do not
develop the thick-walled wood cells so common in woody plants. In
the strictly herbaceous stem the tissues are similar to those in the very
young stems of woody plants. The cortex makes a wider zone; in
general, the vascular bundles are smaller; a concentric ring of cambium
is lacking; and the pith area is wider. The older stems of herbaceous
plants appr.oach the structure of woody stems. The difference
between the two types of stems is, in the main, a difference in quantity
and degree of development of Vfl.rious tissues rather than in kind of
tissue.
STRUCTURES Aiw FUNCTIONS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 117
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEMS
Horticultural plants like the banana, date palm, sweet corn,

asparagus and lily belong to the group of flowering plants known as
"monocotyledons." The characteristic stem of this type of plant
has no vascular cylinder and no cambium. The vascular bundles
consisting of phloem and xylem are scattered throughout the cross
section of the stem. The diameter of such stems shows little increase
after the early stages of growth. Growth in thickness is 'd uemainly
to enlargement of cells derived from the apical meristems.
CLASSES OF STEMS IN A WOODY TREE
An examination of Q, deciduous tree, such as an apple tree, after the

leaves have fallen, will reveal a number of different parts above the
ground. If one begins at the ground line, one will notice first a part
called the "trunk," which is the oldest section of the tree. Arising
from this trunk are sections similar to the trunk but younger, called
"primary branches," because they are the first to grow from the trunk.
These primary branches in turn rebrancn, and these branches are
generally referred to as "secondary branches." The secondary
branches, in turn, have branches that are called" tertiary branches";
and so on until the divisions of branches reaches a great number in
old trees. The ~rowth made during the past season at the very end
of a branch is referred to as a "twig." Twigs that occur at unexpected
places, on wood oider than two years of age, are termed "water-
sprouts." The term" shoot" refers to the twig while it still possesses
leaves. Closer examination of the branches will reveal short growths
scattered here and there. These slow-growing short growths are called
"spurs." They are particularly characteristic of apple and pear trees.
A spur is generally defined as a stem that made 2 in. or less growth
during any season. Its total length may be 20 in., but it might have
taken ten years or longer to grow to that length. A shoot becomes a
twig after the season's growth and is known as one-year-old wood.
The next year the same twig is referred to as two-year-old wood, the
next year as three-year-old wood and so on until it eventually becomes
difficult to tell its age. ~ll the aforementioned parts are referred to
as stems; thus it is evident that the tree contains a number of kinds of
different stems, namely, the trunk; primary branches, secondary
branches, etc.; shoots; twigs; watersprouts; and spurs.
An encircling zone of scars on the young twig ordinarily marks the
end of one season's growth and the beginning of the next. These
8<'ars are rather long and narrow and extend at right angles to the
axis of the stem. As the bud starts growth in the spring, the scales
surrounding the bud are pushed off, leaving a narrow zone of scars.
MODIFIED STEMS
Buds, leaves and flowers are special forms of stems.

Buds.-A bud is an undeveloped shoot. It contains a growing
point of meristematic tissue, surrounded by embryonic leaves or
blossoms. These, in turn, are encased by a protective envelope com-
posed of bud scales.
When ter~nal growth stops for the season, all the common woody
plants such as the apple, peach and cherry form a terminal bud.
Buds are also formed on the sides of shoots and are known as "lateral
buds." Two or more buds are often produced collaterally on shoots
of plants such as the peach.
Some buds known as "shoot buds" produce only vegetative
growths. Others producing only flowers are called "fruit," or
"flower," buds. Some contain both shoots and flowers, and these are
called "mixed buds." The peach-flower bud ordinarily produces
only one flower, and there-is no provision for shoot growth from that
bud. A shoot must be produced from a separate and distinct shoot
bud for further vegetative growth. The apple-flower bud differs from
the peach in that it contains both shoots and flowers. The vegetative
growing point allows for further terminal growth even though a fruit
is produced.
All the buds on a plant do not show the same degree of activity
during the growing season. Some of them that were formed during
the previous growing season remain quiescent, showing no visible
signs of growth for one or more seasons. These buds are kn('wn as
"latent buds" and act somewhat as reserve buds, because they may
grow years later when some stimulus occurs and often produce what
is known as "watersprouts." Some buds never function, because
they die.
Buds on plants in the temperate zone go through two kinds of
comparative inactivity annually. Dormant ones show no visible
activity during that part of the year when the environmental condi-
tions are unfavorable for growth. Resting buds, on the other hand,
show no visible signs of activity even though the environmental
conditions are favorable. For example, the buds formed in the axils
of the leaves on new shoots during the growing season normally do
not grow until the following season, even though the environmental
conditions are favorable for growth. Such buds are in a state of rest.
If a twig from this same tree is brought into a warm greenhouse in
November and placed in water, the buds will still fail to grow. In
both cases conditions for vegetative growth were satisfactory, but the
buds did not grow because they were in a state of rest.
'Leaves.-Every horticulturist knows that a large healthy leaf sur-
face is needed .for the satisfactory development and maintenance of
a good plant.
The leaf is a modified stem, and its primary function is the manu-
facture of food. Although many variations exist in form, the essential
tissues are much the same. The epidermis is a protective layer usually
one cell in thickness covered with a waxy, waterproofing substance
known as the "cuticle." In the interior of the leaf blade are a large
number of cells, many of which contain small green bodies known as
FIG. 68.-Diagram of a portion of the leaf. A, upper epidermis covered by cuticle

in black; B, palisade layer; C, spongy parenchyma; D,lower epidermis; E. stomatee; F.
air space; G. vein. (Gardner Bradford and Hooker.)
"chloroplasts," essential for·the manufacture of carbohydrates. The

palisade cells are comp8.!atively, large, elongated and compactly
arranged with their long axes at right angles to the epidermis. This
layer, which may be one or more layers of cells in thickness, is directly
below the epidermis but is often lacking on the underside of the leaf.
The loosely arranged cells located between layers of palisade cells or
the upper palisade and the lower epidermis are known as the "spongy
parenchyma." The epidermis is pierced by an immense number
of small openings called "stomates." Stomates may occur in both
the upper and the lower epidermis, but in most leaves they are much
more abundant in the lower side of the leaf. Most fruit plants have
stomates only on the under surface, whereas many vegetable plants
have them on both surfaces but with the greater number on the under-
surface. Each stomate is surrounded by two guard cells, and the
activity of these guard cells varies in horticultural plants. Guard

cells of the leaves of plants like the apple, peach, pear, cantaloupe,
turnip and radish close the stomatal opening before the plant wilts;
but guard cells of the leaves of Irish potatoes, cabbages and onions
do not close it until after the plant begins to wilt. Each stomate
opens into an air chamber. Carbon dioXide enters the leaf through
the stomates by diffusion. It enters as a gas and goes into solution
in the moisture on the cell walls and diffuses through the walls into the
cytoplasm of the cell to one of the chloroplastB where, in the presence
of light, it will be synthesized into carbohydrates. The apple leaf
has approximately 400,000 stomates, all located on the undersurface.
If each of thesestomates were 1 in. in diameter, the 1 sq. ft. of leaf
area assumed to be nec~ssary for the production of a satisfactory apple
would be increased to 12 acres.
The veins and midribs of the leaf are composed of conducting
tissues, which supply the leaf with water and mineral elements and
permit the translocation of synthesized food from the leaf blade.
The leaf is attached to the shoot by the petiole.
Two important fundamental plant proces8E'..8 taking place in the
leaf are photosynthesis and transpiration.
Photosynthesis refers to the manufacture of simple carbohydrates
by the green part of the leaf and really means synthesis with the aid
of light. The combination of carbon dioxide and water involves a
series of chemical transformations, but the process may be illustrated
by the following equation:
6 CO 2 + 6 H 20 + energy - CsHlSO. + 6 O2
The ~ain product oC-photosynthesis is a sugar known as "glucose,"
and the by-product is a gas known as "oxygen."
Pruning, spraying, irrigation, addition 9f fertilizers and thinning of
flowers, fruits or plants are a few of the principal horticultural practices
associated with the maintenance of efficient photosynthetic activity.
Carbohydrate synthesis in apple leaves is four times as great on bright,
clear, cool days than on heavy cloudy days and 10 to 20 per cent
greater in the morning than in the aft.emoon. Dark green leaves are
three times as efficient as light green leaves. Photosynthetic activities
will continue in green leaves until they are frozen. If the synthesized
foods do not accumulate in the leaf blade, a mature apple tree, under
favorable environmental conditions, will manufacture about 1 lb.
of carbohydrates per hour utilizing the carbon dioxide from 600,000
cu. ft. of air. In general, 1 sq. ft. of leaf -area, about 45 leaves, is
required for the satisfactory development of one.-apple.
The functions of transpiration are not fully known; and although

the proceS:3 is often considered a necessary evil, it seemH to be essential
in providing a continuous supply of water from the roots to the
transpiring surfaces. This water is used as the medium of transporta-
tion Within the plant. The transpiration from the leaf also appears to
aid in keeping the stems and leaves cool.
Flowers.- The flowers of many horticultural crops are objects
of aesthetic value, but the flowers of all fruit crops and of certain
vegetables are absolutely necessary for the production of the edible
product.
___- - Stigma
"'-:-- - --Sepal
~:=:~~;;::::::=Ovary
!U Ovule
FIG. 69.-Diagram of an apple flower.
The flower is a modified stem containing the structures for sexual

reproduction. The typical perfect flower of many horticultural plants
has sepals, petals, stamens and pistils, which are thought to be modified
leaves.
A knowledge of the parts of a flower is essential to an understanding
of the processes of pollination and fertilization, both of which are
necessary in the setting of fruits of the great majority of horticultural
plants. Only a few abnormal varieties of fruits are seedless.
The sepals and petals are generally known as the accessory parts
of the flowers. The sepals generally form the outermost cycle of the
floral axis and often resemble the vegetative leaf in color and struc-
ture. Inside the sepals are the petals, which are 'usually colored and
often possess nectary glands which attract insects.
The essential parts of the flower are the stamens, which prOduce
the male element, and the pistil, which contains the female element.
The pistil is composed of four parts. At the bottom is the ovary, in
which are the ovules, and extending upward from the ovary is the
style, at the top of which is the stigma. The stamen consists of two
parts: the stalk and the anther. The anther, born~ on the tip of the
stalk, comprises one or more pollen sacs containing the male elements or
pollen.
A perfect flower is one that contains both stamens and pistils. An
imperfect flower is one that contains only stamens or pistils. A
monoecious plant is one in which pistillate and staminate flowers are
borne separately on the same plant. A dioecious condition exists
when the staminate flowers and pistillate flowers are borne on separate
plants . .
Many fruits, as apples, pears, peaches, plums, labrusca grapes,
raspberries, blackberries, strawberries (most varieties), gooseberries
citrus fruits, avocados, almonds; some vegetables, as tomatoes, pep-
pers, eggplants, beans, peas, okra; and ornamental flowers have perfect
flowers. The monoecious condition exists in pecans, walnuts, filberts,
cucumbers, cantaloupes, pumpkins, squash, watermelons and sweet
corn; the dioecious, in dates, persimmons, muscadine grapes, asparagus
and spinach.
As indicated previously, many horticultural plants are grown for
their fruits or seeds. In most cases the development of fruit and
seed depends on pollination and fertilization.
WIth the exception of a few varieties of fruits like the navel orange,
certain varieties of gra.pefruit, the edible banana and Thompson's
Seedless grape, the formation of seed is essential to the normal develop-
ment of fruits. Pollination and fertilization are prerequisite to the
formation of seed.
Pollination is the transfer of the pollen grain or male element
from the anther to a stigma. The distance of the transfer may be very
short when it occurs in the same flower or very long as when the pollen
is transported from the anther of one plant to the pistil of another.
The term "cross-pollination" is modified -spmewhat in the case of
plants propagated asexually. In this case cross-pollination means
that the pollen is transferred from the stamen of one horticultural
variety to the pistil of a different horticultural variety. For example,
if the pollen from one Jonathan apple tree is transferred to the pistil
of another JonathQ,n apple tree, even though the trees are 10 miles
apart, the process is referred to as self-pollination. On the other hand,
if the nollen of one Marglobe tomato plant is transferred to th.e stigma
of another Marglobe tomato plant 10 ft. ~way, it would be referred

to as cross-pollination.
The transfer of pollen is generally accomplished by the agencies of
wind (including gravity), insects and water. Most fruit and many
vegetable planl-$ are pollinated by insects, whereas nut fruits like
pecans, filberts and walnuts are pollinated largely by wind.
The second step in the process of seed formation is known as
fertilization. This process involves two steps: the growth of the pollen
tube down the style of the pistil; and the uniting of the male element,
or sperm, with the female element, or ovule, resulting in the first cell
of a new plant.
Compatibility of the male element with the female element, result-
ing in the production of viable seed, varies in varieties of horticultural
plants, and several terms are used to indicate the degree of fertility
in horticultural plants propagated asexually. Self-fertile varieties
of horticultural plants are those which set viable seed with pollen
from the same variety. Self-sterile varieties are those which do not
set viable seed with pollen from the same variety. Intersterile varie-
ties are those which do not set viable seed with the pollen of one
another.
Obtaining viable seed is primarily the problem of plant breeders
and seed .growers. Fruit producers are interested chiefly in obtaining
a set of fruit. The presence of fruit is not a sure indication of the
presence of viable seed. Fruitfulness is not synonomous with viable
seed. As in the case of fertility, special terms are used to designate
the various degrees of fruitfulness in asexually reproduced plants.
Self-fruitful varieties are those which set fruit without fertilization
or when fertilized by pollen of the same variety. Self-unfruitful
varieties are those which do not set fruit when self-pollinated. Inter-
unfruitful varieties are those which do not set fruit with their own
pollen or with the pollen of certain other varieties of the same kind
of plant.
A brief summary relative to the degree of fruitfulness that exists
among varieties of the various kinds of asexually propagated horti-
cultural fruits follows:
Apples.-Practically all commercial varieties of apple are benefited
by cross-fertilization. They may be placed conveniently in the
following groups which include but a few of the many varieties:
Self-unfruitful:
Arka.nsas. Fa.meuse. Sta.yma.n.
Delicious. Mclntosh. Wmesap.
Golden Delicious. Northern Spy.
124 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTlCULTURE
Partly self-fruitful:
Baldwin. Rome. Northwestern Greening.
Ben Davis. Wagener. Willow Twig.
Duchess. Wealthy. Yellow Transparent.
Early Harvest. Jonathan. Yellow Newtown.
Spitzenburg. Maiden Blush. York.
Grimes.
Self-unfruitful and cross-unfruitful:

Winesap. Arkansas. St&yman.
Pears.-The following are a few of the important varieties of pears

that are apparently self-unfruitful: Anjou, Clairgeau, Clapp, Le Conte,
Garber, Howell, Kieffer, Winter Nelis. A few of the many varieties
that seem to set a fair crop without cross-fertilization are Bartlett,
Bosc, Cornice, Hardy and Seckel.
Peaches arul Apricots.-Most varieties of peaches and apricots are
self-fruitful. The most notable exception in the case of the peaches
is the J. H. Hale variety, which produces defective pollen.
Plums arul Prunes.-There are numbers of species and varieties of
hybrid plums grown in the United States in which unfruitfulness exists
in varying degrees. It is more simple to consider the varieties accord-
ing to species type rather than individually.
Most of the varieties derived from the native American species like
Wild goose, Miner, De Soto and others are self-unfruitful but will set
fruit when cross-fertilized with one another. The varieties of Japan-
ese plums (Prunus salicina) and their hybrids are nearly all self-
unfruitful. A few of the important varieties of this group include
Abundance, Burbank, Formosa, Kelsey and Wickson, and they · will
set fruit when plarited together.
There are two groups of European plums: P. domestica, which is
largely self-fruitful; and P. institia, both of which are largely self-
fruitful and cross-fruitful.
A number of hardy varieties of plum have been originated by cross-
ing American with Japanese species. These hybrid varieties are often
referred to as Hansen's hybrids and Minnesota hybrids. They are
both self-unfruitful and cross-unfruitful. The recommended practice
is to interplant varieties of native American species, like the Miner
and the Wolf, with the hybrid varieties, like Kahinta, Waneta and
Winona.
Cherries.-All popular varieties of sour cherries (Prunus cerasus)
are self-fruitful, but fruitfulness :'s generally improved by planting two
va.tieties together such as E~rly Richmond a.nd Montmorency.
Sweet cherries (P. avium) consist of many varieties that are self-
unfruitful. Three of the leading varieties grown on the Pacific coast
(Bing, Lambert and Napoleon) are both self-unfruitful and inter-
unfruitful. The hybrids (Duke cherries) which are hybrids between
sour and sweet cherries are all self-unfruitful. Varieties of sweet
cherries are apparently good pollenizers for the Duke varieties.
Grapes.-Most of the commercial varieties of grapes grown in the
United States are self-fruitful. A few varieties like Brighton, Barry,
Lindley and Vergennes are apparently self-unfruitful and inter-
unfruitful.
The muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) grown widely in the South
and the native wild grape (Vitis vulpina) must be provided with
pollen-bearing or male vines in order to get fruit.
Raspberries, Blackberries and Dewberries.-Almost all the varieties
of raspberries and blackberries are apparently self-fruitful. The
Lucretia dewberry is self-fruitful, but other varieties exhibit at least
partial self-unfruitfulness.
Strawberries.-Most of the important varieties of strawberries will
set fruit without cross-fertilization. A few, like Gandy, produce insuf-
ficient pollen, and a few produce imperfect flowers; for a satisfactory
crop these must be planted with suitable varieties.
Nut Trees.-Walnuts are generally self-fruitful, almonds mostly
self-unfruitful and filberts largely self-unfruitful.
Pecans are generally divided into two groups. Varieties like
Mobile and Success shed pollen when their pistils are receptive and
consequently are self-fertilized. . Those like Delmas, Schley and
'Stuart mature their pistils before the pollen is ready and must be cross-
fertilized in order to set fruit.
THE ROOT
The root of the plant is chiefly below ground; it is the other principal
part of the plant. Its primary functions are mechanical support for
the stem, absorption and cqnduction of water and mineral nutrients
and storage of food.
There are two well-defined types of root system in horticultural
plants; the taproot and the fibrous. If the primary root tends to go
straight down and develops a conspicuous structure from which
laterals arise, as we have in plants like the oak and radish, it is known
as a taproot system. When the primary root and the laterals from it
develop more or less equally, it is known as a fibrous root system.
Roots of plants like the beet and radish develop fleshy taproots, whereas
any part of the sweet-potato root may become fleshy. These fleshy
roots in certain vegetables constitute the part of the plant that is of

economic importance to the horticulturist.
The structure of the root is similar to that of the stem. One
encounters at the very tips of roots, the root cap, which is for t.he protec-
FIG. 70.-Diagrammatic sketch showing the distribution of the roo.ta of a tree in relation
to the top.
tion of the zone of actively dividing cells which is just back of it.
Behind the zone of cell division one 'encounters the zone of cell enlarge-
ment, and back of this the zone of cell maturation. Most of the
absorptive power ·of the root occurs a short distance back of the tip,
S 127
STRUC TURES AND FUNCT IONS OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT
a region in which epidermal cells push out root hairs. The absorptive
power of the root is increased many fold by the presence of the root
hairs. The life of a root hair is generally very short; in many cases
it remains alive for only a few days. New root hairs are being formed
FrG. n.-Diag ram to illustrate a root hair in the soil. (After Sacha.)
continuously as the root elongates, however; and as the root pushes

through the soil, the absorptive zone is maintained.
Review Questions
1. What is the structur al unit of all horticul tural plants?
2. What are the principal parts of a cell?
3. What is protopla sm?
4. Are the walls surrounding all plant cells alike?
ry
6. What constitu ents of the nucleus are considered as carriers of heredita
characte ristics?
6. Is there anythin g in the vacuoles of a cell?
7. How do cells grow?
8. What is a plant tissue?
9. What are five principal plant tissues?
10. What is the distinguishing characteristic of meristematic tissue?
11. What are the two chief types of stems of horticul tural plants?
12. What are the classes of stems in an apple tree?
13. What is a bud?
14. Are there buds on stems more than one year old?
15. What are the chief functions of the leaf?
16. Where and of what material s are carbohy drates made?
17. What are the essential parts of the flower?
plants?
18. What is the essential difference between monoecioUB and dioecioUB
19. What is meant by pollination?
20. What is meant by fertilization?
21. What is meant by self-fertile?
22. What is meant by self-fruitful?
23. What are the chief functions of a root?
24. Where are root hairs located?
26. What is the chief function of root hairs?
Problems
1. Make a diagrammatic sketch showing the principal constituents of a cell of
an apple shoot.
2. Explain how a tomato fruit increases in size.
S. Make a diagrammatic sketch showing the principal tissues in the transverse
section of an apple twig.
,. Mr. A failed to place a tree guard around the trunk of a vigorous six-year-
old Jonathan apple tree. During the winter the rabbits ate a ring of "bark" about
2 in. wide all the way around it. Explain to Mr. A what may happen to the tree.
,11. Explain why the distance from the surface of the soil to the center of a
lateral branch on an elm tree does not become greater as the tree grows larger.
6. Make diagrammatic sketches showing the contents of an expanded flower
bud of the peach and of the apple.
'1. What leaf area and approximate number of leaves are necessary to produce
6 bu. of No. 1 Delicious apples with 125 apples per bushel?
8. Mr. A had two varieties of tomatoes and two varieties of onions in his home
garden. He saved the seeds of both crops and much tQ his surprise discovered
that the tomatoes came true to variety but the onions did not. Explain.
9. Mr. A is planning to plant a 40-acre apple orchard of Jonathan, Delicious
and Winesap. Make a diagrammatic sketch showing a satisfactory arrangement .
of these varieties for best results. .
'10. A florist intends to grow a group of French marigold plants. He plans to
grow one-half of them by broadcasting the seed in flats and, when the seedlings
are showing their second leaf, to prick them out and set 1% in. apart in flats.
Later they will be transferred to 2%-in. and finally to 4-in. pots. The other half
will be planted directly in 4-in. pots and grown without transplanting until ready
for sale. State and explain which group of plants will be ready for sale first.

I..COULTER, M. C., "The Story of the Plant Kingdom," pp. 134-181, The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago,.1935.
2. GAGER, C. S., "General Botany," pp. 14-52, P. Blakiston's Son & Com-
pany, Philadelphia, 1926.
3. HOLMAN, R. M., and W. W. ROBBIN.s, "A Textbook of General Botany,"
pp. 1-308, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1939.
4. TALBERT, T . J., and A. E . MURNEEK, "Fruit Crops," pp. 109-120, Lea &
Febiger, Philadelphia, 1939.
5. THOMAS, M., "Plant Physiology," pp. 1-23, 162-249, P. Blakiston's Son &
Company, Philadelphia, 1935.
CHAPTER VI
GROWTH OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
Growth means the increase in size of the plant as a whole or one or

more of its parts. As explained in Chap. V, it involves cell division,
cell enlargement and cell maturation. The horticulturist is interested
in the time during which the growth processes take place, because the
time and manner of performing various horticultural practices are
influenced by the period and stage of plant growth.
DEGREES OF PLANT ACTIVITY
Horticultural plants have a period known as the growing period or
the growing season when they show visible activity of growth and a
period known as the non-growing, or dormant, period when the plants
show no visible activity of growth.
THE GROWING PERIOD
The most obvious thing that a plant does is to grow or increase in

size. The most noticeable period of growth is during the unfoldlng of
buds into shoots, leaves and flowers. This activity generally begins, in
temperate regions, in the spring when environmental conditions are
favorable. Growth is slow for a short period when it is just starting,
becoming ranid in the spring ap.d early summer when conditions are
most favorable and gradually decreasing in rate in the late summer
and fall until finally a period arrives when apparently all growth has
ceased.
THE NON-GROWING PERIOD
During the non-growing, or dormant, period there is no visible

growth activity by the plant. There are two separate and distinct sets
of conditions .that operate for various periods of time 'and during which
plants or plant parts do not grow. One period is known as the dormant
period, and the other as the rest period. The two periods may-and
in fact always do-overlap in time.
That period when plants show no active growth because of external
or environmental conditions is referred to as the dormant period. In
temperate regions tllis begins in the fall when the temperature becomes
129
too low for plant growth and ends in the spring when moisture and
temperature conditions are favorable for growth.
The rest period is that during which the plant or plant part shows .
no visible growth activity even though placed in environmental condi-
tions favorable for active growth. For example, bulbs, tubers, buds
and other growing parts of woody plants do not grow during certain
FIG. 72.-A blueberry plant; in the branch at the right the rest period was broken by
exposure to cold, that at the leCt is still in resting period. For several weeks preceding
the taking oC the picture the entire plant had been exposed to growing-season tempera-
tures. (After Coftlle, from Gardner. Bradford and Hooker.)
periods of the year. The length of the non-growing, or rest, period

varies with the kind of plant, its part and its environment. If one cuts
branches from apple trees in November and places them in water in a
temperature of 70°F., they will fail to grow; but if one repeats the pro-
cess in February, growth will start, thereby indicating that the rest
period has been completed. The plant enters the rest period gradually,
and one part may be in a rest period while others of the same plant will
be showing active growth. For example, axillary buds formed in May
GROWTH OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS. 131
on the shoots of an apple tree usually show no activity until the follow-
ing spring.
The dormant period may be compared with the rest period as
follows: ·
Dormant period: Rest period:
1. Due to external conditions. 1. Due to internal conditions.
2. Entire plant enters at the same 2. Plant enters gradually.
time. 3. May begin at any time of year.
3. Begins in fall in temperate regions 4. Ends in winter in woody plants of
4. Ends in spring .in temperate .re- temperate regions.
gions. 5. Duration shortened by cold tem-
5. Duration lengthened by cold temperatures.
peratures. 6. Some parts of plant not affected.
6. All parts of a plant affected.
Although no external activity may be apparent when the plant is
dormant, other growth processes which are internal and imperceptible
. are taking place. For example, the initiation of blossoms begins dur-
ing the season preceding the actual appearance of the flowers, but the
continued development of the floral parts may continue for the greater
part of the winter. The cell walls continue to thicken after the plant
has become dormant.
Apparently some plants do not have a resting period, and its length
in others varies with different species and with different varieties of the
same species. Apparently all parts of the plant have a resting period
except the roots. The seeds of many plants have a resting period,
referred to as the afterripening period, and the length of this period
varies with different seeds and with the environment of the seeds.
Mterripening in seeds will be discussed in more detail in Chap. XI.
The cause or causes of the resting period have never been fully
determined. Apparently the resting period is associated with physical
and chemical conditions within the cells of the plant, and the sub-
stances necessary for growth become unavailable.
Although the duration of the rest period varies according to the
kind of plant, apparently the length of the period is fairly definite for
anyone variety or species of plant. Observations of woody plants
indicate that if they enter the rest period late in the fall, they come out
of it later than if they had entered it earlier. Conversely, if they
enter the rest period early, they come out of it early.
The rest period is of considerable practical significance in certain
horticultural practices. Of particular significance are some of the
problems involved ig, breaking it.
The rest period may. be shortened by natural conditions such as.
heat, cold or drought. It may also be broken by artificial means, as
mechanical wounding, keeping at cold temperatures and the use of

certain chemicals. A few examples of horticultural practices ass~
ciated with breaking the rest period will help to show the significance
of the condition to horticultural plants.
Southern peach growers often encourage late fall growth in an
effort to postpone the beginning of the rest period, extend it longer and
thus delay the trees' coming into flower. This reduces the danger of
injury by spring frosts. Peach growers in sections of California have
difficulty with their trees following a warm winter. Cool tempera-
tures hasten the rate of the activities that must take place during the
rest period before the plant can resume active growth. If unfavorable
warm weather prevails during the rest period, the rate of the after-
ripening process is slowed up considerably. This is especially true of .
the shoot buds. As a result of such conditions, the peach trees will be
coming into bloom for a period of a month or more, and the shoot buds
will still be in their rest period. The growers are attempting to solve
this problem by developing a variety of peach that will pass through its
rest period at a higher temperature. The Babcock variety shows some
promise of being satisfactory in this respect.
The Triumph variety of Irish potato is often planted as early as
September and October in southern Florida, Bermuda and the West
Indies, and the seed tubers are often obtained from western Nebraska.
In order to force these potatoes to grow soon after they are planted, it
is necessary to break the rest period with a chemical or with heat
treatment.
Often it is desirable to force certain seeds, bulbs, tubers and woody
plants into growth before their normal time. Various treatments for
breaking the rest period are used. One successful method consists of
bringing woody and herbaceous perennials into the greenhouse after
they have been kept cool (35°F.) or allowed to freeze, usually in early
December; placing them in a tight box and treating them with ethylene
chlorohydrin gas. Some of the woody plants, as lilacs, some types of
spiraea and azalea and some of the herbaceous plants, as some types of
delphinium, gaillardia and chrysanthemum, may be hastened into early
flowering by this method.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PLANT GROWTH
Both favorable environment and available food are necessary for
plant growth.
ENVIRONMENT
The principal environmental factors affecting plant growth are
temperature, moi!)ture, soil and light. The plant's growth ie inflQenced
GROWTH OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 133
by anyone of these, and anyone may become a limiting factor to

growth. The growth of the plant will be influenced if the· temperature.
is too high or too low, if the moisture is too great or too little, if the
soil is too heavy or too light or too fertile or too infertile and if the light
is too intense or too diffused for the optimum requirements of the
particular plant or part of plant. If anyone of these factors becomes
too pronounced, as the absence of moisture, it becomes a limiting
factor. The retarding effect of the environment on the growth of a
plant may be compared with the retarding effect of certain conditions
on the speed of an automobile. The speed of the car is influenced by
the construction and mechanical efficiency of the car, by the skill of
the driver, by the type of the highway, by the amount and kind of
traffic and by the regulatory laws. Anyone of these, for example, the
absence of gasoline or an impassable road, may become the limiting
rather than an influencing factor, but growth of the plant and move-
ment of the car will again proceed when the limiting factor is remedied.
Optimum growth of the plant and speed of the car will occur only when
all influencing factors are mutually favorable.
FOOD SUPPLY
Many scientists compare a living plant to a man-made machine. A

steam engine converts the energy that was in coal into the energy of
work. Similarly, a living plant converts the food that it makes from
raw materials into energy which it utilizes in performing its functioD.'l.
In order for plants to obtain the energy stored in the synthesized food, a
process known as /I respiration" takes place which liberates the energy
stored during the photosynthetic process. This process occurs in all
living cells at all times oxygen is used, food is broken down, carbon
dioxide is given off and energy is rel(ja8ed. The simple chemical
reaction may be represented by the following equation:
C 6H 120 6 +6O 2 ~ energy + 6 CO + 6 H 0
2 2
The student will notice that this is the reverse of the equation for
photosynthesis.
Foods in general may be placed in one of ,three categories: carbo-
hydrates, fats and proteins. Although fats play some part in the
growth of horticultural plants, the horticulturist is particularly con-
cerned in the relationship between the carbohydrates and proteins.
Carbohydrates.-It was learned earlier that one of the fundamental
plant processes was making carbohydrates in those cells containing
chlorophyll. The leaves of plants are favorably designed to perform
(.his function, Carbohydrates are exceedingly variable, rangiI).g from.
simple glucose to complex cellulose and starches. Glucose is the first

simple sugar made in the photosynthetic process. It may be used or
stored in place, transported to other p!';rts of the plant where it is
used or stored but most likely transformed into more complex' carbo-
hydrates, such as cellulose, which is an important constituent of cell
walls, and starch, the most compact form in which carbohydrates are
stored.
Proteins.-Proteins are exceedingly variable and complex products
synthesized by living plants. A protein is formed when certain earbo-
hydrates, which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, are combined
in the living plant with nitrogen, usually sulfur, and often phosphorus.
The mineral .elements necessary for protein formation are obtained
from the soil. Although the making of carbohydrates occurs only in
cells having chlorophyll in the presence of light., it appears that proteins
can be synthesized by any living cell at any time that the raw products
are available and the conditions favorable.
PHASES OF PLANT GROWTH
In general, there are two phases of plant growth: the vegetative
phase, which is associated with the development of stems and leaves,
and the reproductive phase, which is associated with the development
of flowers, fruits, seeds and fleshy roots and stems. Wh~n the vegeta-
tive phase is dominant, carbohydrates are utilized; conversely, when
the reproductive phase is dominant, carbohydrates accumulate.
The two phases of growth exhibited by a plant occur in cycles.
The cycles of carbohydrate utilization and carbohydrate accumulation
are not the same for all plants or for the same plants under different
conditions. Since these phases are influenced by environmental 'and
nutritional conditions, the horticulturist has an opportunity to modify,
to a limited extent, the type of growth made by planls by manipulating
the environment.. A plant may be in the vegetative phase for all of the
season or for many seasons or in the vegetative phase for one part of a
season and the reproductive phase during another part of the same
season. The raspberry cane will grow an entire season and not flower
until the next season; the young apple tree may grow for s~ or seven
years without flowering; and the snap bean will make rapid vegetative
growth for the first few weeks and then produce flowers and fruit. A
single organ of a plant, as a flowering bud, first goes through a ,stage
when the vegetative phase is dominant and then through a stage when
the reproductive phase is dominant.
The carbohydrate-nitrogen hypothesis advances the idea that the
amount and kind of growth made by a plant are influenced largely
by the carbohydrates and proteins available for the use of the plant
during various stages of its life cycle. On this hypothesis, which
presupposes the availability of adequate water and mineral ,elements
other than nitrogen, plants can be separated into four distinct groups
or, rather, into four phases of growth. There are no fixed lines of
demarcation separating these phases of growth, and one phase will
blend imperceptibly into the adjacent phase or phases. Future
investigations may prove, disprove or modify this hypothesis; but at
present it serves, in its broad sense, as a suitable means of discussing
certain phases of plant growth.
Group 1 is known as the highly vegetative, non-flowering group and
may be represented by C/N +. Plants in this group have an adequate
supply of carbohydrates and an abundant supply of nitrogen. The
abundant nitrogen supply makes it possible for the plant to utilize the
carbohydrates as they are synthesized and thus prevents their accumu-
lation. (A college freshman with good health, a surplus supply of
money and a good automobile will not store up much reserve.)
Group 2 is known as the moderately vegetative, flowering and fruit-
ing group and may be represented by C/N. Plants in this group have
an adequate supply of carbohydrates combined with an adequate
amount of nitrogen; consequently, only moderate vegetative growth
occurs, and carbohydrates accumulate in the vicinity of the developing
buds and flower buds are initiated. (A college freshman with good
health and sufficient funds for all necessary activities does good
scholastic work.)
Group 3 is known as the flowering but non-fruiting group and
may be represented by CIN -. Plants in this group have an adequate
supply of carbchydrates but are deficient in nitrogen; consequently,
only fair vegetative growth occurs, but flower buds are formed.
Flowers and fruits either drop while small or do not develop fully
because of the lack of sufficient nitrogen. (A college freshman with
fair health, a small amount of money in reserve and a part-time job
that was not continued after Christmas has scholastic difficulties.)
Group 4 is known as the weakly vegetative, non-flowering and non-
fruiting group and may be represented by C -IN -. Plants in this
group are deficient in both carbohydrates and nitrogen; consequently,
the vegetative growth is weak; the leaves are few in number, small in
size and yellowi$ green in color; and no flower buds are formed.
(A college student with poor health, no money and unable to get
temporary employment fails in scholastic achievement.)
During its complete life cycle every plant passes through these four
stages. The young plant has a relatively large, well-exposed leaf
area and an adequate, uncrowded root system in a fertile soil. Under

such conditions there is an adequate supply of carbohydrates and an
abundant supply of nitrogen which are expended in vegetative growth
+
-the C/N phase. As the plant becomes older and larger, the num-
ber of growing points increases rapidly; the leaves begin to shade one
another somewhat; and the root system fills its allotted space more
fully and begins to meet competition from the roots of other plants.
The leaf area supplies adequate carbohydrates, but the greatly
increased number of growing points (buds) has resulted in a decrease
in the relative amount of nitrogen available for each bud. The lessen-
ing in the amount of nitrogen .checks the utilization of carbohydrates
in vegetative growth, and the carbohydrates accumulate. This
adequate supply of nitrogen combined with more carbohydrates than
are needed for the activities of the plant will result in the initiation
of flowers or the formation of reproductive organs-the C/N phase.
As the perennial plant continues to grow, the number of growing points
will continue to increase, competition among the leaves for water and
light will become more pronounced, a decrease in the photosynthetic
efficiency of the individual leaves will occur, the amount of carbo-
hydrates for both the top and roots will be decreased and the nitrogen
supply to each growing point will continue to decrease. For a time
there will be sufficient carbohydrates to cause the formation of flowers,
but the early growth of the plant the following spring, which is made
chiefly from the stored food, 'will make such a heavy demand on the
already low nitrogen reserve that the supply will soon be exhausted,
the plant will be weakened find the flowers or young fruits will fall off-
the C/N - phase. With increased age and size this condition becomes
more pronounced. The decreased carbohydrate supply to the roots
further retards the growth of a root system already unable to supply
adequate nitrogen to the top. Thus the relative nitrogen supply is
decreased further, and this results in a decrease in the size and number
of leaves with an accompanying decrease in the quantity of carbo-
hydrates synthesized~ The amount of growth is very little; the foliage
is scant in amount, small in size and yellowish green in color; and
flower buds are not formed-the C - IN - phase. Unless this condi-
tion is remedied, the plant will die.
The object of the horticulturist is to get plants into the productive
(C/N) stage as soon as desirable and to keep them there as long as .it
•
is financially profitable. He does this by various practices which
influence the type of growth made by the plant. The type of growth
is a response to the relationshij? existing between the carbohydrates
and nitrogen within the plant. It is a response to the utilization or
accumulation of reserves-chiefly carbohydrates.
When nitrogen is dominant, the plant is vegetative, and the
carbohydrates are utilized in making more stems, leaves and roots.
When the carbohydrates are dominant, the carbohydrates accumu-
late, with the resultant lessening in vegetative growth, maturation of
cells, formation of flower buds and formation of storage organs usually
associated with reproduction.
CELL MATURATION
,When woody plants begin to' slow down in vegetative activity,

carbohydrates begin to f:ccumulate. One says that the plant is pre-
paring for the low temperatures of winter. The accumulation of
carbohydrates brings about the maturation of the live cells. The cell
wails are thickened; and largely by the deposition of various carbo-
hydrates, such as cellulose, the moisture in the cell protoplasm
decreases, and various food products accumulate in the cells. If
environmental conditions, as a warm moist fall, or cultural practices,
as a late cultivation, stimulate late vegetative growth and delay the
time at which this maturation of the tissues takes place, the plant is
likely to be injured by cold during the dormant season.
FLOWER-BUD FORMATION
Apparently in all plants that have mixed flower buds, each growing
shoot point or bud is potentially a flower bud. During the early
development of these buds they appear to be identical in structure,
but gradually certain microscopically morphological changes take
place in some of them. These changes are the formation of flowers.
Chemical differences within the different buds must initiate and bring
about these morphological changes which result in the forma,tion of
flower parts rather than the coatinuation of vegetative growth. The
illitiation of flowers in growing buds appears to be associated with the
presence of an adequate supply of ritrogen and the presence of more
carbohydrates than are necessary to carry on the vegetative activities
of that particular bud or stem point.
Differentiation of flower parts apparently occurs in the life of an
actively growing bud during certain stages in the growth of the bud,
provided that the adequate supply of nitrogen and the reserve supply
of carbohydrates are present during the time the bud is passing through
this stage. Flower buds are formed at different times in different kinds
of plants and at different times in various buds of the same plant.
At Ames, Iowa, the great majority of terminal buds on spurs of mature

Jonathan apple trees that formed flowers did so during' the period
between June 15 and July 1, but flowers were formed on Dunlap
strawberry plants between September 1 and 20. On the same Jona-
than apple tree, however, there were some flowers tlrat formed ter-
minally on shoots 6 in. or more long as well as on the short spurs.
Since the shoot continued to elongate until late July, the terminal bud
was not formed, and flower formation could not take place until after
appreciable terminal elongation of the shoot had ceased.
It is important to remember that flower formation is associated
with an internal chemical composition and that it does not neces-
q
I
:
-
~
FIG. 73.---":Diagrammatic sketches showing the development of the strawberry: A,
rounded growing point; B, flattened growing point, first indication of a fruit bud forma.-
tion; C-a, first inw,Qation of sepals; D-b, first indication of petals; E-c, first indication of
stamens; F-d, first i,ndication of pistils; G, fruit (a) sepals, (b) petals, (c) stamen, (d) .
pistil, (r) receptacle; H, (a) sepal (d) seed, (r) receptacle,
sarily occur at any specific date. Carbohydrates will accumulate

when the vegetative activity of a plant or any part of a plant is retarded,
without a corresponding check in the photosynthetic activity. The
retardation in vegetative growth may be due to inherent characteristics
of the plant; to natural environmental conditions, as unfavorable
temperature or ~oisture; or to some practice performed by the grower.
The mechanical operation of ringing (cutting through the "bark"
or removing a ring of bark from a st~m) is sometimes resorted
to by horticulturists to induce flowering or fruiting by particular plants
or kinds of plants. Filler apple trees and excessively vigorous non-
flowering individual trees are often ringed to promote bearing.
Rem,' ving a narrow ring of bark from the trunk of the Corinth grape-
. the dried currant of commerce-induces the setting of the seedless
fruits which fail to set without such treatment. Ringing severs the
tissues of the phloem and prevents the flow of the carbohydrates from
the top to the roots until the wound has healed and new passages are
formed. During this period carbohydrates accumulated in the portion
of the plant above the ring and were instrumental in bringing about the
changes in growth.
The carbohydrate-nitrogen relationship in plants may be repre-
sented by four sliding weights on the level beam of a balance. The
highly vegetative, non-flowering phase (C/N +) is on the left; the
moderately vegetative, flowering and fruiting or productive phase
(C/N) near the center; the weakly vegetative, flowering but non-
fruiting phase (C/N -) next and the weakly vegetative, non-flowering
phase (C - IN -) on the right.
The horticulturist endeavors ·to keep the plant or plants on the

rather wide C/N part of the beam after they have passed through their
earlier vigorously vegetative C/N + stage and before they pass into
the C IN - and C - IN - stages in their normal progress towards final
death and"destruction.
Let us 8.ssume that a plant is in the C/N + condition and the grower
applies a quickly available nitrogenous fertilizer. Since he has added
N where there is already an oversupply of nitrogen, the C/N + w.eight
is pushed farther to the left, and fruiting is delayed. If the fertilizer
had been applied to the plants in the C/N - condition, the plus nitro-
gen would have canceled the minus nitrogen, as the C/N - weight
would have been mov:ed to the left, and the C/N, or moderately vegeta-
tive and productive stage, would have been .attained. If the highly
vegetative, non-flowering C/N + plant h!¥i been root pruned, the
nitrogen-absorbing area would have been decrease~ the nitrogen
absorbed by the plant would have been less or nitrogen would be sub-
tracted from the C/N + condition. The C/N + weight would move
to the right, and the plant would enter the C/N stage of growth.
A mature asparagus planting passes through the following cycle
annually. In the spring there is a period of carbohydrate utilizR.tion
when the new spears that ,are growing from the carbohydrates, stored
the preceding year, are being removed. After the grower stops
harvesting the spears and allow~ the stems and leaves to grow, there
is a period of carbohydrate utilization as the new tops are forming,
followed by a period of carbohydrate accumulation and storage in
the roots when the new tops have developed to such a size that they
manufacture more carbohydrates than are utilized by the activities
of thp. plants. The successful asparagus grower will cease cutting
spears sufficiently early to allow the plants ample time to develop an
adequate leaf area to produce an abundant supply of reserve carbo-
hydrates for next season's crop of spears.
The grower should know the growth of his plants sufficiently well
to determine their position on the balance beam' and adjust his opera-
tions to maintain the plants in their optimum state of growth and
fruitfulness.
DEVELOPMENT OF STORAGE ORGANS
A plant utilizes carbohydrates in carrying on its various activities,

and the carbohydrates that are not required for these activities
accumulate in various parts of the plants or in specialized storage
organs, as fruits, tubers and bulbs, or in fleshy leaves, stems and roots.
Environmental factors often influence the development of these storage
organs through their effects on growth responses. Maximum tuber
formation of Irish potatoes takes place when they are growing at a
temperature of 63°F. As temperature increases, tuberization decreases
until ~ temperature of 84°F. is reached, when no tuberization occurs.
At the higher temperature the carbohydrates are apparently used as
they are synthesized for top growth; but at the lower temperatures
the growth of the top is retarded, and the carbohydrates accumulate
and ,ue stored in the tubers. Asparagus is not grown successfully
in Florida because the tops of the plants continue to grow and thus
utilize the carbohydrates as they are synthesized. In more favorable
locations, the top growth is retarded after a time by cooler tempera-
tures, and the carbohydrates synthesized thereafter are largely
available for storage in the roots.
'G RQWING, FLOWERING AND FRUITING HABITS
The growing, flowering and fruiting habits of plants vary. In

many kinds of plants the shoots grow only at the end, and although
lateral buds are formed in the axes of the leaves, lateral shoots are not
produced. In many other kinds of plants the shoots give rise to
lateral shoots, and in some plants the lateral shoots may continue to
produce side branches themselves. A one-year-old plant of one kind

may be as elaborately branched as a four-year-old plant of another
habit of growth. Not only do plants vary in their habits of growth,
but they vary even more widely in their habits of flowering and fruit-
ing, and even the same kind of plant will vary but to a lesser degree.
Intelligent training and pruning of plants is based upon a knowledge
of the growing, flowering and fruiting habits of the plants. An intelli-
gent grower can read the history of the past performance of his plants,
-I
n
FIG. 74.-Diagrammatic sketches illustrating growth habit of apples. I. twig
showing nine buds; 11. two-year branch showing possible developments from the buds
in twig I. Buds 1 and 2 developed into vigorous twigs terminated by shoot buds. and
bud 3 developed into a leBS vigorous twig terminated by a fruit bud. Bud 4 developed
into a vigorous spur terminated· by a fruit bud. Bud" developed into a leBS vilWrous
spur terminated by a fruit bud. Bud 6 developed into a weakly spur terminated by a
shoot bud. Bud 7. being a flower bud. produced fruit and a terminal shoot bud.
Bud 8 remaine"d latent. Bud 9 died.
predict the future and govern his pruning and other practices
accordingly.
Flowering and fruiting · habits of horticultural plants are very
diverse and quite complex. It will be advisable, however, to discuss
a few of the simpler and more common fruiting habits o(woody plants.
Fruits are borne terminally or laterally on wood that was produced
during the previous season or the current season and singly or in
clusters of two or more. The peach bears fruit laterally on one-year-
old twigs from simple buds that contain butQne flower each. Ra.sp~
142 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTUllE
berries are produced terminally in clusters on current season's wood.

The grape produces fruit in clusters near the base of current season's
shoots which generally arise from the one·yea.r-old canes. Cherries
produce laterally, singly or in small clusters on one-year-old twigs and
on the one-year-old growth of spurs. In horticultural usage a spur is
considered as a slow.,.growing twig or branch that, under normal condi-
tions, did not make over 2 in. of growth the previous season. The
apple, with its mixed fruit bud, exhibits several of these types of
fruiting habits. It produces terminally on one-year-old twigs, laterally
on twigs but mostly terminally on spurs that are one year old or older.
The spur-bearing habit is so pronounced in some varieties of apples, as
Duchess, Jonathan, Wealthy, Rhode Island Greening and York
Imperial, that they are known as "spur bearers." This habit of
bearing may lead to pronounced biennial bearing. Some apple varie-
ties, as Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, Gano, Golden Delicious and Yellow
Transparent, especially while young, produce fruit on the ends of
relatively long one-year-old twigs. More rarely, but under very
favorable conditions, varieties such as the Wagener will- produce fruit
hiterally on the one-year-old twigs.
The woody ornamentals possess similar flowering habits. The lilac
flowers terminally and near the ends of the one-year-old twigs; forsythia
laterally on twigs; the spiraeas and viburnums terminally on current
season's shoots.
Review Questions
1. What is growth?
2. What are the two periods of plant activity?
8. What is the duration of the growing period?
4. What is meant by the dormant period?
6. What is meant by the rest period?
6. Do the dormant periods and rest periods coincide in length of time?
7. How can the duration of the dormant period be altered?
8. How can the duration of the rest period be altered?
9. What two principal factors influence plant growth?
10. What are the four principal environmental factors that influence plant
growth?
11. Under what conditions might an influencing factor of plant growth become
a limiting factor?
, 12. How is a carbohydrate within the plant made available for use by the plant?
18. What are the two principal groups of food eyIL~esized and used by plants?
14. What are the two principal phases of plant growth?
16. What is the carbohydrate·nitrogen hypothesis?
16. When carbohydrates accumulate, what three activities occur in the plant?
17. What is flower-bud formation?
- 18. What causes flower-bud formation?
GROWT~OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 143
19. When does flower-bud formation occur?
20. Where are flower buds formed on an apple tree?
Problems
1. There is a peach tree growing just outside the BOuth wall of the greenhouse.
On Oct. 1 an opening was made in the greenhouse, and branch A, while still attached
to the tree, was brought into the house and kept under conditions favorable for
growth. On the first of the following February a similar branch, B, was brought
into the greenhouse in a corresponding fashion. Branch C, similar to branches A
and B, was left outside the greenhouse. Give the order in which growth started in
these three similar branches. Explain.
2. You have an old apple tree that for the past two years has made very little
growth, has blossomed profusely each spring but has not produced any fruit al-
though several years ago it produced satisfactory crops. Explain the cause of
blossoming, and state what might be done to produce fruit.
S. A month before Mother's Day a carnation grower noticed that the plants in
one house were growing vigorously but would not be in bloom until ten days or two
weeks after Mother's Day, at which time he planned for a full crop. State a possi-
ble cause, and suggest and explain a remedy.
4. A 40-acre, nine-year-old, vigorously growing apple orchard was given a heavy
pruning during March. State and explain the results on the following crop.
6. Make a diagrammatic sketch of an apple branch showing the locations of
fruit buds.
1. GOURLEY, J. H., "Textbook of Pomology," pp. 19-73, The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York, i922.
2. HOLMAN, R. M., and W. W. ROBBINS, "A Textbook of General Botany,"
3. KRAUS, E. J., Sources and Cycles of the,Nutritive Elements, "U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Yearbook," pp. 40H17, 1939.
4. MAXIMOV, N. A., "Plant Physiology," McGraw~Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1938.
CHAPTER VII
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION
TO TEMPERATURE
The behavior of a complicated organism such as a plant is governed

indirectly by such fundamental factors as temperature, moisture, light
and soil. These function together in the activities of the plant, and it
can hardly be said that one is more important than another. At
various times during the plant's life, however, one of ,the factors may
be classed as a limiting factor. The individual processes of a plant are
so -interdependent that difficulty is often experienced in determining '
whether a particular process is influenced more by one factor or another
or by a combination of two or more factors.
FAVORABLE TBMPERATURES
There is a minimum and maximum temperature below or above
which a plant does not grow, and for each kind of plant there is an
optimum temperature at which it grows or functiona best. The mini-
mum temperature suitable for growth for most 'horticultural plants is
around 40 to 43°F., and the maximum froni 85 to 114°F., whereas the
optimum ranges,around 75 to 85°F. At the optimum temperature the
plant makes satisfactory growth , of vegetative, reproductive and
storage parts; at temperatures slightly above, the optimum, but not
injurious, carbohydrates are utilized, and vegetative growth is rapidj
and at temperatures slightly below the optimum, vegetative growth is
slow, and carbohydrates accumulate.
Most people have noticed that all the different kinds of plant.<l in the
same locality do not start to grow at the same time in the spring, con-
tinue to grow at the same rates during the warmer temperatures of
summer or stop 'growing at the same time as the temperature becomes
cooler in the fall. As one travels;from north to south in the United
States, he notes that the types of plants change. A$ one passes into
glassho\lses in which florists and vegetable growers are producing differ- '
ent.types of pla.nts,one cannot fail to note tha,t the temperatures of,the
various houses: are different. Seeds of com,l tomatoes, squash, peas,
radishesaIid lettuce are planted at . different seaso~ because some
germinatesat.islactorily only at low telJ;l.peratures, and others germinate
144
THE PLANT IN RELAT ION TO TEMPE RATUR E 145
satisfactorily only at high temper atures. Certain kinds of plants grow

only when the temper ature is cool and others grow better; and still
others grow when the temper ature is warm. According to their
as
temper ature require ments horticu ltural plants may be grouped
cool-season or warm-season crops.
COOL-S EASON CROPS
Cool-season crops are those which make their most satisfa ctory
the
growth at relativ ely cool temperatu.res. They may grow during
cool temper atures of spring, the cool temper atures of fall or during
e
both the periods. This makes it possible in some sections to produc
Some varietie s
both a spring and a fall crop of certain kinds of plants.
of the same kind of plant are better adapte d to cool temper atures than
others. The McInto sh apple grows well and attains a high quality
to
under the cool growing conditions of New E~gland but is unsuite d
the warme r sections farther south.
Fruits .-Of those fruits which grow successfully in the temper ate
zone, cranberries, raspberries, dewberries, blueberries, curran ts, goose-
berries, strawberries, plums, labrusc a grapes, apples and pears do best
in localities with relative ly cool growing seasons. Some of these fruits
require cooler temper ature than others, and their successful produc tion
as
is restrict ed to certain localities, but a cool though short-season crop,
the strawb erry, produces its fruit ill the winter in Florida and in June
are
in Iowa. Even within the same kind of cool-season fruit there
ature than they are to anothe r
varieties better adapte d to one temper
Fameu se and McInto sh varietie s of
during the growing season. The
apples grow s!'ttisfactorily and, attain their high quality only when
grown under the cool temper atures of Michigan, New York and New
in
Englan d, becoming coarse texture d and of poor flavor when grown
the warme r areas farther south. The Wealth y apple grown in Michi-
gan, Minnes ota and northe rn Iowa is better flavored than when grown
r,
in southe rn Iowa and Missouri. The Delicious and Winesap, howeve
are relative ly high. The Duches s
do better when the temper atures
apple develops the best quality when the mean temper ature from Mar.
the
1 to Sept. 1 is about 52°F., whereas the Grimes Golden develops
best quality when the temper ature for the s8:me period averag es about
62°F. The Bartle tt pear grown in the Santa Clara Valley in Cali-
the
fornia is a noticea bly different pear from the Bartle tt produc ed in
much warme r Sacram ento Valley about 100 miles distant .
Veg~tables.-Cool-season vegetab le crops may
be divided into
three general groups. .
146 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURB
The first consists of short-season crops that are unable towitbstand·

. tbe heat of summer. but that can be planted in the open early enough
to attain full development before the temperature becomes too high.
Crops in this group as a whole are planted early in the spring, and a
second crop of many. of them can be grown again in the fall; This is
especially true in the South where tw'o crops of the same kind of vege-
table are ' produced annually. RepreSentative crops of this group
include kohIrabi, leaf lettuce, mustard, pea, radish, spinach and
turnip.
A second group of cool-season vegetable crops is composed of those
requiring not only a cool season but a longer period for growth than
required by the kinds of vegetables in the first group. It includes
early cabbage, early cauliflower and head lettuce. In some sections
there is insufficient time to mature these crops from seed planted in the
open before high temperatures occur; consequently, the seeds are
started under glass, and the seedlings ~ransplanted to the open field as
early as temperature conditions permit. In other cases the crops are
planted 'IU'ter the heat of the summer and grown during the cool fall
weather. The long cool growing seasons during the fall in the northern
part of the United States are especially favorable for the production
of such cool-aeason crops as late cauliflower, late cabbage, Brussels
sprouts and celery.
A third group of cool-season vegetable crops includes those rela-
tively long-season crops which require cool weather during the earlier
stages of development but will withstand considerable heat after
becoming established. The most common representatives of this
·group are beets, carrots, kale, onions, parsley, parsnips and early
potatoes. In general, seeds of these crops are planted in the open
early in the spring. The-two perennial plants asparagus and rhubarb
belong in this group.
Ornamentals.-Flowers and other ornamental horticultural plants
also have Certain temperatures at which they make their optimum
growth. The maintenance of proper temperature for specific crops
grown under glass is of great importance to the florist. The tempera-
tures .a re Controlled, within certain limits, by manipulating the heating
and ventilating systems and by shading. Although it is pOBBible' to
gro\V"in the same greenhouse some plants that do best at cool tempera-
tures 'and some that do best at warm temperatures, neither type of
plant will do its best, and under such conditions the grower usually
compromises and maintains a temperature ~mewhere between the
two optima. He may, however, favor one group of plahts if that
retUrns the greater profit. The leading cool;..season crops of the florist
THE PLANT IN RELATION T.O TEMPERATURE 147
are carnation, chrysanthemum, snapdragon, sweet pea, pansy and

cyclamen. The bulbous plants, as tulips and narcissi, are .forced at low
temperatures. The deciduous shrubs, as forsythia, redbud, Spiraea
prunifolia, flowering almond and lilac, that start growth and bloom
early in the spring may be considered as cool-season plants, although
they do survive the heat of the following summer.
WARM-SEASON CROPS
Warm-season crops are those which make their most satisfactory

growth at relatively warm temperatures. In some localities where
such temperatures are not normal, special practices are performed in
growing certain crops. The most common practice is that of growing
flowers and vegetables out of season in greenhouses. In certain cool
sections of Europe the peach is grown successfully by being trained
against south walls where the temperature is higher because of the
reflected heat. Grapes grown on the tetraced southern slopes in
Germany, France, Spain and Italy make high-quality wines. In
England the temperature never becomes high enough for the produc-
tion of cucumbers, and consequently this vegetable is grown in heated
greenhouses.
Fruits.-Fruits of the temperate zone, as peaches, nectarines,
apricots and vinifera grapes, require more heat for their best develop-
ment than does the apple. Apricots growing in certain sections of the
Sacramento River Valley grow more slowly and ripen as much as three
weeks later than apricots growing in other sections of the valley not
subject to cool nights. Citrus fruits, like the orange, grapefruit and
lemon, require more heat than the peach. Tropical fruits like the
banana and pineapple require higher temperatures than do citrus fruits.
Vegetables.-There are two groups of warm-season vegetable
crops. The first consists of those which will complete their growing
season and perfect their products in temperate climates during the
normal period of weather favorable for their development. These
crops can be planted after the soil is sufficiently warm in the spring and
will mature before the first killing frost in the fall. Among them are
string beans, lima beans, sweet corn, cucumbe~s, muskmelons, water-
melons, okra, squashes and pumpkins. A second group of warm-sea-
son vegetable crops comprises those which require a longer period for
growth than the normal period favorable for their development. In
temperate climates this longer growing period is obtained by starting
the plants under glass and transplanting t~ the field when temperature
conditions are suitable. Eggplants, pep'pers, sweet potatoes and
tomatoes are the most common vegetables that belong to this group.
148 TEXTB OOK OF GENER AL HORTI CULTU RE
qrnani entals .-The florist 'groups the various plants that he is

growing in different houses and regulates the temper atures accordi
ng
to the different kinds of plants. Some of the leading floral plants that
do best when grown in warm houses at temper atures of' 55°F. and
higher are roses, gardenias, poinsettias, orchids, callas and begonia
s.
Many of tlie orname ntal shrubs, as the oleander and hibiscus, that
ar~
not hardy in cool climates grow satisfactorily at high temper atures.
UNFAVORABLE TEMPE RATUR ES

The horticu lturist is particu larly concerned with the occurrence of
unfavo rable temper atures and the resulta nt influence on the behavi
or
of plants. Either injurio us high or low temper atures may occur
at
any time of the year and cause damage, ranging from a slight checkin
g
of growth throug h the ~estruction of the crop to the killing of the entire
plant.
EFFECT S OF HIGH TEMPE RATUR ES
High temper atures during either the growing or the dorma nt season
result in various difficulties.
During the Growing Season .-Exce ssive heat during the growing
season often results in the burnin g of leaves and fruit. Growers often
observe that leaf injury on apple trees is particu larly severe if abnor-
\
mally high temper atures occur shortly after the plants have been
spraye d with lime-fuliur. High temper atures cause peas and corn
to
pass their best stages of maturi ty very quickly, which results in starchi
-
ness and toughness. Irish potatoe s are inclined to produce vegeta tive
growth at the expense of tuber format ion when the temper ature goes
above 64°F. AssQciated with the effects of unfavo rable high temper
a-
tures during the growing season are branch ing and unplea sant flavor
in
asparagus, flower dropping in snap beans and flower stalks develop
ing
in head lettuce . Tempe ratures above 65°F. in glasshouses result
in
lack of differentiation of flower buds in stocks and many other floral
plants. ..
During the Dorma nt Seaso n.-Hig h temper atures . during the
dorma nt season are indirec tly responsible for certain kinds of damage
.
Abnorm ally high temper atures may induce.cambia.l activit y and
the
opening of buds early in the season. When this activit y is followe
d
shortly by freezing temper atures, damag e to wood and flowers is often
qUite destruc tive. .The temper ature , during the last three weeks
of
Februa ry and the first three weeks of March is very import ant
in
determ ining the amoun t of frost damag e to apples in the eastern part
of the United States. If the temperl}.ture during this period is ahove
THE PLANT IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE 149
the average, the trees will blossom early, with a great likelihood of
being injured by frosts.
EFFECTS OF Low TEMPERATURES
Low temperatures occurring either during the rest period or after-

ward cause damage to roots, stems and buds of horticultural plants.
Low temperatures occurring after the rest period is completed and
gro~th has started in the spring often destroy the flowers and new
shoot growth of woody plants and kill herbaceous plants entirely.
The importance of the great economic losses has stimulated scien-
tists to investigate the cause of death of plant tissues by low tempera-
ture. In general, the capacity of a plant to retain moisture against the
FIG. 75.-:-Havoc caused by a severe winter. Old Baldwin apple trees are pulled out in
Wayne County. New York.
extracting forces of freezing is associated with its ability to survive cold.

Death from freezing is believed to be due to desiccation. Ice forms in
the intercellular spaces and extracts water from the protoplasm. If
the ice formation proceeds beyond critical limits, the protoplasm of the
cells dies from loss of water. Thus, plant tissues holding greater
quantities of water against freezing should be more hardy to cold thar..
those with less capacity for water retention. The water held without
freezing is spoken of as "bound water"; the water frozen, as "free
water." Those plants which have a higher percentage of free water
in proportion to the amount of bound water are usually less hardy than
plants with a smaller ratio between free water and bound water. The
amount of bound water will vary in the same tissues of the same plant
under different conditions
One plausible explanation of the injury caused by low: temperatures

suggests that winter hardiness is dependent upon high carbohydrate
and other food reserve supply in the tissues and that hardiness against
low temperature is the result of structural differentiation of the proto-
plasm which makes it more resistant to loss of moisture. Such dif-
ferentiation may be dependent upon and in part initiated by high sugar
concentration in the tissues. Plants may differ in their genetic ability
to use the food reserves in building a protoplasm that is resistant to low
temperature.
Woody plants, which may be hardy when subjected to low tempera-
tures if the wood is mature, may be severely injured when exposed to
the same conditions if the wood is immature. This is explained on the
basis of the chemical composition and physical structure of the proto-
plasm at different stages of maturity in the cells. In general, those
horticultural practices, such as late cultivation, irrigation and the
application of nitrogenous fertilizers, which tend to stimUlate late fall
growth result in the depletion of reserve carbohydrates, the develop-
ment of soft immature shoots that are low in their water-retaining
capacity and resistance to low temperatures. Such tissues may be
severely injured or killed even in mild winters when properly matured
tissues would be entirely unharmed.
During the Rest Period.-In a previous discussion it was learned
that most deciduous trees and shrubs have a rest period during which
no appreciable growth takes place even though the environmental
conditions are favorable for growth. This internal condition of the
plant apparently has some bearing on its ability to withstand low
temperatures during the winter. The more deeply a plant or plant
part is in the rest period the more resistant it is to cold. A very low
temperature in the early part of the rest period or in the latter part of
it will cause more injury than if such temperature came during the time
when the plant was in the middle or deepest part of the period.
The root of the plant evidently does not have a rest period; conse-
quently, one would expect more damage to roots from low temperatures
than to the tops. The soil temperature does not become so low or
fluctuate so rapidly and widely as the air temperature surrounding the
top. ·Soil temperatures remain much higher than atmospheric tem-
peratures; and in addition mulches of snow or vegetation, as that of a
cover crop, give added protection to the roots by maintaining higher
soil temperatures.
Afte.r the Rest Period.-The effect of low temperatures after the
rest period is completed varies in relation to a number of different
factors, among the most important being (1) relative hardiness of
different kinds of plants and of varieties of the same kind of plant, (2)
relative hardiness of the different parts of the same plant, (3) the time
of occurrence of the low temperature, (4) the degree and duration of
low temperature and (5) the rapidity of temperature changes.
The discussion of horticultural practices that are used to protect
plants from damage caused by low temperatures will indicate the rela-
tive hardiness of the more important horticultural plants. Suffice it
to say that not only do various species of plants vary in their resistance
to low temperatures but also some varieties of the same species show
evidence of being more resistant than other varieties. The various
parts of the same plant also differ in relative hardiness to cold. The
fact that trees often fail to blossom following severe winters" indicates
that shoot buds are more resistant to low temperatures than the Bower
buds. The pistil of the flower is more tender than are other parts of
the same Bower. The stem when considered in cross section shows
that the cambium is the most resistant to low temperature, followed in
turn by the cortex, the Eapwood and the pith.
The time at which low temperatures occur results in different effects
on the plant. The advent of early winter cold will result in the killing
of the terminals of the immature shoots. In some cases the sapwood
of the plant is injured and turns brown, resulting in a condition known
as "black heart. " Since the cambium is often uninjured, a new layer
of sapwood may be formed covering the injured wood, and little dam-
age results. Badly black hearted young nursery trees seldom survive
transplanting in the spring following the damage. At Ames, Iowa, on
Oct. 30, 1925, while the trees were in full leaf and active growth, the
temperature dropped to -7°F. The result was the killing 01 the sap-
wood in many of the branches of three-year-old apple trees. The next
spring these trees were allowed to retain all the leaf area possible by
resorting to practically no pruning, and in time they outgrew the effect
of the injury. Low temperatures during the winter season also cause
such injuries known as "bark splitting," "trunk splitting," "branch
splitting," "sunscald," "crotch injury" and "collar rot." The
explanation offered for the crown and crotch injury is that these are
the last parts of the plant to cease cambial activity and to mature their
wood and consequently are more tender. Sunscald usually occurs on
the side of the tree that is exposed to the direct and reBected rays of the
sun. Most often this injury occurs on the south side of the tree which
the plant is subjected to alternating changes of temperature . . During
the day the tissues on the branches exposed to the sun become warm
and thaw out only to freeze again at night. This alternate freezing
and thawing with its resultant expansion and contraction results in
the final death o.f the tissues. Owing to. the destructio.n o.f these
tissues, the bark peels o.ff.
Frost o.r feathery crystalso.f ice fo.rm o.n the gro.und and o.n o.ther
expo.sed surfaces when there is sufficient mo.isture in the air and the
temperature o.f the expo.sed surfaces falls to. 32°F. This temperature
may cause co.nsiderable injury to. ho.rticultural plants. Fro.st does
mo.st damage to. the newly o.pened blossoms o.f fruit trees and flowering
plants and to. yo.ung growths and newly set plants. Untimely frosts
o.ften cause immense lo.sses to vegetables in Flo.rida, Texas and other
so.uthern sections that grow early vegetables for the no.rthern markets.
The Irish po.tato. cro.p is o.ften decreased in the no.rthern producing areas
because early fall frosts destro.y the tops before they have had sufficient
time to. synthesize enough reserves to cause the development o.f large
tubers.
Subjecting seedlings of biennial plants, as celery, beets, cabbages
and carro.ts, to. a temperature o.f 50°F. o.r lower fo.r a period o.f five o.r six
weeks will cause them to. produce seed stalks the first seaso.n instead
o.f pro.ducing the characteristic edible pro.duct.
The amo.unt o.f damage done to. ho.rticultural plants by unfavo.rable
lo.w temperatures varies with the kind of plant and part of plant, with
seaso.n o.f the year, with the state o.f gro.wth o.r activity o.f the plant,
with the lo.wness o.f temperature attained, with the rate and extent
o.f the dro.p in temperature and with the duratio.n of time fo.r which the
plant is subjected to. the unfavo.rable temperature.
PROTECTION FROM TEMPERATURES
The ho.rticulturist resorts to vario.us practices to. pro.tect · plants

fro.m unfavo.rable temperatures.
SELECTION OF Lo.CATION
Locatio.n refers to. the general area in which o.nc might establish a
ho.rticultural enterprise. It is obvious that if one desired to. establish
an orange o.rchard, he would co.nfine the lo.catio.n to subtro.pical regio.ns.
Unfo.rtunately, the pro.per lo.cations within this generalregio.n are
often d~termined o.nly after severe losses have demo.nstrated the
unsuitability o.f o.ther lo.catio.ns. With such plants as the perennial
lo.ng-lived fruit trees, erro.rs in selecting favo.rable lo.catio.ns are espe-
cially costly. Mter the severe freeze o.f 1893-1894, the o.range orchards
in Flo.rida were pushed so.uthward. The fruit belts in Michigan and
New York are rather sharply fix.ed by the extent o.f influence o.Lthe
adjacent bodies of water o.n the temperature.
THE PLANT IN RELAT ION TO TEMPE RATUR E ' . 153
SELECTION OF SITE
Mter a suitabl e location has been determ ined upon, the next con-
all
siderat ion is the selection of a proper site. This is import ant in
horticu ltural plantin gs but probab ly of greater signific ance in fruit
the
growing than in the produc tion of vegetables or flowers because of
greater perman ency of the fruit crops. In all localiti es the site should
provide for adequa te air and water drainage. Cold air drains away
on
from the higher elevati ons and collects in the valleys. This conditi
leads to serious losses from late spring frosts. Excess water should
the
also be able to drain away, for plants will not grow satisfac torily jf
these reasons orchard s are often planted on
soil is waterlogged. For
gently rolling to hilly land, but level land is just as satisfac tory, or even
e
more so, provide d there is lower land adjace nt which permits suitabl
drainag e. In some localiti es the particu lar slope or
air and water
and
exposure is of import ance. The south and west slopes are warme r
drier; and the north and east, cooler and more moist. In the Middle
est
West there is more winter injury on the trunks of trees on a southw
exposure. In plantin g certain flowers or other plants on the home
the
grounds it is often advisable to select the exposures best adapte d to
particu lar plants.
SELECTION OF PLANTS
The selection of plants and of varieties of those plants which are

inheren tly resista nt to unfavo rable temper atures is one of the first
considerations in overcoming the effects of unfavo rable temper atures.
of
Most of the state agricul tural experimental station s publish list,'!
various section s of their respect ive
varieties that are adapte d to the
states. The prospective planter should become well acquai nted with
the varieties that are growing satisfac torily in his cOl.lllIlunity and also
consult these lists for other kinds that he may wish to plant.
Horticu ltural plants are often classified on the basis of hardiness
which means chiefly the ability of the plants to resist low temper atures.
There is often a wide range between the least hardy and most hardy
of
horticu ltural variety of the same kind of plant. The hardy types
bluebe rry,
fruits grown in temper ate regions include the cranberry,
gooseberry, currant , red raspber ry, American plum, strawb erry, sour
cherry and apple. The interm ediate types include the dewberry, black
raspber ry, blackberry, damson plum, pear and sweet cherry. Fruits
grown in temper ate regions and generally considered as tender, or lack-
se
ing resistance to low temper atures, are the Europe an plum, Japane
. plum, apricot, peach and Europe an grape.
Fruits of the subtropical regions are relatively tender, when com-

pared to those of temperate regions. Among subtropical fruits the '
orange is the hardiest, followed in order by grapefruit, lemon and citron.
Vegetables also differ in their ability to withstand frost and low
temperatures. Some hardy vegetables may be planted two to four
weeks before the last killing frosts in the spring; half-hardy vegetables,
about the time of the last killing frost; tender and very tender vege-
tables which are injured by light frosts and whose seed germinate
poorly at low temperature must be planted or transplanted to the field
after all danger of late frosts is over. The principal vegetable crops
may be grouped roughly as follows in order of relative hardiness:
Hardy Half hardy Tender Very tender
Asparagus , Artichoke New Zealand spinach Cucumber

Broccoli Beet Snap bean Eggplant
Brussels sprouts Carrot Sweetcom Lima bean
Cabbage Cauliflower Tomato Muskmelon
Chinese cabbage Celery Okra
?)
The ornamental trees, shrubs, vines and herbaceous perennials can
be grouped roughly into those which are h/Vdy and those which are
HARDY
Herbaceous
Trees Shrubs Vines
perennials
Oaks Vibumums Englemann creeper Peony

Maple ' Spiraeas Clematis Iris
Elm Lilacs Boston ivy Tulip
Norway spruce Honeysuckle Phlox
Junipers Phils.delphus Daffodil
Firs Snowberry
' fiNDER
'Herbaceous
Trees Shrubs Vines
perennials
Magnolia Elaeagnus English ivy Dahlia

Holly Cape jasmine Vinca Gladiolus
Mimosa Abelia Bougainvillaea Canna
Willow oak Azalea
Water oak Crepe myrtle
Oleander
Hibiscus
----
tender. In grouping them, the word "hardy" is used to signify those

which are resistant to low temperatures in central and northern lati-
tudes. The tender group is grown without protection in southerly
latitudes of the United States but can be grown in more northerly
latitudes only under special conditions of protection.
SPECIAL PRACTICES
The horticulturist resorts to a number of special practices in over-

coIning the effects of unfavorable temperatures. Among the most
important are (1) use of screens, (2) mulches, (3) hardening, (4) prun-
ing, (5) irrigation, (6) top-working and (7) artificial heating.
FIG. 76.-Diagrammatic sketch showing a method of protecting tender plants in cold

climates.
Screening.-Plants may be protected from both high and low

temperatures by screens made of laths, cloth, cut branches and growing
plants. Seedlings and small transplants in the nursery are often
protected from the sun by use of slat or brush covers which are raised
to various heights above the seed or transplant bed. Frames con-
structed of lath are often built over broadleaf evergreens, particularly
types like boxwood, to protect them from injury by the winter sun.
Commercial florists grow certain plants during the summer in
"cloth houses." A lightweight wooden frame is covered with light
muslin or "tobacco cloth." The cloth perInits the entrance of suffi-
cient light to grow such plants as roses, chrysanthemums, dahlias
and asters-. Such enclosures offer protection from insects as well as
from the hot rays of the sun during Inidsummer.
Mu1ching.~Mulcbes of all types afford Bome protection from

damage caused by low atmospheric humidity and low winter tempera-
tures. They decrease the loss of water, prevent the soil from cooling
to as Iowa degree and to 88 great a depth and prevent rapid changes
in the temperature of the surface of the soil. Thus the "heaving" of
plants which is caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the
surface of the soil is avoided. The early spring growth of the plants
or plant parts covered by the mulch is retarded by keeping them cooler
than the air above the mulch. Artificial mulches are used extensively
on seedling and propagation beds; tender plants, 88 hybrid tea
"roses; many herbaceous perennials i and universally on strawberry
plantings.
The time of "applying the protective mulch is influenced by the
kind of plant and the locality in which it is growing. Various mate-
rials are used, of which leaves, peat moss, straw, soil and glass wool are
the most common. Snow is an excellent mulch if it remains on the
ground during the entire period necessary. Soft-crown plants, as
foxgloves, should first be protected by a light covering of twigs or
similar material which will prevent the finer mulch material from mat-
ting over the crowns and causing them to die. Various straws are used
frequently to mulch strawberries and the more widely grown her-
baceous perennials. Glass wool is one of the newer materials, being
used for covering tender perennial flowers and to wrap tender shrubs.
Although roses are given various types of protectionr the common
method employed with tender hybrid teas is to hill them up to 8 to
9 in. with soil and cut off the plant extending above the mound of
soil. Manure or strawy refuse may be placed between the plants.
Canes of climbing roses, raspberries and even grapes are often removed
from the trellis or support and covered with several inches of soil in
those sections where damage from low winter temperatures is likely to
occur.
Hardening.-Hardening of plants like cabbage, kale and celery
is a practice often followed by vegetable growers to make them better
able to withstand adverse conditions such 88 frost, drying winds,
shortage of water and high temperatures which they may encounter
in the field after they have been taken from the cold frame. With-
holding water or lowering the temperature while the plants are still
in the cold frame are the means generally used to harden a vegetable
plant. Briefly, when the rate of growth is reduced, carbohydrates
accumulate, because they are not used in making growth." This, in
turn, is associated with the internal conditions of the plant and
incre88es the water-retaining power of the protoplasm. Tender
" plants like the tomato apparently cannot be made frost-resistant.
THE ,PLANT IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE 157
Pruning.-Judicious pruning will lessen damage to horticultural

plants by low winter temperatures. In regions of severe winter tem-
peratures, considerable killing of tissues is likely to occur about pruning
wounds made before the severe cold weather is over. This type of
injury is especially noticeable on young trees during the period of
training. Twigs are often headed back to particular buds which are
killed by low temperatures. In regions where the trunks of trees are
subject to sunscald, it is well to keep the trees low-headed, as this
shades the trunk in winter. The plants should be pruned only enough
to maintain the optimum amount of vegetative growth and fruitful-
ness .. Any practice that stimulates succulent vegetative growth or
prevents the · plants from maturing satisfactorily will increase the
probability of winter injury.
Irrigation.-Low-growing crops, as the strawberry, when grown
under irrigation, have been saved from frost injury by the application
of irrigation water. Water, in comparison with air, contains a large
amount of latent heat. The irrigation water, on cooling, may take up
so much of the cold from the air or release so much heat that the tem-
perature of the air is kept above the frost point. Frost injury to
vegetables growing on muck soil is sometimes avoided in a somewhat
similar fashion. It is well known that crops on muck or peat so~ls
are much more subject to frost than are similar crops grown on mineral
soils, because mineral soils are warmer and liberate heat more rapidly.
Raising the water table of muck or peat land may help to protect a
crop on such soils from a light frost. The water is raised in the drain-
age ditch by means of dams and forced back into the drai)l tiles in the
peat beds, thus raising the water table of the soil. SInce the soH
releases its latent heat to the water more readily than it does to air,
the movement of the latent heat from the soil to the air is thus speeded
up by passing through the water. This increased rate of liberation or'
latent heat of the soil combined with the liberation of the latent heat
of the water itself is often sufficiently rapid to avoid injury by frost.
Top-working.-A practice that is becoming of greater importance
in the protection of fruit trees from low winter temperatures is that of
double-workiQg, or top-working. This is being used particularly with
apple trees. Apple trees are especially subject to the effect of low
temperature at the collar and the main crotches. Apple varieties
such as the Virginia Crab and Hibernal are more resistant to damage
from low temperatU);e than are such varieties as Jonathan and Grimes
Golden. Top-working is discussed in Chap. XI.
Artificial Heating.-Heat as a means of protecting horticultural
plants from injury by low temperatures includes the use of cold
frl\mes, hotbeds, glasshouses and he~ters.
A cold frame is a structure that utilizes only the natural heat from
the sun to furnish plants with a warmer environment. A simple type
has the back or north side 6 in. higher than the south side. Sin~the
- --- --
6' glass Sdsh
---- - - ------
-
&: ----
r &
i ~
'<
~
: ~
~ I
" 1 <co
~
Plant space -~ '<
~
Soil
~
1I
:
~ Manure
I
I
~
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~-!------------- S'-;J" - - - - - - - - - - - -..
FIG. 77.-Cro88 section ora permanent hotbed. (Iowa Ezp. Bta.)
FIG. 78.-Orchard heating. (G1Jl1 Fe,.iliur (lo.)
standard sash is 3 ft. wide and 6 ft. long, the cold frame is generally 6 ft.
wide, with the length determined by the number of sash to be URed and
the economy of handling. Although cold frames are geneta.lly covered
with glass sash, cloth covers are widely used in the South. Cold
frames are used for growing certain early crops like lettuce and radishes
to maturity, for starting early plants that are to be transplanted to the
field, for hardening of plants before transplanting and for overwintering
certain plants.
A hotbed differs from a .cold frame in that heat, in addition to that
from the sun, is supplied by the fermentation of horse manure or other
organic matter, by hot-water or steam pipes or by hot-air flues or
by electric cables. Hotbeds are generally used for growing ffirly crops
of quick growing vegetables, to start plants that are to be transplanted
and for the propagation of many kinds of plants.
Glasshouses vary greatly in size and structure. They are heated
artificially and are used principally for the production of cut flowers
and pot plants out of season. . Both vegetables and fruits are produced
under glass, but the area devoted to these crops under glass in the
United States is relatively very small when compared to the areas in
the open.
H~ating of orchards to prevent damage from frost is an established
practice in some regions. It is extensive in the citrus orchards of
California. The temperature is raised artificially by the use of great
numbers of oil-burning heaters distributed throughout the orchard.
These produce a warm blanket of air which covers the orchard.
Review Questions
1. What are the meanings of minimum, maximum and optimum temperatures
for plant growth?
2. What is meant by a cool-season crop?
3. Give two examples of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants that are
considered as cool-season crops.
4. What is meant by a warm-!lear>on crop?
6. Give two examples of fruits, vegetableS' and ornamental plants that are
considered as warm-season crops.
6. What kinds of temperatures are injurious to plant growth?
'1. At what seasons of the year may high temperatures be injurious?
8. What is the effect of freezing temperatures on the moisture of protoplasm"
9. Why are some plants less injured than others by low temperatures?
10. At what period in its annual life cycle is a plant most resistant to low
temperatures?
11. What factors influence the degree of injury of a plant from low temperatures
after the rest period?
12. How may plants be protected from possible injury by low temperatures?
13. Are all kinds of plants equally resistant to unfavorable low temperatures?
14. Are all horticultural varieties of the same kind of plant equally resistant to
low temperatures?
16. How do mulches provide protection from injury by low temperatures?
16. Nallle the methods used by the horticulturist in supplying heat to plants to
avoid injury by low temperatures.
17. How does the application of irrigation water to a strawberry planting lessen
the chance of injury by a mild late frost?
Problems
1. A florist has a 50- by 120-ft. glasshouse, half of which is devoted to Briarcliff
hybrid tea roses and half to Red Spectrum carnations. The roses are growing
satisfactorily, but the carnations have weak spindly stems with many of the flowers
splitting. What is the cause of this condition, and what factors will govern the
remedial measures adopted?
2. You are a county agent in a truck-crop community and have been &Sked to
advise the planting date for transplanting cabbage and tomatoes to the field.
. 3. Mrs. A is growing peonies, iris, foxglove, tulips and hybrid tea roses. How
should she provide suitable winter protection for them?
4. In examining a mature apple tree in April you noted that the bark only on the
south side of the trunk was split in strips arid appeared to be loosely attached.
Diagnose the probable cause, and recommend a practical treatment.
1. AucllTlCB, E. C., and H. B. KNAPP, "Orchard and Small Fruit Culture,"
pp. 467-484, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1937. .
2. GARDNBR, V. R., et al., "Fundamentals of Fruit Production," pp. 265--431,
3. KNOTl', J. E., "Vegetable Growing," pp. 37-50, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia,
1935. '
4. LLOYD, J. W., "Productive Vegetable Gardening," pp. 43-47, J. B. Lippin-
cott Company, Philadelphia, 1930.
5. WEAVER, J. E., and F. E. eLEMENTS, "Plant Ecology," pp. 356-379,
6. WmTE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 63-76, The Macmillan CoVlpany,
New York, 1933.
7. YOUNG, F. D., Frost and the Prevention of Frost Damage, U.S. Dept. Agr.
Farmers' Bul. 1588: 1-62, 1935.
CHAPTER VIII
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO MOISTURE
H anyone factor might be said to be the most essential for plant

growth, it is moisture. The importance of moisture is indicated when
one notes that it constitutes the greater part of living plants; that it is
an essential ingredient of carbohydrates and other chemical products
of the plant; that it is required to maintain the turgidity of living cells,
a condition necessary for fundamental physiological activities of the
plant; that it is a solvent for mineral elements that enter the plant
through the roots and for the gases that enter through the leaves; and
that it serves as a means by which substances are transported within
the plant.
WATER IN THE PLANT
A plant has been defined as a "supported column of water." This
definition would indicate that all its physiological processes occur in
solutions and take place when large quantities of water are present.
The active plant contains water in two different states, which may
be referred to as bound water and free water. The free water in the
plant absorbs and gives off heat, evaporates at 212°F., freezes at 32°F.
and moves freely from one part of the plant to another. The bound
water is practically a constituent of chemical substances in the plant; it
does not give off or regulate heat at 212°F.; it does not freeze easily, if
it freezes at all; and it acts more like a solid than like water. Free
water may become bound water, and bound water may become free
water.
OBTAINING ·WATER
Most horticultural plants obtain water from the soil through minute
openings in the walls of the root hairs by a process known as "diffu-
sion." The molecules of water are in constant rapid motion. Hone
of them strikes an opening in the wall of the root ha.ir, it will pass
through the opening if the hole is large enough to permit its passage .
. When there are more molecules of water on the outside of the root hair
than on the inside of the same root hair, there will be a greater number
\ of chances for molecules on the outside to hit openings than there are
chances for those on the inside to hit openings. Consequently, as long
161
as this water condition is maintained on the two sides of the root-hair

membrane, more water will pass from the soil into the plant than pasSes
from the plant into the soil. In a soil containing adequate water for
satisfactory plant growth the amount of water inside is always less
than the amount outside the root hair. Under such conditions, water
continues to pass into the plant from the soil. The rate of the move-
ment of water into the plant will vary according to the difference
between the amount of water on the inside of the root hair and the
amount on the outside, as the two amounts will attempt to reach a state
of equilibrium. The rate, therefore, will be influenced by the condi-
FIG. 79.-Irrigation in ancient Assyria as depicted in the palace at Koyunjik. An

aqueduct is shown at the right and laterals in foreground. (Gardner. Bradford and
Hooker.)
tions of the plant and its environment, both of which may be regulated,
to some extent, by the grower.
USING WATER
Different kinds of plants and the same kind in different environ-

ments vary in the amount of water that they take in and in the amount
that they give off. The total amount used by a plant and the amount
used for each of its many activities is never constant. Optimum
nutritive conditions provide for the most econOInical use of water.
FUNCTIONS OF WATER
Water has certain functions that it perforIns or for which it is used
by the plant. The relative amounts used for the various functions
will vary according to .the activities of the plant and the amount of
water available. When the water supply is limited, the vegetative
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO MOISTURE 163
parts of the plant seem t.0 be supplied with water before the fruits that
may be growing on that plant. In cases of extreme drought, water
passes from the developing fruits to the leaves, and the fruits may
wither and drop. An abundant water supply is necessary for satisfac-
tory growth of leafy plants like lettuce, spinach and lawn grasses.
Free water normally is a constituent of all plant tissues. It com-
prises from 50 to 75 per cent of the green weight of all leaves and
twigs, from 60 to 85 per cent of the weight of roots, from 70 to 90 per
cent of the weight of herbaceous plants and 85 per cent or more of the
weight of fleshy fruits and vegetables. It comprises 85 per cent of the
fruit of the apple, 90 per cent of the fruit of the strawberry, 90 per cent
of the head of cabbage and 90 per cent of spinach.
Water is indispensable as a plant nutrient. It is a component of
protoplasm and, with carbon dioxide, is essential in synthesizing vari-
ous plant foods that are utilized or stored by the plant. Water keeps
the living cells turgid, and only turgid cells carry on their physiological
activities satisfactorily. It is the solvent in which all the nutrients
essential to green plants are dissolved. The elements must be in solu-
tion before they can enter the plant. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in
the moisture film on the cells of the stomatal cavity. Water serves
as a means by which materials are transported within the plant. The
elements that enter the plant and many of the various products manu-
factured by it must be moved from one part of the plant to another.
The movement of these materials is independent of the movement of
the water. but the materials must have water as a medium in which to
move. Water as a carrier is indispensable to the plant. Its loss by
transpiration may be of some importance in raising water in the plant.
Transpiration may assist to keep the plant cool, as the water }vithin
cells must absorb some of the heat produced by the various activities
within the plant.
THE PLANT ' S \VATER REQUIREMENTS
. The term" watf'r requirement" is used to designate the units of

water required for the production of one unit of dry matter. The
water requirement of different kinds of plants yaries " 'idely, ranging
from 50 lb. for each pound of dry matter produced by a pine tree to a
1,000 lb. for each pound of dry matter produced by such succulent
plants as the alfalfa. The water requirements of the same kinds of
plants vary with the conditions under which the plants arc growing.
An apple tree uses about 500 lb. of water for each pound of dry
matter produced. A mature bearing apple tree will produce about 35
lb. of dry matter per year in stems, roots and foliage at an expenditure
· 164 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
of 17,500 lb., or about 2,000 gal., of water. An added 7.2 lb. of dry
matter will be produced in each bushel of apples which will require an
additional 3,600 lb. of water for each bushel. Such an apple tree will
transpire water at the rate of about 25 gal. per day. Under certain
conditions, as high as 50 gal., or 1 bbl., per day will be transpired by
the mature bearing apple tree. The water requirement of an acre of
mature apple trees in bearing will be about 10 or 11 acre-in. of water.
Because of surface runoff, percolation, evaporation and other losses,
only about one-third of the rainfall is available for the use of the apple
trees so that an annual precipitation of 30 to 33 in. would be required
for the orchard.
Optimum nutritive conditions provide for the most economical use
of water. The amount used by a vigorously growing plant is greater
than that used by a weakly growing plant of the same variety. The
water requirement, or the amount of water required, for the production
of lIb. of dry matter is less in the vigorously growing plant than in the
less vigorously growing plant. All factors tending to increase the
nutrition and growth of plants will tend to decrease their water require-
ments, and all tending to decrease the nutrition and growth will
increase their water requirements.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF WATER
The amount of water that must be supplied from the soil to main-
tain the plant in an optimum functioning condition varies throughout
the season, from day to day and even during different periods of the
same day. The major factors that influence the amount of water used
by a plant are the rate at which water is supplied by the soil and the
rate at which it is lost by the plant.
RATE AT WHICH WATER Is SUPPLIED BY A SOIL
The rate at which water is supplied to a plant by the soil is influ-
enced (1) by the amouut of water in the soil, (2) by the availability of
the water as influenced by the texture and structure of the soil and (3)
by the water-absorbing area of the root hairs. These factors are
interdependent and are influenced by soil and atmospheric tempera-
ture. When there is ample water in the soil to supply the needs of the
plant the addition of more water may only prove injurious. The
injurious effects may be due to excessive leaching and to an actual
decrease in the amounts of available plant food elements. The
absence of an adequate supply of oxygen decreases oxidation and
retards the activities of the beneficial soil organisms which need
oxygen to carry on their processes of liberating plant food elements.
A relatively low water content, provided there is enough to insure

adequate growth, results in a greater root development and conse-
quently an increased absorbing area, whereas, too much water results
in the development of a smaller and more shallow root system. If a
high concentration of. mineral salts is in solution, the amount of water
available to the plant is decreased, and some of the dissolved salts
themselves may be absorbed by the plants and have toxic effects on the
tissues. This injuriously high concentration of dissolved salts may
occur in cases of too heavy applications of fertilizers and in irrigated
soils. Some soils of this nature are spoken of as "alkali soils."
The water in the soil surrounds the soil particles and occupies more
or less of the spaces between the soil particles. Of two volumes of
soil, the one composed of the finer particles will have the greater surface
area and can consequently hold more water. If the amount of water
in a given soil volume is limited, the film surrounding the soil particle
may be so thin that the suction power of the root hair is less than the
force of adhesion existing between the soil particle and the film of water,
and the plant cannot obtain sufficient water. Soil particles of very
small size or of varying sizes may be packed ' so closely together that
aeration, as well as water movement, is greatly restricted.
Water enters or is absorbed by the plant through openings in the
root hairs. Those conditions of nutrition, moisture, temperature and
aeration within the plant and soil that favor the growth of root hairs
will therefore increase the area by which the plant obtains water from
the films surrounding the soil particles.
RATE AT 'VHICH 'VATER Is LOST BY A PLANT
The rate at which water is lost by a plant to the atmosphere is

influenced (1) by the kind of plant and the amount of transpiring area,
(2) by the relationship that exists between the free water in the plant
and the humidity of the atmosphere surrounding the plant, (3) by the
temperature of the atmosphere, (4) by the rate of movement of the
air and (5) by the exposure to light.
The amount of water lost from plants by transpiration is influenced
greatly by the presencc, amount and kind of hairs and cuticle on the
foliage and stems; by the ,depression of stomates; by the presence of
stomates on but one surface of the leaf and the amount of stomatal
opening for a gin'n leaf area and by the position, size, number or even
absC'nce of lraycs.
A plant that contains an abundant supply of water will lose more by
tran"piration to a dry atmosplH're than to a moist atmoi'phere. The
moi:"t1ll'c in the humid stomatal cayity diffuses through thc stomatal
opening into the less humid atmosphere. The higher the atmospheric
humidity the nearer the state of equilibrium between it and the humid-
ity of the stomatal cavity and the less the amount of water lost by the
plant to the surrounding atmosphere. In nurseries and greenhouses
it is a common practice to maintain a high atmospheric humidity and
thus keep plants from wilting by syringing them and the structures in
which they are growing.
The amount of water lost by transpiration increases with a rise in
temperature and an increase in the velocity of the wind. The higher
temperature increases the activities of the plants, and the water con-
tent of the air increases as the temperature rises. When a quiet layer
of air surrounds the leaf of a plant, the layer of air becomes almost
saturated with water vapor because of the slowness with which the
moisture diffuses away from the leaf. This moist blanket of air sur-
rounding the leaf checks transpiration. Movement of air sweeps
away this blanket of moist air and brings other and drier air into con-
tact with the surface of the leaf. Plants lose the greatest amount of
water on dry, hot, windy days.
The opening and closing of stomates seems to be influenced some-
what by light, as the stomates are wider open in light than in darkness.
This effect, however, is often more than counterbalanced by the effects
of temperature and humidity during the daytime. The temperature
is higher in sunlight, and the humidity is less, and both conditions tend
to increase the loss of moisture by transpiration and cause a closing of
the stomates. Shading plants consequently decreases transpiration.
During days of even moderately high transpiration, water is not
supplied to fruit trees sufficiently rapidly by the roots to maintain
maximum efficiency. Under such conditions stomates usually do not
remain open later than noon on bright clear days, but on cloudy or
rainy days most of them may remain open throughout the entire
day. A reduction of as much as 10 per cent may occur in the
moisture content of the leaves between sunrise and sunset. Fruit
enlargement slows down and may cease entirely during a period of the
afternoon. This is especially noticeable with citrus fruits which may
actually shrink in the afternoons, and consequently many lemon
growers limit fruit picking to the morning hours.
In general, with other factors equal, the larger the area of the leaf
surface and the greater the number of stomates the greater would be
the outgo of water. Although the,outgo of water would be greater, the
amount used per pound of dry matter produced would not nec~ssarily
be greater. The horticulturist generally cuts off a portioIl of the top of
newly set nursery plants in recognition of the fact that the leaf a.rea
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO MOISTURE. 167
should be reduced in order to decrease transpiration. The reason for

doing this is based upon the fact that a part of the root system was
destroyed when the plant was dug, and consequently the reduced root
system may be insufficient to supply the top with the required amount
of water. If the plant has a sufficient root system, as is the case with
evergreens that are balled and burlapped, there is no need to cut out
any of the branches when moisture is the only factor to consider.
WATER IN THE SOIL
The soil may be considered as a reservoir in which water is stored.

The water supply of the soil is maintained by natural precipitation
and by irrigation. Water is lost from the soil to the use of the plant by
surface runoff, by percolation through the soil and by evaporation
from the soil. It is lost from the plant by transpiration. Soils that
are fully occupied by plants lose approximately ten times as much
moisture by trans?iration through the leaves of the plants as by direct
evaporation from the ground. Obviously, deciduous plants need the
greatest amount of water during the active growing season.
CONDITIONS OF WATER IN SOIL
Water is held in the soil with varying degrees of force depending

on its condition there. The usual classification of soil water is based
upon the effects produced by gravitational and capillary forces. When
gravitational forces predominate, which is the case in soils nearly filled
with water, water percolates downward first from the larger pore
spaces where capillary fon··es are weakest. This gravitational water is
over and above that requiJ'f!d to satisfy the forces of capillarity. The
downward movement will .:ontinue until the capillary forces equal or
exceed the downward gravit.ational pull. The water remaining in the
soil particles held by capillaJ V attraction is known as "capillary water"
and is the water available t(.> the plant. It is free to move but always
moves in the direction in which capillary tension is greatest. As the
water content of the soil is d~creased further, the water will no longer
move under capillary :orces. This water, which is held so tenaciously
as very thin films about the s)il particles and as small wedges at points
of contact of soil particles, i" known as "hygroscopic water" and is
unavailable to plants. Thf greater part of it is ru;sociated with the
colloidal part of the soil. If ~ he hygroscopic water evaporates, a point
is reached at which no mee will be lost at ordinary temperatures.
If the soil is heated red-hot, >he last water, known as" combined water,"
held by chemical rather than physical forces, will be driven off.
168 TE:$TBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
AMOUNT OF WATER IN SOIL
Correct interpretation of irrigation practices and correct selection

of soils for horticultural crops is based fundamentally upon the rela-
tionship between the plant and its environment and the soil and its
water content.
With good drainage conditions any particular soil will take up and
hold against the forces of gravity only a certain rather definite amount
of water. This amount is termed "field capacity" and varies widely
with soils differing in texture and structure. In general, the finer
textured soils have the higher total water-holding, or field capacity,
but much of the water may be unavailable to the plant.
A certain part of the water held in any soil remains unavailable for
plant usage. The moisture content of a soil at which a plant wilts when
growing under conditions of limited transpiration, and at which it
does not recover turgidity without the addition of water, is termed the
"wilting percentage" of that soil. This is the state of equilibrium that
exists between the suction forces of the plant and the adhesive forces
of the soil. This · wilting percentage also varies with soil type but
apparently does not vary appreciably with the kind of plant growing
in the soil. It is apparently determined largely by forces within the
soil itself rather than by forces within the plant.
The availability of the soil moisture to the plant is, obviously,
more important than the total amount of water in the soil. The
volume of soil taken up by the soil particles themselves varies with
the texture and structure of the particular soil. Sandy and sandy loam
soils, when saturated, hold from 2.5 to 3 in. of water per foot of depth,
of which 1.25 to 1.75 in. is available to the plant after the removal of
gravitational water. Clay loams and clays hold from 3.5 to 4.5 in. of
water to the foot when completely saturated, of which 2 to 2.5 in. is
available to the plant. In general, the amount of moisture at the wilt-
ing percentage is higher in the fine-textured and lower in the coarser
soils. Sticky clays may show the wilting percentage as half of the field
capacity, whereas with the coarser soils the wilting percentage is, in ·
general, less than half the field capacity. Soils may become water-
logged at any season. This condition will prevent growth and may
cause the death of the roots due to lack of aeration. I t often causes
the failure of orchards that require deep, well-drained soils.
MOVEME~T OF WATER IN SOIL
All the water that falls on the soil does not enter it, as some is lost
to the use of plants by surface runoff. It is this water that is largely
instrumental in soil erosion. The amount of runoff is influenced by

the topographical features of the area, the amount and duration
of the rainfall, the characteristics of the soil, the conditions of the soil and
the soil cover. Under similar conditions the runoff from sod and cover-
crop areas is decidedly less than that from cultivated areas.
Gravitational water moves downward until it reaches an impervious
layer in the soil. This causes it to collect and form a saturated area,
the upper layer of which is known as the" water table." The water
in this saturated area moves slowly by the force of gravity into drainage
channels, springs, streams or lakes. The rate of this movement is
influenced by the steepness of the slope of the impervious layer that
stopped its downward movement and the character of the soil or mate-
rial through which it must pass. A rain will moisten the top layer of
soil, and the films of water surrounding the soil particles will become
thicker. Gravitational forces will exceed capillary forces, and the
water will move downward until t hese two forces are equalized.
The capillary movement of water is always in the direction of the
greatest capillary tension, or toward the thinner film. It is over but
very short distances, and the lateral movement practically negligible.
Capillary water may move for a distance of 1 or 2 ft. at a moderately
rapid rate in moist soils. This provides for the movement of water
to the roots in the immediate vicinity. Roots grow only in moist soils.
With an available water supply, the amount of water absorbed from
a given area is about directly proportional to the absorbing roots in
that area. The distribution and ramification of the root system,
although modified by soil fertility, is influenced largely by the avail-
ability of a water supply.
EFFECTS OF ABNORMAL AMOUNTS OF WATER

Horticultural plants should have an adequate and steady supply of
water. The presence of too much or the absence of sufficient water
will result in injury to the plants.
EXCESS OF WATER
When the income of water is greater than the outgo, the plant may
show certain unfavorable effects . It may be supplied with abundant
moisture, and the evaporation be fairly low. resulting in an increase
of water pressure within the plant, increasing cell size and often the
bursting of cells. An excess of water suddenly following a prolonged
dry period often results in the bursting of cabbage heads and the crack-
ing of apples, plums, cherries, carrots, beets and tomatoes. The
development of these products was retarded during a dry period, and,
the epidermis and outer layers of tissue lost the ability to expand
rapidly when they again received sufficient moisture. When onions
are grown under irrigation, the soil must be kept moist in order that
the plants may continu e to grow. A tempor ary check in growth
because of water shortag e results in the maturi ng of the outer scales;
and when water is added again, the inner scales resume growth , split-
and
ting the outer ones. Second ary growth of shoots of many trees
shrubs occurs when heavy late summe r rains follow a long dry period.
SHORTAGE OF WATER
When the outgo of water is greater than the income, the plant shows
re,
unfavo rable effects. Under conditions of acute shortag e of moistu
wilt and curl. The
the stomat es of the leaves close, and the leaves
length of time that the stomat es remain closed and the leaves wilted
and curled depends upon the acuteness of the shortag e and the length
of the period of drough t. Under conditions of prolonged water
is
shortag e there is a marked decrease in total carboh ydrate synthes
period of stomat al openin g and shortag e
which is correla ted with the
of water.
Early defoliation of plants is often associated with a shortag e of
the
water. Early defoliation of woody plants like fruit trees reduces
manufa cture of carboh ydrates late in the season, and this may result
in the tree's being more susceptible to winter injury and in less growth
the following spring. As mentio ned earlier, water shortag e results
be
in a reducti on of the growth rate of fruit. The size of fruit will
reduced in approx imate propor tion to the length of time during which
a
growth is restricted. Drough t spot of apples is attribu ted to
short~ge of water.
Review Questio ns
1. What are the importa nt function s of moistur e to the plant?
2. In what states does water exist within the plant?
3. How does a plant obtain water from the soil?
soil through
4. Can water that has entered the root of the plant return to the
the root?
water
6. Do the foliage or the developing fruits have first demand on a limited
w~?
.
d of water?
6. About what percenta ge of the green weight of a plant is compose
within the plant move with or indepen dently of
1. Do the mineral element s
the moveme nt of the water within the plant?
8. What is meant by the plant's water requirem ent?
used by a
9. What are the major factors that influence the amount of water
plant?
plant by
10. ";ihat factors influence the rate at which water is supplied to the
the !IOil?
11. What factors influence the rate at which water is lost by a plant?
12. How is water lost from the soil?
13. What is gravitational water?
14. What is capillary water?
115. What is hygroscopic water?
16. What is combined water?
17. How is the water that is available to a plant held in the soil?
18. What are some of the effects on the plant of an excess supply of water in
the soil?
19. What are Bome of the effects on the plant of a shortage of water in the soil?
Problems
1. Mr. A has an apple orchard heavily loaded with fruit. The season has
become unusually dry in July, and he cannot irrigate but is considering removing
some of the small fruit with the idea of conserving water. State and justify your
advice to Mr. A.
2. Of two adjacent tomato plantings A and B, the ~lants in plot A are making
25 per cent more growth and producing 20 per cent mor~:crop than those in plot B.
State and explain which group of plants is using the most water and which group
has the higher water requirement.
3. What would be the water requirement in acre-inches under the following
conditions? Mature apple trees are planted 36 ft. apart by the square system
and are producing 35 lb. of dry matter in stems, leaves and roots per year in addi-
tion to 10 bu. of apples. A gallon of water occupies 231 cu. in. and weighs 8.33 lb.
Assuming that only 33% per cent of the precipitation was available to the plant,
what sho~ld be the annual precipitation to provide adequate moisture for this
orchard?
4. Mr. A has decided to save some money on labor in irrigation and used two
irrigation furrows between his rows of fruit trees 30 ft. apart instead of six furrows
which he has used formerly. State and explain the probable results.

1. GAGER, C. S., "General Botany," pp. 29-130, P. Blakiston's Son & Com-
2. GARDNER, V. R., et al., "Fundamentals of Fruit Production," pp. 1- 35,
3. LYON, T . L., and H . O. BUCKMAN, "The Nature and Property of Soil,"
pp. 137-165, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1939.
4. THOMAS, M ., "Plant Physiology," pp. 82'-141, P. Blakiston's Son & Com-
5. WEAVER, J. E., and F. E. CLEMENTS, "Plant Ecology," pp. 424-453,
6. WHITE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 101-104, The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York, 1933.
CHAPTER IX
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO LIGHT
Everyone has nvticed that most plants will bend toward light and
grow better in light than in shade; that when grown in darkness plants
either lose or never develop a green color and have elongated, slender
and weak stems and leaves which remain small and rudimentary; and
that some plants, as the tulip and certain water lilies, open their flowers
in the light and close them in darkness. It is not so commonly known
that the blooming times of plants are influenced largely by the total
number of hours of light rather than its intensity. For example,
plants that bloom in the spring and fall do so because in their natural
environment they receive about 8 hr. of sunlight. Those which flower
in the middle of the summer do so because they have a total of 16 hr. or
more of light. To illustrate: During the winter of 1936 it was noticed
that the poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima) in the horticultural green-
houses at Iowa State College were not coming along satisfactorily and
would not bloom by Christmas. Since these plants are used exclu-
sively for Christmas trade, it is important that they bloom at that
time. That year they had been treated the same as in previous years,
and they had always blossomed satisfactorily. Investigation showed
that the reason that they would not bloom by Christmas was because
the janitor had inadvertently exposed them to too much light. The
poinsettias happened to be on a bench directly under some strong
electric lights which were lighted from 4 to 6 hr. each evening. They
would not bloom with this long daily light exposure but flowered nor-
mally when the practice of turning on the electric lights was discon-
tinued. Obviously the effect of the daily light period on the ability
of plants to flower and reproduce themselvesby seeds exerts a tremen-
dous influence on the distribution of different kinds of plants on the
surface of the earth. All the energy on the earth comes directly or
indirectly from the sun. It is used by the green parts of the plants in
manufacturing carbohydrates by a process known as "photosynthesis,"
discussed in Chap. VII. The photosynthetic process is carried on
only in the presence of light; and furthermore, in the majority of cases,
light is necessary for the formation of chlorophyll. All green plants
require it for normal growth.
172
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO LIGHT 173
Light is that part of radiant energy which is visible to the human

eye. It is, however, but a small part of the great electromagnetic
spectrum. The wave lengths in the visible spectrum, together with a
small portion in the shorter: ultraviolet and in the longer infrared
sections, comprise the wave lengths that are significant in the life of
plants. Light has an effect on the natural distribution of plants and
upon the amount and kind of growth made by them. It must be
remembered, however, that light is but one of the factors of the external
environment influencing the activities of plants and that these variou.s
factors are interdependent. Similar responses can be obtained by alter-
ing either light or temperature. For the optimum growth of any plant
with a given temperature, mineral nutrients, water supply and other
environmental factors there are certain optimum quality, intensity
and duration of light. Light acts indirectly on carbon assimilation
by raising the temperature of the leaf and by stimulating the guard cella
of the stomates to open. The growth of the plant is influenced by the
kind of light, its intensity and the duration of daily exposure to it.
INFLUENCE OF THE KIND OR QUALITY OF LIGHT
The visible spectrum is made up of lights of different kinds or

different qualities. The shortest waves produce the violet, and the
longest the red color. Different kinds or qualities of light, occupying
different areas in the visible spectrum, have various effects on green
plants. The short ultraviolet rays are distinctly harmful to plants,
but under natural conditions many of these rays are filter~d out by the
ozone in the outer layers of the atmosphere and consequently never
reach the surface of the earth. Experiments have shown that all kinds
of the light of the visible spectrum are necessary for normal, vigorous
plant growth but that different regions of the spectrum influence plant
activities in different ways. Photosynthesis proceeds more rapidly
in the red than in the blue-violet end of the spectrum, but the blue-
violet and ultraviolet region have the most influence on the develop-
ment of red pigment in apples. If apples while still green are covered
with red cellophane bags which exclude the rays from the blue-violet
end of the spectrum, they will not take on their characteristic red color
as they mature on the tree. This is the reason that apples develop a
redder color in regions with a clear dry atmosphere, because more
blue-violet rays reach the fruit than in humid regions where some of
these rays are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere. Concord
grapes, however, can be bagged while green but will develop their
characteristic purple color,
The distribution of green, blue-green, brown and red algae at differ-

ent depths in the oceans is apparently in partial response, at least, to
the ability of the various algae to utilize the particular light rays that
are able to penetrate to the different depths in the water.
INFLUENCE OF LIGHT INTENSITY

It is readily noted that some kinds of plants grow better in less light
than others and that some apparently are injured by the full noonday
sunlight. Less than 2 per cent of full sunlight is used for photosyn-
thesis. Supplementing the daily light period of sunlight with electric
lights of approximately one-thousandth of the intensity of the noonday
sunlight is sufficient to bring about the flowering response of long-day
plants and cause short-day plants to continue vigorous vegetative
growth and fail to bloom. Some plants wiII grow over a wide range of
light intensities; others wiII bloom over a very limited range.
Certain kinds of plants are able to follow one another in succession
under natural conditions, because some are able to stand the partial
shade of other plants. In general, those species whose light require-
ment for survival is comparatively little are able to exist for a long time
in the shade; and when more favorable light conditions are presented,
these shade-tolerant seedlings are in a position to replace their non-
tolerant competitors.
The amount of light reaching the interior of dense-foliaged trees
may be reduced to 10 per cent or even as low as 1 per cent of that
reaching the exposed area. Under such conditions the leaves become
small and yellow, and photosynthesis is greatly reduced. With this
reduced photosynthesis, the growth becomes slender; and in the case of
apple trees the fruit fails to develop the best flavor, remaining gteen in
color and small in size.
Partial shade is often beneficial in growing plants. Many seedlings,
cuttings, grafted plants and new transplants in the nursery or field are
protected from too much heat and too rapid transpiration by variow;
shading devices. The quality of some horticultural plants is improved
when they are grown in partial shade. The reduction in light is also
accompanied by a lowering of the temperature and a lessening in the
air movement, thus decreasing transpiration.
Reduction in light intensity tends to increase the length of stem and
to promote the growth of broad, thin leaves w:~h loose, open structure.
The total absence of light results in the production of plants with weak
stems with little mechanical tissues. Partial shade induces succulence
and tender structure in asparagus, cauliflower, celcry and lettuce.
Many vegetable crops grown for the vegetative parts, as potato,
carrot, turnip, beet and cabbage, yield best where there is a high per-
centage of cloudy days. Half shade is employed in forcing rhubarb,
and under such conditions it does not develop toughness. In Formosa
and to some extent in the Philippines sunlight is excessive for the
satisfactory production of the Smooth Cayenne pineapple, so that this
variety is grown in the partial shade of trees. The best tea leaves are
produced from plants growing in partial shade under trees, and coffee
likewise is produced most satisfactorily in subtropical regions when the
plants are partially shaded by forest trees. The leaves of tobacco
plants grown under shade are large,· broad and thin, with poorly
developed veins and abundant spongy parenchyma. Such leaves are
used for cigar wrappers.
For a given leaf area with a certain chlorophyll content, there
appears to be a maximum rate for photosynthesis for any particular
light intensity; and for each intensity there is only one temperature at
which the photosynthetic process of the plant works most efficiently.
INFLUENCE OF THE DURATION OF LIGHT

In Chap. VI it was noted that the type and amount of plant growth
were closely associated with carbohydrate utilization and carbohydrate
accumulation. Since the manufacture of carbohydrates by the green
plant is influenced by light, it is known that, other conditions being
suitable and similar, the green plant that is exposed to favorable light
for the longest period of time will synthesize the most carbohydrates.
Through the action of light in the formation of various pigments, carbo-
hydrates, etc., profound influences are brought to bear not only upon
the processes of growth but also upon the processes of differentiation
of cells and organs of the plant. Thus the daily duration of the
exposure of green plants to adequate light apparently has an influence
in determining whether the plant will develop only vegetatively or
will 'produce flowers. This is probably the morphological or physical
response to an internal chemical condition of the plant which was
influenced, at least in part, by the duration of the daily exposure to
light and the influence of the light on the utilization and accumulation
of carbohydrates. The daily period of illumination seems not only to
influence the quantity of photosynthetic material that is formed but
also may determine the use to which the carbohydrates are put.
Light exerts a marked influence upon the different organs of a plant.
Many plants, as the Irish potato, produce tuber~ /only in comparatively
short days. Typical tuber formation takes pla1ewhen the daily expo-
sure to light is decreased below the optimum for stem elongation.
Bulb formation in the onion will take place when the daily light period
is increased above the optimum for stem growth. Evidence indicates

that the yearly variations in the chemical composition of grapes from
FIG. 80.-Method of shading with black cloth. (Courtesy E. C. Volz.)
FIG. S1.-Effect of -! hr. ,."l<lil io n:!i ('ipc·trie light (b!1('kgroullcl ,l f o !' 40 ,by> on F c,"erfew.
C'hc('k i5 ill fO('('l! ro" !l cl. ( COl/ri . s:, F . ..1. I"v!z .)
the same yilH'yard or from yin('yanl" of tlt(, ,;amr \':ll'icty loratrd at

difff'rrnt area" are d\le ill great llwa,;ure to cliffl'J'('llr(':' in the amount of
sunlight recein'd during the grmrillg se:l:;on . . :\Iany plant:> ,,"ill flower
only when they are exposed to rather definite daily periods of light,
whereas the flowering of others does not appear to be influenced by
exposure. Those plants which blossom only when exposed to a daily
light exposure of 12 hr. or less are known as "short-day plants"; those
which require 16 hr. or more are known as "long-day plants." Those
which flower irrespective of the number of hours of light are known as
"neutral plants." The term "photoperiodism" has been coined to
FIG. 82.-The upper part of the plant FIG. 83.-When the treatment was
was exposed to the full length of day- reversed and the upper part of the
light (about 16 hr.) and the lower part plant received but 10 hr. of light daily.
of the same plant received but 10 hr .. the lower part of the plant remained
of light daily. The upper part of the vegetative and the upper part flowered.
plant remained vegetative and the lower
part flowered.
designate the responses that plants make to the length of daily exposure
to light.
An experiment was conducted to determine the length of time that
a herbaceous plant might be maintained in a vegetative condition with-
out flowering by controlling the daily exposure of light. Two species
of Sedum were used in the experiment. These are alllong-day plants,
but some were exposed to daily light periods of 8, 10 and 12 hr., and the
check plants received the full daily period of light. Throughout a
period of eight years for S. woodwardi and nine for S. spectabile, the
plants remained healthy and vigorous. All plants that received 12 hI:.
or less of light each day from March to October did not flower but made
only vegetative growth. The check plants which received the full
daily period of light blossomed normally each year. Beginning in
June of the tenth year, the S. spectabile plants that had been growing
FIG. 84.-After the middle of July, FIG. 85.- WhclIl the treatment was
the central portion of the Bame cosmos reversed and the upper and lower por-
plant received the full length of day- tions of the pla nt received the full
light. but the upper and lower portions length of daylight and the central por-
of the plant received but 10 hr. of light tions of the plant received but 10 hr.
daily. The central portion remained of light daily. the upper and lower por-
vegetative but the upper and lower tions remained vegetative and the cen-
portions responded in the characteristic tral -portion produced flowers.
manner of a short-day plant and pro-
duced flowers.
for nine years in shortened light periods were exposed to the light
during the full summer day. Although they had not flowered for the
nine previous years, they flowered in August at the same time as the
check plants that had flowered each of the previous nine years. Short
days apparently prevented flowering in these plants.
Cosmos sulphureus, a short-day plant which flowers when exposed
to a daily light period of 10 to 12 hr., shotvs not only the response of a
THE HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT IN RELAT ION TO LIGHT
179
plant to different periods of daily exposure to light but also rather

strikingly the localization of the responses to restrict ed parts of the
same plant.
Florists are growing flowers out of season by alterin g the daily
exposure to light. They are increasing the daily light period in the
winter season on long-day plants, as feverfew (Chrysanthemum par-
d
thenium), with satisfac tory results. Adequ ate lighting is obtaine
with lOO-watt reflecto r lights placed about 18 in. above the plants.
One light is sufficient for an area 4 ft. square. Some short-d ay plants,
as chrysa nthemu m (indicum x · morifolium) and stevia (Piqueria tri-
nervia}, are being produced commercially out of season by shading with
to
black cloth and thus reducing the daily period of exposure to light
· 8 or 10 hr., depend ing upon the require ments of the particu lar plant
being grown. Standa rd varieties of chrysa nthemu ms are brough t into
flowering earlier by shortening the daily exposure to light. The
treatm ent is started about six weeks after plantin g or when the plants
is
are 18 to 24 in. high. Experiments have shown that an ll-hr. day
the most satisfac tory for blossom formation and that the most satis-
factory method of controlling the light period is to place a heavy black
at
cloth about the plants at five o'clock in the afternoon and remove it
30 to 35
seven the following morning. Treatm ent is continued for
days or until the flower bud is from % to 1 in. in diameter.
Review Questio ns
1. What is light?
2. Is light required for the photosy nthetic process?
8. Is any kind of light injuriou s to the plant?
" Are there differen t kinds or qualities of light?
for
11. Does the green plant require all the kinds of light of the visible spectrum
normal develop ment?
plant?
6. Do the differen t kinds of light have the same effect on the green
nthetic
7. Does the plant require all the light of full sunlight for photosy
activity ?
kinds
8. Are plants or leaves of plants grown in shade differen t from the same
of plants or leaves grown in the sunlight ?
9. Do all kinds of plants require the same intensit y of light?
10. Are any plants intentio nally shaded during growth?
influence
11. Does the duration of the daily exposure to light appear to have any
on the kind of growth of horticul tural plants?
y to differen t
12. Will differen t parts of the same plant respond characte risticall
daily exposures to light?
18. What is meant by a short-da y plant?
1" What is meant by a long-day plant?
111. What is meant by a neutral plant?
of growth -
16. What might be a plausibl e explana tion for the two types
vegetati ve and floweri ng-mad e by plants?
180 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE'
Problems
1. An apple grower has noticed that the Jonathan apples in the tops of the trees
are always more highly colored than those on the lower branches of the same trees.
He would like to know the cause of this difference in color and if he could dO' any-
thing to have all the apples the same high color.
2. A ~urseryman has always shaded his green-wood cuttings but has been told
that sunlight is necessary for photosynthetic activity and that the cuttings would do
better if they were not shaded. What is your advice?
3. A commercial florist has a planting of chrysanthemums (C. indicum x mori-
folium) that he wishes to bring into bloom a couple of weeks sooner than similar
plants in another house. He wants to know if this can be done and, if so, how he
should proceed.
4. A vegetable grower wishes to know why the young tomato plants growing
closely together in fiats are taller -and more slender than similar plants that had
been transplanted from flats to 4-in. pots.

1. ARTHUR, J. M., et al., Artificial Climate, pp. 416--482, Amer. Jour. Bot., Vol.
17,1930.
2. LAURIE, A., and G. H . POESCH, Photoperiodism. The Value of Supple-
mentary Illumination and Reduction of Light on Flowering Plants in the Green-
house, Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 512: 1-42, 1932.
3. LAURIE, A., and G. H. POESCH, "Commercial Flower Forcing," pp. 45-79,
P . Blakiston's Son & Company, Inc., Philadelphia, 1939.
4. WEAVER, J. E ., and F. E. CLEMENTS, "Plant Ecology," pp. 380-417,
CHAP TER X
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO SOIL
Soil is the produc t resultin g from the various stages of disinte gration
can
and decay of rocks and plant and animal materia ls in which plants
widely in physica l, chemic al and .
grow. The resultin g produc t varies
uently in its ability to suppor t
biological charact eristics and conseq
Oregon. Compare
FIG. 86.-Fru it orchards in the world famous Hood River Valley of
with Fig. 17. (Union Pacific Railroad .)
.
plant growth. In general, soils may be classified- as mineral or organic
minera l soils develop ed
The geo!ogic, or parent, materia ls from which
origina ted chiefly throug h the disinte gration and decay of consolidated
ed
rock, whereas the parent materia ls from which organic soils develop
origina ted chiefly throug h the decomp osition of plant and animal
s of
materia ls. The averag e conten t of organic matter in the topsoil
181
the mineral soils of the United States is about 2 per cent, and that of
their subsoils is about 0.8 per cent. Peat and muck soils, which often
contain more than 70 per cent of organic matter, are important for
growing certain horticultural crops. Soils must have a suitable topog-
raphy,a satisfactory texture and structure and adequate fertility for
the successful and profitable production of horticultural crops.
sou.. TOPOGRAPHY
The importance of soil topography in relation to air and water
drainage was discussed in Chap. VII. Certain soil topographies are
mor~ suitable than others for the satisfactory and economical prOduc-
tion of horticultural crops because of certain cultural operations and
the influence of necessary tillage practices on soil erosion. Flowers and
vegetables and a few fruits, as strawberries and raspberries, are gen-
erally confined to level or slightly rolling land, as the necessity for
tillage in such crops would lead to injury by erosion on steeply sloping
land. Tree fruits and grapes may be planted on steeper slopes, and
the system of soil management adjusted accordingly. Many of the
orchards in the Appalachian Mountains are planted on steep hilly
land, whereas in the irrigated sections of the West the orchards occupy
the level land in the valleys. The degree of slope that is suitable from
the standpoint of cultural practices, soil erosion and operating costs
varies widely with different localities.
SOu.. FERTu..ITY
The fertility of a soil is a measure of its ability to support plant life
when 'provided with tavorable temperature, moisture and light. The
growth of the plant is an index of the relative amounts of essential
elements in the soil that are available for plant use. Soils exhibit all
stages of fertility from sterile sand to excessively fertile loams. A
fertile soil in one locality might be considered only a moderately fertile
to infertile soil when compared to soil in another locality. The degree
of fertility will vary also with the kind of plant being produced. A
very acid soil would be unproductive and considered infertile if used
for growing asparagus, but it would be considered quite fertile if
devoted to the production of blueberries.
The fertility of the soil is determined by the interaction of physical,
chemical and biological forces. No one of these forces operates inde-
pendently. . A change in the physical structure of the soil alters the
temperature, moisture and air conditions in the soil, and these influence
the. kind and amount of oxidation and biological activities, which in
turn have their influence on the chemical condition of the soil. For
THE HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT IN RELAT ION TO SOIL 183
example, organic matter may be added to improv e the physical texture

of a soil, but with this improved condition the organisms responsible
for decay of organic matter soon destroy the organic matter that was
added and liberate for use of the growing plants the chemicals bound
up in the organic matter that was added to the soil. Organic matter
is also an import ant source of much of the food supply of the micro-
e.
organisms in the soil and consequently may cause their rapid increas
Many factors, as soil texture, soil aeratio n, soil temper ature, mois-
ture supply, organic supply, the presence and availab ility of plant
y
nutrien ts, the kind 8.nd amoun t of soil organisms and their activit
fertility .
and the soil reaction, are associated with the problem of soil
NUTRIE NT SUPPLY
The plant nutrier .t supply in the soil exists in both inorganic ·and
organic forms. Physical, chemical and biological processes are con-
tinuall y at work breaking down the complex chemical substan ces into
All
their elements and making the nutrien ts availab le to the plant.
the processes involved in making organic and inorgan ic nutrien ts avail-
able for plant use are not fully understood. It is known, however, that
there are several reactions occurring in the soil that produce weak acids
a
and that these acids liberate unavailable nutrien ts. Certain bacteri
and other microorganisms as well as larger animal s aid in the decom-
the
position ·of the mineral and organic matter of the soil and reduce
nutrien ts to forms in which they are soluble and availab le to the plant.
SOIL ORGAN ISMS
The soil is teeming with both plant and animal organisms, most of
which are only microscopic in size. These organisms are responsible
s
for the biochemical processes that reduce plant and animal remain
to the carbon dioxide , ammon ia and minera ls from which they were
made. There are hundreds of kinds of microorganisms in the soil
carryin g on the processes of decay and decomposition.
In the breakdown of organic matter most of the carbon dioxide
escapes from the soil into the air, but some is combined with soil water.
The ammonia, however, is absorbed by the soil, and very li~tle is lost.
by
That absorbed is rapidly changed to nitrite, and this to nitrate ,
nitrifying bacteria. Azotobacter are a type of soil-living bacteri a that
can use the free nitrogen of the air in building up the protein s in their
e
own bodies and, by continued growth, reproduction and death, increas
nt groups of bacteri a
the nitrogen supply of the soil. Several differe
are capable of producing nodules on the roots of certain legumi nous
plants. These nodules are caused by bacteri a that penetra te the roots
and stimul ate the plant to produc e an enlarged growth , or nodule

, at
that point. The bacteri a grow and reproduce inside the nodule
s,
getting their carboh ydrate and minera l food from the plant and their
nitroge n from the air to form protein s which are released to the plant.
Legumes, therefore, are able to grow normal ly in soil poor in nitroge
n,
provid ed the soil contain s suitabl e nodule-forming bacteri a and other
conditi ons are favorable. Such legumes if left in the soil increase
its
nitroge n conten t.
SOIL REACTI ON
The growers of vegetables; small fruits and orname ntals in areas
along the Atlanti c Coasta l Plain and Piedmo nt soil provinces have
become concer ned compa rativel y recentl y with the acuten ess of
the
problem of soil acidity .. The use of large quantit ies of distinc
tly
acid..formin g fertilizers since about 1925 has increased the degree
of
acidity in many sections so that some crops are appare ntly severel
y
injured by the soil conditions. In the import ant commercial vegetab
le
area on the eastern shore of Virginia and Maryla nd, a test of several
thousa nd soil sample s showed an acidity much too high for the success
-
ful and economical produc tion of many vegetable crops. Becaus
e of
the economic import ance of the vegetable crops, the problem of
soil
acidity is particu larly acute in areas along the Atlanti c Coasta l Plain
but is also of import ance in other areas and under other situatio
ns.
Soils are acid, neutra l or alkalin e in their reaction.
Plants vary greatly in their require ment with reference to the degree
of acidity or alkalin ity of the soil. Asparagus, spinach, lettuce ,
cur-
rants and gooseberries grow best when the soil is only slightly acid,
neutral or slightly alkalin e; potatoe s, watermelons and strawb erries
prefer slightly acid soils; blueberries, cranberries and azalea s grow best
when the soil is highly acid. The degree of acidity or alkalin ity
is
expressed by the hydrogen-ion, or pH, scale. A pH value of
7.0
represe nts neutral ity. Values higher than 7.0, such as 7.2, 8.0,
9.0,
9.5 and 10.0, denote alkalin ity, the degree of alkalin ity increas
ing
with the pH. Values lower than 7.0, as 6.8, 4.0, 2.5, denote acidity
,
the degree of acidity increasing as the pH decreases. The scale
of
pH values is logarit hmic, which means that a soil with a reactio n
of
pH 4.5 is ten times as acid a~ one of pH 5.5.
It is easier to lower the acidity or increase the alkalin ity of a soil
than it is to increase its acidity or lower its alkalinity. It is also
easier to change the reactio n in a light soil than in a heavy soil.
A
sandy soil with a pH of 5.0 can be changed to a pH of 6.0 by the addi-
tion of about 1,000 lb. of hydrat ed lime per acre. For heavier soils,
THE HORTICULTURAL PLANT IN RELATION TO SOIL 185
larger quantities of ' hydrated lime are necessary to obtain a corre-

sponding reduction in acidity. Plowing under animal manures, green
manures or large amounts of organic matter is the cheapest way of
increasing the acidity of a soil, but the change takes place very slowly.
The use of acid to increase the pH range is too expensive for com-
pH RANGE
CROPS 40 45 5.0 55 60 6.5 70 7.5 ao
FRUIT
PEAR
APPLE
GRAPE
PEACH
RED RASPSERRY
STRAWBERRY
BLUEBERRY
VEll£T.I\ILES
ASPARAGUS
LETTUCE
ONION
BEET
CAULIFLOWER
CABBAGE
IRISH POTATO
PEA
MUSKMELON
CARROT
CORN, SWEET
SWEET POTATO
WATERMELON
FLOWERS
AZALEA
CHRYSANTHEMUM ~
---
CARNATION
DELPHINIUIoI
PETUNIA
ROSE
ZINNIIo
FIG. 87.-Desirable pH range for selected horticultural crops.
mercial practice. Aluminum sulfate is often used to increase the

acidity of small quantities of soil.
The pH of soils is meaSured in various ways, ranging from the
rather crude litmus test through the fairly accurate colorometric meth-
ods to the highly accurate electrometric determinations.
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SOIL

The maintenance of a suitable physical condition of the soil is
fully as important in the production of satisfactory crops as is the
maintenance of suitable fertility. The physical condition of the soil
is determined by the texture, which refers to the size of the individual

Boil particles, and the structure, which refers to. the arrangement of
these soil particles within the soil mass. The principal soil groups
based on the size of soil particles are sand, silt and clay. Varying
proportions of these soil particles of different sizes will arrange them-
selves differently and produce radically different physical conditions
in the soil mass. The sizes of the particles in each of these three
groups vary within certain specified limits. Sand grains are easily
visible to the unaided eye and feel gritty to the fingers; silt has the
CLAY CLAY LOAM LOAM
f::.:~:5:j::;:::j SAND
_ CLAY
o SILT
SILt LOAM SANDY LOAM

FIG. SS.-Per cent of sand, silt, and clay in soiL! of various textures. (U.S. Department
of Agriculture.)
appearance of flour, and the individual particles are barely visible to

the unaided eye; and clay particles are microscopic or less in size,
some of the particles actually becoming colloidal. Soils containing
various proportions of different-sized particles have been classified
according to texture and given specific names which designate the I
relative amounts of .the different-sized particles present in the soil

mass. On the basis of their porosity, soils are considered as heavy,
medium and light.
HE,AVY-TEXTURED SOILS
Clay and clay loam soils are termed "heavy Boils." Heavy soils
are: very fine textured. The compactness of such soils inhibits the
ready absorption of moisture, prevents adequate percolation and
aeration, causes excessive surface runoff and holds large quantities of

water so tenaciously that it IS often too slowly available for the plant.
These soils are likely to be fertile but are cold and relatively unyielding
to the growth of roots. Heavy soils are difficult to handle and must
be worked at the proper time to prevent baking and the formation of
hard clods. Heavy soils puddle after rains and form a crust which
often makes it difficult or impossible for young seedlings to break
through.
LIGHT-TEXTURED SOILS
Sandy soils and sandy loams are light soils. Light-textured soils
are too loose and absorb water readily, allowing it to percolate away
rapidly carrying with it the soluble elements. Light soils, conse-
quently, are likely to be relatively infertile. They are warm, well
aerated, well drained and offer little resistance to the penetration of
roots. Sandy loam soils are perhaps more widely used for vegetable
growing than any other type of soil. Sandy loams are easily worked
into fine seedbeds and warm up early in the spring. Sandy loams
underlaid with a fairly heavy subsoil that drains well but is also reten-
tive of moisture are the best type for a large number of vegetable
crops.
MEDIUM-TEXTURED SOILS
Loam and silt loam soils are generally considered medium textured.
An attempt is made to combine the good features of the heavy soil
with the good features of the light soil and to eliminate, in so far as
possible, the undesirable features of both types. The texture of the
soil will be best when it is composed of suitable quantities of various
sized particles of sand, silt and clay intermixed with decaying organic
matter. Such soils furnish the most desirable medium for the growth
of roots of most horticultural plants. The medium-textured soils
often appear cloddy when dry, but the lumps are broken easily, and
the soil becomes soft and floury. Silt soils warm slowly and are
generally fertile.
IDEAL SOILS FOR SELECTED HORTICULTURAL CROPS
Because of the fact that horticultural plants have different soil
requirements and that the soil requirements for the same kind of plant
vary with climatic conditions, definite specifica.1Ions for the ideal soil
for all horticultural crops for the United States as a whole would be
difficult to formulate. There are, however, qualities that characterize
a soil adapted for fruits, for vegetables or for ornamentals.
FRUITS
The correct selection of the proper soil for tree fruits is perhaps of
more importance than that entailed in the selection of soil for any
other group of crops. This if! true because an orchard represents a
long-time and costly investment, and the plants occupy the same area
for many years. The discovery that the soil is unsuited for tree fruits
often occurs only after the orchard has been growing. for a number of
years. This results in great economic loss, because to improve the
soil is impossible or highly expensive and to retain the orchard means
only poor to moderate yields. The idea that land too infertile for
FIG. 89.-Diagrammatic sketches showing the distribution of the root system of a tree
in: A, poorly drained, and B, well-drained soil.
farm crops might well be used for an orchard is a result of the observa-
tion that trees often lived and bore fruit on soil that did not produce a
profitable grain crop and that trees planted on more fertile soils were
more subject to winter injury Bnd blight and frequently were unreliable
in bearing. For profitable production, fruit trees must be planted
on moderately fertile soil of suitable texture.
The texture of both surface and subsoil is important in the success
of an orchard. Fruit trees have relatively wide and deep root systems
which occupy practically the same area for many years. The texture
. of the subsoil isvery important in the development and growth of the
root system. .The texture and fertility of the topsoil can be changed
fairly readily, bu~ very little change can be made in the fertility and
practically none can be made in the texture of the subsoil. Conse-

quently, in selecting a soil suitable for tree fruits the subsoil should
receive more consideration than the topsoil. The ideal texture of the
soil for orchards is one that never becomes waterlogged but stores a
large amount of available water. In general; the silt loams combine
excellent available moisture storage with good aeration and drainage.
The moderate clays and clay loams are excellent when they are under-
laid at a depth of several feet with gravel or sand which permits
suitable drainage.
Orchard soils should be sufficiently deep to supply the needs of the
trees. This depth will vary in different sections according to the soil
type and climatic conditions. In general, a deep soil means a topsoil
of 12 to 18 in. which is underlaid with a fairly porous subsoil which
gives proper drainage and aeration and thus will permit the penetration
of roots to a depth of from 4 to 5 ft. to as much as 8 to 10 ft. A soil
5 ft. deep is generally recommended as the minimum in irrigated sections.
In West Virginia, where the precipitation is fairly high- and evenly
distributed over the year, a soil 3 ft. deep is satisfactory for apples.
In Nebraska, where apple orchards are planted on loess soils and where
protracted summer droughts occur, a depth of 25 ft. is being recom-
mended. In New York, apple trees live longer ap.d produce more
profitably on well-drained, even-textured, sandy loam soils which
permit root penetration to a depth of 8 to 9 ft. than on more heavy-
_textured soils in which the tree roots penetrate only about 3 ft.
Regardless of the depth recommended, it is important to emphasize
that in no case should one plant an orchard where a bedrock, hardpan
or impervious layer in the subsoil will cause waterlogging and poor
root growth. Often a fertile topsoil may cover a hardpan of clay and
be quite deceiving to the prospective orchardists. The accumulation
of water in spots below the surface often goes unnoticed until the trees
begin to show signs of weakened growth. A high water table at any
time of the year may result in the killing of roots during the wet
weather and consequently be as fatal to the trees as a permanent high
water table.
Soil fertility that produces satisfactory yields of the general farm
crops is considered sufficiently fertile for orchards. The fertility can
be increased by adding fertilizers and by turning under leguminous
crops, but it is better to start with a suitably fertile soil rather than
plan on making a fertile out of an infertile soil.
The deciduous tree fruits have a wide 'tolerance to soil reaction,
and no optimum has been determined for any of them. The soil
reaction should be considered, however, in reference to the planting of
certain cover crops. Chlorosis of the leaves often occurs on fruit

trees growing in very alkaline soils. This condition results in the
weakening and often death of the trees.
Small fruits are grown on a great variety of soils and require soils
that are moderately fertile, well drained, easily cultivated and of good
moisture-holding capacity.
Apple.-The characteristics mentioned previously concerning the
requisites for tree fruits in general apply to the type of soil favorable
for apple trees. The loams are more suitable than any other of the
many different types of soils that are producing apples successfully
throughout the United States. There are some special varietal con-
siderations. For example, Rhode Island Greening does better on rich
heavy soil than the Baldwin does.
Peach.-Peaches are grown on soils of somewhat lighter texture
than that considered most suitable for apples. Types of soil existing
in some of the principal peach sections of the United States include
gravelly and sandy loams in New York, sandy soils in North Carolina,
sandy loam in Georgia and fine sandy loam in California.
Strawberry.-Sandy loam soils are the most desirable type for
growing strawberries, but other types are suitable provided they are
well drained but retentive of moisture and fairly fertile. The reac-
tion of the soil is of minor importance, provided it does not reach
extremes. Experiments indicate that growth is obtained on soils with
a range of pH from 5.0 to 7.0 when the organic content is relatively
high. With lower organic content the range for best growth is less,
being from 5.7 to 6.5 or less. Strawberries are producing satisfactory
crops in Delaware and Virginia on sandy loam soils, in Louisiana on
silt loam and in Arkansas and Missouri on shale loam.
VEGETABLES
Vegetable crops are grown most extensively on deep, well-drained,

friable soils ranging in texture from sands to clay loams. A high level
of fertility and a good supply of decomposing organic matter are
essential. Soil reaction varies considerably, but the majority of
vegetables are intolerant of strong acidity or alkalinity. Liming is a
common practice in the vegetable areas of the East and South.
The quickly warming sandt soils are well ~Jited to the early short-
season crops and for those vegetables like sweet potatoes, cucumbers
and tomatoes which require high ternp~ratures for their best develop-
ment. Vegetables grown in clay loaIils are generally slower in develop-
ing than when grown in lighter soi1s, and the root-crops are poorly
formed and have numerous coarse 'sicile roots.
Muck and peat soils are of importance in some areas for growing
$uch cool-sel!8on vegetables as potatoes, celery, onions and cabbage.
Peat and muck have developed from the decomposition of vegetation
in marshes, bogs and swamp forests. Muck is more fully decomposed
than peat, but the type of peat or muck depends upon the plant mate-
rial from which it was derived. Peat soils that resulted from the
decomposition of evergreens are usually unsatisfactory owing to resin
deposits. Peat and muck soils may be high or low in lime, low in
phosphorous and potash and high in nitrogen.
Irish Potatoes.-8andy loams and peat soil are generally used for
commercial plantings of Irish potatoes. These soils are loose, deep,
well drained, friable and fertile. In the light, well-aerated soils the
tubers are smooth and of typical varietal shape. Potatoes grow best
on acid soils, and potato scab is less prevalent than in neutral or
alkaline soils.
Tomato.-Good crops of tomatoes are produced on a wide variety
of soil types. In Florida they are grown on well-drained sandy land,
on marl and on muck; in Texas in the lower Rio Grande Valley they
are grown on sandy loams and clay loams. The" quick" sandy soils
are selected' for the early crop, but heavier, more fertile and more
highly productive soils are selected for the late market and canning
crops. Muck and peat are seldom used for tomatoes because they are
high in nitrogen and moisture, and this com}; (nation is conducive to
excessive growth of vines and less fruit.
Onion.-8andy loams, silt loams and muck soils are the preferred
types for onions. Much of the onion crop in the North and in Cali-
fornia is grown in muck soils. These soils generally have a high
water-holding capacity and, as a rule, are loose and fertile, a condition
that favors the development of a smooth bulb. The best reaction
of the soil for onions is one that is neutral or slightly alkaline.
ORNAMENTALS
The wide variety of ornamental trees, shrubs and herb~ceous

annuals and perennials grow on many diverse types of soil. There
are ornamentals adapted to soils that vary from sterile, infertile sands
of the dunes to the deep and fertile soils of the prairie. Some orna-
mentals prefer cool, moist soils; others require warm, well-drained
soils. With all this variation, however, there are a few rather definite
soil specifications common to a large number of ornamental plants.
The texture of the subsoil for trees and shrubs whose roots pene-
'trate several feet should be similar to that suggested for tree fruits.
The texture of the best all-round garden soil for herbaceous flowering
· ,
plants is a sandy loam in the topsoil underlaidi with a subsoil that is

retentive of moisture but drains well.
The soil reaction is important for herbaceous flower plants. The
majority of cultiva.ted shrubs and herbaceous flowers thrive best when
growing in soil that is neutral to slightly alkaline. The broadleaf
evergreena--azaleas, laUrels, rhododendrons--the heathers and a large
number of native woodland flowers, including arbutus and lady's-
slippers, require acid soils. ,
Rose.~Well-drained, heavy clay loam soils that are retentive of
moisture are well suited to all kinds of roses. Many excellent roses
are grown in a slightly acid or neutral, fertile topsoil of only 10 in.,
provided it is over a. well-drained subsoil; but better results will be
obtained if the topsoil is.I8 in. deep. Although the soil characteristics
suggested are considered the best, roses will thrive in fertile, well-
drained garden soils of textures that vary from heavy clay loams to
light sandy loams.
Rhododendron.-Soil acidity is the watchword among those who
grow rhododendrons and azaleas. The amount of acidity needed for
best results ranges between pH 4.5 and 5.0. Where plenty of organic
matter, such as peat, is present, the pH can go up to 5.5 without injury.
A proper garden soil for rhododendrons and azaleas contains a high
percentage of peat, half-rotted oak leaves or other acid-forming fibrous
organic materials. This type of soil possesses both the physical and
the chemical requirements of a soil suited for rhododendrons. The
acidity and organic matter should be maintained by the annual applica-
tion of an acid-forming mulch such as oak leaves or peat. Some idea
of the percentage of organic matter needed may be noted from the fact
that where sharp, quartz, neutral or acid sand is used it should be
mixed with 50 per cent or more of peat by volume.
Tulip.-Tulips grow well and produce satisfactory bulbs on any
fertile, friable, well-drained soil.
ARTIFICIAL ROOTING MEDIUMS
Recently there has been considerable interest in growing plants in

nutrient solutions. The plants are placed in sand, gravel, crushed rock
, or cinders in wide, shallow, watertight benches. The required nutrient
solution is pumped into the bottom of the bench until the gravel or
other rooting medium is just flooded. The solution is then allowed to
drain away from the bench. This operation is repeated three or four
times each 24 hr. The system requires' knowledge in selecting a suit-
able rooting medium, careful attention in preparing and maintaining a
suitable nutrient solution, skill in maintaining a suitable pH condition

in the nutrient solution and judgment in providing suitable aeration.
Review Questions
1. What is soil?
2. What is mineral soil?
3. What is an organic soil?
4. Why are orchards generally planted on rolling land in the Ea.'!t and level
land in the West?
6. What is meant by a fertile soil?
6. What three interacting forces determine the fertility of a soil?
7. In what forms do the plant food elements exist in the soil?
8. How are these elements made available to the plant?
9. Is the soil only an inert substance?
10. What is meant by pH 7?
11. What will a soil solution testing pH 5 do to blue litmus paper?
12. What will a soil solution testing pH 8 do to blue litmus paper?
13. What determines the physical condition of a soil?
14. Is the type of subsoil of more significance in growing fruit trees or vege-
tables?
16. Characterize the ideal soil for an apple orchard.
16. Characterize the ideal soil for growing Irish potatoes.
17. Characterize the ideal soil for growing rhododendron.
Problems
1. Using different-sized circles to represent sand, silt and clay, make a diagram-
matic sketch showing the appearance of a section of soil containing only sand
particles of one size. Make a second diagram showing the same section of sand to
which has been added 14 per cent silt. Make a third diagrammatic sketch showing
the same section of sand and silt but to which 11 per cent clay has been added.
2. State and explain (1) the effects of the foregoing on surface area and (2) its
relation to water-holding capacity and feeding area of roots.
3. A florist is using the local city water for a large house of azaleas. The leaves
are turning yellow and dropping. What is your procedure in diagnosing the
trouble, and what are your suggestions for correcting the difficulty?
4. State and justify your opinion on the possibility of the production of vege-
tables and flowers in artificial rooting mediums replacing their culture in soil.

1. EMERSON, PAUL, "Principles of Soil Technology," The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1930.
2. MORGAN, M. F., et al., The Soil Requirements of Economic Plants, "U.S.
Department of Agriculture Yearbook," pp. 753-776, 1938.
3. THOMPSON, H. C., "Vegetable Crops," pp. 24-35, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1939.
4. WEAVER, J. E., and F. E. eLEMENTS, "Plant Ecology," pp. 173-232,
5. WEIR, W. W., "Soil Science," J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1936.
CHAPTER XI
PROPAGATION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
The earth is covered, the waters are filled, the atmosphere is per-
meated and the soil is teeming with plants. These plants vary from
the single-celled, ephemeral microscopic bacterium that is liberating
nitrogen in the soil or from the fungus spore of apple scab or brown rot
that is floating in the air to the more diversified, complex mosses and.
liverworts through increasingly complex ferns, until the variations in
size and complexity of structure have been climaxed in such plants
as the giant redwoods, asters and orchids. ' Even under adverse cir-
cumstances most of the different kinds of plants are able to perpetuate
themselves, and under more favorable conditions they increase in
numbers. Such perpetuation or increase in numbers is known as
"plant propagation."
Even the casual observer will note the many different varieties of
the same kind of horticultural plant. For example, the products of
apple trees vary in color from red to yellow and in taste from sweet to
sour. Similarly, there are many different varieties of vegetables and
of ornamental plants. Many of these varieties have been known for
two or three centuries, whereas others have been known for only a few
years. One of the problems of the horticulturist which is associated
with the propagation or perpetuation of a particular variety is that of
obtaining better varieties. The attempt to improve plants by obtain-
ing new characteristics or combining in one individual characteristics
that are now present in two or more individuals has resulted in hun-
dreds of new varieties of horticultural plants. Probably 25 per cent
of the varieties of vegetables and flowers that are grown today were
unknown twenty-five years ago. Hybridizers have created a startling
array of many new kinds of plants. The garlion is a cross between the
garlic and onion, the topeppo combines the tomato and the pepper, and
the tangelo is a cross between the grapefruit and the tangerine. New
kinds and varieties of flowers in whole rainbows of colors are being
produced. The1plantsman attempts to improve the present plants by
crossing or hybridizing plants with different characteristics which he
hopes to combine in one individual and by discovering and perpetuat-
ing fortuitous changes or mutations that he observes. Both these
. 194
PROPA GATIO N OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 195
method s are provin g very satisfa ctory in improv ing horticu ltural
t
plants. The presen t horticu ltural plants have arisen largely withou
the intenti onal assista nce of man.
The Delicious apple is an unknow n seedling which origina ted in
g
Iowa, but the Starkin g arose as a mutati on on a Delicious tree growin
in New Jersey. The McInto sh apple is a chance seedlin g which arose
in Ontario , Can.; the Ben Davis arose as an unknow n seedling, prob-
d
ably somewhere in the Shenan doah Valley, but the Cortlan d, credite
apple introdu ced in the twentie th century , is a
with being the best
a single plant selected

FIG. 90.-Imp roving horticult ural plants, each screen contains
protecte d from undesira ble
because of its desirable characte ristics. Screened plants are desirable characte r-
pollen, and this controlie d pollinati on makes it possible to combine
Ferry-Mo Tse.)
istics of known parents in the new individu al. (CouTtes y of
seedling of a handm ade cross of the Ben Davis by McInto sh, which
at
was made at the New York State Agricu ltural Experi ment Station
Geneva, N. Y. Innum erable similar examples could be given of other
named varietie s of horticu ltural plants that have arisen in all these
ways.
More horticu ltural plants in the future will be the results of well-
le
planne d hybridi zing and the selection and propag ation of desirab
fortuito us or caused mutatio ns. In the future, plant breeder s think
due
that every climatic zone will have a much wider variety of plants
to the creatio n of new varietie s which will flourish away from their
original environ ment. .
With such great differences in plants as have been noted, one would
expect corresponding variati ons in the method s by which these diverse
plants are propag ated. Great variati ons in the manne r of propag ation
the
do exist, but a detaile d study reveals a surprising similar ity in
fundam ental principles underl, ving the propag ation of all plants.
METHODS OF PROPAGATING PLANTS
With all this great diversity in plants there are but two methods by
which they can be propagated: by sexual and by asexual means. Some
kinds of plants can be propagated only by one method, whereas others
can be propagated by both.
SEXUAL PROPAGATION OF PLANTS
Some of the lower plants are propagated by sexual spores, and some
of the higher plants by seeds. The formation of such spores and
seeds is brought about by the fusing of two cells commonly known as
"male" and "female gametes," or "sex cells," or as "pollen" and
"ovule." The fusing of the male and female cells results in the
formation of a single new cell which is the first cell of a new plant. If
this new individual is a member of one of the lower divisions of the
plant kihgdom, it is known as a "spore"; but if it belongs to the highest
division of the plant kingdom, that which produces flowers, it is known
as a "seed." The spore remains in the single-cell stage through a
resting period after which it starts to grow. The first cell of the seed
multiplies and forms a small plant. A seed may be defined therefore
as an embryonic plant with or without a reserve food supply all of
which maybe enclosed in a seed coat.
Seeds are used extensively by the horticulturists to propagate
plants. Since there are certain limitations to their use and require-
ments for their successful germination, it will be advisable to consider
them further.
Seed Formation.-Seeds are formed, in flowering plants, as the
result of the fusing of two sex cells, the male and female gametes, or the
sperm and egg cells, which are produced in different parts of the same
plant or different parts of different plants. The formation of these sex
cells; their transfer from the anther to the pistil, known as "pollina-
tion"; and the fusing of the sperm and egg, known as "fertilization,"
were explained in thc discussion of the flower in Chap. V.
Seed Production.-The production of seeds to produce horticul-
tural plants varies in method and extent from those of the home
gardener who saves a few bean, corn, tomato, pea, zinnia, nasturtium
and other vegetable and flower seeds, to the amateur or commercial
collector who gathers large quantities of seeds from the native habitats
of the plants, to the commercial grower of seeds who devotes large
acreages to the production of a single kind or variety of vegetable or
flower seed. These ~eed-producing areas are located in regions espe-
cially suited to the production of seed of that particular plant.
PRpPA GATIO N OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 197
Cleaning Seed.- The method followed in cleaning seeds will vary

accordi ng to whethe r the seed are in fleshy or dry fruits.
The manne r in which fleshy fruits are handle d is influen ced by the
when
amoun t and kind of pulp, the time and conditi on of the fruit
harves ted and the time arid manne r of storing the seed. Some fleshy
single
fruits that contain but a relative ly small amoun t of pulp or but a
thin layers and dried. The dried pulp
seed to the fruit are spread in
the seed. Fleshy fruits with a small
may be remove d or planted with
to
amoun t of pulp and several or many seed are ground and allowed
w~ter for a feW' days. The pulp is then
fermen t in a small amoun t of
and are raked every

FIG. 91.-Dry ing onion seed, seed are spread on huge canvas sheetsr8e.)
day· until thorough ly dry. (Courtesy of Ferry-Mo
pulp
raked or decant ed off and the seed washed from the remain ing
are then dried and stored or mixed with moist
oyer screens. The seed
fer-
sand or peat and stored. In some cases the ground pulp is not
mented but is dried with the seed, and the seed and pulp are stored
dry or added to moist sand and peat and stored.
The pulp is usually remove d from very fleshy fruits, as the peach
and
and plum. The fruit is spread in a layer or placed in small piles
are thim sepa-
left until the flesh begins to decay. The seed or pits
apple
rated from the pulp by mascer ation and washing. Seeds of the
and pear are obtaine d from the mascer ated pulp at cider mills.
of
Seeds are cleaned of foreign matter and graded to size by means
screens of various sizes and by being subject ed to a curren t of air.
Storag e of Seed. -Yarious seeds are stored in 'different ways.
a-
Some require special storage conditi ons to insure satisfac tory gcrmin
tion. Most seeds are stored dry at about room temperature. Since
the germination of some kinds of seeds is retarded or prevented by dry
storage and room temperatures, such seeds are mixed with a moist
medium, as sand or peat, and stored moist at a temperature slightly
above freezing. This is known as" stratification." In the temperate
regions these storage conditions are simulated for many of this kind of
seeds by planting in the fall. Usually such seeds will germinate the
following spring.
The longevity, or ability of a seed to live, is influenced by the kind
of seed, the size, the composition and structure and the conditions
under which the seed is stored. Many seeds over one year old are not
suitable for planting. There are records of seeds two hundred years
old that germinated satisfactorily, but most seeds have lost much of
their viability after three or four years.
Seed Germination.-For germination and growth of seedlings,
viable seeds, which are embryonic plants, require suitable conditions
of moisture, temperature and oxygen. A very small group of seeds
seems to require an exposure to light before they will germinate. In
Chap. VI it was noted that many plants pass through a period of
dormancy, 'Or afterripening. Many seeds also have a dormancy period
during which they will not germinate even though placed in the
optimum conditions for germination. The duration of this period
varies with the kind of seed. Dormancy in seeds may be due to the
seed covering or to dormancy in the embryo itself. The embryo may
be capable of growing but may be unable to grow because of the encas-
ing coverings surrounding the seed. This covering may prevent
growth of the embryo by the complete inhibition of water absorption,
by interfering with or preventing the absorption of oxygen or the
elimination of carbon dioxide and by a mechanical resistance to
the expansion of the embryo. The seed may fail to grow because of the
fact that the embryo is not yet fully developed or, if fully developed,
the embryo or some part of it is in a state of dormancy itself through
which it must pass, thus bringing about certain chemical and physical
changes before germination can take place.
Various means have been found to hasten the germination of seeds.
If the delayed germinatiop. is due to the encasing structures, or seed
coat, it can be hastened by injuring or breaking the coverings. This is
often known as "scarifying" the seeds. The period of dormancy in
the embryo· itself can often be shortened bY storing the seeds at a
temperature slightly above freezing. If Apparently the' necessary
changes that take place during the afterripening process proceed more
rapidly at this than at higher or lower temperatures.
PROPAGATION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 199
ASEXUAL PROPAGATION OF PLANTS
Asexual, vegetative or clonal propagation of plants is that type in

which a vegetative part of the plant, as a leaf, stem or root, is placed
in such an environment that it develops into a new plant. The new
plant is merely a portion of a single parent plant and therefore is
similar to that parent plant. Even without the intervention of man,
many plants under natural conditions reproduce by some vegetative
means. Many of the plants that produce sexual spores also produc,e
asexual spores during the rapid-growing phase of their life cycle.
These asexual spores are single cells which are part of but a single
parent plant. This will be discussed more fully in Chap. XV in the
section dealing with fungous diseases.
Requirements for Asexual Propagation of Plants.-It is quitegen-
erally believed that all horticultural plants could be propagated asex-
ually if one knew exactly what should be done. One basic requi~ement
must be possessed by any vegetative portion of the plant before it will
produce a new plant. That is that the vegetative portion of the plant
used for propagation must either possess or have the ability to produce
meristematic tissues that are able to develop growth centers that will
produce shoots and roots. The leaf of the common geranium will
develop roots but will not produce a stem, but a leaf from the
peperomia or gloxinia will produce not only roots but also a growing
point which develops into a stem.
In addition to possessing this ability to produce roots and stems, the
vegetative portion must be placed in a suitable environment if it is to
produce a new plant. The chief factors to be considered in the
environment are temperature, moisture, light and air, or oxygen sup-
ply. These are importliLnt in the asexual propagation of all plants
but will differ in degree according to the particular plant being
propagated.
Reasons for Propagating Plants Asexually.-There are several
reasons why the horticulturist finds it necessary or advisable to prop-
agate plants asexually.
One is to perpetuate plants that either never possessed or have lost
their ability to produce seeds or that develop seeds only under special
conditions. In this group might be listed the Smyrna fig, the edible
banana, the Washington navel orange, the Eureka lemon, Ma.rsh's
Seedless grapefruit, dried currant, Thorilpson's Seedless grape and
mll.ny other seedless fruits as well as many of the ornamental plants.
Another important reason is to perpetuate a plant that will not
come true from seed. Earlier in this chapter it was noted that the
200 TEXTBOOK OF GENERA!- HORTICULTURE
embryo, or young plant in the seed, was the progeny of two parents
and possessed characteristics of each. If the parents. were unlike in
some c,haracteristics, the seedling plant would exhib.;t some charac-
teristics of one parent and some characteristics of the other. The
new individual would not be the same as either parent. Since in
asexual propagation the new plant is merely a part of one plant, it
will be as near like that one plant as it is possible for two plants to be
alike. None of the common tree fruits, as the apple, pear, peach,
plum, cherry, orange, fig, pecan, etc., will produce true from seed.
The same is true for many ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. A
group of American elm trees propagated from seed will show wide
variation. Because of these variations, nurserymen are now propagat-
ing the American elm, as well as many other ornamental trees, by
asexual means. The same is true for many ornamental shrubs and
flowers. .
Another reason for propagating p18p~~s~xu~lly is to perpetuate
their particular form. Some RI/l.nt~.. 3P·~ar~.rent when young or ia
their juvenile form, and thi~;:Y~U4g\6r juverii)e, form can . be per-
petuated by pr:,opagating n:~~ . :phir'J..ts from vegetative parts of the
young plant. The new plant,even when fully grown, will have the
appearance of the original young plant from which it was produced. A
condition somewhat similar to this is obtained When prostrate or creep-
ing forms, as Catalpa bungei, Camperdown elm and weeping mulberry
are placed on upright stems.
In some cases plants are propagated with greater ease and more
speedily by vegetative means than by seeds. With the date, for exam-
a
ple, the offset, or cutting, is already large plant when taken.
In many cases plants are propagated: asexually to increase their
resistance or to develop their immunity to a particula~ pest; · A good
example is the gra(tifrg .o f the European grape, Vitis "inijera, on root- '
stocks of one of tneAm.eri<ial1 species of grape. The fleshy root of the
European grape is a:tta:cked by an insect known .as "phylloxera,"
although the inse<:tdoes very littleoino daniage to the more fibrous
roots of the various American speciesofgl'apes. : A similar case exists
with the apple. In Australia the woolly aphis dQes considerable darii~
age to the roots of the applc; bllt as the roots of the Northern Spy are
resistant to the attacks of this insect, many of the apples are grown on
this resistant rootstock. .
The adaptability of a plant to a particular location or habitat can
often be increased by asexual means of propagation. - In growing
citrus fruits, grapes, bench roses and many other kinds of , plants,
rather extensive use is made of certain rootstocks that, because of
particular habits of growth, are especially adapted to certain loca~ions

or soils. In certain sections of the Mississippi Valley certain varieties
of apples are better able to withstand the adverse climate when grown
on intermediate stocks, as Hibernal and Virginia Crab, or some other
varieties.
Another reason for propagating plants asexually is to change the
nature or amount of growth made by the plant. This can be done in
some cases by using certain stocks with certain scions. The rate and
amount of growth made by a plant is determined by both the root and
the top. A small or slow-growing root system will delay and decrease
the growth of the top, and a small slow-growing top will react in a
similar fashion on the root system. The commercial pear tree is
dwarfed in size by being grown on the root of the quince which has a
much smaller root system than that of the pear. A corresponding
result takes place when the standard apple is placed on the inherently
small root system of the Doucin and Paradise apple stocks. The only
influence that the stock has on the top or the top has on the stock seems
to be of a nutritional nature. The one part of the plant can grow
only as fast and as much as the size of the other part of the plant
will allow.
Methods of Propagating Plants Asexually.-Asexually propagated
plants are propagated on their own roots or on the roots of other
plants. The portion of the plant used for propagation containing the
growing point (bud) or the tissues capable of producing such a point
may develop its own roots, or it may be placed on the root of another
plant. The method used varies with the kind of plant and the results
desired.
Plants Propagated on Their Own Roots.-Vegetative parts of plants
that are to be used for propagation must possess the bud or the stem-
growing point or the ability to produce such a growing point and also
must be ab~e to produce roots. During the development of the stems
of many plants" root initials" are formed in the stems. These are
generally most abundant at or near the nodes. Under favorable
conditions they will start to grow and form roots. Many plants that
do not normally possess such root initials appear to be capable of pro.-
ducing them under favorable conditions. As was noted before, the
development of roots appears to be possible even though the develop-
ment of a bud or growing stem point is impossible. When plants are
reproduced on their own roots, the vegetative portion of the plant used
for propagation purposes is either attached to the mother plant or
detached from the mother plant. With some kinds of plants it appears
to make very little difference, as both methods are used successfully.
PARTS NOT DETACHED BEFORE ROOTING.-The most common

wa.ys in which the new plant is not detached from the mother plant
FIG. 92.-Diagrammatic representation of several forms of layerage. CA) tip, CB)

simple, Cc) mound. (D) air.
until ;t. is established on its own root system are by runners, or stolons,
and by layerage.
Runner8, or 8tolo.8, and rhizome8: A runner, or stolon, is a stem that

runs horizontally along the surface of the ground. It forms roots and
new shoots at the various nodes. The strawberry is a common
example of a plant that propagates naturally in this fashion. Creeping
bent grass reproduces and spreads by stolons, and the procumbent
stems of the crab grass root readily at the nodes. Rhizomes are
similar to stolons except that they are stems that run horizontally
beneath the surface of the soil. Lily of the valley propagates naturally
by rhizomes. This habit of propagation makes quack grass a very
difficult weed to control after it once gains entrance in a lawn.
Layerage: Layerage is the method of propagating plants while they
are still attached to the mother plant. It is accomplished by naturally
or artificially bringing a portion of the stem into contact with or
beneath the soil, thus placing it in a position to favor the formation
of roots. The formation of roots can be hastened in many cases by
ringing, notching, twisting, tonguing or in any other way injuring the
portion of the stem in contact with the soil or other rooting medium.
There are several different types of layerage differing chiefly in the
method used to produce suitable environment about the stem for the
production of roots. The type used is adapted to the kind of plant to
be propagated.
Tip layerage occurs naturally with the black raspberry. Toward
the close of the growing season the ends or tips of the shoots that come
and remain in contact with the soil or are buried 1 or 2 in. below its
surface become enlarged, send out a mass of fibrous roots and form an
upright growing point or bud.
In simple layerage a bent and usually wounded portion of the stem
of the plant is buried 1 or 2 in. below the surface of the soil. Roots
will develop from the buried portion, and the rooted portion can then
be cut from the mother plant. Many kinds of plants, as cornus,
hydrangea, rose, grape, carnation and spiraea are propagated by simple
layerage. The time at which the layering is done will be influenced by
the kind of plant and the locality. Shoots of deciduous shrubs are
usually layered during the latter part of the growing season, or the
twigs are layered before growth starts the following spring. The
length of time required for rooting will be inffuenced oy the kind of
plant, the time at which the layering is done; the condition of the twig
used, the environmental conditions, etc.
Mound layerage is practiced on some plants, the stems of which
cannot readily be bent to the ground. Preparatory to mounding, the
plant is usually pruned seyerely to c8lUse the development of vigorous
lat eral shoots near the ground. In the fall or the following spring, soil
is mounded and packed about the plant so that it covers the bases of
the vigorous twigs .. Usually satisfactory rooting will take place on the
twigs within one year so that the mound of soil can be removed and
the rooted twigs cut from the parent plant. The gooseberry and the
Paradise and other apples are propagated in this fashion.
Air layerage, pot layerage or Chinese layerage is that type of layer-
age in which the soil or rooting medium is placed about the stems of
the plants that are high in the air. It is practiced on those plants
FIG. 93.-Root cutting of sweet potato.
which cannot be bent to the ground for simple layerage and on those
with which mounding would be impracticable: Since a desirable por-
tion of the plant cannot be brought to the soil or rooting medium, the
latter is taken to a suitable part of the plant. The twig to be layered is
usually ringed or notched. A flowerpot is cut in two longitudinally
and wired together about the stem, covering the wounded area. The
pot is then filled with a suitable rooting medium which is kept moist.
After a time roots form from the wounded stem in the pot. The stem
is then cut off just below the pot containing the newiy rooted plant. In
some cases balls of sphagnum moss or other suitable rooting mediums
are tied about the wounded stem, and the pot is not used. This form
PROPA GATIO N OF HORTI CULTU RAL PL.A.NT S 205
of layerag e is used to propag ate crotons and rubber plants. It is

used
quite extensively in China for many plants, one of which is the litchi.
Rather large plants can be obtaine d fairly quickly in this fashion.
PARTS ALWAYS DETACHED BEFORE ROOTING.-In many cases it is
used
necessary or advisab le to separa te the portion of the plant to be
the parent plant. This type of asexua l propag a-
for propag ation from
the general classifi cation of cuttage . Roots, stems and
tion goes under
one . .
leaves are used of the various pll~.nts. With certain plants only
and leaves ..
part, as the stem, is used; but with other plants, stems, roots
may all be used satisfac torily.
FIG. 94.-Roo ted herbaceo us cutting of geranium .
Root cuttings: A root cutting is a portion of the .root used

is
to propag ate the plant. Since roots do not possess buds, it
necessa ry that the roots of plants that can be used for propag ation
the
possess the ability to produc e a bud or a growing stem point. Only
roots of certain plants possess this ability. Both plants with fleshy
roots, as the sweet potato, and those with fibrous roots, as blackb erry,
red raspber ry, horseradish and phlox, can be .propag ated by root
cutting s. The method of handlin g varies with the plant being pro-
t
pagate d, but the general practices are similar. In order to preven
decay the fleshy roots are not cut into smaller pieces, but the fibrous
roots are cut into small pieces and planted much ~s one would plant
a
seeds. After a time shoots will develop from the pieces of roots, and
new plant will be obtained.
Stem cuttings: A stem cutting is a portion of the stem uSed

to propagate the plant. The stem portion must contain one or
more nodes, or buds. The bud will expand into a stem. Roots may
develop on the old stem, on the new stem or on both the old and the
new stems. Stem cuttings can be made from herbaceous stems and
from green wood and hard or mature stems. The line of demarcation
between the types of stems is not always clear.
Herbaceous stem cuttings are made of the soft succulent stems with
part or all of the leaves attached, as geranium, coleus, phlox, chrysan-
themum and carnation. A por-
tion of the stem, usually the tip,
about 3 in. long is cut; the basal
leaves are removed and possibly
portions of the remaining leaves.
The basal end of the cutting is
then placed about 1 in. deep in
sand or some other suitable root-
ing medium, which is packed
about the stem; and the tem-
perature, moisture and light of
the cutting bed are regulated
according to the requirements
of the particular plant.
Green-wood or softwood cut-
tings are made of the growing
shoots of many woody plants, as
the rose, privet and hibiscus.
They are made at some time
during the growing season, and
FIG. 9S.-Rooted hardwood cutting of grape. part of the leaves are left
attached. They are handled in
much the same fashion as are the herbaceous stem cuttings.
Hardwood cuttings are made of the matured one-year-old twigs of
many woody plants. Instead of taking the growing shoot, the latter
is allowed to mature and drop its foliage. The cuttings are taken any
time after the foliage has dropped. If taken before spring they are
cut about 6 in. long or so that they contain at least two nodes, tied in
bundles with the bases of the cuttings in the same plane, and stored
over winter in sand, sphagnum moss or some other moist medium at a
temperature of about 40°F. Under such conditions the cuttings will
not be injured by adverse winter conditions, the rest period will be
completed, callus will form, the primordia of roots will form and the
PROPAGATION' OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 207
roots may grow some before conditions are suitable for planting
outrof-doors in the spring. Stems of · various evergreens are llsed
as cuttings. Some will root readily from cuttings, whereas others root
with difficulty or not at all. Most root more slowly than hardwood
cuttings and are more particular relative to the season,of the year when
the cuttings are made.
Leaf cuttings: Many herbaceous-like plants with thick leaves, as
bryophyllum, sansevieria and sedum, or leaves with heavy veins, as rex
begonia, if placed under favorable conditions will form stem-growing
points and roots and thus produce new plants. The method employed
FIG, 96,-Leaf cutting of Bryophyllum crenatum,
varies with the kind of plant, but in all cases the leaf or portion of leaf
is placed in a cutting bed or suitable medium, and the temperature,
moisture and light are regulated to meet the requirements of the plant
being propagated.
PARTS GENERALLY DETACHED FROM THE PARENT PLANT BEFORE
ROOTING,-As would be expected, there ' is a group of plants lying
between those which are propagated while still attached to the parent
plant---Iayerag~and those always detached from the parent plant-
cuttage. Members of this group mayor may not be detached from the
parent plant before rooting. There are two main divisions in this
group, although the two divisions grade imperceptibly into one another.
Those which are propagated by separation are those which fall apart
naturally, as plants propagated by bulbs and corms. Those which are

propagated by division are those in which it is generally necessary to
cut or break the parent plant into pieces. Obviously in certain plants
as they become old, as the iris, the parent plant might fall apart
naturally, whereas the same plant when young would have to be cut
into parts. Other examples are peony, rhubarb, asparagus, lily of the
valley, canna, echeveria, pineapple and date.
Buds, or Growing Points, on the Roots of Other Plants.-In an opera-
tion known as "graftage" one or more buds of a plant are attached to
the root system of some other
plant. H a short twig contain-
ing one or more buds is used, the
operation is known as "scion
grafting," or "grafting"; but if
a single bud is used with very
little or none of the twig
attached, it is known as "bud
grafting," or "budding." This
method of asexual propagation
is used with such plants as the
apple, pear, peach and many
others that cannot be propa-
gated readily on their own roots
but seem to require a nurse root
to become established. It is
also used better to adapt plants
to particular soils and condi-
tions, as hybrid tea roses on
Manetti rose stock in greenhouse
c benches; to adapt the plant
FIG. 97.-Root graft of apple, (a) cion, (b) better to climatic conditions, as
root, (c) completed graft.
double-working Grimes Golden
apple on trunks more resistant to winter injury; to enable the
plant better to withstand the attacks of a pest, as grafting the Euro-
pean grape on American types of roots; and to modify the growth of
the plant, as dwarfing the pear tree by growing it on a quince root.
For successful union of the ·stock and scion it is essential that the
cambium or growing tissues of the stock and scion be in contact or very
close to one another. Not all kinds of plants can be grafted on to all .
stocks or roots. There must be certain inherent characteristics com-
mon to the two plants before a satisfactory union will take place.
These characteristics are generally spoken of as "botanical rela tion-
ships." Within the limits of possible union there are some plants that
form a more congenial or satisfactory union than others. Certain
apple or cherry stocks will be found to make more satisfactory unions
with particular varieties of apple and cherry than with other varieties
of the same fruits. There are many different forms of grafting adapted
to particular plants or specific purposes. In scion grafting the scion
may be placed directly on the root, in which case it is known as "root
grafting"; or the scion may be placed on the trunk or branches of the
tree when it is given a specific name generally descriptive of the graft.
"Double-working" is merely a special form in which the scion is first
grafted on to the root and later, as the plant becomes larger, scions or
buds are placed in the trunk or main branches of the plant; so the plant
is grafted at two different times, or double-worked. This is used to
grow tender varieties on more hardy trunks and to grow more than one
variety on a . single trunk. In bud grafting or budding a single bud
with a small amount of "bark" is removed from the growing twig and
inserted into a suitable incision made on the stock so that the cambial
regions of the stock and scion are in contact. There are many forms
of budding adapted to particular purposes or kinds of plants and given
descriptive names, but the fundamental essentials are the same in all
forms.
VARIABLE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SUCCESSFUL PROPAGATION
OF PLANTS
Besides the inherent characteristics of the different kinds of plants,

a number of variable factors contribute to success or failure in pro-
pagating plants. These influencing factors are of varying degrees of
importance with different plants and even with the same plant at differ-
ent seasons of the year.
TEMPERATURE
The rate of growth of all plants, and even of different parts of the
same plant, is influenced by temperature. The germination of Seeds
and the deve\opment of roots will be influenced by the temperature of
the soil or rooting mediums in which the seeds or other plant parts are
placed, and the rate of top growth will be influenced by the temperature
of the air in which the tops of the plants are growing. Just as certain
seeds will germinate at. different temperatures, so will certain plants
form roots at various temperatures .. A4 0il temperature suitable for
the germination of pea seed will result in the decay of corn seed. Roots
will develop and grow at temperatures lower than will the tops. In
propagating plants by cuttings an attempt is made to maintain an
optimu m temper ature of the rooting mediums to encourage rapid

and successful root format ion and growth while the temper ature
of
the atmosp here is kept lower than that required for the optimu
m
growth of the top of the plant. These conditions result in a more
rapid format ion and growth of the roots and a lessening or retardi ng
of
top growth. The energies of the plant are directed toward the produc
-
tion of. roots on the cutting so that the roots can supply the needs
of
the top for water and mineral elements.
MOISTU RE
Moistu re is required for plant growth. The newly planted seed
must absorb it in order to germin ate; and the vegeta tive portion
of
the plant, used for propagation, must be furnished a suitable water
/Sash
.:
Heal
FIG. 98.-Cro ss section of a propaga tion frame.
supply. Too much water in the rooting medium will prlwent satisfac
-
tory a.eration and result in the destruc tion of the seed or plant part;
too little will result in desiccation and death. Different kinds of plants
require different amoun ts of water in the rooting medium for best
results. The atmosp heric humid ity is import ant, especially with plant
parts possessing leaves. Water is being lost by the leaves to the
atmosphere, and the rate of this loss will be influenced largely by the
humidi ty. If the atmosp here is dry and the cutting has few or
no
roots, the leaves may lose water more rapidly than it can be replace
d
from the rooting medium, with the result that the cutting dries out and
dies. The moistu re in the rooting mediums is regulat ed by using
various mediums with different moisture-retaining capacities, and the
atmosp heric moistu re is regulat ed by enclosing the propag ation bench
with glass, muslin or other suitabl e materi ltland by spraying moistu
re
into the enclosed area. The high atmospheric humid ity checks trans-
piratio n from the plant. Such conditions, however, are very favorab
le
for certain destruc tive diseases, so consta nt attenti on is necessary
to
note the first appear ance of such diseases and check them by lowerin
g
the humidi ty.
LIGHT
Light is essential for germination of the seeds of a few plants, as

Veronica longifolia; it is detrimental to the germination of the seeds of a
small number of plants, as Nigella arvensis; but it is of no significance
to the germination of the seeds of most plants. In propagating horti-
cultural plants one is interested in reducing the amount of light on the
propagating bed because of the influence of shade in deyreasing the loss
of moisture from the cutting and from the soil. Too much light will
cause newly set cuttings to lose water more rapidly than it can be
replaced; and too much light, combined with air movement, will cause
the surface soil to dry and form a hard crust which will interfere with
the germination of small seeds and the emergence of delicate seedlings.
At the same time, sufficient light must be provided to allow for ade-
quate photosynthetic activity and to control certain fungous diseases.
Growing shoots or portions of shoots in darkness so that they are
etiolated has improved the rooting properties of some stems, when the
etiolated portion comprised the basal part of the stem cutting.
OXYGEN SUPPLY
Oxygen is necessary for plant growth, and aeration is essential for

the formation of satisfactory roots on cuttings. Since about 20 per
cent of the atmosphere is oxygen, which is three to four times as much
as the plant can use, all the rooting mediums that are used in seed beds
and cutting beds are satisfactory from the standpoint of aeration.
TIME OF PERFORM'ING THE WORK
The time at which the work is done has a great influence on the
probable success in propagating many plants. As has been noted
previo·usly, most seeds and plants have a period of rest, or afterripening,
through which they must pass before they will resume active growth.
Many seeds that are placed in the soil in the fall will not germinate
until the following spring. The tops of the Irish potato plant will
wither and die, but the tuber remaining in the ground will not sprout
for several weeks; however, the same tuber sprouts quickly under the
same conditions the following spring. The period of rest influences the
time at which the sexually and asexually propagated plant starts to
grow. If propagated at an unfavorable time, the seed or other plant
part might be destroyed before or shortly after it started to grow.
Plants and plant parts that exhibit dormancy enter that state
slowly and emerge from it ,slowly. Plant growth appears to take place
in cycles or waves, not being at the same rate at all times. Other
conditions being favorable, one would start cuttings, make grafts, etc.,
when this cyclic growth is in the stage to produce the most satisfactory
results. Scion grafting should be done, and green and herbaceous
cuttings should be made just as the plants are entering an active grow-
ing phase; budding, in which it might be desired that only union should
take place, to be followed by growth the following spring, should be
performed just as the plant is entering' one of its low periods of growth.
If it is desired that the inserted bud should develop into a shoot the
same season, then the budding should be done much earlier in the
growing season.
,Seeds that have a long afterripening period should be collected and
stored under conditions that will be favorable for afterripening and the
retarding of germination until conditions are suitable for planting.
The manner of storage will vary with the kind of seed.
In regions where there is danger of winter injury to the twigs, scions
for grafting and twigs for hardwood cuttings should be collected and
stored before the advent of unfavorable weather. Many of the green-
wood shoots root better when the shoots are in their earlier stages of
growth. For this reason such green-wood cuttings are taken at rather
definite periods. For example, better rooting is obtained with green-
wood cuttings of the lilac when they are taken close to the time when
the terminal bud is forming. In the United States the best success is
obtained with some of the narrow-leaved evergreens when cuttings are
~aken during November through March.
SIZE OF SEED OR VEGETATIVE PART OF PLANT USED
The first growth of the new plant, whether it be from a seed or from
a vegetative part of the plant, as a stem or leaf, must be made from the
food supply stored within the portion of the plant used for propagation
purposes. Consequently, with other factors being equal, the most
satisfactory early growth is made from the seeds and vegetative parts
of the plant that possess the largest supply of available food that can
be used in plant growth. Generally the size of the seed and size of the
vegetative part of the plant used for asexual propagation is associated
with the amount of food reserves available for the growth of the new
plant. Consequently the size of the seed and the size of the vegetative
portion used will have an influence,on the speed and success of propaga-
tion. With starchy seeds, the medium-sized to large seeds, which
are also those of the highest specific gravity, are generally the most
satisfactory. The size of the cutting is limited by conveqience and
economy in handling, by the amount of suitable growth available and
by the percentage of reserve food in the tf'ssue. A very large cutting
made from tissue that grew rapidly might well have a smaller relative
amoun t of available food stored within its tissues than a smaller cutting
that grew more slowly, sinCe the larger cutting may have used its food
supply in making the vigorous growth. Various experiments have
demon strated that a 2-oz. "seed piece" of the Irish potato is a very
satisfa ctory size. Such a seed piece will furnish an adequa te supply
of food for the new plant until it is amply able to grow indepe ndently
of the food supply contain ed in the seed piece. Size of seed and
ant
vegeta tive portion of the plant used for propag ation is signific
-
largely because of its relationship to available food reserves. Numer
s
ous experiments with hardwood, green-wood and herbaceous cutting
have shown that the more mature cutting s, or those with a high carbo-
hydrate -nitrog en relationship or a high starch reserve, form roots
sooner and in greater quanti ty than do corresponding cutting s that
are less mature or more succulent and that have a low carboh ydrate-
nitroge n relationship or a low starch reserve.
USED
AGE OF SEED OR VEGETA TIVE PART OF PLANT
There are stories of seeds that have retaine d their viabili ty for cen-
es
turies, but these stories are unsupp orted by facts. A few instanc
hundre d or
are known of seeds that have retaine d their viabili ty for one
two hundre d years, but such seeds were dorma nt owing to imperv ious
seed coats and had an exceedingly low rate of respiration. Under
e
favorable storage conditions in the soil, seeds that are dorma nt becaus
of impervious seed coats may remain viable up to fifty years. Non-
dorma nt seeds would germin ate and be destroy ed under similar condi-
ally
tions. Some seeds deterio rate so rapidly that they are practic
for three to five
worthless the second year; many remain suitabl y viable
years, after which they lose their viabili ty very rapidly . Under favor-
able conditions some seeds will remain viable over much longer periods
ed
of time, but in the majori ty of cases the one-year-old seeds are preferr
to the older seeds, and the ·older the seeds the less satisfa ctory they
become. Some seeds keep longer if air dried and kept in tight con-
few
tainers at temper atures too low for germination. There are a
one reasop or anothe r, the
instanc es where, because of dorman cy for
tlle second year than it will the
seed will germin ate more satisfactorily
ure
first. The chief .causes of such.action seem to be due to an immat
enclosi ng structu res about the
embryo or the presence of certain
at least partly before germin ation can
embryo which must disinte grate
take place.
In propag ating by ver;etatiye parts such as cutting s, the very young
growing shoots root most satisfac torily in some cases, while in other
cases more mature tissue or even a small portion of the two-year-old

wood known as a "heel" produces the most satisfactory results. The
advice is often given that herbaceous and green-wood cuttings should
be taken when the tissue will snap and not crush at the position of the
basal cut. In actual practice the basal cut is generally made at a
considerable distance below the point where the stem will snap when
bent.
POSITION OF CUT
Considerable diversity of opinion exists relative to the position that
the basal cut on a cutting should occupy in relation to the node. At
one time it was considered essential for it to be made immediately
below the node. This has been found unnecessary with some plants,
for they will root readily irrespective of the.position. In some that do
not callus quickly and have a comparatively large pith area, the pith
may decay up to the first node above the cut. The position of the cut
is really determined by the manner in which the particular cutting
forms roots. Roots from cuttings are usually of two types: mor-
phological and wound. Morphological roots arise from root primordia,
or root imtials, that are laid down in the stem and have a definite
relationship. to the anatomical structure of the stem. These root
initials are generally most abundant within an area extending about
~ in. below a node. Wound roots, on the other hand, have no appar-
ent relationship to the original anatomical structure of the stem and
usually arise just above, but rarely from, the callus. Many kinds
of plants will develop both types of roots, and many will develop an
adequate supply of wound roots. Since wound roots arise directly
above the callus and the amount of such roots formed seems to be
greater the smaller the amount of callus, cutting just below the node
removes most of the root initials of those plants which possess them,
encourages rooting at several nodes in some cases and may cause
excessive callus formation in others. Some plants form better roots
when cut at the node, others when cut. above the node, but most root
better when the cut is made about ;!4 in. below the node. There is no .
one best place, however, for all the different kinds of plants, for the
propagator is interested in the speed of root formation, the amount
of roots formed and the position on the cutting from which the roots
arise.
LEAF AREA
The healing of the wound and the formation of roots in cuttings are
influenced by food supply. In hardwood cuttings that do not possess
leaves, all the food reserves are stored within the cutting; but green-
wood, herbaceous and evergreen cuttings possess leaves which carry
on photosynthesis and thus augment the carbohydrate snpply of the
cutting. The leaves also transpire water, and the greater the leaf
area the more water transpired. A large leaf area is beneficial in one
way and detrimental in another; consequently the propagator must
balance these two factors to produce the greatest number of suitable
plants on a given area. Foliage is removed for the convenience of the
propagator, not for the benefit of the cutting. Under favorable
conditions the larger the leaf area the greater the amount of carbo-
hydrates synthesized. Consequently the most satisfactory results in
speed of r90ting and amount of roots produced are obtained from those
cuttings which possess the maximum leaf area permissible under the
conditions of temperature, moisture, humidity, light and prevalence of
disease existing in the propagating bench.
ROOTING MEDIUM
When a plant propagator speaks of a rooting medium, he usually

has in mind the medium in which cuttings are placed. In a broad
sense, however, the stocks used in graftage might also be considered as
rooting mediums. Cuttings may be rooted in air, water, soil, sand,
peat, various fibers and combinations of any of the foregoing. The
mediums most generally used in the United States are sand, peat and
combinations of these in various proportions. Some cuttings produce
better roots in one medium, and some in another. Furthermore, dif-
ferent mediums may give different responses at different seasons of the
year. Peat holds more water than sand and may keep the rooting
medium too moist and favor the development of disease during the
shorter, darker days of winter but be admirably suited to the same kind
of plants under a different set of growing conditions. There is no one
best medium for all kinds of cuttings under all conditions.
CHEMICAL · TREATMENTS
Within recent years various substances have been applied to grafts,

bulbs, cuttings, seeds and the rooting mediums in which they were to
be grown with the purpose of hastening or increasing growth. These
substances are now quite numerous and are known by many and vari-
ous names even for the same substance. They may all be grouped
conveniently under the heading of "growth substances." Depending
upon the concentration used and other factors, they both accelerate
and retard growth of roots. Generally they retard the growth of buds.
They are used in the form of liquids, dusts and pastes, being applied
directly to the plant part or to the medium in which the plant is to be

grown. AB a whole they have been found to stimulate the growth and
increase the amount of roots on cuttings and seedlings and to increase
the rate of callus formation on grafts and cuttings. Some progress
has been made in rooting a few plants that are difficult to root. Fur-
ther tests will de.termine the commercial value of such substances, and
uniform and standardized methods of procedure will be.determined for
the various plants under different environmental conditions. The
propagator will find it profitable under favorable ()onditions to treat
cuttings of such plants as carnation, poinsettia, gardenia, lilac (green
wood) and some of the junipers with growth substances.
PROPAGATING REPRESENTATIVE TYPES OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS

Propagation of horticultural plants may be understood more clearly
if we study representative types of such plants propagated by seed, by
herbaceous stem cuttings and by graftage. Practices for other plants
propagated in similar fashions will vary in particular details, but the
principles will be the same.
TOMAT<;>
The best varieties of tomatoes are quite homozygous for their

major characteristics and will reproduce true to variety from seed if
no other tomatoes have been grown close enough to allow cross-fer-
tilization. In commercial seed production, the seed are obtained from
fruits from a large isolated block of a single variety. In extracting the
seed the ripe fruits are crushed and placed in wooden vats, or con-
tainers. The crushed pulp is allowed to ferment for two or three days,
which removes the gelatinous covering that surrounds each seed.
After adequate fermentation, water is added, and the pulp is
stirred. The pulp and light seed will rise to the top where they can be
floated or raked off, and the heavy plump seed will sink to the bottom
of the container. These heavy seed are then washed thoroughly ahd
dried by centrifuging by being placed in thin layers on a screen or by
being exposed to a warm air current. The dried cake of seeds is then
mascerated to separate. the seeds, after which they are graded by fan-
ning and stored in sacks.
Under favorable conditions the seeds are planted in pots, flats, seed
beds or in the open, depending on local conditions. The plants are
then transplanted several .times or thinned until they are set in thcir
permanent localities in which they grow and produce more tomatoea
and more seed.
GERANIUM
The geranium, a herbaceous plant, will serve as a suitable example

of a horticultural plant propagated by green-wood and herbaceous
cuttings. Vigorous, healthy, well-grown but not rapidly growing
plants will have a suitable reserve of food and give excellent results
when used as cuttings. Usually only the terminals are used, but suit-
able stems can be cut into two or more pieces. Cuttings can be made
any time during the year, provided suitable wood is obtained, is
handled properly and is placed under favorable conditions. Make
the cuttings about 3 in. long, clean and smooth, about 74: in. below a
node. Remove the leaves attached to the portion of the stem that
will be below the surface of the propagating medium. Part of the
remaining foliage may be removed. Foliage is removed to assist in the
control of diseases, to economize on space and to decrease the loss of
water by transpiration. Under suitably controlled conditions the
cuttings with the most foliage will make the most growth, so one should
leave as much foliage on the cutting as' the local conditions permit.
Prepare the cutting bed by filling with about 4 in. of clean, moderately
fine sand, and pack with water or by tamping. Other rooting mediums
are used satisfactorily. Make a trench about 1 to 1Y2 in. deep, and
place the cuttings in it. Fill the trench, and pack with a tamper or
with water. Protect the cuttings from excessive sunlight and strong
air currents, which will dry them out before they form adequate roots.
The amount of shading will vary with conditions. Roots will be
visible in about two weeks. The rooted cutting should be potted in
soil as soon as it develops a mass of roots about 1 in. long.
ApPLE
Many of the named varietits of horticultural fruits will not come

true from seeds and consequently are propagated by asexual means, as
cuttage and graftage. With graitage the plant is composed of parts of
two--sometimes three-individuals. One plant forms the root, com-
monly known as "stock," and the other the top, commonly known as
"scion." In the case of double-worked trees, three individuals are
represented: the stock, the scion and an intermediate stock which is
placed between the stock and scion.
Formerly the seed for the apple stocks were imported chiefly from
France, but now much of it is obtained from commercial apple varieties
in this country. Satisfactory stocks can be grown from seeds of Ben
Davis, Winesap, Wealthy, McIntosh and Whitney. Apple seed is
obtained in a fashion similar to that used to obtain tomato seed. The
seed is usually obtained from the pomace at cider mills. The fresh
pomace containing the seed is placed in tanks of water and agitated
thoroughly. The pulp and light seed will float to the top, where they
can be flooded or skimmed off, and the heavy seed will settle to the
bottom of the container. After thorough washing these seed may be
handled in one or two ways. They may be dried, then mixed with
moist sand, placed in containers that allow for drainage and buried in
the soil or placed in cold storaZEL at a temperature ~anging from 32 to
40°F. during the winter. - Mterripeningwill take place in about eight
weeks, and tlftJ viable seed will germinate when placed under suitable
conditions. After cleaning, the seed may be dried in the air, placed in
containers and stored dry. In this case, it will be necessary to soak
the seed and stratify them in a moist medium, such as sand, at a
temperature of about 37°F. for two to three months before germination
will take plll.,ce. Afterripened apple seed should not be allowed to dry
out before b~ng planted, as the embryo will be injured.
Apple seedlings are grown in the United States chiefly in parts of
Kansas, Washington and Oregon. Deep friable soil is essential for
long unbranched roots. After the soil is prepared, the afterripened
but moist apple seed are planted in drill rows about 3~ ft. apart.
The seedlings are cultivated similar to vegetable crops. If large
enough, they are dug in the fall with a digger that cuts the roots 10
to 12 in. below the surface of the soil. Part of the top may be cut off;
the seedlings are graded, tied in bundles of 100 and stored in shingle
tow ina cool storage cellar until they are needed for grafting during the
winter or for planting in nursery rows the following spring to be
budded in the fall.
If grafting is to be practiced, scions are gathered from the desired
kinds of trees shortly after the leaves drop in the fall. One-year-old
twigs with mature plump buds 'should be taken. The base and tip
portions of the scions are usually discarded. The scions are stored
under conditions similar to those for the stocks. The grafting opera-
tion can be done any time during the winter or any time that the scions
are dormant.
Many different types of grafts are used, but the most generally
practiced nursery method is the whip, or tongue, graft. To lessen the
amount of callus formed, a double-tongue graft may be used. Both
"whole-root" and "piece-root" grafts are made. The only difference
is in the lengths of the scion and stock. The completed graft is about
9 in. long. In the whole-root graft, the root or stock is 6 in. long and
the scion is 3 in. long, whereas in the piece-root graft these measure-
ments are reversed. Preparatory to grafting, the fibrous lateral roots
are trimmed off close to the main root, which is from ;{ 6 to ~ in. in
diameter at the crown. In making the tongue graft, an oblique cut
about 17i in. in length is ma.de at the crown of the stock. This is
followed by a second cut which forms the tongue. This cut is started
about two-thirds up the face of the oblique surface of the stock and
extends downward and slightly forward, which cuts across the grain of
the wood. With this type of cut the tongue is thinner than .the back
of the stock, and a closer, smoother union can be obtained with the
. scion. This second cut extends fbr a distance of about 1 in. By
means of a straight cut the root is made the desired length. The scion
is prepared in a similar fashion. The stock and scion are then fitted
smoothly together by overlapping the tongues, so that as large areas as
possible of the cambialregions of the stock and scion are in contact. ,
It is well to have the stock and scion nearly the same size; but in any
case, the cambial regions of-the two pieces should be in contact over as
great an area as the sizes of the two pieces allow. Mter fitting snugly
together, the graft is held firmly by wrapping with grafting rubber or
adhesive grafting tape. As the graft grows, the rubber will stretch and
finally decay, but the tape should be cut through with a knife at the
time when the graft is made, which will allow the ~pe to separate as
the graft enlarges. If the tape is not cut in this fashion, it will girdle
the graft; for the tape does not decay until a considerable time later.
Mter the grafts are wrapped, they are tied "iil bundles and stored in
mojst sand, moss or shingle tow at a temperature of about 40°F. Under
such conditions callus growth will take place, continuous cambium will
form across the union and the stock and scion will become as one plant.
Early in the spring these grafts will be planted in the nursery row,
leaving only the upper bud of the scion above the surface of the soil.
They will be left until dug as one- or two-year-old grafted trees. The
age of the tree is counted from the age of the top that arises from the
scion of the graft.
With budded trees the operations are somewhat different; The
stored seedling stocks are cutback both in top\and root and planted 6
to 8 in. apart in nursery rows. Budding may be done at any time
during thegrbwing season that the bark "slips," but in the North the
budding is done in August until the bark sets. Budding done at this
time permits union to take place between the stock and bud, but the "
bud does not develop into a shoot until the following spring. Two or
three days before the buds are to be inserted, the leaves are rubbed off
the stock for a distance of about 8 in. a.bove the sll.rface of the soil.
The stocks are about 7i in. in diameter. A cut shaped like a capital T
is made on the shaded side of the stock from 2 to 4 in. above the soil.
The freshly cut bud is inserted in this cut and fastened with .rubber
bands or grafting tape. If tape is used, it must be cut as it was V1
grafting. .
The buds are taken from "bud sticks." These are growingshOQts
taken from fruiting trees or from stock trees. Both the basal and the
terminal end of the bud stick are discarded, as the plump axillary cen-
tral buds are the most satisfactory. The leaves are cut off, leaving
about ~ in. of each petiole, which serves as a handle while working
with the bud. The trimmed bud sticks are wrapped in moist burlap.
ff!f'1 ,',
~ III
A C 0 E
FIG. 911.-Diagrammatic sketches showing the 8teps in budding: (A) bud stick.
shoWing taking of bud by cutting from below; (B) bud removed ; (C) stock with T-shaped
incision in bark; (D) stock with bud inserted and (El bud tied.
A shield-shaped piece of bark, with or without some of the wood, is

cut from the bud stick and inserted into the T cut made just previous
to cutting the bud. ,The bud can be forced into the cut by slight pres-
sure as the bark slips. The bud will knit or unite with the stock. The
following spring the stock is cut off just above the inserted bud. This
encourages growth from that particular bud .
. Chiefly on account of winter injury, apples are being double-
worked in certain sections of the United States. By this method the
tree is compo~ of three rather than two individuals. The · apple
seedling is grafted or budded as before, but the scion is from a. variety
as ,Virginia Cr~b, Hibernal or some other variety that is resistant to
winter injury at the collar and in the crotches and makes a favorable
union with desirable varieties that are not so resistant to winter injury:
The resistant va.riety is grown for one or two years in the nursery row
and then pla.nted In the orchard. A good method to follow in develoP'"
PROPAGA,!,ION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 221
ing such double-worked trees is to train the resistant tree to form the
main body of the tree and bud the desired variety into these framework
branches~ This will require three or four years or even more from the
one-year-old tree, as the buds will be inserted in the primary scaffold
branches as such branches are developed either every year or every
other year. The budding is similar to that done in the nursery row;
except that it is done on the underside of the primary lateral branches
about 12 in. from the main trunk. Buds can be placed in either one-
FIG. lOO.-A diagrammatic representation of a double-worked tree; shaded areas indi-

cate the original tree, light areas show growth from buds which were inserted.
or two-year-old branches. It is advisable to place two or three buds

oh the underside of each scaffold branch that is to be retained. The
following spring the branch is cut off just beyond the one bud to be
retained to form the permanent branch. Other primary scaffold
branches can be worked the following years until the entire tree is
worked and the necessary primary branches are' all worked over to the
less resistant variety. The tree now consists of an unknown seedling
stock, an intermediate stock extending from the primary stock and
forming the main trunk of the tree, the basal or crotch portions of all
permanent scaffold branches and the less resistant scions which were
budded into the branches of the intermediate stock.
In many cases the intermediate stock forms only a portion of the

trunk, and the scion yariety forms the entire top of the tree.
Review Questions
1. What is plant propagation?
S. Why are horticultural plants hybridized?
8. Are mutations of any importance in ohtaining improved horticultural plants?
4. What is meant by sexual propagation of plants?·
I. What kiIids -of horticultural plants can be propagated successfully by seeds?
6. What is meant by a.sexual propagation of plants?
'I. ~at is the basic requirement for successful asexual propagation of plantsr
8. 'Why is the edible banana propagated vegetatively?
9. Why is the Jonathan apple propagated vegetatively?
10. Why is the European grape (VitiB vinifera) grafted on roots of other species
of grape?
11. How ~ the Premier strawberry propagated?
12. How is the Red Spectrum carnation propagated?
13. How is the Elberta peach propaga~d?
14. What are some of the variable factors influencing the successful a.sexual
propagation of horticultural plants?
16. At what sea.son of the year are apple treea budded in New York nurseries?
18. How are apple trees double-worked?
1'1. Why are apple trees double-worked?
Problems
1. You have been given a plant that is entirely unknown to you and have been
wed to determine how it can be propagated satisfactorily. Explain your method
of procedure.
2. Make a diagrammatic sketch of a propagating bench in a greenhouse suit-
able to use for propagating geraniums. Show all essential features including a
recently inserted cutting.
3. Contra.st the complete operations of obtaining apple trees by budding and
grafting by completing the following table:
Time Operation
Fall 1940 Obtain seed.
Stratifying seed.
Planting.seed.
Seedlings topped, dug and stored.
Root Grafting . Budding
VVinte~Year ___________________________________________ ______ ~
4. You noticed that one of the branches on a Rome Beauty apple tree produced
apples much more colored than other Rome Beauty apples. Explain how you
.would proceed to ~btain some trees that produced apples like the more highly
colored ones on the Rome Beauty tree.

1. AnRIANCE, G. W., and F. R. BRISON, "Propag ation of Horticu
ltural Plants,"
McGraw -Hill Book Compan y, Inc., New York, 1939.
Plants,"
2. CRANE, M. B., and W. J . C. LAWRENCE, "The Genetics of Garden
Macmil lan & Compan y, Ltd., London, 1938.
Orange
3. KAINS, M. G., and L. M. MCQUESTEN, "Propag ation of Plants,"
Judd Compan y, New York, 1938.
Macmillan
4. LAURIE, A., and L. C. CHADWICK, "The Modem Nursery ," The
Compan y, New York, 1931.
Farmers'
5. YERKES, Guy E., Propaga tion of Trees and Shrubs, U.S. Dept. Agr.
Bul. 1567: 1-51, 1932.
CHAPTER XII
SOn. 'MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
The final object sought in growing horticultural plants commer-

cially is optimum growth and production at minimum costs. The
amateur is interested primarily in obtaining satisfactory growth and
prod~ction, and the cost is of secondary consideration. Soil mois-
ture, nutrients and organic matter are important factors in obtaining
the desired objectives, and thet';esoil conditions are influenced greatly
by the manner in which the soil is handled.
OBjECTS .
The chief objects sought in soil management are (1) to provide a
favorable moisture supply; (2) to supply sufficient nutrients for
optimum growth and production; (3) to add enough organic matter to
offset that lost by decomposition, by organisms and by erosion; (4)
to prevent erosion and (5) to avoid injurious compacting of the soil.
It is difficult to separate the foregoing objects, since with the addition
of organic matter, the physical condition of the soil is improved which
in turn would increase the rate of decomposition and liberation of
plant nutrients and also improve the water-holding capacity of the
soil.
The importance of moisture in relation to pla,nt growth has been
discussed previously. Here it ' is intended to call attention only to
those practices associated with the maintenance of a satisfactory soil '
moisture. Cult.ivation to destroy weeds, addition of organic matter to
retain moisture, irrigation to add needed water and drainage to remove
excess water are all important factors in maintaining a favorable
moisture supply in the soil.
The soil is constantly being depleted of its minerals through absorp-
tion by the plants and by percolation and erosion. The horticulturist
conserves and replenishes these materials by plowing under plant
refuse, checking too rapid percolation, preventing erosion, increasing
the rate at which the unavailable elements in the soil are made available
and the actual addition of elements used by the plant.
Organic matter in the soil is decomposed largely through biological
activities. This decomposition .is necessary in order to liberate the
224
SOIL MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 225
plant-food elements contained in 'the organic matter an~ make them

available for plant use. The decomposition processes occur most
rapidly with favorable conditions of temperature, moisture and aera-
tion. To overcome this loss of organic matter, the horticulturist
adds it by growing and plowing under cover crops and by the addition
of plant and animal refuse.
The soil contains an aggregation of small connected cavities which
are filled with water and air. Air is necel3sary in the soil for favorable
biological activity and for root growth. Suitable aeration of the soil
is provided by establishing and maintaining a favorable texture and
structure and by suitable tillage practices with proper tools. A new
process of soil aeration is being used for old shade trees in compact
sods whereby compressed air is forced deeply into the soil. .
SYSTEMS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT
Many variable factors, 8.'3 kind of plant, age of plant, varying condi-
tions of soil, weather and topography, must be considered. Certain soil
practices might be satisfactory under one set of conditions and unsatis-
factory under different conditions. Before determining upon a practice
to be used in managing the soil it is advisable to consider the effects on
the plant of that practice in comparison with other practices that
might be used. By this Jl).ethod one arrives at a system of soil manage-
ment that best meets his requirements. There are four main systems
of soil management-sod, tillage, mulch and rotatien-that may be
used by the horticulturist. The management ' of the soil of any
particular planting will probably be a combination of one or more of
these four sy's tems or a modified type of one or more systems.
SOD
Sod culture is that system of soil management wherein the plants
are grown in permanent grass without tillage and without the addition
of any litter. It is one of the oldest systems of soil management in
the orchard and is also used universally for shade trees.
There are several recognized types or .modifications of the sod
system for tree crops. The most common are (1) grass allowed to
grow without being cut; (2) grass cut one or more times during the
season and let lie in place; (3) grass cut one or more times during the
season and removed as hay; (4) grass pastured and (5) temporary
sods, as clover, which is disked and reseeded every two or more years.
The third and fourth types are decidedly objectionable and can hardly
be termed systems of soil management.
Trees grown in sod are more shallow rooted than those grown
in tilled soil. For this reason it is advisable to till the orchards for
the first few years if conditions will permit such operations. The shal-
low growth of the roots seems to be associated with a decrease in the
available nutrient supply-chiefly nitrates-in the soil. This decreased
fertility is believed to be due to a reduction in the biological activities
in the soil because of decreased aeration as a result of the presence of
the sod.
FIG. 101.-A hillside orchard; steepness of slope would make clean cultivatlOn
in this orchard difficult and would lead to soil erosion. (Gardner, Bradford and Hooker.)
Some type of sod culture is used in commercial orchards in areas

where the topography makes any system of tillage inadvisable or
impracticable. Many home orchards are grown in sod; and sometimes
the grass is removed for hay, or the orchard pastured. Although a
small amount of hay might be removed for a few years or a few small
animals or poultry pastured without injury to the orchard, too often
both these practices lead to injury of the orchard.
The type of sod culture that appears to be the most satisfac-
tory is the one in which the grass is cut and let lie. This type really
approaches the mulch system which is discussed later. Another
general modification of the sod system is the addition of fertilizers,
usually a form of nitrogen. Practically all experimental data prove
the advisability of this practice. Such fertilization is becoming a
SOIL MANAG EMENT OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 227
common and beneficial practice with established lawn trees where

tillage is impossible because of the necessity of mainta ining a turf.
TILLAG E
Tillage is that system of soil manag ement in which part or all of

the soil is cultiva ted in some way each year. A large numbe r of modi-
or
fications of the tillage system are used under particu lar conditions
for specific purposes. Clean cultiva tion is that type in which the soil
ed.
is kept free of all vegeta tion other than the crop being produc
Clean cultiva tion and cover crop is that type in which the soil is kept
free of vegeta tion until early summe r when a crop is seeded that will
make a good growth before being stoppe d by cold weather. Clean
is
cultiva tion and intercr opping is that type in which a cash crop
grown between the rows of trees while they are still young. Strip
cultiva tion is that type in which a portion of the space between rows
is cultiva ted, and the area occupied by the rows of plants is not culti-
vated . . Row cultiva tion is merely the opposite of strip cultiva tion,
for in row cultiva tion the area occupied by the row of plants is culti-
s
vated and a .non-cultivated strip is left between rows. Variou
modifications and combinations of these types will sugges t them-
be
selves to meet particu lar conditions. The tillage practices must
adapte d to the crop and to the particu lar environ mental conditi ons.
In recent years clean cultiva tion has lost favor in orchards, but it is
the
still used extensively with small fruits and nursery plants and is
and vegetab le
universally accepted practice for nearly all flowers
crops. It is conceded by all that clean cultiva tion destroy s weeds
and tbus conserves for the other plants the moisture and plant nutri-
is
ents utilized by the weeds. By tillage the aeratio n of the soil
improved, organic matter in the soil is decomp osed more rapidly and
plant food elements are liberate d more rapidly and more abunda ntly.
This same tillage practice, however, dries the soil more rapidly, "burns
out" the organic matter in the soil too rapidly and produces a less
too
desirable soil structu re and may liberat e the plant-food elements
rapidly for the use of the crops or at a season of the year when the crops
by
cannpt use them advant ageous ly and consequently they are lost
leaching.
The production of many plants is increased by cultiva ting the soil
and keeping it free from weeds. This increased produc tion is more
ial
pronounced with some kinds of crops than with others. The benefic
to a. numbe r of interac ting factors , the
effects are undoub tedly due
al
most import ant being elimination of competition for water and essenti
elements by t.he removal of the weeds and the actual increase in the
amount of soil nutrients available for the plant because of the tillage
operations. In comparing cultivation and the suppression of weed
growth with no cultivation and the growth of weeds in corresponding
planting of beets it was found that the cultivated, weedless area
produced nearly four times as many beets that weighed nearly six
times as much ~ was produced in the non-cultivated weedy area.
In some instances it appears that the elimination of the weeds 'and
the resultant conservation of moisture and plant nutrients used by the
weeds are the chief causes of increased yields. The tillage operation
itself seems to be actually injurious in certain cases. . This injurious
FIG. l02.-Clean cultivation of cauliflower, Long Island, New York.
effect appears to be due to one or both of two causes. The relative

importance of the two causes appears to be determined largely by the
kind of plant and the frequency and depth of tillage in relation to
the frequency of rain and the amount of rainfall at each time. Culti-
vation should be such as to cause the least disturbance to the root
system of the plant. Early tillage of annual crops can be deeper, but
later tillage should be shallow and chiefly for the purpose of destroying
weed growth. Under certain conditions cultivation may actually
cause a loss rather than a gain in soil moisture. Weedless soil culti-
vated shortly after a light rain of 72 in. or less may increase the' loss of
water from the soil by exposing a larger soil area to the drying action
of the air. The light rain may not have wetted the soil more than
SOIL MANAG EMENT OF HORTI CULTU RAL PI,ANT S 229
es
one-half the depth of the cultiva ted soil. The following table indicat
of compe ting weed growth and
the necessity of keepin g the soil free
,
at the same time shows that a large numbe r or frequen t cultiva tions
throug hout the season of weed-free soil is not necessa ry.
TABLE 29 .-EFFEC T OF CULTIVA TION ON YIELD*
Average yield of marketa ble portion of crop,

pounds pcr plot
Kind of crop
Cultivat ed Cultivat ed Weeds allowed
Scraped to grow
all season half of season
505,3 506.4 519.5 27 .9

Carrot .. .. • .... ' , . .. . ,
Beet, ...... . .... .. ... . 240.3 239.7 233.2 45.6
Cabbage .. . . . .. .. . '. . .. . 233.6 234 .6 207 .5 129.1
69 .6 64.3 3 .6
Onion ... . . . . . . .. .. ... 67.7
164 .0 166 .6 166.8 23 .3
Tomato .. .' .. , ... . .. , . ,
158.8 52.7
Potato .. .. , . . . , . . . . . . '1 148.3 150 .4
Vegetable
* Adapted from THOMP80 N. H. C .• et al. . Cultivatio n Experime nts with Certain
C .-ops on Long !.sla nd. Corn e!! Uni •. Ayr. Expt . 'Sta. Bm. 521 .
1931.
Contin uous cultiva tion resulted in a rapid depleti on of organic

.
matter , a loss of fertilit y and eventu ally an unsatiRfactory soil texture
tillage known as
To remedy these difficulties a modified type of clean
soil
"clean tillage with cover crops" was developed. In this type the
the desired crop by
is kept free of weeds and other vegetat ion except
cultiva tion is dis-
various tillage practices until early summe r when
in
continu ed and volunte er plants or seeded plants are allowed to grow
the areas betwee n the rows of the crop plants. The followi ng spring
d.
the cover crop is turned under, and the tillage operati ons repeate
c and soil conditi ons are suit-
In locatio ns where topogra phic, climati
able, this type is quite popula r, especially with tree fruits, bush fruits
its
and grapes. The crop used as a cover crop will be determ ined by
and soil to the specific require ments of
adapta bility to the locatio n
than the volunte er weeds and graSses ,
the particu lar plantin g. Other
the kinds of plants most general ly used are winter vetch, oats, barley,
rye, buckw heat, millet, rape, soybeans, cowpeas, clovers and various
ted
combin ations of these plants. A numbe r of advant ages are attribu
to cover crops. They check the growth of the perenn ial crop plants
by compe ting with them for water and minera l elemen ts and cause
them to mature their wood earlier and more fully and thus enable
By
them to withsta nd trying winter conditions more satisfac torily.
is not
the use of cover crops the organic matter conten t of the soil
is
only mainta ined but generally increased. The fertility of the soil
increased because of the more favorab le conditions for biologi

cal
activities, the tempor ary storage of elements in the tissues of the cover
crops -thus decreasing the loss by leaching and by the actual addi-
tion of nitroge n from the air when leguminous plants are grown. The
ample organic conten t mainta ins a favorable physical condition
in
the soil with all its attenua ting benefits of increasing the holding
capaci ty of available moisture, checking loss by percolation and
reducing soil erosion by decreasing the speed and amoun t of surface
runoff. The presence of the organic matter on the surface of the
soil
during winter holds more moistu re in the form of snow and in itself
acts as a blanke t which keeps the soil from changing temper ature
so
rapidly and freezing to so great a depth. If the cover crop lives over
winter, its growth and rapid transpi ration of moisture in the early
spring assists in drying out the top soil and facilitates earlier tillage
of the soil or movem ent of machin ery over the soil in the case of tree
crops.
Intercr ops are often used in young orchards, plantin gs of bush
fruits, vineyards, certain nursery plantings and perennial vegetables.
The length of time that such intercrops are used will vary from
one
to several years depending upon the kind of perman ent crop. The
best intercr ops to use are cultiva ted crops, as beans, tomato es, potatoe
s,
cabbage and corn. It is better to avoid crops that make their growth
early in the spring and compete with the perman ent crop for moistu
re
and nitrogen. The intercr op should not be planted so close to
the
perman ent crop that it hinders the growth of that crop, and the use
of
companion crops should be discontinued just as soon as the perman
ent
crop needs the area. Generally, corn as a companion crop in an apple
orchard should not be planted closer than 5 ft. to the trees the first
year, 7 ft. the second and third years and 10 ft. during the fourth and
fifth seasons.
Strip cultiva tion consists in cultiva ting a portion of the space
between the rows of plants and not CUltivating the space occupied
by
the plants. Row cultiva tion is the reverse of strip cultiva tion in that
the spaces between the rows are left unculti vated and the areas
occupie<i by the plants are cultiva ted. These types are limited
to
orchard plantin gs and are often used in the home orchard.
Border cultiva tion is the next step in row cultiva tion in which a
small area surroun ding each plant is cultiva ted. This is particu larly
adapte d to young shade and fruit trees and shrubs that are set in sod.
The ground around these plants should be spaded well beyond
the
spread of the branches during the first years after transpl anting and
until the plant becomes well established. With many shrubs
the
tillage should be continued each spring to decrease the competition of
grass.
MULCH
The mulch system of soil management is that system in which
material such as hay, straw, special mulch paper or glass wool is
placed on top of the soil. The term as applied to the orchard has had
a wide interpretation so that anything from mowing sparse grass and
allowing it to lie where it falls to spreading straw or other material to a
depth of several inches or a foot beneath the trees has been designated
as a mulch. From this it is clear that the line of demarcation is not
FIG. l03.-orchard mulched, IItraw mulch extending tx>yond branches. (Iowa Experi-
ment Station.)
clear between some of the types of the sod system and some of the
types of the mulch system. The mulch system is really a progressive
development from the sod system. The orchards were pastured; the
grass was cut for hay; the grass was let grow; and, finally, the grass
was cut and let lie. Next someone began raking the cut grass from
between the rows and spreading it unrler the branches. It was then
only a step to bring in additional mulch material and COver all the
orchard area. It was a system that evolved because of the benefite
that were noticed to develop from the better forms of the sod-mulch
system. The mulch system, however, is distinctly different from the
sod system in that no vegetation is permitted to grow other than the
crop being produced. This eliminates the possibility of the formation
of a compact sod, with its attendant difficulties.
Besides cost in are88 where suitable mulching material is scarce,

the objections to organic mulches are the increased' possibility of
injury by fire and increased possibilities of injury by mice. Straw-
berry plantings have always been mulched; raspberry and grape plant-
ings have been mulched to a limited degree in some sections for many
years; but only comparatively recently have commercial orchards
been mulched. The advantages of mulch over sod are: Competition
for water and nutrients between the grass and trees is absent; per-
meability to rainfall is increased and surface runoff practically elimi-
nated; loss of water by transpiration from grass and evaporation from
the soil is reduced to the minimum; no sod is present to become com-
pact with its accompanying evils; decomposition of added organic
matter adds a small amount of fertility to the soil; the presence of
mulch makes it easier to move spraying and harvesting 'machinery
throughout the orchard; and the fruit that drops is less injured and
often salable. .
Where conditions permit,' the young orchard should be cultivated
for a couple of years before being mulched, as this induces deeper
rooting. A strawy mulch about 6 in. deep should be maintained.
This will reql).ire 6 or 7 tons per acre the firSt year, with small additions
every two or three years following.
The principal indexes used by fruit growers in determining the
system of soil management to be practiced are operating costs; yield,
color, size and price of marketable fruit and favor.able tree growth.
The data in the accompanying tables indicate that the use of a mulch
had no detrimental effect on tree growth as indicated by the increase
in the circumference of the tree, that a mulch prevented the deep
TABLE 30.-INFLUENCE OF SOIL MANAGEMENT ON GROWTH AND SIZE OF ApPLE
TREES. TREES PLANTED IN 1915*
Circumference of trunk 12 in.

Soil from ground
Variety treatment
i916 1929 1934
-
Stayman .... ..... . ........ Cover crops 3 . 50 30..11 36 . 6
Stayman .... ......... ..... Mulch 3.53 31.56 ,I 38.1
Delicious .•.••............. Cover crops 3 . 10 30.95 !I 37.9
Delicious .................. Mulch 3 .04 I
30.90 I
39 . 2
* ELUlfWOOD, C. W., and J. H. OOUaLIIY, Cultural Syate.... for the Apple in Ohio, Ohio A",.
Bzpt. &a. Bvl. 680, 1937.
penetration of frost and kept the soil temperature more equable and
that it W88 favorable for the retention of moisture in the soil, The
tendency of roots under a heavy straw mulch to occupy the surface

soil and grow in the loose decaying mulch has been advanced as an
objection to the use of a mulch. In favorable soils, deep rooting is
not inhibited by the development of the shallow roots just underneath
the mulch.
TABLE 3l.-DEPTH OF FROST PENETRATION UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
OF SOIL MANAGEMENT, INCHES·
Date oi examination
Soil treatment
Mar. 3,1934 Feb. 3,1936 Feb. 26, 1936
Heavy straw mulch ... . ....... 3 .0 3 .0 9 .0

Sod, not mulched ... . . .. ...... 9.5 7 .0 18 .0
Cover crop . ....... . ... . .. . .. . 10 .5 11.0 30.0
Clean cult ivation ............ . . 14 .3 18.0
* ELLENWOOD , C. W ., and J . H. G OURLEY. Cult ural Systems for the Apple in Ohio. Ohio Agr.
E",pt. S ta. B U!. 580. 1937.
TABLE 32.-PERCENTAG E OF MOISTURE IN SOIL IN MULCHED, SOD AND CULTIVATED
AREAS, AUGUST, 1930*
I Soil treatment
Date Soil depth
Cover crop Clean Sod not
Mulch
culture culture mulched
Aug. 2
1Second
Upper 6 in .
6 in.
8 . 88
7 .35
5 . 11
7 .65
8.58
8 .57
6 .04
6 .02
Average for 12 in. 8 . 12 6 .38 7.58 6 .03
Aug. 4
1Second
Upper 6 in.
6 in.
13 .98
10 .88
5 .92
6.49
6.47
7 . 17
6 .55
6 .67
Average for 12 in. 12 . 43 6.20 6 .82 6.61 ,
Aug. 6
1Second
Upper 6 in.
6 in.
8 . 49
.7 13
6 .28
6 .80
7 .39
7 . 19
5 .90
6.24
Average for 12 in. 7 .81 6.54 7.29 6.07
* ELLENWOOD . C. W .• and J . H . GOURLEY. Cultural Systems for the Apple in Ohio. Ohio Al1r.
E", pt. Sta. BU!. 580. 1937.
Growers of vegetable crops use straw mqlch on .some crops but use
aspecial paper mulch in many cases. Pjneapple growers use a similar
paper. Within the last few years the vegetable growers and florists
have been trying a new mulch made of gl!t8S wQol. U,nder a straw
mulch the soil temperature and available ~trates are usually lower
than.those of unmulched soil, and under ~ paper mulch they are higher.
Moisture is conserved with either one. Straw is va.1~J>le as a mulch
on crops, such as the potato, which grows better inlow soil tempera-
tures during the summer months. Increase in yield that could be

attributed chiefly to more abundant water supply is more pronounced
in dry seasons than in seasons of normal or heavy precipitation.
Weeds will penetrate a straw mulch of less than 8 tons per acre. Avail-
able nitrates may be decreased under straw in the early part of the
season but increase later. The depression of available nitrates under
a straw mulch is thought to be due to the use of available nitrogen
by the microorganisms engaged in the decomposition of the straw
adjacent to the moist soil surface. This will have some influence on
the time of adding the straw mulch.
Paper mulch was first used commercially in Hawaii on sugar cane
to control weeds. Lightweight paper was laid over the rows of sugar
cane; the young plants readily broke through the paper; all weed
growth was suppressed. Increased growth on mulched sugar cane
led to further trial on pineapples with good results. It was then tried
in the United States on vegetable crops and found to increase yields
on most warm-season crops. Because paper mulch increases the soil
temperature, it is valuable in stimulating early growth of "many crops
but may be harmful, especially to cool-season crops such as the potato.
Increased returns from vegetable crops in northern United States
rarely pay for the cost of the paper and labor of applying it.
Coarse peat, free from weeds, is frequently used for mulching
flowers out-of-doors on small areas. Peat readily conserves moisture,
depresses weed growth when thick enough and lowers the soil tem-
perature. It is usually too expensive for mulching crops grown
commercially.
ROTATION
" The rotation "system of soil management is that in which different

kinds of cropS are planted on the same area of land in a somewhat
regular sequence. Systematic crop rotation is very important with
certain nursery plants, with flowers and especially with annual veg-
etable crops. Rotation aids in the control of insects and diseases, in
the equalization of the depletion of available ~nerals in the soil, in the
improvement of the physical condition of the soil and in the avoidance
of the deleterious effect of one crop on the succeeding crop.
Many serious diseases may be controlled if the host plant is not
grown on the soil for three or four years. Clubroot of cabbage and
related crops, as cauliflower, broccoli and Brussels sprouts, can be con-
trolled if the Boil is kept free of cruciferous plants for a two-year period,
but not all diseases that are harbored in the Boil can be controlled
by rotation of the land. The organism causing cabbage yellows will
survive in the soil for many years after the crop has been removed and
will infect a susceptible variety of cabbage or related crop if planted
on the infected soil even after many years. Some organisms attack
only one host plant; others, such as nematodes, attack many kinds.
Those which attack but one kind of plant are easily controlled by crop
rotation, especially if the pest can live in the soil but a short time.
Some few insects can be controlled through rotation if they feed on
one crop only and do not move very far. If the host plant is not
present when the insects or disease organism appears, the pest dies
for lack of food. Pests that feed on many kinds of plants, such as the
chinch bug which feeds on many species of Graminaceae, and insects
that move long distances, as the com-ear worm, cannot be controlled
through rotation.
Crops that are heavy feeders, removing large quantities of all or
certain nutrient elements, may be followed by a crop that is not so
exacting in its requirements. Crops such as onions and tobacco which
use large quantities of potash may be followed by such leafy crops
as cabbage and lettuce, which are not heavy users of potash. Some
crops may make better use than others of manures or commercial
fertilizers applied to the previous crop, and some are better able than
others to use the residue of the preceding crop.
Planting a green manure crop, such as rye, in late summer or early
fall, after the production of a money crop, will aid in maintaining a
good physical condition of the soil when the cover crop is turned under
the following spring and will avoid losing the use of the land for one
year. When manure or other plant residues are scarce and a nitrog-
enous fertilizer is necessary, a leguminous cover crop should be
included in the rotation.
Some crops leave the soil more acid than others. This greater
acidity may be reflected in lower yields of some of the following crops.
Experiments have demonstrated that the yield of carrots differs very
little following various crops, because the carrot is resistant to acid-soil
conditions and is able to assimilate mineral nutrients from soil not
fertile enough to maintain maximum yields of other crops. On acid
soils the lettuce yields are greater after beets or potatoes than after
peas or cabbage. Those crops which remove more of the basic ele-
ments from the soil should not be followed by acid-sensitive crops
unless lime is applied.
USE OF FERTILIZERS
The soils in which plants grow are not alike in fertility; more
important still, the plants themselves are not alike in their need for
and use of nutrient elements in the soil. Hence fertilization is neces-

sary and extremely profitable sometimes and distinctly unnecessary
and unprofitable at other times.
A commercial horticulturist is interested in increasing his profits,
whereas an amateur gardener is interested in improving the appearance
and growth of his plants. The application of fertilizers may assist in
one or more of four ways: (1) by making a larger plant with more buds
in which blossoms may be formed, (2) by increasing the number of
FIG. l04.-Note the difference in size of between the two rows of seven-year-old
Montmorency cherry trees. The row of trees on the left hlLS been in alfalfa sod plus the
annual addition of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, while the one on the right has been
-- under a clean-culture, cover-crop system of soil management. The difference in size
of these trees indicates that the cherry does not thrive with sod culture. (Gardner,
Bradford and Hooker.)
buds that form flowers, (3) by increasing the percentage of flowers

that set fruit and (4) by increasing the size of individual fruits.
-Before discussing the use of chemical fertilizers in the production
of horticultural crops, it will be well to review the functions of various
elements in the soil t,h at are necessary for plant growth.
PLANT-FOOD ·ELEMENTS
In 1840 Liebig considered the following elements essential to plant

growth: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, calcium, magnesium and silicon. Later it was discovered that
iron should be added to the list; and although silicon was present in
many plants, it was not essential. Within the last few years other
mi~eral elements, as boron, copper, manganese and zinc, have been
found to be essential to plant growth. In most soils the grower is
concerned with deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium and
not with the so-called "minor," or rarer, elements', as boron, copper

and zinc. These minor elements, however, are no less indispensable
to the life of the plant than the so-called major elements nitrogen,
p'hosphorus and potassium.
Nitrogen.-Nitrogen is the fertilizing element most generally
deficient in soils and is likely to be the limiting element in soil fertility.
It is a constituent of the protein substances that are a part of the pro.to-
plasm of the plant cells. It is available to the plants in the soil as
. potassium, sodium or calcium nitrate and sometimes as ammonia.
Nitrogen influences the development of the vegetative parts of tile
plant and is responsible for the deep green color of the leaves. When
nitrogen is deficient, the leaves Itre yellow-green in color and the growth
of the plant is slow. Nitrogen can be supplied in mirienil form such
as nitrate of soda (15 to 16 per cent N), sulphate of ammonia (20 to 21
per cent N), calcium nitrate (15 per cent N), calcium cyanamide (20
to 21 per cent N) and urea (34 per cent N), which occur as natural
deposits or are manufactured commercially. Plant products used as
nitrogenous fertilizers to furnish nitrogen are cottonseed meal and
linseed meal, and commonly used animal products are blood meal,
tankage and fish scraps. The nitrogen is not so quickly available
from the organic materials as from the mineral forms; consequently,
the form used will be influenced by the speed desired .
. Immense quantities of animal manures are used as fertilizers; and
although the nitrogen content is only 1 per cent or less, these manures
contain also small amounts of phosphorous and potassium. If a
legume is used as green manure, it may add nitrogen from the air by
bacterial action in the root nodules. The supply of nitrates in the soil
varies with temperature and moisture. In cool, wet weather the
nitrifying process by which nitrogen is made available to the plants
through the action of microorganisms is slower than in warm dry
weather. Applications of quickly available nitrogen are necessary
to produce vigorous vegetative growth on poor soils. In peat and
muck soils, which are high in nitrogen in warm weather, crops like ,
onions and celery will respond to applications of a quickly available
nitrogenous fertilizer in early spring, because the microorganisms may
not be numerous or active enough for adequate nitrification. The
same application made later in the spring or early summer may be of
no benefit because sufficient nitrogen has been made available by
increased biological activity at the higher temperature.
Phosphorus.-Considerable quantities of phosphorus may be
present in the soil but may not be ih a readily ava~lable form. A
.deficiency of phosphorus may cause small, poor root growth, late
maturity and shrunken seeds. The chief sources of phosphorus in

commercial fertilizers are phosphate rock and bones. Raw bone meal
or ground rock phosphate is seldom used on horticultural crops because
the tricalcium phoSphate in them is not readily available to the plants.
Superphosphate is produced by treating the rock phosphate with ,
sulfuric acid and thereby changing the phosphorus to a more readily
available form. Raw bone is steamed and treated with sulfuric acid
to form readily available phosphorus. Superphosph.a te in more con-
centrated form, known as double or treble phosphate (40 to 48 per
cent P 20 5), is used in preparation of high-analysis fertilizers.
Potassium (Potash).-Potassium is supposed to be essential in the
formation and translocation of carbohydrates and seems to increase
resistence to certain diseases. Abnormal color of leaves, weak stems,
stunted growth and poor development of roots and tubers are associ-
ated with a deficiency of this element. Large quantities may be
present in the soil without harmful or toxic effect to most plants. All
soils except mucks and peats contain relatively large amounts of
potassium, but the amount available to plants in any soil may be low;
especially is this true of sandy soils.
This element· may be supplied in commercial fertilizers in several
compounds of which muriate of potash (48 to 54 per cent) or sulfate
/'
of potash (48 to 52 per cent) are the forms most commonly used.
New synthesized potassium salts, now in use to a limited extent, are
potassium nitrate (44 per cent K 20 + 12.3 per cent N) and potassium
ammonium nitrate (28 per cent K 20 + 16 per cent N). Wood ashes "
are commonly recommended as a potassium fertilizer but contain
only 5 /to 6 per cent of K 20. Kainit contains 12 to 13 per cent K 20.
Cakium.-Although calcium is one of the essential elements for the
growth of plants, it is used mainly in the form of lime to neutralize
acidity. Soils seldom lack calcium·as a plant nutrient, but many crops
require applications of lime in order to reduce the soil acidity. Certain
toxic materials, such as soluble aluminum, may be rendered harmless
by liming. The physical conditions of heavy soils may be improved,
since liming causes fiocculation, or grouping of fine particles into"larger
groups, making the soil more porous. "
" Limestone and hydrated lime are the forms most commonly used in
, adding lime to soil. Limestone may contain as high as 90 per cent
CaCO a, but many grades contain less. If magnesium carbonate is
present in the limestone, it is equal to the calcium carbonate. Dolo-
mitic limestones "contain considerable magnesium carbonate and are
very valuable on soils deficient in magnesium. Hydrated lime
"(c8Jcium hydroxide) is quicker acting than limestone, and 74 lb. of the
calcium hydroxide is equal to 100 lb. of calcium carbonate. Gypsum

(calcium sulfate) should not be used to correct acidity, as it increases
rather than decreases it.
Magnesium.-Magnesium is an essential element in chlorophyll
formation, as it is a part of the chlorophyll molecule. Low magnesium
is usually associated with low calcium in medium to strongly acid
soils. In the Atlantic states from Maine to Florida, magnesium
deficiency is common because there is little magnesium-bearing rock.
Plants growing in soils deficient in magnesium develop chlorotic
leaves, the lower leaves showing the symptons first. To correct t~s
condition of the plant quickly, crude Epsom salts, containing 30 to 32
per cent MgO at the rate of 40 to 100 lb. per acre, may be applied.
Dolomitic limestone containing magnesium carbonate may be used for
correcting acidity where magnesium is deficient.
Iron.-Many plants suffer from a lack of iron when grown in cal-
careous soils, even though iron is present in sufficient amounts. The
alkaline reaction of such soils, due to excess calcium salts in solution,
produces a change in the available iron compounds and renders them
unavailable to the plants. In Puerto Rico considerable difficulty is
encountered in growing pineapple because of the lack of available iron
in the calcareous soils of that section. In Florida, chlorosis of grape-
fruit trees has been found to be caused by too much -limestone in the
soil, and the more limestone present the greater the injury. The
alkaline reaction changes the iron into a form unavailable to the
plants. A solution of iron sulfate sprayed on the leaves, injected into
the plant or added to the soil will remedy the condition.
Boron.-Boron is necessary, in minute quantities, for the develop--
ment of many species of plants. A good illustration of this type of
nutritional disturbance traced to boron deficiency is the disease known
as "cracked stem" in celery which has been reported in Florida and
New York. The appearance of water core or dark center in rutabagas
and turnips has been a problem in the New England states. The
application of 20 to 30 lb. of borax per acre remedies this condition.
Cauliflower plants grown in Delaware County, New York, are deficient
in boron and have hollow stems, frequently accompanied by browning
of the stems and the heads, which renders the plants worthless for
market purposes. Browning of cauliflower can be controlled by the
application of borax at the rate of 2 to 5 lb.' per acre. In the Lake
Champlain Valley of New York, drouglit spot, cork, rosette and dieback
of apple trees, all symptoms of the same disease, are due to boron
deficiency. The injection of dry crystals of boric acid in holes in the
trees will control the disease. Boron can also be very toxic to many
plants if present in the soil in excessive quantities. In certain irriga-

tion waters of southern California concentrations of boron are so great
that injury to citrus and walnut trees occurs. The trees show the
toxic effect of boron by yellowing around the margins of the older
leaves and between the veins as well as dying back of tips and margins.
Affected leaves of citrus and walnut trees fall off prematurely.
Zinc.-Malnutrition of plants which can be corrected by the appli-
cation of zinc sulfate occurs in several places in the country, notably
Florida and California. In Florida, zinc sulfate applied to acid soils
will correct a form of chlorosis of the corn plant called" white bud."
Tung trees growing in similar soils have shown symptoms of mal":
nutrition which were corrected by the application of zinc sulfate.
Mottle-Ieaf of citrus trees (chlorotic areas in the leaves) has been
controlled on trees in California by spraying with 5 lb. of zinc sulfate
plus 2~ lb. of hydrated lime per 100 gal. of water.
Copper.-In severe cases of copper deficiency, the plants may
become yellow or chlorotic. Copper is more often deficient in peat
and muck soils than in mineral soils. The cause of poorly colored
onion scales produced on muck soils has been attributed to lack of
copper in the soil. The addition of 100 lb. per acre of monohydrate
copper sulfate has remedied the trouble. Copper salts in high con-
centrations may be toxic to the plants.
Manganese.-Plants growing in soils deficient in manganese
become chlorotic and stunted. Manganese .deficiency is more likely
to occur in soils that are alkaline than in acid soils. Manganese salts
in solution in concentrations as high as 5 parts per million are toxic to
plants. Usually 1 to 2 parts per million is sufficient for the needs of
the plant. The exact function of this element in plant nutrition is
still obscure. Chlorosis in . spinach has been corrected in Rhode
Island by the application of 8 lb. of manganese sulfate (MnS04) per
acre. Tomatoes and other truck crops grown on calcareous soil in \
Florida were benefited by light applications of MnS04.
KINDS OF FERTILIZERS ApPLIED
Animal manures were practically the only fertilizing materials

applied to the soil in the early days of production of horticultural
crops. With an increasing acreage of these crops,with more intensive
cultivation and with a decreasing supply . of manure the use of com-
mercial fertilizers has become necessary in many cases fol' profitable
production. . ,
Animal Manures.-Manure is not, valuable- alone fo1' the nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium that it .carries becau,se these mate~a1s can
SOIL MANAGEMENT OF HORT~CULTURAL PLANTS '241
often be applied more cheaply in chemical fertilizers than in manu:t;e.

Manure adds humus to the soil, thus improving the physi~al condition,
and it contains favorable organisms which aid in decomposing the
organic matter in the soil and liberating plant-food elements.
TABLE 33.-AVJlRAGE COMPOSITION OF FRESH MANURES
Water, Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid, Potash,

Animal
per cent per cent per cent per cent
---
Hen ..................... 55 1.00 0.80 0.40
Sheep ................... 64 0.83 0.23 0.67
Horse ...... : ..... . .... ". 70 0.58 0.28 0.53
Pig ..................... 73 0.45 0 . 19 0.60
Cow ... . .. .... . .. .. .. . .. 77 I 0.44 0 . 16 0.40
I
The amount and kind of bedding and the care of the. manure before
application to the soil also influence the value of the manure. Some-
times heavy applications of manure containing large quantities of
straw or shavings may have a depressing effect on crop yields. The
injury is due to a deficiency of nitrates because such nitrates are used
as food by the soil organisms themselves which are breaking down the
carbonaceous material. The plants must compete with the organisms
for the nitrates in the soil. This condition can be prevented by plow-
ing under the manure a considerable time in advance of planting the
crop. This allows for partial decomposition before the crop is planted
and before the crop needs nitrogen in large quantities. . Rotted manure
rarely has a depressing effect because decomposition of the carbona-
ceous material has proceeded far enough so that there are sufficient
nitrates for both plants and organisms. Another remedy is the appli-
cation of a quickly available mineral nitrogen compound to take care
of the temporary deficiency.
Commercial Fertilizers.-A commercial fertilizer may contain but
one compound and one fertilizing element, as nitrate of soda, acid
phosphate or muriate of potash, or it may consist of several compounds
containing the same element or different elements, as nitrate of soda
and ammonium phosphate or tankage, cottonseed meal and bone meal.
A complete fertilizer is one that contains the three elements nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. The composition and analysis, which are
always stated on the container of such fertilizers, determines their
value. . In the analysis the first figure represents the percentage of
nitrogen; the second, the available phosphorus; and the third, the
water-soluble potassium. It is becoming common to label fertilizers
with three figures, though only one or two elements may be contained,
as 0-9-27, in which phosphorus and pot888ium are present, or 0-16-0

in which phosphorus alone is present. High-analysis fertilizers are
being offered for sale more than formerly. A high-analysis fertilizer,
as 15-30-15, contains three times the quantity of each of the three
nutrients as 5-10-5 fertilizer.
The effect of the material on the soil must be considered. Sulfate
of ammonia may increase the acidity of the soil which may be detri-
mental to certain crops. On the other hand, in New Jersey experi-
ments have demonstrated that apple trees made their greatest volume
of growth at pH 7.5 and 8.5 when ammonium sulfate was used in
comparison with nitrate of soda. Trees receiving nitrate of soda.
made their best growth at pH 3.5 to 6.5. Above pH 7.5 nitrate of
soda was not equal to ammonium sulfate as a source of nitrogen.
AMOUNTS OF FERTILIZERS ApPLIED
The amount and kind of fertilizer to apply to any crop depends on

the requirements of the plant which is influenced by the kind and
condition of the soil and on the previous crops grown. At present in
the United States nitrogen is recognized as the only element that, in
m~ny cases, will pay for its addition to the orchard, and many orchards
on fairly deep fertile soils in tillage or mulch will not respond profitably
to an application of nitrogen. The same orchard if growing in sod
would probably respond profitably to a nitrogenous fertilizer. Excep-
tions to this condition prevail in some of the older apple orchards of
the eastern part of the United States. Each individual must decide
from his own particular set of conditions and the growth of the plants
whether or no~ the use of a fertilizer of any type is beneficial. Nitrogen
deficiency is indicated in fruit plants by a lack of vigor and by pale
green foliage. Mature apple trees making but little vegetative
growth and bearing an immense crop of blossoms but failing to set
fruit oftentimes indicate a lack of nitrogen. Small fruits indicate the
lack of nitrogen by a decrease in the amount and vigor of vegetative
growth and fruitfulness.
As previously mentioned, sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and
calcium nitrate are the commercial fertilizers commonly used for
quickly available nitrogen. In fertilizing trees the fertilizer should be
broadcast on the surface of the soil from near the trunk of the tree to
slightly beyond the ends of the branches. Spread the fertilizer over
the area. of soil occupied by the feeding-root system of the tree. The
amount to Apply will vary with the age of the tree and with the fertility
of the soil. VariOUR standards afeused to estimate the approximate
amounts required. One rule is to apply:. ~ lb. of nitrate of soda for
each year of the tree's age, and anothe r is to apply ~ lb. for each inch
the
of the diamet er of the trunk of the tree 1 ft. above the surface of
soil. , These indexes appear to be satisfa ctory for orname ntal shade
a.
trees that show the need of nitrogen. Small fruits are treated in
the
fashion similar to tree fruits. The fertilizers vary according to
plants and are applied to the area of soil occupie d by the
needs of the
feeding roots of the various plants.
Peat and muck soils commonly used for growing vegetables are
notably deficient in phosphorus and potassium, and heavy applica tions
gh
of these fertilizers are usually necessary for most crops. Althou
a nitroge n
peats and mucks are high in nitrogen, the application of
fertilizer in the early spring may be beneficial because the micro-
are
organisms and chemical activities causing the liberation of nitroge n
warme r. Minera l
less active at that time than later when the soil is
soils in the Southe rn states are frequen tly deficient in nitroge n, and
l
vegetable crops respond to high nitrogen-bearing fertilizers. Minera
states are frequen tly
soils in general throug hout the Middlewestern
r.
deficient in phosphorus and benefit from applications of this fertilize
Sandy soils, as a rule, are deficient in the three elemen ts and require
es
heavy manuri ng and fertilizing for good results. For early tomato
sufficient phosphorus must be available, or maturi ty is delaye d; but
overfertilizing with nitrogenous fertilizers may cause excess vegeta tive
d.
growth, so that fruiting may be delayed and yields seriously reduce
a wide variati on of soil condi~
Ornam ental plants are subject ed to
tions. Many people try to grow plants about their homes in subsoil
dug from the baseme nt and spread on top of the better surface soil.
Only in rare cases is the excava ted soil suitabl e for growing plants.
of
The filled soil next to the foundation is likely to be alkaline because
the lime and plaster refuse that · fell there. Proper soil prepar ation
is essential in such cases, for fertilizers cannot overcome the ill effects
of unsuita ble soil and careless prepara tion. Fertilizers are usually
be
beneficial and often necessary, but their kinds and amoun ts will
determ ined by the conditi ons of the various plants.
The amoun t and type of commercial fertilizer and the frequency of
-
applica tion on lawns vary for different parts of the country . Fertiliz
ing the laWn will be influen ced by the kind of grass grown, the soil
m
reaction and the fertility of the soil. A long-time fertilization progra
should be established, and an effort made to mainta in a satisfac torily
a
fertile soil. A generally fairly satisfa ctory program is to broadc ast
rate of
quickly available nitrogenous fertilizer in early spring at the
3 to 51b. of 16 to 20 per cent nitrogen fertilizer per 1,000 sq. ft. Repeat
ss-
this applica tion in early June. In early September apply a top-dre
ing of peat or composted soil at the rate of 1 bu. per 100 sq. ft. Mix
5 lb. of a 4-10-4 fertilizer with each bushel of top dressing material.
The phosphorus and potassium may not be necessary every year.
An equal amount of a slowly available nitrogenous fertilizer could be
added to the early spring application, and the June application
omitted.
TIME OF ApPLYING FERTILIZERS
The time of the year when fertilizers are applied depends on the
plant. For spring applications of a quickly available nitrogenous
fertilizer, a good general rule is to apply the fertilizer to fruit trees in
early spring when the tips show green. If the fertilizer will have an
opportuni.ty to soak into the soil, it may be applied much earlier with
results equal to or better than later applications. Organic and slowly
available fertilizers should be applied earlier than the quickly available ·
forms. If manure is used, it should be applied during late winter in
order for decomposition to take place before growth starts. Applica-
tions of fertilizer to small fruits are generally made in the spring; but
beneficial results have been obtained from early fall application to
strawberries.
Fertilizers for crops planted annually are usually applied a. few
days prior to or at time of planting. Corn and potato planters have
fertilizer attachments, and the fertilizer is applied as the seeds are
planted. Commercial fertilizers may be more efficiently used when
applied in a narrow band in the hill or row but not in direct contact
with the seed, as injury to the germinating seeds will result. Heavy
applications of broadcasted fertilizer should be well disked into the
topsoil before sowing the seed.
IRRIGATION
The soil's water supply may be obtained as natural precipitation

and by irrigation. From prehistoric times man has supplemented the
natural precipitation with various types of irrigation.
TYPES
Irrigation in the arid and semiarid regions of the West is necessary

for the growth of crop plants. In the hUInid regions of the Middle
West and East irrigation is an insurance against drought. The
irrigation water may be applied as surface irrigation, subirrigation or
spray irrigation.
Surface irrigation is used commonly in the arid section of the West
by means of flooding the surface of whole areas or by running the water
in temporary furrows made between the rows of plants. For this
and
type of irrigati on the land must be nearly level to obtain even
satisfa ctory distrib ution of water. The water is allowed to flow
throug h furrows betwee n the rows of plants, or small areas are diked
for
with soil and flooded with water. The cost of prepari ng the land
this type of irrigati on and the cost of labor in distrib uting the water
are high, but the cost of equipm ent is low .
. Subirri gation is used in limited areas of Florida and in some peat
beds of the Middle West. The applica tion of water to growing crops
an
successfully in Florida by this method depends on the presence of
3 to 5 ft. below the surface ;
imperv ious layer of subsoil, or ,hardpa n,
~·IG. l05.-Fur row system of irrigatio n.
the
on a I-ft. layer of coarse sand above the hardpa n, which facilitates
in this sand; and
even distrib ution of the water from the tile laid
ry
finally on a surface loam which conveys sufficient water by capilla
action. Subirri gation has been used with limited success in small
e
peat beds in the Middle West. The water is raised in the drainag
ditch by means of dams and backed into the drain tile which is placed
ful
a few inches deeper than plow depth. Subirri gation is success
only under very special conditions.
Spray, or overhead, irrigati on is most commonly used in humid
tate
sections east of the Rocky Mount ains. This type does not necessi
that the land be leveled. To apply the water, paralle l lines of pipe
are placed about 50 ft. apart on posts. Each pipe contains small
nozzles spaced 3 to 4 ft. apart which distrib ute the water at right angles
to the pipe. The pipe lines can be rotated so that 25 ft. on each side
of the line can be irrigated.
Recent ly a rotary portab le spray system has come into use in many
sections. The system consists of lightweight portabl e galvani
zed
pipe 2 to 6 in. or more in diamet er. Each section is 20 ft. long and
the ends are equipp ed with quick-acting waterti ght oouplings.
A
rotary nozzle can be attache d near one end of each section of pipe.
Each rotary sprinkl er covers a circle 80 ft. or more in diamet er.
By
spacing the sprinklers in the pipe line at 40-ft. intervals, a strip
80 ft. wide and as long as the pipe line can be watere d at one time.
FIG. l06.--Ov erhead system of irrigatio n. (CourtU1/ of lit«nner lrriqatilm Co.)

When the strip is sufficiently irrigated, the entire line is moved
80
ft., and anothe r strip watered. About ~ in. of water per hour
is
applied by a line in which each sprinkler head discharges 16 to 17 gal.
per minute . About 30 to 50 lb. pressure is necessary at the rotary
nozzle to operate the line. The water is obtaine d from a stream
or
well by the use of a centrifugal pump. This type of system is much
cheaper to install than the overhead spray system.
TIME
The time and frequency of applyin g water are depend ent on the
kind of crop and the climate of the area.. Where irrigation is used
to
supple ment natura l rainfall, water is applied only during times
of
drough t, but in the arid West water is applied at frequen t interva
ls
during the entire growing season. In all irrigation practices the aim
should be to maintain an adequate water supply for the satisfactory

growth of the plant. Temporary wilting due to excessive hot weaiher
on a bright day, however, should not be taken as an indication of a seri-
,ous shortage of moisture. Sampling the soil for moisture at frequent
intervals and at various depths is a good practice. If the soil sticks
together in a lump when pressed in the palm, it is' likely that ample
moisture is present.
The layman has discovered that the most efficient and effective
time for watering the home lawn during the summer is late afternoon
and evening. Where watering is at all possible, this practice can be
used to good advantage during continued dry weather. Heavy
weekly applications are much more satisfactory than light daily
applications, because the former method promotes the development
of a deeper root system. The watering of lawns, after the application
of commercial fertilizer, is also important. If the fertilizer is not
washed off the blades of grass and into the soil, it will cause burning.
The chemical elements of a fertilizer must be in solution to be absorbed
by the plant; hence, watering after applying a fertilizer is a good
practice.
AMOUNT
Obviously, the amount of water to apply will vary with the water
requirements of the specific kind of plant, with the type of soil and with
the climate of the particular area. '
It has been estimated that 1 in. of rainfall a week would be abun-
dant for most crop plants if it was evenly distributed. One inchof
water over an acre of land, known as an "acre-inch," requires 27,152
gal. of water. Rarely does nature apply this much water at one time
evenly distributed to a growing crop, but with irrigation equipment
and a good supply of water it is easy to do so.
The application of water does not always solve the problem where
irrigation is practiced. Irrigation has led to drainage difficulties and
salt accumulations in some areas of the West.
In general, however, regardless of the method of irrigation, suffi-
cient moisture should be applied to moisten the soil thoroughly. A
single application on vegetable crops in the arid sections of the West
is equivalent to a solid sheet of water 3 to 4 in. deep.
Review Questions
1. What are the principal objects in soil management for horticultural plants?
2. What are the principal systems of soil management for horticultural plants?
3. What are the various types of sod culture?
t. What are the advantages of ~d culture?
5. What are the disadvantages of sod culture?

6. What are the various types of. clean tillage?
7. What are the advantages of clean tillage?
8. What are the disadvantages of clean tillage?
9. What are the principal materials used in the mulch system of soil
management '!
10. What are the advantages of the mulch system?
11. What are the disadvantages of the mulch system '!
12. What is meant by the rotation system of soil management'!
lS. What are the advantages of the rotation system '!
14. What are the disadvantages of the rotation system?
15. How may the application of a fertilizer improve horticultural crops?
16. What three elements, essential for plant growth, are most likely to .be
deficient in the soil?
17. Name a commercial inorganic, a commercial organic and a non-commercial
organic nitrogenous fertilizer.
18. Name a commereial fertilizer containing phosphorus.
19. Name a commercial fertilizer containing potassium.
20. What is meant by 6-10-4 when on a fert~r tag?
21. What should serve as an index in determining the need of a fertilizer?
22. What should you use as an index to determine the amount of fertilizer
to apply,!
23. What time of the year should fertilizers be applied?
24. What are the two main types of irrigation '!
25. When should horticultural plants be irrigated?
Problems
1. Outline a system of soil management for a home orchard.
2. Outline a system of soil management for the home vegetable garden.
S. Outline a system of soil management for maintaining a suitable lawn.
1. AUCHTER, E. C., and H. B. KNAPP, "Orchard and Small Fruit Culture,"
2. LAURIE, A., and G. H. POESCH, "Commercial Flower Forcing," pp. 93-167,
P. Blakiston's Son & Company, Philadelphia, 1939.
3. THOMPSON, H. C., "Vegetable Crops," pp. 36--51, 52-73,117-143, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
4. WA1TB, R. L., and G. S. WATTS, "The Vegetable Growing Business," pp.
133-158, Orange Judd Company, New York, 1939.
5. WHITE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 139-158, The Macmillan Com-
CHAPTER XIII
TRAINING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
One needs but to observe a few of the many horticultural plants to

note that each kind has certain rather definite growth characteristics.
For example, the stems of a Tartarian honeysuckle shrub grow upright,
whereas the stems of a shrub like forsythia are spreading and drooping.
The characteristic growth habit of a Lombardy poplar is tall and
erect; that of the weeping willow, drooping. Similarly, characteristic
growth habits of herbaceous flowers and vegetables vary; some grow
upright; some are spreading; and some sprawl over the ground.
Man has discovered that he cannot alter the characteristic growth
habit of a plant materially but that he can induce the stems to grow
in directions other than those in which they grow themselves. This
process of controlling the directions in which stems grow is termed
"training." Training determines the framework of the plant and the
general, if not the detailed) outline of the plant. In general, man
accomplisaes this task by cutting the stems, by tying them to stakes
or trellises or by coordinating the cutting practice and the tying
practice. When the horticulturist cuts off part of a plant, he terms
the practice "pruning," and this is the most important means used in
training plants.
OBJECTS OF TRAINING
The objects sought in training horticultural plants are to develop a
satisfactory framework, and to promote the earliest desirable produc-
tion. Training plants is a constructive operation. The pruner is a
builder, and he should perform his work with the realization that he
is building a structure that is to last many years.
SATISFACTORY FRAMEWORK
Obtaining mechanical strength is primarily a problem associated

with training. Potentially; trees are long-lived, but the length of
life of a tree depends largely on a mechanically strong framework.
The mature bearing fruit tree must have adequate mechanical strength
to support heavy loads of fruit and withstand the added strain of wind
and snow and sleet which frequently place extremely heavy stresses
249
250 TEXTBOOK OF. GENERAL HORTICULTURE
on both fruit and ornamental plants. Breakage of branches from the

trunk frequently results when the framework is weak. The loss of a
large branch from a mature bearing fruit tree results in financial loss
to the grower, and the breakage of branches from a shade tree that has
grown for fifty years or more destroys its beauty, lessens its value and
may lead to its untimely death.
A satisfactory framework in fruiting plants must be mechanically
strong, must facilitate cultural operations and must distribute the wood
A B
FIG. l07.-(A), diagram showing bridge of wood fibers across a wide branch angle.
Such a crotch is strong; such branches will carry a heavy load of fruit without breakage;
(B), diagram of a narrow branch angle showing no bridge of wood fibers across from
branch to trunk. Such crotches are weak. (C), cambium; (LB) , live bark; (DB), dead
bark; " (~, decaying bark. Figures represent years' growth. (Cornell University
Agriculture Ezperiment Station.)
to the best possible advantages for fruit production. A similar frame-

work is essential to many ornamental plants, but in some temporary
or short-lived ornamental plants one may be justified in sacrificing
strength and permanency to appearance.
An important means of developing and maintaining a mechanically
strong framework is to keep the various branches properly sub-
ordinated to one another. Two main branches in a tree should not be
allowed to develop. The primary lateral branches should be smaller
than the main trunk, and the secondary branches should be subordi-
nated to the primary branches. This system makes for strength.
Another means of obtaining a strong framework is to retain only
those branches which arise at a wide angle. If the angle is relatively
wide (45 deg.), successive layers of wood tissue will be laid down in
TRAINING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 251
the crotch, and it will be filled with strong tissues. When the angle
is narrow, new wood is added to the branches, and the dead bark on
the inside of the two branches forming the narrow crotch is pressed
together before the crotch angle can be filled with new woody tissue
formed by the cambium. The enlarging branches press away from
one another, for their new growth in diameter acts as wedges prying
them apart at the narrow angle. The fibers from the two branches
run in a parallel course rather than tying together laterally, and the
dead bark becomes embedded in the crotch. Eventually decay takes
place, and one of the branches splits off.
In addition to possessing mechanical strength a mechanically satis-
factory framework is one that facilitates the various cultural opera-
tions. The branches must not only be properly subordinated to one
another and have wide strong crotches, but they must be so spaced
that the operations of cultivation, spraying and harvesting can be
carried on efficiently and economically. Soil management operations
are difficult in orchards where trees are headed too low. Efficient
spraying requires comparatively low trees with the branches spaced
far enough apart to allow adequate penetration and coverage by sprays.
Harvesting operations are done more efficiently and cheaply on lower
trees with well-spaced branches on which the fruit is readily accessible.
The various branches on the tree should be distributed in such a
relationship to one another as to promote the optimum growth,
flowering and fruiting. Favorable conditions for these functions
exist on those branches which are well exposed to sunlight and air.
Very little fruit is produced in the densely shaded interior of large
apple trees; a grapevine sprawling on the ground does not produce a
satisfactory crop; and tomatoes trained to stakes in certain Southern
sections are more free of diseases.
Often the object sought in training a plant is to make its appearance
more pleasing to the eye. By careful training, such as is done in
topiary work, plants can be made to grow into definite shapes to
resemble a peacock, a squirrel or some other non-plantlike object. In
general, however, topiary work results in objects of curiosity rather
than objects of beauty. The .training of certain types of evergreens,
such as junipers and mugho pines, is done principally to obtain a more
pleasing effect by symmetrically formed plants.
EARLIEST DESIRABLE BEARING
Pruning decreases the total growth made by a. plant but increases

the vigor of the growth made by the remaining part,s. The unpruned
plant might produce 100 lateral shoots averaging 6 in. long, and the
pruned plant would produce 25 shoots each 18 in. long. Moderately

heavy pruning which is necessary in training the young plant main-
tains the plant in the C I N + condition so there is little opportunity
for flower-bud formation. For this reason, therefore, one should not
prolong the training period in flowering and fruiting plants beyond
that time when a satisfactory framework can be developed. The
longer the training period the later the beginning of the productive
period.
MANNER OF TRAINING
The manner of t.raining horticultural plants depends upon the
particular kind of plant and upon the objects that one has in mind.
In general, the horticulturist trains plants by cutting or by placing
branches in particular positions to guide the direction of growth or
by a combination of cutting and placing. The principal metho9- of
training trees is by cutting; sweet peas, by placing the stems on a
trellis constructed of string or wire; and grl;1pes, by both putting and
tying to a trellis.
CUTTING
The judicious training of horticultural plants by cutting requires

a knowledge of a few fundamental principles associat.ed with plant
growth.
Heading Back.-Heading back refers to the removal of a terminal
portion of a shoot or a twig. It is employed 'to stimulate lateral
branching near the cut and to suppress growth. The development of
the lateral branches is based on the principle that the greatest effect
of a pruning cut is localized 'a nd the response of the plant to a pruning
cut takes place mostly near the vicinity of the, cut. When a particular
twig is headed back, branching will usually occur within a. ,space of
2 to 12 in. below the cut. In forcing hedge plants to branch close to
the ground and thus form a dense compact growth it is -necesSary to
r~ad back the newly set plants to about 4 or 6 in. from the surface of
the soil. When branching is desired in a one-year-old apple-tree whip
at a height of 24 in. from the ground, the whip is cut at a height of
34 in. from the ground, and most of the lateral branches will arise from
the upper 10 in. of the trunk. When branching is desired wjthin 6 or
8 in. of the trunk, the twigs are cut at a distance of 16 to 18 in. from it.
The principle of heading back is followed in the shearing of evergreens,
such as juniper and arborvitae, when it is desired to make themcom-
pact or to keep them from becoming too large. Pinching backsho()ts
of black raspberries and of dahlias is also a type of heading back
employed to force branching at desired positions. In heading back

to stimulate lateral branching the Elnd of the shoot or twig is cut off
a short distance beyond the area from which one desires the lateral
branches to develop. When one of two similar twigs are to be sub-
ordinated to the other, the one to be subordinated should be cut back
more heavily than the one that is to be kept larger. This heavier
FIG. IOS.-Prevention of weak crotches by pruning; branch on left has been subordinated
by cutting back to a lateral.
cutting of the one twig reduces its growth by removing more potential
leaves, and this reduces the carbohydrate supply available for the
growth of that particular twig. The unpruned or more lightly pruned
twig has more leaves in proportion and consequently makes more
carbohydrates which are available for use by that twig. This principle
of suppressing growth in a branch is also important in thinning.
Thinning Out.-Thin~ng out refers to the remqval of an, entire
tWig or branch at its point of origin or at a point where a lateral branch
arises from the main branch. When 8. branch more than one year old
is removed back to a lateral branch or when a twig is removed com-

pletely, it is considered as thinning out.
Twigs and branches are thinned to space the remaining parts of
the plant to ~etter advantage, to suppress the growth of one branch
in relation to another and to keep the plant within a prescribed area.
Thinning out is less devitalizing to a plant than an equal amount of
heading back. If all branches on a plant are left to grow, they will
be entirely ,too numerous and too close together for the most satis-
factory development of flowers and fruits. For thls reason certain
of the less desirable branches are thinned out, thus giving better
spacing to the remaining branches. Just as one shoot or twig can be
subordinated to another by more severe pruning, the total growth of
an older branch can be decreased in proportion to the total growth of
another branch by heavier pruning. Two branches of equal size were
selected on the same three-year-old apple tree, and one of them was
pruned heavily, whereas the other was left unpruned. At the end of
the growing season the unpruned branch had increased in diameter
approximately 150 per cent, but the heavily pruned branch had
increased only 20 per cent. This practice of cutting one branch more
heavily than another is used to prevent the formation of weak crotches.
Older trees eventually become so large that they extend beyond the
area in which they should be confined. Certain branches on young
'trees may make a too rapid growth in relation to the other branches
on the tree. Consequently such trees or such branches are kept
within their prescribed areas by cutting off the offending branches
back to their points of origin or to a suitable lateral. This type of
thinning is really an advanced stage of heading back and an early
stage of dehorning, which is sometimes practiced in old trees.
Another important principle of plant growth is that of two equal
branches: the one more closely ap'proaching the perpendicular makes
the more growth. The vertical branch apparently has an advantage
in securing nutrients, water and sunlight and other factors that con-
tribute to the amount and speed of growth. This principle is impor-
tant when selecting leaders and laterals. Vertical branches of nearly
the same size as the primary branches from which they arise are
removed when young, as they dwarf the bra..... ch from which they arise,
interfere with the branches directly above them and often compete
with the leader for supremacy. Branches arising from the trunk at
moderate angles grow sufficiently rapidly to develop into excellent
primary laterals and also form strong unions with the trunk.
Parallel br~ches should not be allowed to develop close together.
Such branches arise directly above one another from the main trunk
of the tree or from the underside of branches one or more years older
than themselves. If those arising from the main trunk are too close
together, the lower one will be shaded, and one of them should be
removed. If a branch that arises from the underside of another branch
develops to any appreciable extent, it will grow immediately below
and parallel to its parent branch. The two branches will occupy or
can easily be trained to occupy practically the same space in the
plant, and consequently one of them should be removed at an early
stage in its devlopment.
PLACING
Plants are often trained by placing the stems in definite positions

and causing growth to incline itself in the desired directions. This
method of training is employed principally with vines when they are
grown on trellises, walls and arbors. It is used also with the espalier
training of trees.
SYSTEMS OF TRAINING
There are many systems of training the various kinds of horti-
cultural plants. Furthermore, several systems are well adapted to the
same kind of horticultural plant. Choice of system will be influenced
by the growth habit of the plant and by the purpose for which it is
being grown.
TREES
At the present time trees are trained in five general types or forms:
the natural, the central leader, the open center, the modified leader
and the espalier.
Trees have a deliquescent, or open, branching form in which the
main trunk, or leader, is lost by dividing into several subordinate
branches; and an excurrent form in which the main trunk extends
from the ground to the top of the tree with subordinate lateral branches
arising from the main trunk. Mechanically strong trees are produced
in nature by both types of growth, but the deliquescent form, which is
the common form of most deciduous trees, has many weaknesses from
the standpoints of suitable framework and early production that can
be eliminated or improved by intelligent training, Trees grown with-
out any training develop too many weak crotches, have the branches
too low to the ground, are too dense and too tall for efficient spray-
ing and economical harvesting of fruit. Early bearing may decrease
<¥ the total amount of crop produced and the duration of profitable pro-
duction. To overcome these difficulties fruit trees and Borne orna-
mental trees are trained in various systems.
Natural.-In the early fruit orchards of the United States the trees
were allowed to grow naturally, and very little attention was given to
training the trees to any particular form. The disadvantage of this
type of tree for fruit production was the development of numerous
small branches which made the trees compact and the foliage dense.
Much of the fruit was poorly colored, and spraying, thinning and
FIG. l09.-European linden used 68 an avenue tree, developing a centraileader but with
lower scaffolds entirely too low.
picking became difficult. These natural-growing fruit trees produced

sufficient fruit for cider, dried fruit and cooking. No particular
preference existed for well-colored fruit, and thle type of tree served
the purpose for which it was intended.
Central Leader.-The central-leader tree is one in which a main
trunk extends from the surface of the soil to the top of the tree. Pri-
mary lateral branches arise from this main trunk at. various intervals
throughout its entire length. It differs little from the natural excur-
rent type of many of the conifers. Attention is directed chiefly to
selecting, spacing and arranging the primary branches on the main

trunk and maintaining the proper degrees of subordination among
these primary laterals. Most coniferous ornamental trees and many
nut trees are trained to the central leader type. The chief disadvan-
tage of this type of training for fruit trees is that some kinds grow too
tall, and such operations as spraying, pruning and harvesting are made
difficult and expensive.
The Open Center.-The open-center tree is one in which the main
trunk is cut out to a lateral branch and three to five nearly equally
developed primary lateral branches arise relatively close together
FIG. llO.~Re8ult of training to an open-center type and permitting all scaffold limbs
to originate at practically one point on trunk.
from the short trunk. Eventually as these branches develop and

increase in diameter, their bases crowd one another on the trunk.
This arrangement and the equality in the size of the primary laterals
often produce a mechanically weak structure which requires artificial
bracing or the use of props to prevent serious breaking or splitting of
limbs. The open-center tree exposes the maximum amount of the
tree to the' sun, and this results in a more uniform distribution of fruit
on the tree and in more highly colored fruit. The open-center tree is
closer to the ground than trees trained by other systems, and this
facilitates spraying and harvesting operations. This system of train-
ing is most widely used in training peach trees and to a limited extent
in some sections for the apple, both sour and sweet cherries and the
-American type of plum.
The Modified Leader.-The modified-leader tree is one in which

the central leader is retained for a distance of several feet and then
cut back to a lateral, as was done in training the open-center tree.
This tree is a combination of the central-leader and the open-center
type. It is an attempt to eliminate the major defects and retain the
better features of both systems. The fact that it is a very popular
system and used universally proves that it is quite satisfactory in
o
FIG. lll.-Diagrammatic sketches showing the training of an apple tree to the
modified central-leader type; (A), one-year-old tree; (B), two-year-old tree; (C), three-
year-old tree; (D), four-year-old tree.
attaining its aims. This system of training develops the central

leader until it reaches a height of 6 to 8 ft. Beginning at a distance of
2 ft. or more from the ground, primary lateral branches are developed
from the main trunk. During the four or more years of training,
these laterals are selected to ascend somewhat spirally about this main
stem and 6 in. or more apart up and down the trunk. If the leader has
not lost itself naturally by the time the main trunk has attained the
desired height, it is removed by cutting it out to a lateral branch at
that height.
The skp-Ietal structure of the tree at four to six years of age consists
of a central trunk which extends from the ground to a height of 6 to 8
ft. Beginning at about 2 ft. from the ground, 7 to 12 primary lateral
branches arise in a spirally ascending order from this central trunk, at
TRAIN ING HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 259
6- to to-in. intervals. Since the bottom primar y branches are older

and larger, the tree appear s as a trunca ted cone suppor ted on a short
to
stem. These primar y scaffold limbs should be attache d strongl y
the trunk. The strengt h of their attachm ents depend s largely upon
e
the width of the angle between the trunk and the branch , the relativ
distanc e on the main trunk betwee n
size of trunk and branch and the
d
the place of origin of adjace nt laterals. The ffil)st strongl y attache
noticea bly smaller .in diamet er than the
laterals have wide angles, are
on
main trunk from which they arise and are spaced far enough apart
the trunk so that there is no chokin g or crowdi ng of branch es. Low-
headed fruit trees are preferable to high-headed trees, because they
require less pruning, grow more rapidly and bear at an earlier age.
In comparison with high-headed trees, low-headed trees are more
easily pruned , more efficiently spraye d and more economically har-
vested. The crop and branch es Qn these low-headed trees are less sub-
by
ject to injury by the wind, and the trunk is less liable to injury
sunscald or winter injury.
The principal method s of obtaini ng the modified,leader tree are by
heading back and by disbudding. The heading-back method is per-
ion
haps the more satisfa ctory for the average grower. The discuss
in a
that follows applies particu larly to apple trees but may be taken
to
general way to apply to the trainin g of other fruit trees. The time
the
start trainin g a tree is the day it is set in the orchard. Most of
major framework should be developed during the first four to six years
of growth.
Apple trees as they are obtaine d from the nursery are either one-
year-old unbran ched whips or two-year-old branch ed trees. After
planting, the one-year-old whip is cut back to cause the develo pment
of the laterals at the desired height for the head. This is usually about
34 to 40 in. from the surface of the soil. The lateral that develops from
the topmo st bud immed iately below the cut and on the side of the trunk
toward the prevailing summe r winds will usually make the most
growth, grow directl y upward and assume the role of the leader.
Other lateral branch es will develop from the region of the trunk about
10 in. below the cut. At the close of the growing season the tree will
hj).ve an appear ance similar to a two-year-old nursery tree. The two-
year-old tree, whethe r grown in a nursery or in an orchard , has from
3 to 10 primar y branches. Some have one central branch , others two
or even three branch es co~peting for the leadership. The first step
in trainin g this tree is to choose one central branch as the leader and
remove any others that might compete with it. Next select a well-
developed, strongl y attache d branch 20 to 30 in. from the surface
of
260 TEXTiJ OOK OF GENER AL HORTI CULTU RE
the soil and prefera bly on the side of the tree of the prevail ing summe
r
winds. Eight or more inches above this first scaffold branch , select
a
similar one located in a spiral positio n about one-thi rd of the
way
around the trunk of the tree from the first scaffold. If spacing allows,
select a third scaffold about 8 in. above the second one and al>out
one-
third of the distanc e around the main trunk.
Remov e all other branch es, and make the cuts close to the trunk.
The two-ye ar-old tree now has a central leader which may be desig-
nateda s D and three primar y scaffold branch es design ated as A, Band
C. .The lowest lateral A is about 2 ft. from the ground , and the other
lateral s Band C are about 8 ~n. apart and spaced spirally about the
tree
in such a fashion that the area of the circle is evenly divided among
them. Each scaffold branch should be cut back to 16 in. or more
in
length, making the cut in such a fashion that the last bud is on
the
unders ide of the branch . The leaqer should be cut back, leaving
it
8 in. longer than the upper lateral branch and with the last bud in
the
directi on of the prevail ing summe r winds. During the summe
r,
second ary laterals will develop on each of these one-ye ar-old twigs,
and
the shoots neares t the end will become the leader of that branch ,
con-
tinuing the growth outwar d from the ·lateral s and upward from
the
central leader.
It is an unusua l tree that has its branch es so spaced that more than
three scaffolds can be left 8 to 10 in. apart and symme trically arrang
ed
around the trunk. Often only two primar y laterals can be obtaine
d in
one year, and their selectio n must be modified accordi ngly.
At the time of prunin g the third year A, B, C and D will each appear
similar to two-ye ar-old trees attache d to a commo n trunk. The leader
D will be pruned much like the origina l two-ye ar-old tree, but
the
lateral branch es A, Band C will be trained to occupy a flatten
ed or
oval area rather than a cylindr ical one. Prunin g the third
year,
therefo re, will consist of prolong ing the leader from the most .favora
ble
growth on D, selectin g auditio nal primar y laterals on D and continu
ing
the leader and selectin g second ary, laterals on each of the primar
y
lateral s A, Band C. The prolong ed termin al from D is left about
16
in. long, being cut in such a fashion that the top bud points in
the
directi on of the prevail ing summe r winds. Additio nal primar y laterals
are selecte d at suitabl e places on D. To keep thes,e laterals
from
overgro wing those lower down it is necessa ry to prune them
more
heavily than laterals A, Band C were pruned . These may be
left
about 10 in. long and cut to down buds. Latera ls A, B and'
Care '
pruned alike. Take off any twlgs that arise ,directl y from the top.or
bottom of these primat y laterals,.. ap.~ save two well-grown seq()nd
ar.y
~he
laterals and the leader. The leader will continu e the elonga tion of
primar y lateral, and one of the two second aries will usu!Llly be devel-
oped from one side of the primar y and one from the other. The leader
should be left longer than the laterals , and ·they should not be much
to
over 16 in. long. . Neithe r second ary should be closer than 10 in.
t.he main trunk. Remov e all other twig growth except the very short
ones that give evidence of early spur format ion. The trainin g process
ed
has been continu ed, and the degree of prunin g has been lighten
amoun t of growth is still being sacrific ed for
slightly ; but the total
now
arrang ement and vigor of selected branches. The pruned tree
possesses a central leader 6 or 7 ft. long from which arise six or more
.
primar y laterals , the lowest three of which possess second ary laterals
Prunin g the fourth year and thereaf ter until the trainin g process is
completed will merely be modifications of the previou s trainin g prac-
tices. When a sufficient numbe r of primar y laterals has been devel-
oped, the leader should be removed, as it was in trainin g the open-c enter
tree. Care should be exercised to preven t the top of the tree from
age
overgrowing the bottom scaffolds. It will be necessary to encour
some branch es by little or no cutting and to suppre ss others by heavy
ting
pruning. Remov e uprigh t growing branches, parallel compe
branches, large rubbin g branch es and branch es that form narrow weak
ent
crotches. Decrease the degree of prunin g as rapidly as is consist
and promot es
with good trainin g. This increases the total growth
fruiting.
Trainin g of many varietie s of apples is influenced by their particu lar
growing habits. The Delicious tree while young produces many water
sprouts which must be removed, develops many narrow crotches which
the
necessitates the annual remova l of one of the branch es forming
angle and develops many vigorous uprigh t growth s on the trunk which
g
make narrow, weak crotches so that specip,} care is require d in selectin
primar y scaffold branch es that form wide strong angles with the leader.
its
The Jonath an is natural ly more spread ing and less vigorous in
habit of growth than the Delicio us. It develop s many laterals with
wide, strong crotches, thus making easy the selection of satisfa ctory
the
scaffold branches. A four- to six-year-old Jonath an requires
remova l of a large numbe r of uprigh t, vigorou sly growin g twigs which
g
arise from the tops of the various branches. Minor details of prunin
to fit the require ments of the partiCU lar kind and
must be adjuste d
variety of plant that is being trained .
The directions given thus far have . referred to trees that have
received correct prunin g and trainin g each season from the time they
, were set in the orchard. There are many young trees up to ten years
of age, however, that never have been pruned or have been pruned
incorrectly. A tree whose prunin g has been neglected for the first five
or six years cannot be shaped to the modified-leader type withou t
an
excessive removal of branches. Such prunin g would do the tree more
harm than good, and the shape of a tree should not be changed mate-
rially after it has attaine d bearing age. Neglected trees younger than
five years should, however, be given a corrective pruning. In such
cases the prunin g will h~ve to be quite heavy to obtain the desired
results. Growth will be retarde d, but a longer lived, more productive
tree with less future breaka ge of the limbs will more than compensate
for this tempor ary setback.
Unprun ed young trees contain entirel y too many scaffold branches
and often have either no leader or more than one leader. Very heavy
prunin g to produce a particu lar type or form is rarely advisable
in
well-grown trees seven or eight years of age. Corrective pruning
should be done to remedy obvious faults and to eliminate greater diffi-
culties which appare ntly would develop withou t such correction.
In
prunin g such trees one leader should be developed if its development
can be accomplished withou t removing too many branches. Carefu
l
attenti on should be given to thinnin g out the primar y scaffolds and
to spacing those left to the best possible advant age for their future
development. If several main laterals grow from the trunk near one
anothe r, only a few should be removed in anyon e year, as this decreas
es
the ringing effect of such a group of wounds. It is better to spread
corrective prunin g over several seasons.
The heading-back method previously described for the trainin g of
apple trees to a modified central leader will apply in a general way
to
other deciduous types of tree fruits. One exception, however, exists
in .
the case of the cherry tree when grown in certain Southe rn and Mid-
western sections. In these sections the branches should not be headed
back, as the tree often dies or makes poor growth as the result of the
injuries. In many sections the tree appare ntly makes a better start
if
the termin al bud of the branches is not removed. The young trees
may be trained by the entire removal of the branch es not required
to
form the main scaffolds. Proper selection and spacing of branch
es,
therefore, can be accomplished with no heading back. In Wiscon
sin
and Northe astern sections, appare ntly, heading back causes no injury
to cherry trees.
The disbudding method of trainin g is essentially as follows. A
one-year-old apple tree 4 to 6 ft. high is planted and not headed back.
Just as growth starts in the spring; groups of four buds are left at 8-in.
intervals along the whip where the framework branches are desired, and
•
all other buds are cut off. Lateral shoots develop from these buds and
are allowed to grow for one year. Before growth starts the second
season, a selection of laterals is made at each point where buds were
left the season before. One lateral is chosen for the framework branch
at each location, and all others are removed except the slow-growing
horizontal laterals which do not compete with the selected branches.
FIG. 112.-Fr uit tree trained to an espalier. (Courteay of Henry Leuthard t .)
The slow-growing laterals are left because their leaf areas will add food
d
to the tree. In some cases the laterals to be retaine d are selecte
shortly after growth starts the first year, and the other shoots are
removed at once. It is suggested that by this method one may obtain
es
three to five well-spaced and properly distrib uted framework branch
trainin g is continu ed
during the first year after planting. Subsequent
in a similar fashion until the main framework of the tree is formed.
Espali er.-Esp alier is a French word meaning "trellis " and as
used here refers .to the trainin g of fruit trees to walls, trellises and
264 TEXTB OQK OF GENER AL "HORTI CULTU RE
fences. This system of trainin g is practic ed commercially in certain

sections of Europe , where lack of heat often preven ts the proper
ripening of fruits. The trees are grown against walls where they
receive reflected heat. The system is used to some extent in
the
United States where economy of space is a factor.
There are many forms of trainin g. The plant may be trained to
stems lying in opposite directions and mostly horizontal, in which
case it is ca.lled a "cordo n." When the top is spread fan~haped
on
A B
FIG. 113.-Dia gramma tie'te'pre sel)tatio n of cutting a shrub by
training to (A) informal
shape, CB) formal shape.
the trellis or when ·any of th~ branches a.t~ trained perpendicular

ly,
the system is referre d tOM the "espali er."
SHRUBS
Shrubs are generally trained to either informal or formal shapes.
Inform al.-Th e natura l habit of a shrub is generally its most
attract ive form. Consequently, in trainin g shrubs that are growin
g
informa.lly, little cutting is necessary. One should not attemp t
to
conver t a. ta.ll, upright-growing shrub into one with a flat, spread
ing
habit or a shrub with drooping, graceful branch es into one that grows
uprigh t.
Forma l.-occa sions arise where shrubs should be trained in formal
shapes. Evergr een plants like junipers, arborv itae and mugho pine
are often used in the founda tion plantin g about a building, and it
is
often necessary to train these plants in formal shapes to keep them
in
propor tion to the house; often a formal shape meets the require ment
much more successfully than a natural shape does. Shrubs like the
yew and boxwood are often trained to formal shapes in order to con-
form to. the design of a particular garden. Shrubs like privet and
honeysuckle are often trained as formal hedges where the growth is
kept within certain well-defined limits of heights and width. Formal
hedges do best when kept in a flattened ovoid shape with the widest
part at the base. This shape facilitates the penetration of light to
the leaf surface at the lower parts of the plants.
VINES
Vines generally require some type of support and consequently are

trained on walls, arbors and trellises. The type of support provided
for a vine requires some knowledge of the method by which the par-
ticular vine climbs or clings. The English ivy climbs by means of
aerial roots and requires an irregular surface like a rough brick or stone
wall for support. Virginia creeper and Boston ivy climb by means of
adhesive disks which cling to wood, brick or stone. The aforemen-
tioned types are representative of vines that are trained against walls.
Vines like clematis climb with the aid of leaf petioles which twine
around any suitable support j and bittersweet climbs by twining its
stem about the support. Various annual vines like morning glory and
sweet pea seem to do better on vertical supports such ~ strings or
slender poles.
The most widely grown vine for the production of fruit is the grape.
Although many systems are used in training grapes, it is well to note
the most widely used one, known as the "four-cane, single-stem Knif-·
fin." The first problem in training a vine to this Kniffin system is to
get the vine established on a trellis as quickly as possible. At planting
time the one-year-old vine is Cut back to a stub possessing two Duds.
This reduction in the number of buds results in increasing the vigor of
the shoots that arise from them.
During the first growing season after planting, shoots will arise
from one or both of the buds. These individual shoot growths may
vary from a few inches to several feet in length, and the amount of
growth made will determine the pruning the next year. Because of
the variability in the amount of growth made by the shoots, the trellis
may not be required until the third year. Since it may be required
at the time of pruning the second year, it would be well to construct it
before that time. It should be substantially made, using heavy end
posts set about 3 ft. deep and securely braced. Smaller posts may be
used for line posts which should be set 20 ft. apart. This will allow two
vines between posts, and a vine will be but 5 ft. from a post. Stretch
266 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL. HORTICULTURE
No. 9 galvanized wire 36 and 60 in. above the surface of the soil. . The
staples are not driven entirely "home" on the line posts. but should be
left so that the wire can slip.
If neither of the two cane growths is sufficiently long to reach easily
to the top wire of the trellis, the vine should be p~ned in a fashion
,~
B c
o E
FIG. 114.-Diagrammatic sketches showing the training of a grape vine to the single-
stem foUr-cane Kniffin system: (A), one-year-old vine cut back to two buds at place
indicated by line; (B), two-year-old vine before pruning; (C), two-year-old vine after
pruning; (D), three-year-old vine before pruning; (E), three-year-old vine after pruning.
similar to that of the previous year, leaving but one of the new canes
and cutting it back to two buds. . If, however, one of the canes is of
suitable length, it should be pulled straight to the top wire, tied tightly,
carried along the wire a short distance, tied secUrely again and the
remainder cut off. The straight stem should be tied loosely to the
bottom wire. All other canes should be cut from the vine at their
points of origin. After pruning and training, one will have but. a single
cane extending directly to and a short distance along the top wire.
During the second growing season lateral shoots will develop from the
buds on this upright stem.
Pruning and training the third season will consist in selecting four
suitable laterals on this stem. Two should be chosen that arise just
below the top wire, and two that developed near, preferably just below,
the bottom wire. All other canes should be cut away, and the main
stem should be cut off a short distance above the highest of the four
selected laterals. These four laterals should be cut back so that each
possesses five or six buds, or eyes, and tied in two places to the right
and left on their respective wires. Tie the end tightly to the wire, but
the main stem and the basal part of the canes should be tied loosely
to allow for growth without girdling. The pruned vine now has a
central stem reaching to or nearly to the top wire and four lateral canes
extending to the left and right on the two wires. The vine thus
resembles one capital letter T arising on top of another. The plant
now possesses its basic framework, and subsequent training will be
directed toward increasing the vine to its allotted size and maintaining
this general form.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables as a group receive practically no trammg. ' Like some

of the herbaceous flower plants, however, such plants as tomatoes and
cucumbers may receive a certain amount.
Tomatoes and cucumbers grown under glass are pruned and
trained. The tomato is trained usually to a single stem or occasionally
to two stems. When pruned to a single stem, shoots that arise on the
main stem in the axils of the leaves are removed'. Plants so pruned are,
planted closer together than when untrained. They are supported by
upright stakes and every few inches are tied to the stake with jute
twine.
Pruning and training tomatoes grown out-of-doors is commonly
followed in the South but only to a limited extent in the North. Train-
ing to a single stem and tying to a stake,as in greenhouse culture, is
practiced. Training to a single stem, however, in many sections of
the Middle West may expose the fruits too much to the hot sun, so
that they sunscaldand become worthless. Pruning and training do
not increase the yields from individual plants or hasten the ripening;
but since more plants per acre can be grown when pruned and trained,
the yield per acre may be greater and a largex: early yield obtained. In
the South where foliage diseases are sevel:e; pruning and training allow
better circulation of air around the plants, thus holding the diseases in
check. .
Cucumbers grown under glass are also pruned and trained. Lateral
branches that arise in the axils of the leaves from the main stem are
nipped off beyond the first female flower. The main stem is nipped off
when it reaches the top of the trellis. The
vines are tied to a suitable upright or
sloping support.
FLOWERS
Herbaceous flowering plants generally

receive little training but are allowed to
grow at will. Training to a single stem is
often followed, however, with such plants
as the chrysanthemum and the dahlia.
Chrysanthemums. grown in the greenhouse
for specimen blooms are trained to a single
stem for the production of. one large
flower or to several stems for the produc-
tion of a flower on the end of each strong
lateral branch. When trained to a single
stem, the side shoots arising from the main
stem are removed, and but one flower bud
on the main stem- is retained. When four
or five large flowers are desired on a single
plant, · the terminal bud of · the young
plant is pinched out to induce lateral
bra n chi n g. As the several laterals
develop, the terminal bud of each lateral
branch is reserved, and all other flower
FIG. 115.-Tomato plant buds are removed. Pinching to force lat-
trained to a stake. (U.B.
Department 01 Agriculture.) eral branching is usually done when the
stem tissues have hardened to some extent.
Dahlias grown out-of-doors are trained in a somewhat similar
fashion. If one wishes to obtain 18 flowers from a single plant, one
could proceed somewhat as follows: After six primary laterals had
developed, the main stem shoUld be cut back to the origin of the top
lateral. Pinching out the terminal .will promote the formation of
laterals. Two secondary laterals should be selected on each of the six
primary laterals, and all other secondary laterals rubbed off as they
appear. No tertiary laterals should be allowed to form on the 12
secondaries. The plant consists of a short main stem from which six
primary laterals arise. Each primary lateral is terminated by a flower
bud and possesses two secondary laterals, each of which in turn is

terminated by its flower bud. The plant will thus produce 6 l~rge
flowers from the terminals on the 6 primary laterals and 12 smaller
flowers from the terminals on the 12 secondary laterals. The number
of flowers can be regulated by thb training and degree of pruning.
Review Questions
1. What is meant by training horticultural plants?
2. What are the principal objects sought in training horlicultural plants?
3. What are the qualities of a satisfactory framework?
4. What is the influence of training on the time of coming into bearing?
11. What is meant by heading back?
6. What are two purposes of heading back?
T. What is meant by thinning out?
8. What particular branches should be thinned out?
9. What are the principal systems used for training trees?
10. What are the advantages of the central-leader type?
11. What are the disadvantages of the central-leader type?
12. What are the advantages of the open-center type?
13. What are the disadvantages of the open-center type?
14. What are the advantages of the modified-leader type?
111. What are the 'disadvantages of the modified-leader type?
16. What are the two principal forms to which shrubs are trained?
17. Is training important with vegetable crops?
18. Is training important with herbaceous flowering plants?
Problems
1. Make diagrammatic sKetches of the one-, two-, three- and four-year-old
apple tree before and aftet pruning when trained to the modified-leader system.
Explain.
2. Make diagrammatic sketches of the one-, two-, three- and four-year-old
American grapevine before and after pruning when trained to the single-stem,
four-cane Kniflin system. Explain.
S. Make diagrammatic sketches showing the pruning of a formal privet hedge
for each of the first three years after planting. Explain.
4. Make diagrammatic sketches showing the training of a Jane Cowl dahlia
that will produce 15 flowers. Explain.

pp. 214-225, 228-230, 244-246, 546-549, 578-579, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York,1937.
2. CHANDLER, W. H., "North American Orchards," pp. 410-412, 416-418,
425-428, Lea & Febiger, PIiiladelphia, 1928.
3. MARSHALL, R. E., et al., Pruning Young Fruit Trees, Mich. Ext. Bul. 148:
1-32,1935.
4~ TALBERT, T. J., and A. E. MURNEEK, "Fruit Crops," pp. 127-147, Lea &
Fepiger, Philadelphia, 1939.
5. WHITE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 269-270. The Macmillan Com-
CHAPTER XIV
PRUNING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
More than two hundred years ago a great French gardener said,
"Everybody cuts, but few prune." Since that time more facts have
been obtained relative to the responses of plants to pruning, but unfor-
tunately the statement of the French gardener is still pertinent. There
is no topic in fruit growing upon which there is 'such a diversity of
opinion as that of pruning. This great diversity of opinion relative
to the value of pruning practices is not surprising when one considers
the great diversities in growing and fruiting habits of even some of the
most stable horticultural plants and the fact that the development of
these characters is being influenced by all phases of the environment.
As a result of the variation in plant growth and of the different concepts
of what one may expect to accomplish by pruning, great differences
exist in the execution of the practices even on a single kind of plant
ftom year to year and in different parts of the country.
Pruning in its final analysis D?-ay be considered as the act of severing
or removing a portion of the plant. It is done either for its direct
effect on the growth of the plant or, as discussed in the last chapter, to
mold the plant into a form desired by the pruner. Since training of
plants by pruning was discussed in Chapter XIII, the discussion in this
chapter is confined, with a few exceptions, to those plants which are
past the training period. The three chief factors considered in pruning
mature plants are the manner, the degree and the time of pruning.
OBJECTS
In a broad sense the only justification that a horticulturist has to

prune a plant is to make money or to add value. The specific means
used in attaining this object will vary with the kind and with the age
of the plant and the conditions under which i' is growing. In pruning
plants after the training period, one strives to retain the structural
qualities developed during the training period and to provide the
optimum conditions for growth and fruitfulness. Specifically · the
objects of pruning mature plants are (1) to maintain the vigor of plant
growth, (2) to improve the product of the plant and (3) to facilitate
horticultural operations.
270
PRUNI NG HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 271
MAINT AIN VIGOR

,
Hortic ultural plants lack vigor when the shoot and leaf growth
than those of similar plants growin g
flowering and fruiting are less
under favorable conditions. For example, if, in a bearing apple tree,
shoots are thin and make less than 2 in. of growth and have small
yellowish-green leaves; if the yearly growth on the spurs is less than
~ in. and the leaves are only three or four in numbe
r, small in size and
yellowish green in color; if the flowers either do not form, abscise or
fall premat urely or are few in numbe r and small in size and if the fruit
is small in total quanti ty and in size of individ ual fruits the plant is
below the desired vigor. The vigor can be restore d to some extent if
not fully by various practic es of which prunin g is an import ant one.
IMPROVE PRODUCT
Prunin g improv es the size, color and quality of the produc t that the
or
pruned plant produces. This is true whethe r one is growing apples
roses. Prunin g removes some of the flowers and·fru its on the plant.
If the root system has not been pruned , the reduce d numbe r of
flowers
minera l
or fruits receive a propor tionate ly larger supply of water and
nutrien ts for a period of time. If the foliage area per fruit or flower
the
has not been reduced below that require d for satisfa ctory growth ,
flowers or fruits increase in size and become larger individ uals than
would have been possible with a larger numbe r of flowers or fruits
on the plant. Compe tition betwee n individ ual fruits for a limited
by
supply of food and water on which to grow has been lessened
individ uals
decreasing the numbe r of compet ing individuals. The
the
that remain ed became larger than would have been possible under
t pruning .
restrict ed food supply that would have prevail ed withou
produc ed per
Prunin g reduces the total numbe r of flowers or fruits
ly
plant; it may decrease the total volume of the produc t; but it probab
will result in an increase in the individ ual size of the remain ing flowers
or fruits. Often a plant such as the raspbe rry or blackb erry sets more
g
fruit than it can mature properl y, and prunin g is one means of thinnin
the crop. In the produc tion of certain floral crops such as chrysa nthe-
mums, dahlias and roses, it is often desirable to develop one or several
be
large flowers on a plant rather than many smaller ones, and this can
thinnin g of flowers and
done readily by intellig ent pruning . The
young fruits is really a type of pruning .
The develo pment of red color in fruits, like the apple and peach, as
and
they mature depends mainly on sunligh t. Prunin g thins branch es
trees is better ,expose d to
foliage, and the fruit on properl y pruned
light and consequently develops more color and a m.ore attract ive
appearance. A higher quality of fruit is ass.ociated with the better
col.or.
FACILiT ATE H.oRTIC ULTURA L OPERAT IONS
Prunin g the mature plant facilitates certain h.orticultural .opera-

tions. In pruning, one sh.ould . rem.ove the weakly gr.owing,n.on~
produc tive branches f.ound chiefly in theinte ri.or .of ~he tree and also
in
t.o.o densely branch ed areas. Rem.ove als.o the badly rubbin g and
impr.operly placed branches as they "devel.oP thr.ough.out the tree.
Such prunin g permits better penetrati.on .of spray materials, makes
harves ting .of the fruit much easier and lessens the chances .of s.ome
diseases by removing the rubbed bark areas where a disease might gain
entrance.
MANNE R OF PRUNIN G
A major c.onsiderati.on in prunin g is the manne r in which the w.ork
is' d.one. Headin g back and thinnin g out are. the tW.o method
s
empl.oyed in rem.oving branches fr.oJIl plants. It will be recalled that
these are the two methods discussed' in Chap . .xIII. Headin g back
is '
used extensively with mature plants where c.ontinued trainin g
is
necessary. C.ontinued severe heading back .of .the r.o.ots dwarfs the
plant and induces flowering in vig.or.ously vegetative plants, since
the reduced root system abs.orb s less water and mineral elements and
the relative am.ount .of the carb.ohydrates in the t.oP increases, thus
changing the C / N + c.ondition t.o C / N. The r.o.ots.of the shrub b.order
.often encr.oach .on the lawn area, and they are kept within a restrict
ed
area by being cut back with a spade f.orced vertically into the S.oil
a
suitabl e distance fr.om the shrub b.order.
Thinni ng refers t.o the rem .oval .of an entire twig .or branch at its
point .of .origin .or at' a P.oint where a lateral branch arises fr.om the
main branch. Thinni ng is applied als.o t.o the rem.oval .of individual
fl.owers, fruits and entire plants. Individ ual fl.owers and fruits are
thinned to increase the size .of th.ose which remain. Often seedlin
gs
.or other . plants that reproduce ' readily bec.ome . to.ocr.owded, and
a
reducti.on in the numbe r .of plants is ,advisable t.o decrease the c.ompe
ti-
tion f.or light, water and mineral nutrien ts. The rem .oval .of filler trees
in an .orchard is based .on the same principle.
All prunin g w.ounds sh.ould be sm.o.oth, clean and made cl.ose t.o the
remaining branch .or bud S.o that n.o stub is left as a place in whichr
.ot
may start. In rem.oving large limbs start ab .out a foot fr.om thelim
b
to be left, and first saw from the underside until the saw.binds, then
PRUNING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS ~73
starting a little farther out saw down. The limb will break off leaving
the stub but will not strip the bark on the remaining limb or trunk.
The stub should then be sawed off smoothly with the remaining branch.
Except in the presence of diseases such as Illinois apple-tree canker,
wounds 2 in. or less in diameter need not be protected.
DEGREE OF PRUNING
It is comparatively easy to learn the proper time and a suitable
manner of pruning, as they are fixed rather arbitrarily. The degree of
pruning or the amount of tissue to
95
remove necessitates judging the I'.. Grape
ability of the plant to produce a 85

satisfactory crop. The least pro- .,5 ~
ductive and weakly vegetative
65
~ r\."[.
~'lZ
-
wood is then removed. The sever-
ity of pruning the mature plant will ",55
be based on the fruiting habit of .~ 45
c
\~
~
the plant and the apparent vegeta- <>. "
35
tive vigor of the plant or its ability
to produce a crop. The least pos- 25
\
\ V
sible amount of pruning that will
produce the desired results is the
best amount to be given.
15
3456789
-- ./
, Age
FIG. U6.-Gl'aphs shoWing relative
INFLUENCE ON AMOUNT OF GROWTH amounts of pruning required for the
grape, peach and apple at different
Any amount of pruning de- ages.
creases the size of the plant by the
amount of the tissue removed in pruning and decreases the total
amount of growth made by the pruned plant when compared with the
same plant unpruned. Pruning reduces the am,ount of leaf area that
was capable of manufacturing carbohydrates for the plant. Any
practice that reduces the leaf surface lowers the potential food supply
Other things being equal, the less the amount of foliage the less the
amount of food'for the plant; and the less the amount of hod the less
the total growth made by the plant.
INFLUENCE ON VIGOR OF GROWTH
Pruning invigorates the growth of shoots. Shoots on pruned

branches are fewer in number, smaller in total growth but larger
individuals than shoots on corresponding unpruned or more lightly
pruned branches. Pruning involves the removal of wood and ·of buds;
consequently, it removes stored food reserves, potential leaves and
274 TEl{TBOOK OF G~NERAL HORTICULTURE
often potential flowers and fruits. This reduction ill number of buds
diminishes the number of growing points where water, nitrogen and
other minerals are required without simultaneously reducing the
absorbing root system correspondingly, and consequently, the supply
of these materials for each of the remaining buds is temporarily
increased. This results in each growing point's making more growth
than it could have made without the increase in food materials. The
individuallaterals on a pruned branch, therefore, are longer than on a
similar unpruned branch. The invigorating effect of pruning is very
much localized. Pruning only on one side of a large tree has little
TABLE 34.-GROWTH RESPONSE OF ApPLE TREE TO VARIOUS DEGREES OF PRUNING
AT AMES, IOWA. SUMMARY OF 12 GROWING SEASONS, 1924'-1935
Average circum-
Number ference, inches . Total Total
Treatment of inches per-
trees Spring, Fall, gained centage
1924 1935
No pruning .................... 15 2.12 20.85 18.73 884

Remove severely rubbing branches 45 2.17 20.17 18.00 830
Normal pruning ................ 42 2.04 17.94 15.90 780
Heavy pruning .. . .. . ..... . . ... 8 2.15 17.84 15.69 730
or no effect in increasing the vigor of growth of the branches on the

other side. Often old, but healthy, horticultural plants are rejuve-
nated by very severe top pruning. Fifty per cent or more of the top
may be removed in one year, but the rejuvenation operations, which
may result in a practically new top, are generally distributed over a
period of two or three years. The gain in leaf surface on individual
shoots due to increased vigor is insufficient to make up for the loss of
foliage that would have developed on the shoots arising from the buds
removed by pruning and for the loss of food reserves that were in the
branches removed by the cutting. The net result of pruning for the
plant as a ",hole is a decrease in size.
FRUITING HABIT
The age and position of the wood upon which the fruit is produced
influences. the severity of pruning given horticultural plants. Some
plants, as the grape, produce fruit only on current season's wood;
some, as the peach, produce fruit on one-year-old wood; others, as the
apple, produce fruit mostly on the new wood of short spurs that may
be several years old. In the case of the grape, pruning is really an
annual rejuven ating process. Prunin g removes all except en9ugh

one-year-old wood to produc e a suffide nt numbe r of fruiting shoots
and the minimu m amoun t of old wood that will make a satisfa ctory
is
framew ork for the vine. Each year about 90 per cent of the vine
pruned away. The peach bears' fruit laterall y on compa rativel y long,
ily
vigorous one-year-old twigs. In this case one is interes ted primar
older wood only in its
in the fruiting of one-year-old wood and in the
relation ship to the distrib ution and produc tion of satisfa ctory fruiting
an
wood. Regula r produc tion depend s upon the annual provision of
ately vigorou s twigs are
adequa te supply of suitabl e shoots. Moder
necessary for fruiting, and to obtain such twigs a compa rativel y severe
ar-old wood after their

FIG. 117.-Ol d peach trees cut back to two- and three-ye
following lessens chances
fruit buds were killed by late freezes . The vigorouB growth
for a crop next year. (lI! i880uri Agricultu re Experim ent Station.)
as a
thinnin g and headin g back is necessary. Such prunin g also serves
is
means of fruit thinnin g. Often one-thi rd or more of the peach tree
old
pruned out each year. Since the apple bears its fruit chiefly on
the
spurs distrib uted throug hout all parts of the tree, the object of
pruner is to mainta in an adequa te supply of sufficiently vigorou s spurs.
the
This is accomplished by a compa rativel y light thinnin g throug hout
force the
tree. A heavy pruning , such as that given the peach, would
ed.
spurs into long vegeta tive growth , and fruiting would be decreas
that given a
The amoun t of prunin g will be about one-thi rd or less
peach tree.
TIME OF PRUNI NG
g
Plants may be pruned during either the dorma nt or the growin
ced by the kind of plant and
season. The time of prunin g is influen
the purpos e of the pruning . The time of prunin g most plants out-of-
doors is determ ined by the influence of the enviro nment on the plant.
DORMA NT SEASON
It will be recalled that the dorma nt season is that period of the
year during which the plants are not making any appare nt growth
owing to the fact that the temper ature is too low for such activity
.
There is no appare nt difference in the amoun t and charac ter of
the
subseq uent growth made by plants whethe r pruned early or late in
the
dorma nt season. There are, however, other factors that one should
consider. If prunin g is done early in the dorma nt season, wounds
that
are left do not heal so rapidly as similar prunin g wounds made toward
the end of the dorma nt season. In sections where the plants
are
subjec t to winter injury, considerable death of tissues often occurs
adjace nt to the wounds made early in the dorma nt season. Advers
e
winter conditions may cause the death of many buds, and the crop
will
be conside rably reduced. If prunin g is delayed until the extent
of
the winter injury is known, the severit y of prunin g can be adjuste
d
accordingly and a more nearly normal crop obtaine d. Prunin g late
in
the dorma nt season is often attende d by bleeding. This bleedin
g,
with the exception of the English walnut , in which case the moist
exposed surfaces offer good opport unity for infection, does no harm.
If prunin g is delayed until the buds swell, many buds will be rubbed
off
as the pruning s are pulled from the plant.
GROWI NG SEASON
Some types of prunin g are necessary during the growing season
with certain plants and advisab le with others. All pruning decreas
es
the total growth made by the plant. Prunin g during the growin
g
season is more dwarfing than the same amoun t of prunin g during
the
dorma nt season. The early shoot growth is made largely at
the
expense of reserve foods stored within the plant. The new leaves
begin photos ynthesi s and are soon synthesizing sufficient carboh ydrates
for their own needs and for the require ments of the shoot to which they
are attached." A short time later the leaves on the shoot are not only
supply ing the needs of that shoot but manufa cturing a surplus
of
carboh ydrates which is used by the developing flowers or fruit, by
the
expand ing roots, by the growing parts of branch es at some distanc
e
from the leaves and as stored reserves for future use. The younge r
the
leaf or portion of a shoot the more it is depend ent on the reserve
s of
the parent plant. The amoun t of dwarfing will be determ ined by
the
amoun t and time of summe r pruning . The greates t dwarfing would
be caused by removi ng a large quanti ty of the shoots or parts of shoots

just at that time when they had remove d all the stored food from
the parent plant that they require d and just began to be self-support-
nt
ing. Very late summe r prunin g might force the growth of succule
mature properl y and
shoots that would not have an opport unity to
would be killed during the following dorma nt season.
Clippe d hedges and sheared evergreens must be pruned several
be
times during the growing season. Undesi rable water sprouts can
rubbed off easily then. The termin als are remove d from black rasp-
berry shoots to force the develo pment of desirable laterals , and similar
out
summe r prunin g is used to shape other kinds of plants. Pinchin g
orname ntals, as peonies , dahlias ,
the termin als and disbud ding certain
snapdr agons and chrysa nthemu ms, are commo n and necessa ry prac-
of
tices which extend over several weeks for the same plant or kind
plant. Thinni ng fruit is merely a more advanc ed stage of disbud ding.
It is usually done shortly after the" set" of fruit is assured.
PRUNIN G REPRE SENTA TIVE PLANT S
In the preceding discussion some of the import ant general effects of
few
prunin g were' discussed. The adapta tion of prunin g practic es to a
ted in the succeed ing part
represe ntative horticu ltural plants is sugges
of this chapte r.
ApPLE
It is well to review the growing and fruiting habit of the apple

of a
before discussing the prunin g treatm ent, because the fruiting habit
determ ining the kind and severit y
plant is one of the import ant factors
ons such as annual bearing spurs and
of pruning . Althou gh excepti
one
the produc tion of flowers laterall y on one-year-old twigs occur,
practic al purpose s, that the fruiting habit of the
may consider, for all
apple is essentially as follows : The flowers of the apple are borne
bear
termin ally on short growths or spurs, and these spurs commo nly
old or
fruit every other year. They occur on wood that is two years
s
older, and they may live for many years. If they are strong, vigorou
and produc tive, they should be allowed to remain on the tree. Maxi-
or
mum fruit-sp ur format ion is encouraged by leaving a tree un pruned
prunin g it lightly during the fruit-be aring period in its life.
The kind and severit y of prunin g treatm ent sugges ted for apple
life
trees varies princip ally with the age and vigor of the trees. The
the non-be aring, or
of an apple tree may be divided into two periods:
develo ped, and the
format ive period, when the framework is being
the
bearing period. The bearing period may be further divided into
early bearing period, the period of maxim um produc tion and the period
of decline. The prunin g treatm ent varies with the stage of develop
-
ment of the tree.
When the growing and fruiting habit of the apple and its respons\::
to differe nt kinds of prunin g are considered, one may briefly summa
rize
the proced ure as follows: During the first few years in the orchard
the
tree is in its format ive period and is pruned by both thinnin g out
and
headin g back. This heavy prunin g is for the purpos e of develop
ing a
suitabl e framework. As the tree becomes older, prunin g is decreas
ed
gradua lly in severit y until at six to eight years of age the tree comes
into the early bearing period. During this period, which may cover
a period of ten or more years, very little prunin g is done, but
some
thinnin g out and some correct ive prunin g may be necessary. After
the tree reaches the period of maxim um produc tion, which may
last
for twenty to fifty years or more, some prunin g will be advisable.
The
severit y of the thinnin g will depend largely on the vigor of the tree;
but
in general, it will consist of the remova l of small weak branch es chiefly
in the lower and interio r parts of the tree. After the apple tree passes
its period of maxim um produc tion and enters a period of decline,
if it
is healthy and fairly vigorous, it is often renova ted or rejuven ated
by a
severe prunin g which consists of the remova l of large branch es and
a
heavy thinnin g of those which remain. This practic e often lowers
the
tops of the trees as much as 10 ft. or more by cutting to suitabl e lateral
branch es.
PEACH
It will be recalled that the peach bears its fruit laterall y on the one-
year-old twigs. New shoot growth develops from the termin al
bud
and from some of the lateral shoot buds. In some instances, especia
lly
following the loss of crop by frost or excessively heavy pruning ,
as in
rejuven ation, shoots develop from latent buds lower in the tree.
The
peach tree, therefore, carries its fruiting wood a foot or two farther
out and up each year. Since satisfac torily bearing peach trees usually
differe ntiate more than enough fruit buds for a good crop, and since
the
fruit is produc ed on the one-year-old wood, there is little danger
of
renderi ng a peach tree unprod uctive by removi ng all its fruiting wood.
The problem of prunin g the bearing peach tree is largely one of keepin
g
the fruiting wood fairly close to the trunk and of thinnin g the crop.
A brief summa ry of the prunin g of a peach tree beginning with the
one-year-old tree follows. A one-year-old branch ed peach tree
of
averag e vigor is generally headed at a height of 16 to 24 in. from
the
ground. Threfl to five primar y scaffold branch es are selected which
should be spaced spirally on the short trunk and as far apart as possi-
es
ble. All other branch es should be remov ed,and the scaffold branch
age,
headed back to 6 or 8 in. in length. Until the tree reaches bearing
e
some corrective prunin g will be necessary in order to develop a suitabl
bly
framework. This prunin g will consist of thinnin g out unsuita
es.
placed branch es and headin g back too vigorously growing branch
alluwin g only a
It should be light. The center of the tree is kept open,
prunin g treatm ent
few branch es to grow inward and upward . The
.
should keep the fruiting wood close to the tree and near the ground
, sprayin g and
This develops a stronge r tree and facilitates the pruning
picking operations.
After the peach tree comes into bearing, the severit y of both thin-
If a
ning and headin g will depend largely upon the prospe cts of a crop.
heavy crop is expected, the tree should be thinned and headed back
the
quite severely, removing anywhe re from one-half to two-th irds of
previous year's growth. If one had only a few trees, he might delay
prunin g until it was possible to determ ine the extent of winter injury
the
and regulat e the degree of prunin g accordingly. When most of
by low winter temper atures or when the
flower buds have been killed
of
blossoms are destroy ed by a late frost, one may take advant age
the situatio n and give a rejuven ating prunin g. Cut branch es back
.
severely in order to lower the top and develop suitabl y located laterals
may stimula te shoot growth to the extent that
Too severe cutting back
no fruit buds will form for next year. Conseq uently, one should adjust
.
the degree of cutting to the vigor of the tree and the results desired
SHRUBS
The kinds of prunin g employed with shrubs consist of both headin g

back and thinnin g out. In general, when shrubs are trained to their
natura l shapes they can be kept in vigorous growing condition, in good
atic
form and in the maxim um flowering condition by a yearly system
thinnin g of old and weak wood. Headin g back new shoots, which
arise from the base of the plant, is often advisab le in order to force
will
lower branching. A general headin g back or shearin g of the tops
only for hedges . The
produc e an unnatu ral shape and should be used
s of
method followed in mainta ining a formal compa ct hedge consist
various interva ls during the
headin g back the tips of the new shoots at
growing season.
The severit y of pruning, as with other plants, depend s upon the
the
flowering habit of the particu lar shrub, the age of the plant and
like spiraea Van Houtte i, forsyth ia and
vigor of growth. Many shrubs
lilac produce flowers from the buds that were formed on the past
season 's shoots. The degree of prunin g given will depend on

the
numbe r and distrib ution of these shoots. In general, if a system
atic
thinnin g has been practic ed, there is usually a sufficient amoun
t of
this type of wood to produc e optimu m flowering. If the shrub
has
been neglect ed for a numbe r of years, it may be necessary to remove
a
r. _p. //e
.j.,h~~,:~q: . . . ''"..{'.>.t.
".J.,:':";>,' ':'1,~.:::::.;;.->,
FIG, 118.-Di agramm atic sketch showing the pruning of a shrub;
(a) thinning by the
removal of one-year -old laterals'; (b) thinning by the removal
of two-year -old laterals;
(c) thinning by the removal of old laterals; (d) thinning 'by, the
removal of an entire old
branch; (e) thinning by the removal of a one-year -oJd .stem
from the crown; and (f)
forcing the growth of laterals by heading one-year -old stems
from the crown.
large quanti ty of older wood by thinnin g branch es by cutting out

at
the ground line. One may have to sacrifice the produc tion of flowers
for a season while the shrub is being rejuven ated or reshape d by severe
pruning .
Other shrubs; like some roses, hydran geas and spiarea Anthon y
'Vatere r, produc e flowers from the buds formed on curren t season
's
PRUNING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 281
r
Good Good Fair Poor
FIG. 119.-Diagrammatic sketches showing method of a shaping a formal hedge.
I
I
:
I ,
L . .:'~~
A B
FIG. 120.-Diagrammatic sketches showing: CA) method of pruning hybrid tea roses;
CB) hybrid perpetual roses. Note in CA) that the plants are pruned severely by remov-
ing approximately 50 per cent of the plant. while in (B) only 30 per cent of the growth
is removed.
growth. This type of shrub may be headed back severely in order to

produce vigorous new shoots. For example, hydrangea is often cut
back to 6 to 8 in. from the ground, and hybrid tea roses are cut back to
three or four buds.
The degree of pruning given a shrub immediately after it is set will
depend somewhat upon the extent of the root system and whether or
not one desires to force branching at certain places. Although some
shrubs grow well and give a quicker effect without any cutting back,
it is advisable to remove a portion of the top. The reduced root sys-
tem caused by digging the plant is not capable of supplying adequate
water to the original top. During the first three or four years after
planting, the shrub will require only a corrective pruning consisting
chiefly of the removal of irregular and weak branches. After this
formative period a systematic light thinning out should be all the prun-
ing that is necessary.
SHADE TREES
Pruning of shade trees differs somewhat between deciduous and

evergreen trees. The methods of training are similar to those used in
training fruit trees. After a deciduous tree has passed the training
period, very little pruning is necessary. The kind of pruning given is
generally confined to the removal of dead, diseased, injured and badly
conflicting branches. Occasionally it may be necessary to remove or
brace branches that have developed extremely weak crotches. Ever-
greens that are grown as shade trees usually require very little pruning
if they are allowed to grow naturally. Some evergreens, like junipers,
are often trained to formal types and in this case require shearing once
or twice a year in order to maintain a compact growth.
Review Questions
1. What is meant by pruning?
2. What are the objects of pruning mature horticultural plants?
3. How does pruning maintain vigor?
4. How does pruning improve the product of the plant?
6. How does pruning facilitate horticultural operations?
6. What are the three chief variable factors in pruning?
7. Contrast thinning out with heading back.
8. How should a large branch be removed from a tree?
9. What determines the amount of pruning to give a mature plant?
10. What is the influence of the amount of pruning on the tot al growth made
by a plant?
11. What is the influence of the amount of pruning on the vigor of growth made
by thn. plant?
12. Which is more preferable on an eighteen-year-old apple tree: 10 cuts
removing branches about 2 in. in diameter or 100 cuts about the size of a lead pen-
cil? The total growth removed in the two eases is the same in amount.
PRUNING HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 283
13. What is meant by the fruiting habit of a plant?
14. What determines the time of pruning?
lri. What part of the dorma.nt season is the most satisfactory for pruning?
16. Why is pruning during the growing season more dwarfing on the plant than
an equal pruning during the dormant season?
17. Compare the pruning of a privet plant when grown as part of a formal
hedge with the pruning of the same kind of plant when grown as an individual plant.
18. What are the main problems to consider in pruning an American elm?
Problems
1. Make accurately labeled diagrammatic sketches showing the fruiting habit
of the grape, peach and apple.
2. Give detailed instructions and explanations for pruning the following apple
trees. A group of trees ten years of age has had about one-half its one-year-old
shoots thinned out and the remaining one-year shoots headed back about 50 per
cent each year. The terminal growths are long and vigorous each year, but the
trees are not bearing any fruit, and no fruit spurs have been formed. In another
group only the yearly terminal growth was headed back, but these trees are now
becoming quite dense in the top while some of the lower branches are not making
very vigorous growth and very little fruit has been produced. A third group of the
same variety, but five years older, has been neglected ever since the first pruning.
These latter trees are larger, even for their age, than those in the other two groups,
are producing quite heavily and look quite bushy, but some of the smaller low
branches are dying.
3. Give detailed instructions and explanations for pruning the following apple
trees. A group of mature trees is well formed, although it has not been pruned
for several years. The trees blossom abundantly each year, but practically all
the blossoms fall or the fruit drops soon after forming. The terminal shoot growth
averages 2 or 3 in. in length, and there is an average of three medium-sized leaves
on each spur, whereas some of the spurs on the interior of the tree have small
yellowish leaves and the spurs are dying.
4. An apple tree about twenty years old has been growing in sod the past five
or six years and as a result has decreased in fruit production. When the tree was
about fifteen years of age, it produced fair crops each year, but for the last two
years it has blossomed but not produced fruit. Describe the appearance of the
spur growth of this tree when the tree was fruiting and since it has quit fruiting.
Illustrate by diagrammatic sketches and explain fully. What should you do to
bring the tree into production?

1. GARDNER, V. R., et al., "Fundamentals of Fruit Production," pp. 432-521,
2. GREGG, O. I., Pruning and Care of Ornamental Woody Plants, Mich. Ext.
Bul. 172: 1-18, 1936.
3. RICKS, G. L., and H. P. GASTON, The Thin Wood Method of Pruning, Mich.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul. 265: 1-45, 1935•
. 4. THoMPsoN, H. C., "Vegetable Crops," pp. 464-467, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
5. WYMAN, DONALD, "Hedges, Screens arid Windbreaks," pp. 39-47, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
.CHAPTER XV
PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
In order to survive, each plant is struggling with its environment,

with the competing plants about it and with the plant and animal
pests that prey upon it. Under natural conditions, where man does
not attempt to alter conditions, these interacting factors result in
the establishment of a state of equilibrium, or "natural balance,"
which obviously is not fixed but changes as conditions are favorable
or unfavorable for that particular plant or kind of plant. Man, how-
ever, is often able to modify this natural balance in favor of the plants
that he prefers as compared with the plants that he considers less
desirable. He does this by providing a favorableenvironment, by
the elimination of competing plants and by checking or destroying
the pests that interfere with the optimum growth and development
of the plants that he wishes to grow. Horticultural pl~nts need to be
protected from unfavorable conditions in their environment and from
plant and animal pests that prey upon them and injure or destroy
them. The root, trunk, branches, shoots, foliage, flowers, fruits and
seeds of horticultural plants are attacked by pests that are found in a
wide range of both the plant and the animal kingdoms.
IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURAL TROUBLES
It is impossible to obtain a definite figure of the damage done by
various horticultural troubles, as they fluctuate so widely from year
,to year, from region to region and with the different kinds of plants.
An unfavorable winter may result in the severe injury if not the total
destruction of plants over a wide area. Well-known cases of this are
the destruction of peach orchards in the commercial peach-producing
areas and the occasional freezing of citrus trees in citrus-fruit areas.
A severe and untimely frost during the blooming period has been
known to wipe out the entire fruit crop for that year in certain areas.
A greatly reduc~d set of fruit has resulted because of cool, damp
weather during the blooming period. A dry summer followed by
early fall rains may result in the cracking or splitting of fruit 'and may
result in the malformation of Irish potato tubers. Such climatic
conditions may bring about secondary growth in the fruit trees and
vines, a growth that will be killed or severely injured by even a favor-
284
PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 285
able winter that follows because the new wood was not matured
properly. A hailstorm of short duration will ruin the crop and may
injure the plants to such an extent that it will require several years
for them to recover. Rains and floods will wipe out the entire crop in
a short time or over a period of years may cause great and lasting
damage by eroding the soil. Specific cases of many of the conditions
mentioned will come to the minds of all, and many other general
examples could be given; but these will be sufficient to show why it is
impossible and impractical to attempt to give a statement of the
amount of damage done to horticultural plants by adverse environ-
mental conditions.
Losses of horticultural crops due to plant and animal pests are
probably greater but generally not so conspicuous as losses due to
unfavorable environmental conditions. A constant warfare is being
waged against these pests, and it is only occasionally that the damage
reaches epidemic proportions. In such cases the great increase in
the damage was brought about by the introduction of a new pest or
by climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to an established pest and
probably unfavorable to its natural enemies which would normally
keep it in check. Apple scab, severe damage by the late-brood
codling moth, brown rot on stone fruits and potato blight are but a
few of the common and well-known examples of cases where pests
have attained epidemic proportions over greater or smaller areas in
certain seasons. The operation of spraying apples to protect them
from plant and animal pests is responsible for 20 per cent of the cost
of producing a bushel oi fruit. Whetzel presents the damage in the
following interesting fashion: "The estimates of the plant disease
survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture indicate that approxi-
mately one bean in every dozen, one peach in every eight, one bushel
of Irish potatoes in every twelve .'. . are destroyed annually by-
diseases in these crops." This does not include the cost of protecting
the crops but just the quantity lost in spite of protection.
The introduction of a new pest into a locality may result in an
immense loss until a suitable means of control is found, and it may /
result in the elimination of certain crops from the infested area. The
introduction of the San Jose scale into California from China, the
Japanese beetle into New Jersey from Japan, the citrus canker into
Texas from Japan 'and the phylloxera into the grape vineyards of
Europe from the United States are classic examples of cases in which
introduced pests nearly destroyed established industries and are still
taking a heavy annual toll from horticultural crops. The Colorado
potato beetle spread rapidly eastward and is now invading the Irish
potato fields of Europe. It found the introduced Irish potato a much

more favorable food supply than the native plants upon which it fed
previous to the introduction of the cultivated potato. This new and
abundant food supply enabled this insect to multiply prodigiously and
spread rapidly eastward, until today it is found universally in the
potato fields of North America, and its control is considered a regular
routine part of the cultural program.
Many of the virus diseases, as peach yellows, curly top of sugar
beets and the mosaics of various plants, have made it impossible for
years to grow certain plants in certain sections. The destruction of
the white birch by the bronze birch borer, the chestnut by the chestnut
blight and the white pine by the white-pine blister rust and the present
threat of the Dutch elm disease in our American elms cannot be
evaluated in dollars and cent.s. These few specific examples will
suffice to show the impossibility of arriving at a satisfactory estimate
of the immense financial and social damage done to our horticultural
plants by the various and numerous troubles that interfere with their
most satisfactory development.
CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURAL TROUBLES
Many and diverse classifications have been given for horticultural
plant troubles. The classifications differ in form rather than in con-
tent, the particular form, or basis, being influenced or determined
largely by the particular purpose for which the classification was to
be used.
In general, the troubles that beset horticultural plants may be
separated into those due to environmental conditions and those due
to animal and plant pests that prey upon and do injury to horticultural
plants. The troubles due to the environmental conditions were dis-
cussed in some detail in the chapters devoted to the relations of tem-
perature, moisture, light and soil and need not be discussed further at
this time. The particular animal or plant pest responsible for the
damage is often identified by the characteristic injury that it does to
a part or parts of the plant. Brief descriptions are presented of a few
of the more common, generally distributed, representative types of
pests that are injurious to horticultural plants.
ANIMAL PESTS OF HORTICULTUF ·\L PLANTS
All members of the animal kingdom are dependent on the plant

kingdom, directly or indirectly, for their food supply. When the
an~mals become more injurious than beneficial to horticultural plants,
the horticulturist considers them as pests.
Higher Animals as Horticultural Pests.-Occasionally a member
of a higher group of animals does considerable damage to horticultural
plants. One will occasionally hear of cases during severe winters
where birds have eaten many of the buds from fruit trees, but these
are isolated and infrequent. Rodents such as rabbits, mice and moles,
when particularly abundant or when the food supply is scant, may
frequently cause considerable damage in limited areas.
Rabbits.-In severe ca..,es rabbits may gnaw a ring of "bark"
from the trunk of the younger trees. When this occurs it is often
necessary to bridge graft over the injured area to save the life of the
tree. Although various repellent paints or washes have given some
success as preventatives where rabbits were not especially numerous
and the food supply was fairly abundant, th~ most satisfactory
method of control is to wrap the trunks of young trees. The most
common substances used for wrapping are paper, burlap, wood veneer
and ,!4-in. mesh galvanized-hardware cloth. The burlap and paper
wrappings are wound tightly about the tree trunk beginning at the
ground line and extending to a height of about 2 ft. and tied securely
with soft wire or binder twine. The wood-veneer wrappers are bent
into a cylindrical shape, placed around the trunk of the tree with the
creosoted end down, pushed into the soil an inch or two and tied.
A satisfactory wrap that can be left about the tree for eight or ten
years or until danger of girdling by rabbits is practically over can be
made of ,!4-in. mesh hardware cloth. One-inch mesh poultry netting
can be used for rabbits, but the ,!4-in. hardware cloth will be effective
against field mice as well as rabbits. Cut the hardware cloth in 24-in.
squares. If the 24-in. width of cloth is used, a bound edge will be at
both top and bottom. Bend the wire into a loose cylinder about the
trunk of the tree, force it into the soil for an inch or two and tie with
light wire. A very efficient method of fastening the wire into a cyl-
inder about the trunk of the tree is by using three hog rings.
The wraps should be placed around the tree trunks about the time
the leaves fall, and all wraps, except the wire guard, should be removed
when growth starts in the spring. All the attention required by the
wire guards is to keep them clean of debris and properly placed until
the tree no longer requires such protection.
Mice.-There are two kinds of mice that may do damage to orchard
trees, and they are destructive to trees of all sizes. One· is known as
the "field mouse," and the other as the "pine mouse." The field
mouse lives chiefly on top of the soil. Its runways are made through
the grass and vegetative ground cover so that it is especially trouble-
some in orchards that are in sod or in those in which a cover crop is
used. It feeds on the bark of the trunk of the trees at the ground line,
working away under the protection of the ground cover. The pine
mouse eats the bark from the roots of the tree; and since it works
entirely underground, its presence is not so easily detected, and a large
amount of damage may be done without one's suspecting its presence.
Since the field mice live aboveground, the removal of all weeds
and grass in the fall from an area 4 or 5 ft. in diameter about the trunk
of the tree is very beneficial. Mounding and smoothing the soil
about the trunk of the tree to a height of 4 to 6 in. would be a feasible
practice if one had but a small number of trees. The 7~-in. hardware-
cloth cylinder, as used against rabbits, may be placed about the trunk
of the tree and forced into the ground as a protection from field mice
but will be of no value as a protection against pine mice, since they
feed on the roots underground. The most satisfactory means of con-
trol is the use of poisoned baits. Several formulas for poisoned baits
have been developed and recommended by the Bureau of Biological
Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Poisoned-grain baits
have proved very satisfactory. For the control of field mice locate a
feeding station under each tree, and place within it 2 tbsp. of the
poisoned bait; if necessary, replenish the bait every three or four weeks.
These feeding stations should be so constructed and located that only
mice will have free access, and the bait will be kept dry and retained
within the feeding station. The poisoned bait for the pine mice must
be placed directly in their runways.
A formula for rolled-oats bait is as follows: Mix 1 oz. of powdered
strychnine and 1 oz. of baking soda. Sift this mixture over 8 qt. of
dry rolled oats, and mix it thoroughly with the oats. Warm the poi-
soned oats in an oven, and pour over and mix thoroughly with them
1~ pt. of a warm fat-paraffin mi~ture. This mixture is made of 3
parts melted beef fat and 1 part melted paraffin. In order to obtain
a suitable coating it is necessary that both the poisoned oats and the
beef-paraffin mixture be warm and stirred constantly while being
mixed.
Recently zinc phosphide.has been found very effective in the control
of mice. Pieces of apple are dusted with the poison and placed in
the runways.
Moles.-,-Th~ characteristic tortuous ridges in the lawn over the
tunnels of the mole are readily identified. The smoothness of the
turf is destroyed, and the grass on the raised soil may die because of
. excessive . drying. These pests can be controlled by trapping,
poisoning arid asphyxiating. Different types of traps /lore available on
the market; and these have proved to be very satisfactory. Calcium
cyanide, carbon bisulfide and paradichlorobenzene have all been used
successfully. In using calcium cyanide make openings in the tunnels
every 5 or 6 ft., place a 'teaspoonful of the cyanide in each opening and
close the opening without pressing down the burrow. Carbon
bisulfide is applied in a similar fashion, pouring about a teaspoonful
in each opening and closing it carefully. A ,teaspoonful of paradi-
chlorobenzene placed into the burrows at intervals of 5 or 6 ft. and the
openings covered as before will be found effective. If these chemicals
are used in too large quantities, considerable damage to the grass may
result.
Lower Animals as Horticultural Pests.-Members of the lower
groups of animals are very serious pests to horticultural plants. Con-
siderable injury may be done by particular members, as nematodes,
but the greatest group of animal pests is popularly known as "insects."
Insect Pests.-The term "insect~" in its popular use includes not
only the true insects but also the" red spiders" and other mites that
are destructive to horticultural plants. There are more species of
insects than all other animals and plants combined, but fortunately
the horticulturist does not need to know all the 625,000. In order to
understand partially the control practice it is advisable to have a
general kno.wledge of the main features of the lif£ cycles of repre-
sentative insect pests of horticultural plants.
Most of the insects have four distinct stages in their life cycle: the
adult; the egg; the larva, or worm; and the pupa, or cocoon, stage
which changes to the adult. This cycle is known as the "complete
metamorphosis." Some insects have an incomplete metamorphosis,
as the adult, the egg and the nymph stages, with the nymph finally
developing into ~he adult form. Some, as the aphids, are both ovi-
parous and viviparous; that is, they lay eggs and also give birth to
living young.
Various systems of classification are used for the insects but a
satisfactory one for the horticulturist is that based upon the feeding
habit of the insect. With few exceptions the horticulturist is con-
cerned only with two classes: (1) the biting, or chewing, insects; (2)
the piercing, or sucking, insects.
INSECTS WITH BITING OR CHEWING MOUTH PARTs.-The biting
insects are those which bite out and take Into their digestive tract
portions of the plant tissues. When such insects are feeding inside
the plant tissue, they are often termed "boring insects." This class
of insect generally does the largest amount of damage to horticultural
plants, and its presence and the injury done is more noticeable than
the presence of and damage done by insects with sucking mouth parts.
The damage is most geperally done by the insects when they are in the
larval and nymph stages, and the chief control measure is directe
d
agains t the pests while they are in those stages. There are some
exceptions in which the primar y control is directed at the pest while
it is in one of the other stages of its life cycle, but the secondary control
measures are usually directe d at it at such times. A few of the most
common and most generally destruc tive examples of this group will
be presented. Some are import ant in one locality, and some in others;
FIll. 121a.-F lat-head ed apple tree borer hibernat ing in trunk

of young apple tree.
(Missour i Agricultu ral Experim ent Station.)
FIG. 121b. -Round -headed apple tree borer; half-grow n larvas

in base of young apple
tree. (Missour i Agricultu ral Experim ent Station.)
some are destruc tive one year, and some anothe r year in tHe same
locality; apd it is probable that some that are not mentioned are more
import ant in certain localities than any that are discussed.
Cooling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, L.): The codling moth is
undoub tedly the most destruc tive insect that attacks apples. It
is
destruc tive also to the pear, quince and hawtho rn and has been
reporte d on the plum, cherry and English walnut. It is native
to
southe astern Europe and is present wherever pomaceous fruits are
grdwn. It does its damage either by tunneling about within the
fruit, usually about the core, or by making "sting s" or feeding punc-
tures on the apple.
There may be one, two or more generations per year in a given
locality. The numbe r of generations will vary' in the same ~ocality
in different years, influenced gIflatly by environmental conditions.

This irregularity complicates the control measures .. The insect
winters over in the larval form in cocoons under the rough bark of the
trees, in the grass about the trees, in favorable crevices in the lug boxes,
packing houses, etc. With the advent of warm weather in the spring
the larva enters the pupal stage. The duration of this stage varies
considerably with local climatic conditions but is usually completed
within 30 days. The moths emerge and soon begin flying about in the
twilight hours laying the white flaky eggs on the very small apples or
the leaves adjacent to them. During her life of about 10 days the
female moth lays about 80 eggs. The eggs hatch within 6 or 7 days,
.~
.
~. ~,<.'
/ .. -., ;P'
,,' ' . •- .
-' .••• -
Adult - Spring Egg.·F; rst Gtnemtion

d LiveQda)'S lnc.ubation Period.
p Liv.ll~ays 6 days
80-90 eggs
lOltVQ-Overwinter
Cocoon under
scaly bark Larva·Emorging Egg.5«ond AdultSumtT'ltr Pupa Su"."... Larva' Summer Larva-Feeding.
Feeding period- Generation lB. b day> AveJ day> 36%Tnan~m
20'84 days Mr.O..rwinitr
Ave. 14
FIG. 122.-Life cycle of codling moth.
and the young larvae begin feeding on the young leaves and fruits and
finally enter the young apple chiefly through the calyx, even though
the latter has been closed for some time. They feed about within the
apple for about a month, when they become mature and emerge
from the fruit and form their pupal cocoon. Many of these larvae
will not pupate until the following spring. Under favorable climatic
conditions some will pupate and change to adults which emerge as
moths about 50 days after the first brood of eggs was laid. These
moths lay eggs for the second generation. This generation repeats the
cycle of the first generation, and in some instances there appear to be
three generations per year. The" stings" on the apples late in the
season are caused by the feeding punctures of the second and later
generation larvae. The wintering larvae will have representatives of
all generations.
The~odling moth is generally controlled by a stomach poison.
Arsenate of lead is the one used most generally with the greatest degree
of satisfac tion. The abunda nce of the insects and the problem
of
undesir able spray residue on the fruit have led to a search for other
suitabl e means of control. A promising substit ute for arsenat
e of
lead, especially after the first cover applica tion, appear s to be a form
of
nicotine, with or withou t oil. Supple mentar y means of codling
-
moth control are scrapin g and burnin g the loose scaly bark from
the
trunk and larger limbs by blooming time, bandin g the scraped trees
FIG. 123.-Di agramm atic sketch showing thc injury to foliage

by thc canker worm.
with chemically treated bands of corruga ted paper before the first-
genera tion larvae leave the fruit to pupate and general sanitar
y
measures, as the disposal of all cull fruits and the destruc tion of over-
winteri ng larvae or the adult moths in the packin g houses.
Spring cankerworm (Paleacrila vernata, Beck .): Because of their
charact eristic habit of locomotion the larvae of the cankerw orm
are
known as "measu ring worms ," or "loope rs." These insects
feed
largely on the apple and to a lesser extent on the stone fruits. They
may prove very destruc tive on the elm and some other shade trees.
They are native to North America. In some seasons when the insects
PESTS OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 293
s
are very abunda nt the damag e may be severe in neglected orchard
trees. It is done by the larvae feeding on the
and unprot ected shade
can
foliage where they eat everyth ing but the main ribs. This insect
often be seen suspen ded from the tree on the end of a silken cord.
There is but one genera tion a year. The insect winters over in the
pupal stage a short distanc e below the surface of the soil. The adults
appear early in the spring. As the females have only rudime ntary
up
wings which are useless for flying, it is necessa ry for them to crawl
the trees where they lay their eggs in groups in crevice s on the trunk
and larger limbs. The eggs hatch about the time the apple flowers
are in the "pink" stage, and the larvae begin to feed. The larvae
mature in late spring and spin silken threads as they lower them-
e
selves to the ground. They burrow under the surface a short distanc
and pupate to emerge as adults the following spring.
These leaf-ea ting insects are readily con trolled by a stomac h poison,
up
as arsenat e of lead. Since it is necessary for the female to crawl
e
the trunk of the tree to deposit her eggs, bands of various adhesiv
in catchin g
materia ls placed about the trunk have been found effective
the females as they ascend the tree.
Plum curculi'O (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst i): The adult plum
curculio is a brownish-black, rough-coated, snout-n osed beetle about
U in. long that is a very troublesome pest. It would be recognized in
the larval form as the yellowish-white, noticea bly curved grub about
~~ in. long near the pit of stone fruits. The
beetle attacks all
pomaceous and drupac eous fruits and is especia lly destruc tive to the
plum, peach and cherry in the eastern part of North America and
often eauses .::onsiderable damag e to the apple. The plum curculio
is native to the eastern part of North Americ a. This insect does its
damag e by the feeding and egg-laying punctu res in the fruit and by
The fruit may often be
the burrow ing of the larvae within the fruit.
ions of "gum" may appear on
misshapen as it develops, and exudat
the plum and peach.
There may be one or two genera tions per year. This seems to be
-
determ ined largely by the climatic conditions prevailing in the particu
the winter in adult form, hiberna ting
lar locality. The insect passes
in protect ed places furnished by dead grass, brush piles and debris
in and adjace nt to the orchard. The beetles emerge from their hiber-
in
nating quarter s in the spring about the time the apples' flowers are
the time the shucks are falling from the peache s.
the prepin k stage or at
a short time on the young leaves, but as soon as
They may feed for
eggs
the fruit is large enough the beetles begin feeding on and laying
super~
in the fruits. The feeding punctu re isa small, shallow, rather
ficial cavity which heals over leaving a slight depression or a corky

Bcar. The egg puncture is similar except that a crescent-shaped cut
is made about one side of the puncture. This injury heals over and
leaves the characteristic crescent scar with the egg puncture in the
center. The egg hatches in about 7 days, and the creamy colored
larva feeds within the fruit until it is a full-grown yellowish-white leg-
less worm about % in. long that is slightly curved toward the underside.
Practically all fruits in which larvae are developing fall to the
ground. When mature, the larvae leave the fruit and burrow into
the ground for a depth of about 2 in. where they pupate in earthen
cells. The length of time in the soil will vary considerably with
conditions, but 30 days would be a fair average. The adult beetles
emerge fro.m middle July through September. They fly to the fruit
and begin to feed. In regions where there is but one brood, no eggs
are laid at this time and only feeding punctures will be found. Upon
the arrival of cool weather the adults migrate to hibernating places
for the winter from which they emerge the following spring to attack
the new fruit crop.
The curculio is a rather difficult insect to control by spraying, but
a stomach poison properly applied will usually be effective, especially
when combined with supplementary means as the elimination of suit-
able hibernating places, the cultivation of the soil during the pupating
stage and the destruction of the" drops" by hand-picking or pasturing
the orchard with hogs during that period when the infested apples are
dropping. Upon being disturbed the adults will drop to the ground.
Advantage is taken of this characteristic, and the ground under the
tree is covered with canvas, the tree is jarred and the insects collected
and destroyed.
Peach-tree borer (Sanni",oid£a exitiosa, Say): The peach-tree borer
is most generally known and recognized in the larval form as the
cream-colored, dark-headed worm about 1 in. long tunneling about
underneath the bark of the peach tree a short distance above or below
the ground line. The insect is indigenous to eastern North America
where it apparently lived upon the native stone fruits until the intro-
duction of the peach. The peach-tree borer is probably the most
important insect pest of the peach in the commercial growing areas of
North America east of the Rocky Mountains. It causes a large
amount of injury to peach trees by actually destroying the trees or
weakening them to such an extent that they are more readily attacked
by other insects and diseases or are destroyed by unfavorable climatic
conditions that would have had but little injurious effect upon them
if their vigor had not been lessened by the action of the peach-tree
borer. The insect does its damage in the larval stage by feeding and
tunneling about in the cambial region of the trunk of the peach tree
near the ground line. This results in a partial girdling of the tree with
the characteristic effects of such injury. Gum will exude from the
injured areas, and this mixed with the frass, or "sawdust," is an
indication of the insect's presence.
This insect has a complete metamorphosis. Generally there is
one generation per year, but some of the insects of the late-hatched
larvae or those which developed slowly because of unfavorable low
temperature or inadequate food supply may require more than one
year to complete their cycle. This accounts in part for the variations
in the size of the larvae found at the same time.
The adult peach borer is a dark steel-blue, clear-winged moth about
Y2 in. long and with a wing expanse of about 174 in. There are some
differences in the color of the male and female, and the male is the
smaller of the two sexes. In various parts of the country the adults
appear at various times, but in all localities they will be emerging over
a period of three months or longer. This will usually be from about
the middle of June to the middle of September. The adults live from
4 to 6 days. During their short life the female will lay from 300 to
600 or more eggs. The eggs may occur singly but are usually in
clusters. The majority of the eggs are deposited on the trunk of the
peach tree near the ground line, but some will be deposited farther up
the trunk and even on the main branches. The incubation period
is influenced greatly by temperature, ranging from 5 days in the warm
summer days if the eggs are exposed to the sun to 15 days in the cooler
days of autumn or if the eggs are in shade during a considerable portion
of the day. The eggs usually hatch sometime during the night or
early morning.
The newly hatched larva makes its way down the trunk of the tree
and burrows into the tree just below the ground line. A majority of
the larvae will be within the 2-in. zone below the soil level, although
a few may be found on the roots. They feed in the cambial area of
this region until the soil drops to a temperature of 40 to 50°F., after
which they remain inactive until the soil warms up to about 50°F. in
the spring.
The lull-grown larva forms a loose cocoon in which to pupate. By
far the gl"~atest number of the cocoons will be found near the surface
of the soil adjacent to or within 2 in. from the trunk of the tree. The
length of time that elapses from the spinning of the cocoon to the
emergencp of the adult will vary from 15 to 30 days according to
environml~ntal conditions.
Many different means have been used to combat the peach-tree

borer, but until the discovery of paradichlorobenzene (P.D.B.) the
most satisfactory method of control was by digging the larvae out of
the trunks of the trees by hand. This is still the best method for
trees under four years of age. The use of paradichlorobenzene is now
the universal method employed to control the peach-tree borer in
trees four years of age or over. This is a white crystalline substance
at ordinary temperatures which changes to a gas when exposed to the
air. The amount used per trl:le will vary according to the diameter
of the tree trunk. The usual recommendations are % to 1 oz. for trees
from four to six years of age and 1 to 17.4: oz. for trees over six years old.
Since most of the insects are in the larval stage early in the fall and the
soil temperature is favorable, the trees are generally treated during
that season of the year.' The favorable soil temperature is 60 to 70°F.,
for at this range the gas is evolved sufficiently rapidly to kill the insects
and is less injurious to the tree.
In preparing a tree for treatment clear and smooth the soil about
its base for a distance of about 12 in. If a conspicuous amount of
gum has exuded from the tree trunk, it will be well to remove it, as it
appears to protect the insects somewhat from the gas. Distribute
the required amount of paradichlorobenzene in a continuous circular
band about the tree at a distance of about 2 in. from the trunk. Gen-
tly shake some fine soil over this band, and then add three or four
shovelfuls of fine soil on top. Pack firmly with the back of the shovel.
This should be sufficient to control the peach-tree borer.
Strawberry leaf roller (Ancylis comptana, Frohl): The presence of
the strawberry leaf roller is most generally recognized by the folding
and rolling of the leaflets of the strawberry plant. Upon unfolding
the leaflet the small, cylindrical, greenish larvae will be found. This
insect is common in Europe and in North America wherever straw-
berries are grown. In the United States it appears to be most abun-
dant in the Mississippi Valley. In cases of severe infestation it causes
considerable damage, as much of the foliage may be destroyed. The
insect does its damage in the larval stage: Generally the larva begins
feeding on the underside of a young leaflet and finally folds the leaflet
along the midrib. As the larva becomes larger the leaflet will be
rolled.
This insect has a complete metamorphosis. The number of genera-
tions seems to vary somewhat with the climatic conditions of the
locality, but in most localities where the insect attains destructive
munbers there appear to be three generations. There may be but
two generatiolli' in the 11()l'thrrn part of the United States and a partial
fourth generation in the southern part. The adult reddish-brown

moth has a wing expanse of 72 in. The moth will live for about 10
days during which the female will deposit about 100 eggs. The small,
oval, pale yellowish-green, translucent eggs are deposited at night
chiefly on the underside of the strawberry leaflet. The length of the
incubation period is influenced greatly by temperature. The first-
generation eggs which hatch in the cool spring (May) require 10 or
more days, whereas the eggs of the second and third generations
which hatch during much warmer periods require about 5 days.
The newly hatched larva begins to feed near the midrib and larger
veins on the underside of the young leaflets. It soon crawls to the
upper side where it begins to draw the two halves of the leaflet together
by folding along the midrib. It feeds and attains full size in this
folded, or rolled, leaf where it pupates. The duration of the larval
stage, like that of the egg stage, is shortened by higher temperatures
and ranges from 20 to 30 days. .The pale-brown, ovate pupa is found
only in the rolled leaf. As with the egg and larva stages the pupal
stage is shortened by higher temperatures, being 7 or 8 days in the
warm part of the year and twice that long in the cooler season. From
40 to 50 days is required for the complete cycle 'from egg to adult.
The generations, however, will overlap.
The strawberry leaf roller is a biting insect and can be controlled
with a stomach poison. Since the larva folds the leaflet and feeds
from thfl inside, it is essential that the spray be applied at the proper
time. Since there are usually three broods of larvae, the poison can
be applied three times. Of the three t he first is the most important
and generally the only one required. This is just when the earliest
blossoms appear. The other applications will be made according to
the life cycle of the insect in the particular locality but will generally
be applied just after harvest and about six or seven weeks later.
Mowing the leaves after harvest' and raking and burning them is an
effective supplementary if not primary means of controlling the pest.
Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Say): The Colorado
potato beetle is the most important insect pest of the Irish potato.
It will be recognized as the humpbacked, soft, red-bodied, dark-headed
larva or grub or the nearly semispherical yellow adult with the black
bars running lengthwise on the wing covers that is found feeding on the
foliage of the Irish potato. This insect was native to a section east of
the Rocky Mountains and originally fed upon the native plants there
that are fairly closely related to the Irish potato. With the introduc-
tion of the potato the insect found a satisfactory food supply. It
moved rapidly eastward into the potato fields and today is found in
298 TEXTBOOK OF CENERAL HORTICULTURE
North America wherever the Iri'3h potato is grown and has been
introduced into Europe. The insect does its damage in the larval
and adult stages, by eating the foliage of the plants. .
This biting insect has a complete metamorphosis with from one to
three, usually two, generations per year. The number of generations
is influenced by the location of the potato-growing.region, the number
being larger in the southern regions. The adult beetle hibernates
in the soil at a depth of 4 to 6 in. As the gr~und warms in the spring,
the adults emerge and go to the potato or similar plant for food and a
suitable place to deposit eggs. The adult beetle is about % in. long
but somewhat narrower than long and decidedly rounded on top. The
ground color is yellow, and the wing covers are marked by 10 longitudi-
nal black lines. During the first month after emerging each female
lays from 500 to 1,500 or more eggs. The adults will live for two
months or longer and do considerable damage feeding on the young
tender potato foliage.
The orange-colored cylindrical eggs are attached by one end to the
underside of the leaf. They occur in rather compact groups of 35 to
45 near the tips of the young leaves. The eggs hatch in about 7 days.
The larva is a humpbacked, fleshy, soft-bodied insect, red in color with
a dark head and two rows of black spots on either side. It is a vora-
cious feeder on the youngest leaves of the potato plant. It grows
rapidly for about three weeks and then burrows into the ground for
about 3 in. and forms an earthen cell and within two days forms the
pupa.
The pupa is colored red like the larva. After a period of about
seven days, depending upon the temperature, the pupa changes to
the adult beetle which emerges and begins a new cycle. At the close
of the season the adult beetle burrows into the ground for a depth of
4 in. or more and remains there until warm weather the following
spring. A period of approximately 30 days is required to pass from the
egg to the adult form.
The Colorado potato beetle is a biting insect and consumes large
quantities of potato foliage. Since it is susceptible to stomach poisons,
it can readily be controlled by such materials. Paris green was the
old-time favorite but has been replaced largely by arsenate of lead
and calcium arsenate.
INSECTS WITH PIERCING, OR SUCKING, MOUTH PARTs.-The suck-
ing insect-s are those which obt~ their food by inserting their beaks
into .' )lant and sucking out the plant juices. This parasitism
eakening of the plant and, in severe cases, may result in
This type of insect is instrumental in transmitting various
San JOS6 scale (Aspidiotus pernicio8Us, Comst.): The San Jose scale
is generally recogilized by the shieldlike dark-gray covering with the
yellowish or dark-colored raised portion, or nipple. Severely infested
stems will have a grayish appearance. After settling down to feed,
the insect secretes this shield cover which is entirely separate from its
body. The shield covering the female scale is fiat, circular, about 712
in. in diameter and with the raised nipple occupying the central
portion. The shield covering the male scale is smaller and is elongated,
being about twice as long as wide, and has the raised nipple toward
one end. The insect was first observed in this country at San Jose,
Calif. There is considerable uncertainty relative to the place from
which it was introduced into this country, but China is believed to be
its native home. It is now found quite generally throughout the fruit-
growing regions of North America where climatic conditions are favor-
able for its development. The insect is a serious pest on most of our
deciduous fruits and many ornamental trees and shrubs. The San
Jose scale does its damage by sucking the plant juices from the stems,
foliage and fruits. The feeding punctures cause conspicuous reddish
circular spots on the fruit. In severe cases the young plants and even
the older ones may be destroyed or so severely weakened that they are
easily killed by other troubles which would not be serious to strongly
growing plants. .
This sucking insect has an incomplete metamorphosis, there being
no egg stage, as the young are born alive. There are three or more
generations per year depending upon the climatic conditions of the
locality. The San Jose scales pass the winter as partially grown
insects underneath their protective scales, which at this stage are
black. In early spring the hibernating individuals that survived the
winter continue their growth to maturity. When mature1lhe male
emerges from underneath his \vaxy scale as a small two-winged inSect,
but the legless, wingless, eyeless, saclike female remains under her
scale where she is fertilized by the male which then dies. She remains
alive under her scale for a period of about six weeks during which time
she gives birth to 200 or more living young. It is possible for an
overwintering female to give rise to over 2,000,000,000 young in a single
favorable season. The young,nearly microscopic, orange-yellowish
nymphs or larvae crawl about for a few hours and then insert
their beaks into the plant and .begin to feed. These crawling young
may be transported considerable distances on birds, on insects or by
wind and thus spread over large areas. SOO1), after settling down,
the scale-~ke covering begins tu, be formed over the insect. All the
young scales look alike j but 88 they develop, the two sexes take c,n I
their characteristic forms. In about 30 days from birth the insects

are mature, the male emerges and the females are ready to be fertilized . .
Within three or four days she gives birth to living young, and the
b
}'IG. 124.-Scaleinsects: (a) _San Josll; (b) OY8ter shell. (Gardner. Bradford and Hooker.)
cycle is continued. Under favorable conditions, therefore, anew

generation appears about every five weeks until the advent of cooler
weather. Because the femaies give birth to living young for a period
of six weeks, there is a general overlapping of generations so that in
the fl,lll practically alt stages of development are found simultaneously.
The insects hibernate under their protective scales until favorable

conditions for continued growth occur the next spring. This dif-
ference in the stage of development results in high mortality, and
those insects which were about half developed at the time of hibernat-
ing are the chief ones to survive.
When first found in this country the San Jose scale was greatly
feared. Although it is an expensive pest to combat, it can be kept
under control by its natural enemies and an application of an oil spray
or a strong lime-sulfur spray just before the infested plants start growth
in the spring.
Oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi, L.): The oyster-shell scale is
easily recognized by the scale that covers it and that looks like a
minature elongated oyster shell. The striated shield is noticeably
pointed at one end and gradually increases in width to the other broad
and rounded end. The scale covering the fully developed female
insect is about % in. long which is about twice as long as that covering
the male. With the exceptions of tropical an~ arctic regions this
insect has a world-wide distribution, and there is considerable uncer-
tainty relative to its original home. It apparently was introduced
into the New England colonies at an early date and from there has
spread over a large part of North America. The oyster-shell scale has
a wide range of host plants and is found on fruit plants and many
ornamental trees and shrubs to which it often does more damage than
it does to the fruit plants. Like the San Jose scale it does its damage
by sucking the plant juices from the stems, foliage and fruits. The
insects occur principally on the woody portions of the plant and,
although not so destructive as the San Jose scale, cause the plant to
become weakened and may cause the death of some branches or, in
severe prolonged attacks, the death of the plant.
This sucking insect has a complete metamorphosis. In the cooler
parts of the country there is but one brood per year, but in the warmer
sections two broods occur yearly. The oyster-shell scale passes the
winter in the egg stage underneath the scale that covers the shriveled,
dead female insect. ' There will be from 50 to 100 small, oval, glisten-
ing white eggs under each scale. With the advent of warm weather
the eggs begin to hatch and will continue hatching for a period of about
a week. The length of the period is influenced by temperature, being
shortened by higher temperatures. Because of temperature effects,
the time at which hatching begins :will vary with the locality, but for
any locality hatching of the overwintering eggs will begin about the
time the petals have fallen from the apple blossoms. After hatching
from the egg the light .cream-colored larv,a emerges from underneath
the scale and moves about .for an hour or two. Mter it has found
a suitable location it inserts the hairlike sucking tube into the
plant and begins to feed on the plant juices. The newly hatched
insects may be carried some distance on birds and other insects or may
be blown by the wind. Within three or four hours after settling down
to feed, a white, glistening, cottony secretion begins to cover the insect.
The larva continues to grow and mature and is protected by a scale
that keeps pace with the growth of the insect. The scale becomes
brown and shows the characteristic concentric markings of the scale
covering the mature insect. The female remains under the scale
permanently; but the males, of which there seems to be a very small
number, emerge as small two-winged adults, fertilize the females
before they are fully developed and die. The body of the female
becomes distended with eggs and fills the entire area underneath the
scale. When mature the female begins laying eggs, which operation
extends over a period of about a month. AB the eggs are laid, the
body of the insect becomes smaller and smaller until all the eggs are
laid when the female dies.
In regions where there is but one brood yearly these eggs do not
hatch until the following spring. Where there are two broods yearly,
all the stages are speeded up somewhat, and it is the second brood of
eggs that winters over. In regions where there are two broods there
is a period of about eight or ten weeks between hatching of the first
and second brood.
The oyster-shell scale has a number of natural enemies which assist
materially in keeping it within manageable limits. The · most satis-
factory control is obtained by spraying late in the dormant period
with either lime-sulfur or oil at the strengths recommended for a
dormant application.
Aphid species: Aphids, or plant lice, are common on a large number
of horticultural plants. Different species attack different crop plants,
and there is practically no crop that is entirely free from the attack
of one or more species. Each species occurs in several different forms,
but there is a general similarity in their habits and life cycles. They
i ar~ PlQst generally known and recognized as the small, soft-bodied,
wingless insects of varying sizes that are found near the tips of shoots
or on the-under surfaces of leaves that are cr,.led to a greater or lesser
degree. Aphids are world-wide in their distribution. Various species
are native to different countries, but now they are widely disseminated
from one country to another. There is a large number of different
kinds of aphid, but the number of different kinds of host plants attacked
by each species is limited to one or a very small number of closely
by
related forms. The aphids are sucking insects and do their damag e
sucking the plant juices from the leaves, stems, roots or fruits. They
feed principally on the younger, tender growing parts of the plant,
to
checking the growth of the plant and fruits, causing the leaves
become distort ed and curl downward and producing a malfor mation
by
on the roots attacke d. The presence of aphids is often indicat ed
d
the presence of ants which are attacte d by the "honey dew" excrete
by the aphids.
FIG. 125.-Di agramm atic sketch of aphid penetrat ing leaf.
The aphids have a remark able and varied life cycle. The same
per
species may exhibit several forms. The numbe r of generations
year varies greatly . Aphids pass the winter in the egg stage. The
eggs are small and of some species slightly oval and develop a shiny
.
black color by spring. As the weathe r warms up, they hatch and give
rise to wingless females which are termed "stem mother s." Upon
by
hatchin g, the young nymph s move about quite activel y and feed
sucking the plant juices from the succulent growths. After passing
t
throug h several molts the stem mother becomes mature and withou
the case of
being fertilized begins to give birth to living young. In
s
the green-apple aphis (Aphis pomi) this period of development require
about three weeks. The stem mother may live for a period of about
In
four weeks and produce 40 or more winged or wingless females.
ed until the
this fashion a succession of generations may be produc
are
approa ch of cool fall weathe r ~hen the male and female forms
produced. In some of these generations winged forms are produced

which in some types provide only ameans of distribution, whereas in
other types they serve also as a means of changing to different kinds
of host plants. The egg-laying females are wingless and much smaller
and more active than the females that give birth to living young. In
some species the males are winged, and in other wingless. There is a
very small percentage of males, and it is probable that many of the
females are never fertilized. The length of life of the female and the
number of eggs deposited will vary, but in A. pomi she will live about
7 days and lay about three eggs. The eggs that are not destroyed
hatch the following spring, producing stem mothers, and the yearly
cycle is repeated. This description of the yearly cycle of the aphids
applies to all the different types in a general way, but the yearly life
cycle will vary with the particular species of aphis.
Aphids have several natural enemies which, together with unfavor-
able climatic conditions, may often make additional control measures
unnecessary. As aphids are sucking insects, they can be controlled
by contact insecticides. The substance most generally used is a form
of nicotine. Proprietary compounds containing rotenone and some
oil sprays are used also. The spray should be applied just as the eggs
have hatched in the spring, using the dilution recommended by the
manufacturer of the product being used. Later applications may be
necessary .
Miscellaneous Lower Animals.-A few of the lower animals are
considered as pests to horticultural plants. Of these ants often prove
troublesome to lawns but nematodes are the most destructive.
ANTs.-Ants are so common and so universally distributed that
they are well known. There are many different kinds most of which
are beneficial to man, but some become troublesome by building their
nests in garden or lawn.
The ant has a complete metamorphosis: the egg, larva, pupa and
adult. There are three classes or groups of adults: the workers, the
queens and the males. Even within the same species considerable
variation occurs in these forms. Except for the newly emergoo-males .
and females, ants are wingless. The males die soon after ·mating~_
the females start a new colony and lose their wings. This life ~'
important in determining the efficiency of control measures. Ants are
generally controlled by repellents, contact insecticides, stomach poisons
and fumigants. Contact insecticides, as pyrethrum and nicotine, are
used but are usually not effective, since the nest, or colony, is not
destroyed. Various stomach poisons combined with sugar, honey or
grease may be used. There are a number of commercial preparations
of this nature. As this poison must be carried to the nest in order to
destroy the brood and queen, it is not usually so effective 88 using a
fumigant on the nest such as carbon disulfide or calcium cyanide.
Using a sharp-pointed stick about the diameter of the little finger,
make holes in the ant nest about 8 to 12 in. apart to a depth of 6 or 8 in.
Pour a tablespoonful of carbon disulfide into each hole, and close the
hole by pressing the soil together. When all holes have been treated,
a wet burlap or canvas covering should be placed over the nest to
retard the escape of the gas. Carbon disulfide should be handled with
care, as it is a highly volatile, inflammable liquid and upon vaporizing
and mixing with air is highly explosive. Calcium cyanide powder, a
powerful and dangerous poison, may be used in a similar fashion.
NEMATODEs.-Nematodes (eelworms, or roundworms), which are
much lower in the animal kingdom than insects, are very small,
slender, round, threadlike worms which live in and on plants through-
out the year. There is a very large number of different kinds, many of
which apparently are not injurious to economic plants~ They are
abundant and widely distributed but are best adapted to regions with
a mild climate. They are destructive to greenhouse plants every-
where &.nd to plants outdoors in the South Atlantic states, the Gulf
states and parts of California. They do considerable damage to many
fruits and ornamentals and to most vegetables by causing poor stands,
reduced yields and weakened vitality with its accompanying dangers.
Some species feed on but one or a few closely related plants; others
feed indiscriminately on a wide assortment of plants. They work on
all parts of the plant, but one widely distributed and probably the
most injurious species (I1eterodera radicicola, Greef.) feeds on the roots
of a large variety of plants, causing characteristic swellings or galls
which have received the descriptive name of "root knot."
This nematode has a life cycle somewhat like that of an insect with
a complete metamorphosis. In the warmer areas there may be as
many as 12 generations per year, but in the cool northern limits of its
habitat there may be but 3 or 4 generations annually. The nema-
tode passes the winter in the egg stage which is very resistent to
unfavorable environmental conditions. The colorless, transparent,
oval eggs are microscopic in size, each being about ~50 in. long. The
fine hairlike, microscopic to barely visible worms hatch from these eggs
and make their way into the soil to the young roots of a plant. They
bore their way into the root and feed and develop to maturity. Their
presence in the root causes the characteristic root-knot distortion.
After a time, the length of which is determined largely by environ-
mental conditions, the males mature and fertilize the still immature
306 TEXTBOOK 0' GENERAL HORTICULTURE
females. The females continue to grow, becoming about ~5 in. long

and changing from the cylindrical worm form to a pear shape. They
begin laying eggs at the rate of 10 to 15 per day and continue to do so
until they have laid from 300 to 500 eggs . . The eggs will hatch in 2 to
6 dap or may remain dormant for a long period of time. The period
of time from egg to egg of the different generations during the summer
varies from three to eight weeks.
Since the pest does its damage to the roots of the plant and remains
either in the soil or in the roots within the soil, it is difficult to control.
The <1:estruction of root-infected residues, practicing a two- to fotir-
yeai' crbp rotation and using plants that are resistant to attack, is
beneficial. The most satisfactory means of control is soil sterilization,
but this cannot always be practiced. Hot water, steam and carbon
disulfide are all used as soil-sterilizing agents. Hot water is not satis-
factory for any but small quantities of soil. If a pot or seed flat of
Boil is immersed in boiling water for 5 min., the nematodes will be
destroyed. Soil to be treated with steam should be dry and loose when
a treatment at 14O.to 150°F. for 2 hr. or more will be effective in killing
the nematodes to depths at which the high temperature prevails.
Carbon disulfide has given satisfactory results in greenhouse soils.
One gallon of a stock solution containing 68 per cent carbon disulfide,
26 per cent water and 6 per cent rosin fish-oil soap diluted to 50 gal.
with water and added to the soil at the rate of 1 gal. per square foot
has proved effective. All stages of the nematodes are destroyed
by drying. Nematodes will be killed in soil spread out in a 2-in. layer
in 8. hot dry greenhouse for a period of about 8 days. Recently,
chloropicrin, one of the tear gases, has been used successfully to destroy
the nematodes in seed beds.
PLANT PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
There are many different kinds of plants in both the higher and the
lower forms that are troublesome to horticultural plants.
Higher Plant Pests.-Although there are special cases, such as
dodder, wheN a higher pl~nt may be parasitic and be considered as 8
pest on other plants, the higher plants most troublesome to horticul-
tural plants are those termed "weeds." In the cultivated areas of the
.garden and orchard these weeds can be kept under control by cultiva-
tion and cropping practices, and in the non-cultivated orchards by
mowing and mulching. It is really only in the lawn and in the seed
beds that the horticulturist must make special efforts to control weeds.
Some weeds, as quack grass, are very difficult to control; whereas
others, as dandelion, crab grass and piantain, are eradicated quite
e8Bily. The best control for any lawn weed is a well-grown, propetly
clipped, dense turf of gr8BSes well suited to the soil, clim:ate and loca-
tion. Such turf will crowd out undesirable weeds and inhibit, if it
does not prevent, the young weeds from becoming established. Weed
seeds are destroyed in seed flats and beds by soil sterilization.
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, Weber).-The dandelion, with
its beautiful yellow flowers that so quickly become unsightly fruit
stalks and with its large coarse leaves, is a .too common lawn weed.
Hand digging is a slow and laborious process but if done properly is a
satisfactory method of ridding the lawn of this weed provided suitable
cultural practices are followed to maintain a satisfactory turf. A
small amount of g8Boline placed in the crown of the plant, by means of
an oilcan, will kill the plant. The dandelion can be killed and the
gr8BS left uninjured by one or more applications of an iron sulfate spray.
The spray is made by dissolving lIb. of iron sulfate in 1 gal. of water.
This will cover about 500 sq. ft. of lawn. The first application should
be made just before or just after the dandelions come into bloom.
Two or three additional treatments at lO-day intervals may be neces-
sary. Raking the leaves before spraying injures them and allows
quicker and better action of the chemical. Iron sulfate should not be
used during hot dry weather. This same treatment will kill white clover,
the plantains and other wide-leaved weeds. Dandelions can also be
destroyed by spraying the plants with kerosene. Spray 1 gal. on about
250 sq. ft. of turf. Too heavy an application will kill the gr8BS as well
8B the weeds. Best results will be obtained by spraying in the fall,
8B the kerosene should be applied in cool weather and preferably in
the evening or on cloudy days.
Lower Plant Pests.-Many dise8Bes of horticultural plants are
caused by members of the plant kingdom that belong to the lower
groups. The two kinds most responsible for diseases of horticultural
plants are bacteria and fungi. No attempt will be made to describe
any large number of these plants that cause disease on other plants,
but a few common representative examples will be given of those
bacteria and fungi which attack horticultural plants.
Bacteria.-Technically bacteria are a subdivision of fungi. They
are minute one-celled plants sometimes called" fission fungi" because
of their common method of reproduction. Bacteria do not possess
green coloring matter or chlorophyll.
FIRE BLIGHT (Bacillus amyloflOrus, Burrill).-The term "fire
blight" is very descriptive of the appearance of the injury done to the
foliage, shoots, spurs and flowers of apple 'and pear trees by this
bacterium. The dise8Be affects all parts of the plant both above- and
belowground. The injury to the tips of the shoots and their foliage
is the most conspicuous.
The disease is more prevalent during warm, humid weather on
vigorously growing trees in fertile, moist soil. The bacterium is appar-
ently native to eastern North America where it lived on the wild crab
apple and a few other native plants. The planting of apple and pear
orchards furnished a very satisfactory and more abundant host. The
FIG. 126.-Fire blight on apple. (comeU University A(JTicuUural Experiment Stal.ion.)
disease occurs generally in the apple- and pear-growing sections

throughout North America. It is most destructive in the warmer
area of the country and especially serious in the pear orchards of Cali-
fornia. Apparently it ha.'l been introduced into Europe, as it has been
reported in Italy. Its favorite host plant seems to be the cultivated
pear, but it is found also on the apple and quince; some of the drupe
fruits, as the plum and apricot; some of· the ornamental trees, as
l
hawtho rn and mount ain ash; and a few miscellaneous plants. Natura
infectio n has been found only on plants of the Rose family.
Fire blight does the greates t amoun t of damag e to the cultiva ted
pear. Pear growing has been abando ned in certain areas owing largely
con-
to the damag e done by this disease. Twig blight is the most
darken -
spicuous illJUry. Early in the growing season there is a rapid
growin g
ing and droopin g of the leaves on the termin als of succul ent
do
shoots and the blacken ing of the shoots themselves. The leaves
normal leaf
not fall from the tree but remain at~ached even long after
to
fall in the autumn . Blossom blight is the most destruc tive injury
foliage on the
the presen t crop. It is the blighti ng of the flowers and
spurs similar to that on the shoots. Trunks or body blight is the most
serious injury in the develo pment of the canker ed areas on the trunk
not
and large limbs, as these furnish sources for new infection and, if
controlled, will result in the death of the plant.
This bacteri um winters over in the canker ed areas on the twigs,
the
limbs and trunks of the infected plant. It survive s mostly in
twig canker s may
larger cankers, but in favored localities many of the
be active. Both primar y and second ary infection occur in the blos-
the
soms. Just before or at the time the blossoms are opening in
" contain ing large numbe rs of
spring, gelatinous secretions, or "ooze,
ed region where the dis-
bacteri a appear about the edge of the canker
eased area is separa ted from the non-diseased. Heavy rains will wash
the
this bacteri a-conta ining secretion on to the flowers directly below
canker and cause them to become infecte d. A few insects , as certain
the
flies, aphids and ants, will feed on this exudat e and then infest
blossoms which are most susceptible to infectio n the first 2 days after
h
opening. The bacteri a enter the flowers throug h wounds or throug
rapidly under warm, humid conditi ons.
natura l openings and multip ly
to
Second ary infection of the flowers which takes place from blossom
insects -largel y the honeyb ee. Rain is of
blossom is carried on by
but little if any import ance as a direct agent of second ary blossom
the
infection. The growing shoots may be infecte d any time during
ary
growing season, as they are subject to both primar y and second
largest .
infection. The primar y infection is usually slight, as the
of but
numbe r of shoot infections .occur after blossoming. Rain is
slight import ance in shoot infection, but aphids and other such insects
a to
that feed on the bacteri a-conta ining exudat e transfe r the pacteri
bacteri a gain
the leaves and tips of tender rapid-growing shoots. The
entranc e throug h wounds or natura l openings.
-
For many years the most common and effective means for control
been cutting out and
ling fire blight in apple and pear orchard s has
destroy ing the diseased parts. Since the disease moves downw
ard,
the affected shoot, twig or limb should be remove d several inches below
the appare ntly diseased area. On the larger limbs only the canker
ed
area is remove d. This is done by cutting away the diseased bark
and
some that is appare ntly healthy down to the wood. The holdov
er
blight canker s are remove d during the dorma nt season, and the infecte
d
shoots during the growing season. It is possible to control some of
the
early infections that do not show discoloration of the inner bark
by
removi ng only the outer bark. This work should be done by mid-
summe r. All tools used and all wound s made in an effort to control
the
disease should be treated with a disinfe ctant at once. A pint of suit-
able disinfe ctant can be made by adding 2 oz. of glycerin to 14 oz.
of
water and then adding two each of the 7.3 gr. of mercuric chloride
and
mercuric cyanid e tablets carried by druggists. This is a deadly poison.
It should be kept only in glass or earthen ware containers. Some
success is being obtaine d by paintin g or drench ing the canker ed areas
with zinc chloride solution, but this may result in injury to the tree.
Sprayi ng with a dilute, 1-3-50 Bordea ux mixtur e or dusting with 20-80
copper lime has been found effective in reducin g blossom infectio
n.
[f but one applica tion is made, it is given during full bloom.
CROWN GALL (Pseudomonas tume/aciens, (E. F. S. & Town)
Dugga r).-Cro wn gall is a bacteri al disease caused by P. tume/aciens.
The common sympto m of the disease is the presence of wartlik e growth
s
of various sizes on the trunk and roots of the plant. The galls
are
found most frequen tly on the stem of the plant at or near the surface
of the soil, but in some plants they are found on the roots at varying
depths and at various distanc es from the trunk. Galls may be found
on the trunk and main branch es at some distanc e in the air.
The
bacteri um that causes this disease is widely distrib uted in the fruit-
.
growing district s of the United States. It attacks apples, peache
s,
raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, grapes, roses and many other
kinds of plants, especially rosaceous plants. There appear to
be
different strains of the organism that attack specific kinds of plants
and cause charact eristic sympto ms.
The organism gains entranc e into the plant throug h wounds
.
With fruit trees it is chiefly a nursery disease, because infection takes
place throug h the graft union at the time of propag ating or shortly
after planting, and the disease can be detecte d and the plant destroy
ed
before the plant leaves the nursery . Not all the wartlik e growth
s at
the graft union are caused by this organism. Many of them
~e
merely out growths of tissue due to defective graft unions. On
the
smaller plants the galls do considerable damage by distorti ng
and
restrict ing the vascular tissues, thus interfering with the normal flow
for
of water and materials in the plant. The galls also use plant food
result in a genera l weaken ing or
their own growth. These injuries
affected . The first slight swellin g
drying up of the parts of the plant
increases in size very rapidly, changi ng from a light-co lored, soft tissue
to a dark-brown, hard, woody, irregular outgro wth. The galls may
decay, thus liberat ing immense numbers of bacteri a which can survive
in the soil appare ntly for 'at least one season.
The disease is usually controlled by plantin g disease-free stock.
With tree fruits it is comparatively easy to detect it before the plants
en
are set in the orchard, although callus outgrowths may be mistak
With the smaller plants, as the brambl es,
for crown-gall infection.
that have been in the nursery but a compa rativel y short time the
presence of the disease may not be detecte d so easily. In this case the
,
plant should come from healthy plants growing on disease-free soil.
They should be planted on land that has been croppe d for two or three
years to corn or other crop that is not attacke d by the disease. After
planting, care should be exercised to avoid injury to the roots and stems
by cultura l operations, as the organism gains entranc e into toe plant
throug h wounds.
Fungi .-Fung i have more than one cell, are much larger than
g
bacteri a and reproduce in different ways. Fungi lack green colorin
matter so necessarily are depend ent on other plants or animal s for their
food. If they obtain their food from dead plant or animal tissue, they
are termed "sapro phytes "; but if they obtain their food from living
plants or animals, they are termed " parasit es." In obtaini ng their food
and living on and within the host they bring about the diseased condi-
tion of the plant or animal host.
ApPLE SCAB (Venturia inaequalis, Cke.). -Apple scab, the most
lly
universal and destruc tive fungous disease of the apple, is most genera
recognized by the characteristic blemishes that it causes on the fruit.
The spots are small at first but enlarge slowly from the edge. The
of
center becomes dark brown, and the edge black. A whitish band
loose cuticle often surrounds the black margin . BecaUs e of drying
of the apple tissue in the diseased area, cracks may occur in tne centers
y
of the larger spots. Apple scab appare ntly is presen t in every countr
where apples are grown, but as with most fungou s trouble s, it is most
destruc tive in warm humid areas. The disease occurs on many
species of the' apple. It attacks the leaves, flowers, fruitS and to some
extent the twigs. It will be o1>served first as darker areas on the
underside of the young leaves. Diseased areas will be found on the
shoots and on the stems of the young fruits. Later the charac teristic
diseased areas of various sUes and degrees of development will

be
found on the fruit. In severe cases the diseased fruit is misshapen and
smaller in size than the non-diseased fruit.
In the fall the diseased leaves drop to the ground, and the over-
wintering stage develops within them. In the spring this phase of the
life cycle is completed within the fallen leaves with the development
of
spores known as "ascos pores." These spores mature about the time
the apple flowers show pink. As the leaves become moistened by the
spring rains, the spores are discharged into the air. This dischar
ge
from the various leaves may continue fora period of 8 to 30 days
-Wintering on foliage ' -

_"'" ,...p_er_it_h_eC
Matu re Glsci _iu_m_o_n_Ie_a_f_ _ _--,
GlOO ascospores
Ear(y infection 1
~~
-Later conidial iriredion Conidia -Manner of -.-
ascospore infection
FIG. 127.-Li fe cycle of apple scab.
depending upon the abunda nce of diseased foliage and the frequen
cy
and extent of rains. The wind carries thes~ small spores to the leaves
where, in the presence of moisture, they germinate and penetra
te
directly. This is known as "prima ry infection." Growth of the
f~~ continues, and within' a period of 8 to 17 days, depend
ing largely
upon the temperat~e, the conidium, a. new type of spore, develops
in
this infeCted area~ .The conidia are discharged throug h the rupture
d
leaf covering. · These spores give rise to new sources of infection
on
shoots, leaves and fruit known as "secon dary infection." These
infected areas in' turn produce conidia which .are spread to new areas.
Under moist warm climatic conditions this production anddis semina
-
tion of spores continues throug hout the growing season so that there
is
a .consta nt source of infection. With the approach of cool weather the
formation of the conidia cease, and after a time the diseased leaves fall
to the ground and the annual cycle of the disease is completed.
The only satisfactory means of controlling apple scab is by spraying
or dusting with a suitable fungicide, as some form of sulfur or copper.
If primary infection could be controlled completely, there would be no
secondary infection; but since such control is not usually obtained, the
fungicide must be applied throughout the growing season if the climatic
conditions are favorable for the continued development of apple scab.
BROWN ROT [Sclerotinafructicola (Wint.) Rehm].-Brown rot is the
most common fungous disease of the stone fruits. It is most generally
recognized by its appearance on ripe or nearly ripe fruit where it
produces a greyish-brown, moldy growth accompanied by the browning
and decaying of the fruit underneath. It is this condition that gives
the disease the common name of "brown rot." Some species of this
fungus seem, to be present over the entire world where drupe fruits
are grown, but this particular species is prevalent in the United States
and Canada. It is found especially on the peach, plum, cherry and
apricot but may appear on the apple, pear and other members of the
rose family. It is most prevalent and does its greatest damage in
warm humid areas such as those in the Eastern and especially the
Southeastern part of the United States where peaches are grown exten-
sively. This fungus attacks the flowers, foliage, twigs and fruit but is
most conspicuous and most destructive on the ripening fruit.
The blossoms are infected about the time they are opening. They
turn brown, die and remain attached to' the tree. Blossom blight in
itself is usually not sufficiently abundant to be of primary importance,
but it does provide numerous sources for later infestation. The fungus
passes through the floral parts and even the fruits and attacks the
twigs, causing twig blight, or canker. This, similar to the blossom
blight, is not important in itself except that it furnishes additional
sources for infection. Under optimum conditions for the growth of the
fungus the leaves near the diseased flowers and fruits are attacked, thus
providing additional sources for the production of spores that may
infest the ripening fruit. This disease is essentially a fruit rot, and the
most damage is done to the ripe or nearly ripe fruit. The young green
fruit is fairly resistant, but the fungus can gain entrance through
mechanical injuries, by direct contact with infested parts of the flower
or through punctures in the skin made by insects of .which the plum
curculio is the chief offender. The partially ripe and ripe Lruits are
more readily infested than the green fruit, and the fungus grows much
more rapidly in such fruits. Infection can take place through unin-
jured epidermis, but it occurs most commonly where the skin is bruised
or broken. The tiny brown speck develops rapidly, and the disease
penetrates deeply into the fruit. Under favorable conditions of high
temperature and high humidity the fungus will form spores on the
outside of the diseased fruit within 48 hr. after infection. These
spores, like those from the flowers, leaves and cankered twigs, will be
carried to other fruits where they may start new places of infection.
Some of the diseased fruits may shrink into dry hard "mummies"
which may remain attached to the tree until the following summer, and
some may drop to the ground.
FIG. 128.-Brown rot on plu~.
The fungus can winter over in three places: the persistent mummies
on the tree t the mummies on the ground and, under favorable circum-
stances, the cankered areas on twigs. In the spring, about the time
when the peach is in bloom, spore-bearing organs arise from the half-
buried mummies on the ground, and ascospores are produced in large
numbers during the blooming period of the peach. They are carried
by the wind to the newly opened flowers. Under favorable conditions
the spores will germinate in 4 to 6 hr. and produce the primary blossom
infection. Primary infection of flowers or, more generally, young
fruits can also take place from the spores (conidia) that either wintered
over or are formed in the spring in the mummies attached to the tree.
The primary infections soon give rise to millions of spores which are
carried by wind, rain, insects and birds to new locations where they
germinate quickly, and new sources of infestation ate formed which
repeat the cycle. These activities are occurring at the same time.
Although something will be gained by destroying the mummies,
by picking them from the trees and ploughing under those on the
ground and by pruning out the canimred areas, the only practicable
means of control is by spraying or dusting with a suitable fungicide.
Since the fruit becomes more susceptible as it becomes more mature,
it should be thoroughly covered with a suitable sulfur fungicide while
it is maturing.
BLACK ROT OF GRAPE [Guignardia lridwellii (Ellis) , Viala and

Ravazl.-Black rot is the most serious fungous disease of the grape.
Its most readily recognized symptom is the hard, shriveled and wrin-
kled berries (" mummies") many of which remain attached to the vine
even during winter. This fungus was apparently indigenous to
North America and lived on the native species of the grape. It was
distributed from North America to Europe, and today probably no
grape-growing region in the world is free from it excepting California
where the climatic conditions appear to be unsatisfactory for its
perpetuation. It attacks all members of the grape family. The
European species of the grape are much less resistant than those which
were native to North Allierica. All green parts of the grape vine are
attacked.
The disease appears on the leaves in the latter part of the growing
season as small brown to black spots showing concentric rings of darker
color. Spore-bearing bodies arise in these dark areas on the upper side
of the leaf. The lesions on the shoot, tendrils and stems of the fruit
cluster are not so noticeable. On the berries the disease first appears
as a light circular spot with one or more encircling dark bands. Black
spore-bearing specks appear in the lighter center, and the berry begins
to shrivel. Shriveling and drying continue for about 10 days, when
the berry has the characteristic mummy appearance.
The fungus winters over in mummied berries and in lesions on the
canes, leaf petioles and fruit clusters. Absorption of water in the
spring results in the discharge of the spores which, under moist condi-
tions, germinate and penetrate any green part of the plant. Older
leaves seem to be immune, but the berry is especially susceptible just
as it loses the corolla cap and remains susceptible during the entire
season. Within a period of 10 to 20 days these new lesions give rise
to spores which in turn disseminate the disease to additional sources of
infection. This discharge of spores continues until sometime in August
when the fungus prepares for winter conditions.
The removal and destruction of fallen foliage, vine prunings and
mummied berries and provisions for air drainage to facilitate the rapid
drying of the vines after rains will all assist in controlling the fungus,
but the disease can be controlled by the timely applications of a copper
fungicide, as Bordeaux mixture. Since spores are discharged only
after rains and germinate only in moisture, the disease will he more
destructive and consequently will require more attention in seasons of
high humidity.
ApPLE BLOTCH (Phyllosticta solitaria E. and E.).-This fungus
attacks the fruits, leaves and twigs of its host the apple and is readily
316 TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL .HORTICULTURE
recognized by the stellar, or star-shaped, appearance of the fungus,on

the apple fruit. Raised, black spore-bearing bodies radiate in lines
from a common center, giving the appearance of a bird's foot. This
fungus apparently is indigenous to the United States and lives on the
native susceptible crab apples. It is now common in the apple-grow-
ing sections of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains chiefly
south of 400 north latitude. Apple blotch is restricted to certain
species of the apple, and some of the commercial varieties of the apple
are much more susceptible to the disease than others.
The fungus passes the winter in a comparatively inactive state in
the cankered areas of the twigs. Growth is resumed in the early
spring, and spores are produced and matured about the time the petals
fall from the apple blossoms. In case of high humidity these spores are
exuded from the diseased areas and are washed by rains to the foliage,
fruit and shoots where they germinate, grow and produce the primary
infection. These new lesions develop for a period of about three weeks
when they give rise to spores which in turn cause the secondary infec-
tion that continues the life cycle of the fungus. The lesions on the
fruit and foliage as well as those on the old cankered twigs will furnish
spores for new infections until about August, at which time the foliage
and fruit appear to develop a condition of immunity. The new infec-
tions on the shoots that give rise to the cankers are not apparent until
about August. This infection appears first as small purplish cankers
and is caused chiefly by the growth of the fungus through the leaf
petiole into the twig, although infection does take place on the shoots
directly through the bark. The fungus grows rapidly in these cankered
areas until the coming of cool weather in the fall when it enters a resting
stage. The cankered areas on twigs give rise to viable spores the
following year and may continue as sources of infection for five or six
years.
Since some varieties of apples are much more suscept.ible to injury
from apple blotch than others, the more immune varieties can be
selected. . A certain amount of control can be obtained by pruning
out the cankers at the regular pruning, but it is impracticable to
attempt to control the disease in this fashion, because the cankers are
too numerous. It can be controlled satisfactorily by applying a suit-
able fungicide at the proper times. The most important single applica-
tion would be made about 10 days after petal fall, for it is at that time
that primary infection is taking place from the hold over cankers.
ANTHRACNOSE (Plectodiscella veneta, Burk).-Anthracnose is prob-
ably the most destructive fungous disease of the black raspberry. It
is most readily recognized by the small, eliptical, light-colored lesions
with a dark margin that are found mostly near the base of the canes.
The original home of the disease is undetermined, as it seems to be
present in Europe, Australia and North America wherever its host plants
grow. It attacks various species of Rubus, as the raspberries, black-
berries and dewberries. It is most destructive on the black raspberry.
The purple cane types are also susceptible, but the red raspberry is
fairly resistant. The fungus attacks the canes, leaves, fruits and
petioles, peduncles and pedicels.
The fungus winters over in the lesions on the canes. Early the
next spring its growth is continued in these lesions, and spores (asco-
SPQres and conidia) are produced. About the time the new shoots are
6 to 8 in. high these spores are carried by the air currents or water to
the new growth where they germinate, penetrate the host plant and
produce new lesions. In a short time spores (conidia) are produced
from these new lesions and are carried by water to new areas of the
plant where they, in turn, attack the young tissues. This continues
during spring and summer.
The disease first appears in the spring as small, purplish, slightly
raised spots a short distance behind the tips of the new shoots when
they are about 6 in. high. As the shoot grows and the disease develops,
the spots enlarge, becoming sunken and light colored in the center with
a raised dark margin about the edge. The elliptical lesions have their
long axes up and down the shoot; but after a time several lesions may
coalesce, forming irregular lesions which may encircle the shoot. As
the shoot matures into a cane, longitudinal cracks may appear in the
diseased areas. About the same time or a little after the lesions appear
on the shoots, small purplish spots with light-colored centers will be
found scattered over the upper surface of the leaf. Later in the season
some of these diseased spots may drop out, giving a "shot-hole"
effect. The 'disease may attack individual drupelets or cause the
entire fruit to become brown and woody. The lesions on the petioles,
peduncles and the pedicels are similar to but smaller than those on the
shoots. These diseased conditions on the leaves and shoots weaken
the plant, thus decrea,;ing the yield. Disease of the peduncles and
pedicels -prevents the proper development of the fruit and may cause
it to dry up before ripening.
Although the removal of all portions of the old cane at the time of
setting a new planting, the selection of resistant varieties and good
cultural practices to promote satisfactory growth and the elimination
- of weeds will assist in keeping the disease in check, this fungous disease
can be cO.ntrolled satisfactorily by spraying with .Bordeaux mixture or
lime-sulfur. Two applications of lime-sulfur will usually prove ade-
quate. The first one is a 1-10 concentration given just as a few of the
leaves unfold in the spring, and the second a 1-40 concentration given
about one week before blossoming.
ApPLE RUST (Gymnosporangium juniperi-rtirginianae, Schw.).-
Under favorable climatic conditions apple rust proves to be a destruc-
tive fungous disease on susceptible varieties of the cultivated apple.
The disease is interesting in having alternate hosts. It spends one
phase of its life cycle on the red cedar and its closely related cedars
and the other stage on the various species of the apple. It is readily
recognized on the apple leaf by the. bright orange spots on the upper
surface and the yellowish-brown, elongated, curved appendages arising
from this diseased area on the undersurface of the leaf. On the red
cedar and its close relatives, the disease is recognized by the reddish-
brown ga.11s ("cedar apples"), which in the spring exude bright
orange-colored gelatinous masses.
This disease is common throughout the central part of the United
States and throughout the eastern United States and Canada. It is
present wherever the apple and red cedar are grown in proximity to one
another. It is most destructive on the commercial apple, but some
varieties are much more susceptible than others. Cedar rust causes
injuries to apples, which necessitates their being discarded at time of
packing; it causes a decrease in size of fruits and, by its injury to the
foliage, weakens the vigor of the tree.
The fungus winters over in the reddish-brown, corky cedar apples
on the red cedars. During the warm spring rains numerous orange-
colored, gelatinous, finger-like projections develop from these cedar .
apples. Upon drying, the spores produced in this gelatinous mass are
carried by the wind to the foliage and fruit of the apple. Those which
light on young fruits and young leaves germinate under favorable.
conditions of moisture and temperature and produce the conspicuous,
somewhat circular, yellow- to orange-colored spots on the upper side
of the apple leaf which may attain a diameter of a 72 in. Late in the
summer elongated, slightly curved, yellowish-brown appendages arise
from these diseased areas on the underside of the leaf. On the apple
fruit the disease produces yellowish-orange, more or less circular spotS- ·
which vary in size from about ~ in. to the entire side of the fruit.
Small, circular, dark, raised areas appear in. the diseased area. The
infection from the. red cedars may extend over a period of about six
weeks. About two months after infection has taken place on the
apple, spores are produced which during the remainder of the season
are carried by the wind to the red cedar where they cause reinfection
on the YOUl'g growth. No noticeable indication of infection on the
cedar is apparent for nearly a year, and it requires two years for the full
development of the gall.
The disease can be controlled by planting resistant varieties of
apples and destroying all red cedars and their close relatives within a
radius of Yz mile of the apples. It can be controlled by the use of sulfur
or copper sprays similar to those used for the control of apple scab.
Virus Diseases of Horticultural Plants.-A group of characteristic
diseases of horticultural plants is caused by substances known as
"viruses." The diseased conditions were recognized for a long time
before the cause was known. They were believed to be physiological
because something was obviously interfering with the normal function-
ing of the plant, but no causal organism could be detected. Even yet
very little is known of the exact nature of a virus except that it can be
carried in various ways from a diseased to a healthy plant and that
the healthy plant will soon exhibit the characteristic symptoms of the
diseased plant. Insects are common carriers of the disease from one
plant to another, but in many cases the carrying agent is as yet undeter-
mined. All we can say definitely is that a virus is a substance that,
under suitable conditions, causes characteristic diseased symptoms in a
plant. The general control measures for this group of diseases are
prevention of mechanical transmission, spraying to control insect
carriers, elimination of weed hosts and diseased plants, rotation of
crops and attempts to develop resistant varieties.
Peach Yellows.-Peach yellows is a very destructive virus disease
of the peach. It not only reduces the yield on diseased trees but
necessitates their destruction to prevent spreading of the disease. The
symptoms are readily recognized. Bunches of fine wiry shoots develop
from the upper surfaces of branches. Diseased branches start growth
earlier in the spring than do normal branches. The leaves, though
turgid, will droop, and the edges and tip will roll slightly inward. The
fruit produced on diseased branches will mature a few days early and
will be spotted and mottled with crimson and have more color than
normal about the pit. Peach yellows seems to be confined to the
peach-growing regions east of the Rocky Mountains in North America.
The only satisfactory means of control is the prompt removal and
destruction of the diseased tree when it shows its first symptoms.
Mosaic Diseases.-When attacked by a virus a large number of
plants show a characteristic mottling of the foliage which has been
given the general name of "mosaic disease" with the name of the plant
preceding, as tobacco mosaic, potato mosaic, raspberry mosaic. The
particular virus causing the disease appears to be quite specific for the
particular kind of plant, and a number of different viruses causing
different types of mosaic may attack the same kind of plant.

A
lengthy discussion of these diseases would be inadvisable, but the
raspbe rry mosaic will be used as representative.
There appear .to be several different viruses, each of which produces
a mosaic condition in the raspbe rry plant. Mosaic diseases as a group
are the most destruc tive of all raspbe rry troubles. The prevalence
of
this disease has caused the abando nment of commercial raspbe rry
FIG. 129.-Mo saic on leaf of Latham raspberr y. (Michiga n Agricultu ral Expe1'iment
Station.)
culture in many areas. Raspbe rry mosaic, in some form, appears

to
be distrib uted universally in the raspberry-growing sections of North
America. It is very destruc tive on red raspberries, black raspberries
and purple cane raspberries but less so on de" iJerries and blackberries.
SymptOlns range from a mild mottlin g on a few of the leaves to
dwarfing and to very pronounced mottlin g in many leaves accom-
panied by irregular, brown, dead areas in the foliage and a production
of rosettes. The mottlin g is a yellowing due to the absence of chloro-
phyll. It is probable that these different symptoms and varying

degrees of the same symptom are caused by more than one virus.
The virus is transmitted by species of aphids. Satisfactory control
measures are obtaining disease-free plants, selecting resistant varieties
and removing and destroying plants as soon as symptoms appear.
Review Questions
1. How can one promote a favorable "natural balance" for the plants that
he is attempting to grow?
2. What various parts of horticultural plants are attacked by pests?
S. Name some of the environmental conditions that are detrimental to hor-
ticultural plants.
4. Why is the loss likely to be unusually heavy shortly after a new pest has
been introduced into a locality? '
11. Classify the animal pests that are injurious to horticultural plants.
6. Give an example of each type of animal pest that is injurious to horticul-
tural plants.
7. Give the life cycle of an insect that has a complete metamorphosis.
8. Classify the plant pests that are injurious to horticultural plants.
9. Give an example of each type of plant pest that is injurious to horticultural
plants.
10. Give the life cycle of a fungus that causes a diseased condition on a specific
horticultural plant.
11. Are viruses considered to be plants or animals?
12. What is a general symptom of plants affected with a virus?
Problems
1. A diseased horticultural plant or plant product has been brought to you for
diagnosis. After careful examination, you stated that the trouble was - - .
State the specific factors that convinced you of the identity of the trouble.
2. You have a commercial apple orchard in a region where the codling moth is a
serious problem. State the procedure that you would follow in determining the
times at which you would apply sprays to combat the pest.
S.- You have been spraying your apple trees each year for the control of apple
scab. You have sprayed on the same dates during the past two years and have
used the same crew machinery and materials. You had excellent control one year
but very poor control the next year. Explain.
1. MELHUS, I. E., and G. C. Kent, "Elements of Plant Pathology," The Mac-
millan Company, New York, 1939.
2. METCALF, C. L., and W. P. Flint, "Destructive and Useful Insects,"
3. PIRONE, P. P., Diseases of Ornamental Plants, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir.,
385: 1-80, 1939.
4. THOMPSON, H. C., "Vegetable Crops," pp. 144-157, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1939.
5. WHITE, E. A., "The Florist Business," pp. 202-219, 220-235, The Macmillan
CHAPTER XVI
CONTROLLING PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
Ever since man first selected certain plants that he wished to pre-
serve, he has attempted to protect them from their various pests. His
first conscious effort was probably in selecting the plants that seemed,
under natural conditions, to withstand best the attacks of the pests.
His next step was the use of purely physical means of protection by
the manual destruction or exclusion of the pest. Finally as his knowl-
edge of the pest and of chemicals increased, the latter were used to
protect the plants. The means now employed to protect horticultural
plants may be considered conveniently under the two methods of
natural means of control and artificial means of control.
NATURAL MEANS OF CONTROLLING HORTICULTURAL PESTS
Natural means of control of horticultural pests are those factors
which are operative without the assistance of man. These would
include the inherent resistance, or immunity, of the plant; environ-
mental conditions, as unfavorable temperature, moisture and light; and.
the natural plant and animal enemies of the horticultural pest. Th~
last are often spoken of as "biological control."
RESISTANCE AND IMMUNITY
It is a commonly known fact that among different varieties of the

same kind of plants various d(:)grees of resistance, even to the state of
immunity, will be exhibited toward adverse environmental conditions
and to plant and animal pests. Different degrees of resistance will be
exhibited by the same kind of plant at different ages, by the same plant
at different seasons of the year and by different parts of the same plant
in different stages of growth or development of the plant or plant part.
The exact cause or causes of resistance and immunity are not known.
Certainly some of them are hereditary. They may be either physical
or chemical or both physical and chemical. The thickness of the
cuticle and cell walls, the size and abundance of stomates and lenticles,
the presence and abundance of pubescense and other physical struc-
tures of the plant and many other factors may contribute to resistance,
or immunity, to attacks by plant and animal pests. The chemical
composition of various parts of the plant may serve as a barrier to the
322
CONTROLLING PESTS OF HORTI CULTU RAL PLANT S 323
germin ation and growth of fungi and the develo pment of bacteri al and
virus disease or may be distasteful, repellent or even toxic to insect
pests. Since both physical and chemical conditions are influenced
an
by nutritio nal conditions of the plant, the growers can exercise
e cultura l practic es.
influence on the resistance and immun ity by suitabl
As a general rule a vigorous plant is more resista nt than a feeble one.
As some of the factors favorable for resistance or immun ity are heredi-
to
tary, progress will be made in improving the resistance of plants
pests by breeding and selecting and by fortuito us mutati ons.
ENVIRO NMENT AL CONDIT IONS
The different plant and animal pests of horticu ltural plants have
various conditions of temper ature, moistu re and light that are favor-
able for . their growth and development. One can select kinds and
varieties of plants and grow them in environments less favorable than
in
others for the surviva l of their pests. This matter was discussed
Chap. Ill.
NATUR AL ENEMI ES OF HORTIC ULTUR AL PESTS
The plant and animal pests that prey upon horticu ltural plants in
l
their turn have plants and animals that prey upon them, so a natura
system of checks and balances exists. Anima ls and insects have been
introdu ced into new territories and have become very destruc tive
to
before their natura l enemies were presen t in sufficient quantit ies
under satisfa ctory control .
keep the introdu ced animal or insect
compe ting fungi and bacteri a.
Fungal and bacteri al diseases also have
of
The horticu lturist encourages the perpetu ation and multip lication
birds, insects, fungi and bacteri a that aid in keepin g the plant and
e
animal pests of horticu ltural plants under control. A classic exampl
anothe r is that of the ladybir d
of one insect used to control
which feeds on certain scale insects that attack citrus trees. The
ladybir ds are raised in large numbers and distrib uted throug h the .citrus
orchards where they destroy the scale insects. A continu ous search
goes on for beneficial bacteria, fungi, insects and higher animals that
l-
can be used to assist in the control of plant and animal pests of horticu
tural crops.
PESTS
ARTIFICIAL MEANS OF CONTROLLING HORTICULTURAL
Under undistu rbed natura l conditions a "natur al balance" will be
mainta ined among the differ"n t plants and animals of that com-
munity . The horticulturist, however, does not grow plants under
natura l unrestr icted conditions. He wHl grow large areas of a single
kind of plant and often a plant that would not be produced, much
less
mainta ined and perpetu ated, under natural conditions. Since
the
horticu lturist wishes to grow specific plants for a definite purpos e
in
large quantit ies under conditions that would not exist in undistu rbed
natura l conditions, he must resort to artificial means to control
the
plant and animal pests harmfu l to the plants that he wishes to grow.
The chief artificial control measures can be conveniently grouped
as
physical, chemical and legal.
PHYSIC AL MEANS OF CONTR OLLING HORTIC ULTURA
L PESTS
Probab ly the first conscious effort that man made to destroy the
pests on the plants that he wished for his own use was the physica
l
destruc tion of the pest causing the trouble or of the diseased plant
or
plant part. This method is still used extensively and in some cases
is
the only effective means known for certain pests. Other physica
l
means of. control are the use of mechanical guards, sanitat ion, cultiva
-
tion of the soil, rotatio n of different crops on the land, pruning, purify-
ing and grading seeds and sterilizing seeds and soil with heat.
Mechanical Guard s.-Wooden, paper or wire guards are placed
about tree trunks to protect them from injury by mice and rabbits
.
Metal bands and bands of various adhesive substances are placed
around the trunks of shade trees to preven t certain types of crawlin
g
insects from climbing the trees. A numbe r of years ago the apple
orchard ist put bands of cloth around the trunks of the trees, and
the
codling moth hiberna ted under these bands and were destroy ed by
the
orchard ist. Cloth bands have been superseded by corrug ated paper
which is impreg nated with a chemical that kills the hiberna ting codling
moths. Many orchard s store their harves ting equipm ent in the fruit-
packin g house and screen all the openings. The following spring
the
codling moths that hiberna ted in the harves ting equipm ent are trappe
d
by the screens and are unable to return to the orchard. Paper coll~rs
are forced a couple of inches into the ground about the stems of tomato
,
and other young vegetable plants to protect them from cutwor
ms.'
Traps are used commonly to catch moles in lawns.
Sanita tion.-I nasmu ch as many of the pests of horticu ltural plants
harbor or winter over in plant refuse, as droppe d leaves and fruits,
weeds and other plants about the trees and in fence rows, its destruc tion
and the elimination of weeds an<;l other harbor ing places are valuab
le
aids in keeping the pests to controllable numbers.
Soil Cultiv ation.- Many of the horticu ltural insect pests spend one
phase of their life cycle in the soil. Dunng this period they can often
be destroy ed by cultiva ting the soil, as this exposes them to their
can'be
enemie s and to unfavo rable climati c conditi ons. Certain pests
destroy ed by plowin g under or disking the infeste d fruits and foliage
that have fallen to the ground .
Crop Rotati on.-Ce rlain insects and disease s live over from season
of the
to season in the soil or the disease d-plant refuse. Since many
it is possibl e to
pests are quite specific in the plants that they attack,
for two or three
destroy them by growin g differe nt plants on the area
.
seasons. This is a well-recognized practic e with the vegeta ble grower
control led entirely ,
Prunin g.-Som e diseases and some insects are
and destroy ing the
or their numbe rs greatly reduced , by prunin g out
pene-
injured part of the plant. Proper prunin g will permit the better
the plant, and many of the
tration of sunligh t into the interio r of
destroy ed by sunligh t. Such
pests, especia lly the fungou s diseases, are
plant
prunin g also permit s the better movem ent of air throug h the
and fruit after rains and in the
which facilita tes the drying of the foliage
have satisfa ctory conditi ons for
mornin gs so that the fungi do not
ly pruned plants permit better pene-
germin ation and growth . Proper
the
tration and coverag e of sprays and dusts that are applied to control
pests.
Purifying and Grading Seeds .-For many years seeds have been
.
cleaned of weed seeds and graded by means of various -sized screens
been done by a curren t of air which sorts the
More recent.ly this has
. By
seeds accordi ng to their difference in weight or specific gravity
is enabled to avoid plantin g the weed seeds, and by
such purifyi ng one
gs is
grading the seeds the possibi lity of obtaini ng more vigorou s seedlin
increas ed.
AL PESTS
CHEMIC AL MEANS OF CONTR OLLING HORTIC ULTUR
us
As man's knowledge of the insects and diseases that were injurio
to plants increas ed, and as his unders tanding of chemis try became
these
greater , he began to use chemicals to repel, control or destroy
unately the chem-
pests and to protect his plants from injury. Unfort
that
icals are themse lves injurio us to the host as well as to the pests, so
al that is entirel y non-
we have not, at the present time, a chemic
t.o the
injurio us to the host plant and at the same time suitabl y t.oxic
plant pest.
It has been noted previou sly t.hat most. of the insects that are
injurio us to horticu ltural plants have either biting or sucking mouth
it
parts. They either bite out a portion of the plant tissue and take
a tube into the plant and suck out
into their digesti ve t.ract or insert
t.he juices from the interio r of the plant. The first group of insects
plant
can be contf011ed by the applica tion of a stomac h poison to the
tissues that the insect eats. The eating is done mostly during
the
larval stage of the life cycle. Since poison cannot be applied
to the
food of the second group of insects, the chemicals used for their control
must come into contac t with the insect and conseq uently are known
as
"conta ct insectic ides." Some of the contac t insecticides will
also
control biting insects and will destroy the eggs of many insects.
Anothe r group of chemic al insecticides which is used for both chewin
g
and sucking insects is known as "fumig ants." This group is volatile
,
or change s into a gas, and kills the insect by contact . Some
of the
commo n contac t insectic ides really change into a gas before they
are
effective. The lines of demarc ation for the differen t types of insecti-
cides are not sharply drawn, but the groupin g into stomac h poisons
,
contac t insectic ides and fumiga nts is conven ient.
The chemic als general ly used to comba t fungi and bacteri a are
a
form or compo und of sulfur or copper, altboug h some miscellaneous
chemic als are used successfully. Since bacteri a usually live within
the
plant tissues, chemic al means of control are usually not effectiv
e, but
sprayin g is someti mes satisfac tory, as in the C8.'3e of Bordea ux mixtur
e
used for the direct control of fire blight.
There are many proprie tary produc ts on the market that are
usually combin ations of substan ces that will comba t biting and sucking
insects and fungou s diseases. These produc ts, when used accordi
ng to
directio ns, are satisfa ctory for the control of the pests for which
they
are designe d. They are used extensi vely, chiefly by those who
need
but a small quanti ty of materia l.
Efforts are being made continu ously to obtain new compo unds
that are toxic to the pest, are non-inj urious to the host, do not
injure
the produc t for human consum ption, are economical to use and can
be
applied satisfac torily. Some progres s is being made in this search,
and
eventu ally some of the chemicals now used may be replace d by others
that are more satisfac tory.
Insect icides. -An insectic ide may he conside red as a chemic al that
is used to control insects. Many differen t chemicals have been
and
are being used to comba t insect pests of horticu ltural plants. These
insecticides· are often classified as stomac h poisons, which are used
to
comba t the insects with biting mouth parts, and contac t insectic
ides,
which are used chiefly against insects with sucking mouth
parts.
Some insectic ides are effective ~gainst hoth types of insect.
Stomach Poisons.-Ma~Y substan ces have been used as stomac h
poisons for biting insects, hut only a compa ratively small numbe
r has
given sufficient satisfac tion to be widely adopte d. The most widely
u~ed chemic al for biting insects ifl a form of
arflenic. Since certain
as
quantit ies of this chemic al, as well as of others, are injurio us to man
been passed limitin g the amoun ts that can
well as to insects , laws have
pres-
be left upon produc ts intende d for human cunsum ption. At the
the most satisfa ctory chemic als to use as
ent time the arsenic als are
insect pests of horticu ltural plants. It
stomac h poisons for biting
to discuss the various arsenic als used, but
would be imprac ticable
The
brief mentio n will be made of a few of the most import ant ones.
arsenic al depend s primar ily upon the amoun t of
relative efficiency of an
arsenic presen t on a given surface .
PARIS GREEN .-Paris green, a complex compo und of copper and
. It
arsenic, is one of the oldest arsenicals used to comba t biting insects
opic
is a beautif ul light-g reen powder compos ed of crystal s of microsc
y.
fineness. It has a high'ar senical conten t and a quick killing capacit
well
It does not mix readily with water, settles rapidly , does not adhere
injury
to the plant but washes off easily in rains and is hkely to cause
It has been used extensi vely on vegetab le crops, espe-
to the plant.
but
cially on the potato for the control of the Colora do potato beetle,
in recent years is being replace d by more satisfa ctory mat erials.
to
CALCIUM A~sENATE.-Calcium arsenat e is a compo und similar
s a
lead arsenat e except that calcium has replace d lead. It contain
uent ly is
higher percen tage of arsenic than lead arsenat e and conseq
It
more toxic. It is a fine powder and is excellent to apply as a dust.
especia lly as a dust,
causes some injury to fruits but is used extensi vely,
per
on vegetab le crops. The calcium arsenat e comprises about 10
cent of the dust mixtur e.
.
LEAD ARsEN ATE.-L ead arsenat e is a compo und of lead and arsenic
acid arsenat e of lead, is the
There are several forms, but the usual one,
h
most widely used and, at present , the most satisfa ctory stomac
plants- especi ally fruits.
poison for biting insects on horticu ltural
fairly
Arsena te of lead is an amorph ous fluffy white powder . It is
propert ies, only slightly soluble in
toxic, modera tely rapid in its killing
s well and may cause some
water, remain s in suspen sion well, adhere
and
injury to the host plant. It is compat ible with many insectic ides
at the rate of 3 lb. in 100 gal. of
fungicides. It is commo nly used
ty of hydrat ed lime. When used as a
solutio n with an equal quanti
the dusting mixtur e is lead arsenat e. l\lix-
dust about 10 per ccnt of
e
hIres ('of lead arsenat e with petrole um-oil emulsio ns and lead arsenat
have recentl y been applied success fully for the
with nicotin e slllfate
late codling -moth attacks .
,
Contact Insecticides.-C ontact insectic ides, or contac t poisons
act
compri se those substan ces which kill the insect by coming into cont
ng
with it. Such insectic ides are wmally used for the control of sucki
insects, but they are also effective against some biting insects
and
agains t insect eggs. The kinds of contac t insecticides vary conside
r-
ably, and the exact manne r in which they cause the death of the insect
or the destruc tion of the egg is unknow n.
NICOTINE.-Nicotine, an extract of tobacco , is a water-soluble,
volatile alkaloi d which is a valuab le insecticide. It is classed
as a
fumiga nt as well as a contac t insecticide. It appear s on the market
under several trade names. Nicotin e sulfate is a browni sh-blac k,
dis-
agreeable-smelling liquid which contain s various percen tages of actual
nicotine. At a concen tration of 1 pt. per 100 gal. (1 to 800) of a 40
per
cent solutio n it is a standa rd spray for aphids and other soft-bo
died
sucking insects . It is a valuab le ovicide, as it destroy s the eggs
of
certain insects. Recent ly it has been used satisfac torily with oil
as a
stomac h poison for the late-br ood codling moth. Nicotin e dusts
are
prepare d by · impreg nating fine powders with nicotin e or nicotin
e
sulfate . Paper contain ing nicotine is prepare d in a similar fashion
.
PYRET HRuM .-Pyret hrum is a contac t insecticide made from the
pulveri zed flower heads of certain species of pyrethr um. It is
non-
injurio us to man and kills insects by contac t only. It is used
to a
certain extent by greenhouse operato rs and is an import ant
con-
stituen t of household insecticides and fly sprays.
ROTEN oNE.-R otenon e is a colorless crystal line substan ce obtaine
d
from certain plants, chiefly tropica l, which functio ns as a contac
t
insectic ide and as a stomac h poison for leaf-ea ting insects and destroy
s
certain mites and ticks on plants and animals. Its specific mode
of
action is as yet undete rmined . The plants (Derris spp. and Loncho
-
carpus spp.) from "'hich rotenon e is obtaine d are indigen ous to
such
regions as the Malay Archipelago and Latin Americ a where they
have
long been used by the natives to kill fish. Crushe d roots placed in
the
water kill the fish which then float to the surface where they can
be
collected. Roteno ne is, at present , general ly applied to the plant
as
the finely ground root of the plant mixed with other powder
as a
carrier. It is the active constit uent of many proprie tary insectic
ides.
OILs.- The use of oils as contac t insecticides has increas ed greatly
in recent years. Two general classes of oil spray are used for sprayin
g.
An oil emulsion is a mixtur e of oil, water and an emulsifying agent
that
has been treated mechan ically so that the oil globules have
been
broken up into very fine globules and remain suspen ded in the water.
Oil emulsions can be purcha sed, but large users often make the emul-
sion as needed, as emulsions are not very stable. A miscible oil is
one
in which the emulsifier is dissolved in the oil. It will mix readily
with
water, forming a milky white spray. Miscible oils are comme
rcial
CONTROLLING PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS 329
preparations and are quite stable. The dilution adopted will be

influenced by the oil used, the pest to be controlled and the season of
the year. In preparing and diluting the oils one should follow carefully
the instructions relative to the particular oil or product being used as
the different oils vary considerably.
SOAPs.-Soaps possess contact insecticidal properties. Many of
the sucking insects on house plants can be controlled by washing the
plants with soapy water.
SULFUR.-Sulfur, in the form of elemental sulfur and as lime-sulfur,
is used effectively as a contact insecticide~ In this case the red spider
mites are considered as an insect. Liquid lime-sulfur at the rate of 1
gal. to 9 gal. of water is used late in the dormant season for the control
of San Jose scale. Oil sprays are replacing the lime-sulfur as a contact
insecticide.
Fumigants.-Fumigation is merely the application of the toxic
chemical in a volatile or gaseous form. It is probable that some of
the insecticides applied as liquids or solids really are volatilized before
'they become effective and therefore might justly be considered as
fumigants. Most of the fumigants are applied as liquids or solids and
change to the gaseous form. Fumigation is confined to greenhouses, to
plants that can be in closed temporarily, to the treatment of seeds and
to the treatment of soil where the too rapid escape of the gas can be
prevented. Only a few of the fumigants will be considered.
HYDROCYANIC ACID.-Hydrocyanic acid is used for the control of
insects in greenhouses and scale insects on citrus trees. In the latter
case each tree is enclosed in a cloth tent while being treated. The
required dosage is determined according to the insects to be controlled
and the volume of the greenhouse or tent to be treated. The hydro-
cyanic acid is then liberated from potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide
by treating with specific amounts of sulfuric acid and water. Hydro-
cyanic acid is also liberated by the action of moisture on calcium
cyanide and bicarbonate. The calculated amount of one or the other
of these powders is sprinkled on the wet paths in the greenhouse. The
anhydrous liquid gas is used for the treatment of citrus trees. This is
a dangerous substance, and one should know how to use it with the
necessary precautions.
CARBON DrsuLFIDE.-Carbon disulfide is a heavy colorless liquid
which changes to a gas upon exposure to the air. Since the gas is
heavier than air, this substance is used to destroy insects in the soil.
It is used commonly to destroy ants in the lawn. For the best use of
carbon disulfide it should be applied when the soil is fairly dry, and the
treated area covered with soil, stra~ or other suitable material for
several houm after treating. Borers have been destroyed in trees by

injecting carbon disulfide into their tunnels by means of an oilcan and
then plugging the opening.
PARADICHLOROBENZENE (P.D.B.).-Paradichlorobenzene is a white
crystalline chemical which has proved very effective in the control of
the peach borer in trees three years old and older. The crystals
volatilize, and the gas penetrates through the soil and into the tree
where it kills the insect. This chemical is also being used in the form
of a paint to destroy borers in shade trees.
Fungicides.-A fungicide may be considered as a chemical that is
used for the control of a fungus. Some of these substances are proving
of value also in controlling certain bacteria. Many different chemicals
have been tried, but sulfur; copper and mercury have proved the most
satisfactory. They are used in the dry form as dusts and in the liquid
form as sprays or paints.
Suljur.-8ulfur, either as elemental sulfur or combined with
another substance forming a chemical compound, has been used for a
long time to control both insects and diseases of plants.
LIME-SULFUR.-;-Lime-sulfur is a chemical compound formed when
elemental sulfur is boiled in water with lime for a suitable time. It is
an amber-colored, foul-smelling liquid slightly heavier than water
and is used at various strengths and seasons of the year to destroy
sucking insects and fungi on horticultural plants. Until a few years
ago it was always used in the liquid form, but a process of manufacture
has been perfected by which it is possible to evaporate the water from
liquid lime-sulfur and obtain a dry, powdered lime-sulfur. In pre-
paring for spraying, lIb. of dry lime-sulfur is equivalent, in fungicidal
properties, to I qt. of the concentrated liquid lime-sulfur. For the
control of scale insects this liquid form is used at a concentration of
I gal. of the concentrated liquid to 9 gal. of water. For later appli-
cations the concentration of the lime-sulfur is decreased depending
upon the pla.nt to be sprayed, the pest to be comba.ted and the cli-
matic conditions. It is most injurious during hot dry weather. Even
with these precautions the plant is injured by lime-sulfur, and ele-
mental sulfur in various forms is gaining in use for the control of
fungi, especially for the cover-spray applications.
DRY-MIX SULFUR-LIME.-8ulfur does not mix or go into suspension
readily in water. Lime-sulfur is injurious to the host plant; and self-
boiled lime and sulfur, which is really a physical mixture of lime with
sulfur, is quite variable and troublesome to prepare. A method was
devised to mix finely pulverized sulfur and hydrated lime by the addi-
tion of a wetting agent. This is commonly prepared by mixing
thoroughly 8 lb. of sulfur, 4 lb. of hydrated lime and ~ lb. of calcium

caseinate or other commercial wetting agent. This 12~ lb. of powder
mixture is then added to 50 gal. of water to make the spray.
ELEMENTAL SULFuR.-Elemental, or uncombined, sulfur is pure
sulfur which in its unchanged physical form is dusted or sprayed on
the plant. It is not so effective a fungicide as lime-sulfur but is practi-
cally non-injurious to the host plant and gives satisfactory commercial
control in many cases.
DUSTING SULFuR.-Dusting sulfur is a sulfur so finely ground
that it will pass through a 300-mesh screen. It is used extensively
on peaches, plums and sweet cherries and to a much more limited
extent on apples and pears. The common dust mixture is 80-10-10
sulfur, lime and arsenate of lead; or if either the lime or the arsenate
of lead is omitted, it becomes a 90-10 dust mixture with 90 per cent
sulfur and 10 per cent either lime or arsenate of lead.
WETTABLE SULFUR.-A number of proprietary wettable sulfurs
are on the market. They are more convenient than dry-mix sulfur-
lime and are replacing it in many places. They are also being used
instead of lime-sulfur for some of the lat~r cover sprays of apples and
pears. They are made of finely ground sulfur to which a wetting agent
has been added so that the sulfur will mix readily with water. Some of
these sulfurs are so finely ground that they are practically colloidal
when added to liquids. They are used at the concentration recom-
mended by the manufacturer.
Copper.-Copper in some form is the basis of a large and important
group of fungicides. It has a stronger fungicidal action than has
sulfur. It is quite injurious to certain kinds of plants and more injuri-
ous to special varieties. It is most injurious during cool damp weather.
BORDEAUX MIXTuRE.-Bordeaux mixture, or a modification
thereof, is the most important fungicide containing - copper. It is
prepared from copper sulfate and lime. The first mixtures were
quite concentrated, containing a large amount of both copper sulfate
and lime. More recent investigations have shown that weaker con-
centrations are just as effective in controlling disease and less injurious
to the host. A formula now commonly used is lIb. of copper sulfate
and 2 lb. of fresh hydrated lime in 50 gal. of water. Recently insoluble
or "fixed copper" sprays are being used successfully on plants suscepti-
ble to injury by Bordeaux mixture.
COPPER DusTs.-Many seeds are treated with a form of copper
dusts for seed-borne diseases or for diseases that harbor over in the
soil. Copper carbonates and copper oxides are used for this purpose.
The seed is shaken up with the required amount of the chemical which
adheres to the seed coat in sufficient quantities to furnish protectioh

until the seedling no longer needs protection.
Mercury.-Mercury forms the basis of many of the preparations
used to disinfect seeds. It is also used to sterilize soil and is added to
some of the paints and preparations used as wound dressings. It is a
powerful poison.
LEGAL MEANS OF CONTROLLING HORTICULTURAL PESTS
We have noted that the pests that prey upon horticultural plants
are kept in control to some extent by their natural enemies and also by
physical and cheInical means employed by man. This group of pro-
tective measures would not be satisfactory or effective without legal
control.
Laws Governing the Inspection and Transportation of Horti-
cultural Plants.-In order to prevent or at least to delay the introduc-
tion of a new pest into a non-infested area all imported plants and
plant parts are examined carefully, and all possible precautions taken
to prevent the entrance of such pests. Even a casual study of the loss
due to the gypsy moth, San Jose scale, Japanese beetle and citrus
canker will convince the most skeptical of the value of such regulations.
All nursery stock intended for interstate shipment is inspected for the
presence of pests. Many states and certain sections have special
restrictions. It has been found advisable in some instances to place a
quarantine on horticultural plants or plant parts produced in certain
countries or certain parts of the United States.
Laws Governing the Manufacture and Sale of Chemicals.-Laws
governing the manufacture and sale of cheInicals applied to horti-
cultural plants and plant products are necessary to protect both the
producer and the consumer.
THE MECHANICS OF CONTROLLING HORTICULTURAL PESTS
Under this heading we shall discuss the equipment used, the prep-
aration of the materials and the application of the materials.
EQUIPMENT USED IN CONTROLLING HORTLCULTURAL PESTS
Very great improvement has been made in the past twenty years
in the equipment used for controlling horticultural pests. At the
present time a great diversity exists in type and size of equipment.
Spraying Equipment.-The spraying equipment ranges from a
whisk broom and a small pail to the stationary spray outfit that pro-
vides for 100 acres or more of tree fruits. It will vary according to
the amount and kind of plant.s to be sprayed. For a few vegetables
and low ornamental plants the whisk broom and the pail may be entirely
satisfactory. A more efficient application could be made by one of
COMMON HORTICULTVRAL PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL
Group CI888 of CI888

Example of pest Specific control for example cited
of pest pest control
--
Codlinl moth (1) (2) Arsenate of lead. 1 ~ lb. 5O-Ial. spray
Cankerworm Arsenate of lead. 1~ lb. 5O-pl. spray
Curculio Arsenate ollead, H~ lb. 5O-pl. spray
Stomach Potato bUI Arsenate of lead, n~ lb. 50-pI. spray
~itinl or poison Cabbaae worm Arsenate of lead, 1 ~ lb. 5O-Ial spray
chewinl Roee slUI (3) Arsenate of lead, 1~ lb. 5O-gal. spray
Strawberry leaf Arsenate of lead, 1~ lb. 5O-aal. spray
roller
Insects
Suckinlor Contact Aphis Nicotine sullate ~ pt. 5O-gal. spray
piercing inaeeti- San J oe6 scale (4) Lime-sullur, 1 gal. in 8olal. spray
cides Oyster-shell scale (4) Lime-sullur, 1 gal. in 8olal. .pray
Peach borer Paradichloroben.ene

Boring Mechanical Flat-headed apple- Dil out or inject carbon disulfide and
meana tree borer plug hole. Keep plant vigorous
Elm borer Same as above
Apple scab (5) Lime sullur, 5 qt. 5O-pl. .pray

Apple blotch (6) Bordeaux mixturc, 2-4-50
Fungou8 Fungicides Black rot (grape) Bordeaux mixture, 2-4-50
Brown rot (peach) (7) Wet table s\lllur
Mildew (roee) Wet table sullur or sullur dust
Di.- Anthracnoee Lime-aullur
eases
Bacterial Mechanical Fire blight (8) Cut off and hurn diseased parts
means Crown gall Destroy diseased plants in severe
cases
Virus Viru8 Mechanical Mosaics Destroy diseased plants; control

means Yellows aphis; use resistant varieties
Mechanical Rabhits Wire guards

R<>- means
dents Rodents Stomach Mice Poisoned bran
poisons
(1) Other arsenicals may be uaed.

(2) Nicotine and oils are beinl used in commercial orchards.
(3) Many proprietary products on the market.
(4) Oil sprays at makers' recommendations.
(5) Dry lime-sullur and commercial aullurs and Bordeaux mixture can be substituted. Follow
recommendations of manufacturer for preparation of spray.
(6) Use same materials as for apple acab.
(7) Us. according to manufacturer's recommendationa.
(8) Use Bordeaux mixture for blOll8om stage.
the pint or quart hand sprayers. For the same, or a little larger,
area one might select a small tank or bucket sprayer which is quite
satisfactory for all low-growing plants and even a few trees. One pro-
gresses through the wheelbarrow sprayer, the 5Q..gal. barrel sprayer,

the small power sprayer, the large power sprayer, finally to the large
stationary spray outfit with pipes that convey the material to all parts
of the orchard.
Dusting Equipment.-The dusting equipment varies as greatly as
the spraying equipment, ranging from a folded piece of cheesecloth to
FIG. 130.-Representative pest control equipment for small plantings: (a) hand
eprayer, (b ) compreesed-aiT sprayer, (c) knapsack sprayer, (d) hand duster, (e) wheel-
barrow sprayer, (j) barrel sprayer. (ClYUrtea1l of Hudson and Bean Co.)
the airplane. The folded cheesecloth is adequate for dusting a few

vegetables and flowers, the hand duster can be used satisfactorily for
rather large areas of vegetable crops, the power duster is used for
orchard crops ,and large acreages of truck .llCOPS and the airplane is
used for dusting in some of the specialized potato- and other truck-
crop sections.
Sterilization.-For soil sterilization in nursery seed beds a.nd green-
house benches, chemicals a.re applied either as solids or as liquids.
The universal method of sterilizing soil is by the use of steam. Some
greenhouse benches are equipped so that the soil in them can be treated
with steam. In other cases and in nursery seed beds steam is liberated
from pipes in the soil that is first covered with specially constructed
galvanized pans. Seed flats are often prepared for planting and placed
in autoclaves for sterilization. One of the types of tear gas is being
used for sterilizing soil.
FIG. 131.-Fumigating citrus trees in California. (Courtesy 01 Owl Fumigating Corp.)
Fumigation.-Fumigation varies from burning a sulfur candle,

placing cyanide in diluted sulfuric acid and sprinkling calcium cyanide
on moist areas or discharging it into a humid atmosphere to liberating
liquid hydrocyanic acid gas in confined areas.
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS USED IN CONTROLLING
HORTICULTURAL PESTS
With the improvements in materials .a nd equipment the manner

of making or preparing the chemicals for application has been greatly
simplified. For the proprietary compounds one should follow the
directions given for the particular product. Sprays and dusts are
prepared for the control of biting insects, sucking insects and fungous
diseases. It is possible and commonly advisable to combine two or
even three materials and apply as one. All sprays should be strained
into the sprayer through a fine screen provided for that purpose.
Arsenate of Lead.-Leacl arsenate is insoluble in water but mixes
readily with it, forming a fine suspension. Unless thorough agitation
is possible, as in a power s·p rayer, it is advisable to add the required
amount of powdered arsenate of lead to a small quantity of water
while stirring rapidly. This is then added to the required amount of
water or spray solution for the total dilution. In case lime is not
present in the spray, it will be advisable to add a quantity of hydrated
lime equal to the quantity of lead arsenate.
Bordeaux Mixture.-Bordeaux mixture is made of copper sulfate,
hydrated lime and water. Before the introduction of the quickly
soluble pulverized copper sulfate ·it was customary to make a stock
solution of copper sulfate by dissolving it in water in a wooden vessel.
One gallon of the stock solution contained 1 lb. of dissolved copper
sulfate. A similar stock mixture was made using 1 lb. of hydrated
lime per gallon of water. The sprayer was nearly filled with water;
and with the agitator operating, the required amount of lime mixture
was put through the strainer; then the required amount of the copper
sulfate stock solution was added. Sufficient W8iter was then added to
bring the spray to the required volume. At present the quickly
soluble form of copper sulfate is dissolved in water in the sprayer or
in a wooden container. This solution is diluted with water to near
the required volume when the hydrated lime that has been made into
a "milk" by being added to water is strained into the sprayer while
the agitator is running. Water is then added to bring the spray to
the required amount.
Combination Sprays.-It is often advisable to use a combination
spray composed of lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead. With this com-
bination it is advisable to add a quantity of fresh hydrated lime equal
to the amount of arsenate of lead used in the spray. For this combina-
tion it would be well to add the various ingredients to separate pails
of water to get the chemicals well dissolved or in suitable suspension
before combining them in the spray tank. In case dry lime-sulfur is
being used, it should be dissolved in a pail of water. The hydrated
lime should be added to water in another pail; and the arsenate of lead,
to water in a third pail. After the spray tank is half or more full of
water, start the agita.tor, and add the lime-sulfur through the strainer . .::~
Then add the water mixture of hydrated lime, then the arsenate of lead, •
and then ·fill the tank to the required amount. Since chemical action
takes place between the lime-sulfur and the arsenate of lead, this
combination spray should be used at once, as it deteriorates and will
loose a considerable part of its value after a couple of hours.
If desirable, nicotine sulfate may be added to the foregoing com-
bination spray.
Dusts.-Dusting mixtures are purchased already prepared or are
made by mixing thoroughly the proper amount of the different
ingredients.
ApPLYING THE MATERIALS USED IN CONTROLLING

HORTICULTURAL PESTS
Other than using a suitable substance for the particular pest or

. pests to be controlled, the effectiveness of the chemical used will be
determined by the time of application, the amount that is applied and
the manner in which it is applied.
Time of Spraying.-The chemicals applied to horticultural plants
for the control of pests are chiefly to prevent the damage rather than
to cure the injury. They are applied as an insurance against possible
loss. Consequently, the time of application is determined by the
vulnerable stage in the life cycle of the pest and the susceptibility of
the host to injury from the treatment. In certain stages of its life
cycle the pest is practically immune to control measures; in others the
chemicals used must be applied during the dormant season when the
host plant will be least injured by them. Spray calendars therefore
will vary according to the pests to be controlled and the locality in
which they are intended to be used. Even in the same locality they
will vary from season to season because of climatic differences. Spray
calendars, therefore, are to be considered as valuable suggestive guides
and not as sets of rules. Since the times designated for the early
applications are given according to the appearance or state of growth
of the host plant, they are more accurate than the times indicated for
the later sprays. This is true because various pests respond to
environmental conditions and have generally reached a certain stage in
their life cycle when the host plant in that locality has reached a certain
stage in its yearly growth. The host plant is used as an index of the
stage of growth or development of the pest. Subsequent growth of the
host and pest may vary considerably in the same environment.
Manner of Spraying.-Any method of applying the chemical that
. will give a thorough, even coverage with the minimum amount of
material will be the most satisfactory, as it will control the pests,
result in the minimum amount of injury to the host and leave the least
amount of spray residue. The large power-spray outfits that use
pressures ranging from 400 to 600 lb. produce a fi~e mist spray which
penetrates to all parts of the plant and covers all exposed areas with
a thin film. The high-power dusters also envelope the plant in a cloud
of dust which settles on all exposed parts.
There must be enough material on the plant at all times to prove
toxic to the pest. This is not an easy condition to obtain. The plant
parts are increasing in size so rapidly that new unprotected areas are
being exposed constantly; the materials are being washed off by rains
and are undergoing chemical changes that make them less toxic to the
pest. Consequently the frequency of the applications may vary
considerably. Furthermore, the amount required to cover the plant
effectively will vary with the efficiency of the machine. One will
notice, therefore, that the amount of spray material used to cover the
same sized tree once in different parts of the United States will vary
from 5 to 30 gal. or more.
FIG. 132.-Large sprayer with 600-gallon tank. (Courteay 01 Friend Company.)
Amount of Spray.-The necessity of spraying frequently and in

considerable quantities even after the fruits have attained a good size · .
led to the passage of a law that requires that spray residues above
certain specified amounts must be removed from fruits intended for
human consumption that enter into interstate commerce. If the
amount of residue is but slightly over the specified amount, the fruit
may be brought within the tolerance by brushing, but brushing has
not proved to be so satisfactory or reliable as washing.
In the eastern part of the United States where the applications of
arsenate of lead are less frequent, where the quantity of material is
less per tree, where summer oils are not used so frequently and where
the natural rainfall washes off some of the spray residue, the apples
can be brought within the legal requirements by washing for 1~ min.
ApPLE-SPRAY SCHEDULE
Name of spray Pests to control Materials to use RemarkB
Liquid lime-sullur, 1 gal. in 8 Apply late in dormant season,

Dormant Scale insects Oil emulsion- 3 per cent oi,l but complete before buds
Miscible oil-manufacturers' show green tips
specifications
Liquid lime-sullur, 2 gal.

or
Apple scab
Dry lime-sulfur, 8 lb. If aphis is still present, add 1 pt.
Prepink Canker worm
and nicotine 8ulfate
Curculio
Lead arsenate, 3 lb.
Water to make 100 gal.
Liquid lime-sullur, 2 gal. Begin spraying as flower buds

or separate and show petal color.
Apple scab Dry-lime-sulfur, 8 lb. and complete spraying before
Pink
Curculio and blossoms open . To decrease
Lead arsenate, 3 lb. lime-sullur injury add 8 lb.
Water to make 100 gal. hydrated lime
Liquid lime-sullur, 5 qt.

or
Apple scab Dry lime-Bullur, 5 lb.
Calyx-cup or Begin spraying when most of
Curculio and
petal fall the petals are off
Codling moth Lead arsenate, 3 lb.
Hydrated lime, 5 lb.
Liquid lime-Bullur, 5 qt.

or
Dry lime-Bullur, 5 lb.
or Apply 10 days after petals fall.
First cover or Apple scab
Wettable sullur-manufacturers' Wet table sullurs can be substi-
first brood Curculio
specifications tuted for lime-sulfur and re-
cover 1 Codling moth
and duce danger of spray injury
Same as for first cover; as the

Apply 10 to 14 days aftee
season advances, the strength
Curculio first cover; if apple blotch is a
Second cover of lime-sulfur should be de-
Codling moth problem, use Bordeaux instead
creased to leasen danger of
of lime-sulfur
burning
Apply 10 to 14 days after

second cover; if apple scab
Apple scab has been controlled and blotch
Third cover Same as for second cover
Codling moth is not present. the fungicide
may be omitted. Do not
apply on summer varieties
Apple .cab
Second brood, Apply 9 to 10 weekB after petals
Codling moth Same as for third cover
fourth cover fall
Apple maggot
1 The number, frequency and composition of the cover sprays will vary with conditions.
PEACH-SPRAY ScHEDULE
Name of spray Pests to control Materials to use Remarks
Liquid Iime-aulfur, 1 gal. in 8
or For leaf curl alone use liquid
Dormant Scale Oil emulsion-3 per cent Iime-sulfur 5 gal. in 100 gal.
or Apply before bud. awell in
Miscible oil-manufacturers' spring
specifications
Zine sulfate, 4 lb.
Apply as shucks or floral parts
Shuck fall Curculio are splitting and falling from
plant
or
Dust" lime-lead 90-10
-
Iron or sinc sulfate, 4 lb.
and
Wettable 8ulfur-manufae-
Curculio turera' specifications
About two weeks after .hucks
First cover Brown rot or
fall
Scab Dry-mix aulfur-Iime 16-8-1
and
or
Dust-sulfur SO, lead aroenate
10, hydrated lime 10
Wettable sulfur
or
One month be- Brown rot Do not use lead arsenate at this
Dry-mix aulfur-Iime
fore harvest Scab stage if it can be avoided
or
Dust aulfur 'SO, lime 20
Wettable aulfur
Two weeks be- Brown rot
or
fore harvest 1 Scab
Dust aulfur SO, lime 20
1 Additional applications for the control of brown rot may be neceooray after this One.
POTATO-SPRAY SCHEDULE
Time to spray Pests to control Materials to use Remarks
Calcium arsenate, 4 lb.
Colorado Duets can be used instead of
or
Plants 6 to 8 in. potato beetle liquid sprays. Use 20 lb. cop.
tall Flea beetle per dust, 5 lb. arsenicals, 75
and
Leaf hopper lb. hYdrated lime
Bordeaux mixture, 8-6-100 gal.
Calcium arsenate, 4 lb.
Colorado
or If Colorado potato beetle and
potato beetle
7 to 14 days later Lead araenate, 4 lb. flea beetle persist, use the
Flea beetle
and arsenical in later sprays
Leaf hopper
Bordeaux mixture, 8-6-100 gal.
Bordeaux mixture, 8-6-100 gal. The frequency and number of
Leaf hopper or subsequent applications will
7 to 14 dayalater
Blight Copper duat, 20 lb.; hydrated depend upon the presence of
lime SO,lb. the pests
Leaf hopper Late blight will be more preva-
7 to 14 dayalater Same ae above
Blight lent in seaeons that are cool
and damp. Under auch con-
Leaf hopper ditiona more frequent and
7 t~ 14 days later Same ae above mor:e numerouI applications
Blight
may be neceuary
-
with a 1.5 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid. Apples produced in

the irrigated sections of the country where the lead residue is high or
summer oil sprays have been used may have to be given a weak
alkaline bath, then the acid bath. All fruits are rinsed thoroughly
after being washed.
Review Questions
1. What was probably man's first conscious effort to control pests that
attacked his horHcultural plants?
2. Classify the natural means of controlling pests of horticultural plants.
3. Give an example of each natural means used in controlling pests of horti-
cultural plal'.t,~..
4. Classify tl.l<; u Wleial means of controlling pests of horticultural plants.
6. Name the various physical means used to combat the two principal classes
of insects.
6. What is an insecticide?
7. Give an example of ~a specific chemical used to combat each of the two
principal classes of insects.
8. What is a fungicide?
9. What are the two most common chemicals used to combat diseases caused
by fungi?
10. What legal means are used to control horticultural pests?
11. What is the simplest spray equipment?
12. What is the most advanced spray equipment now in use?
13. What is the simplest dusting equipment?
14. What is the most advanced dusting equipment?
16. What is meant by a combination spray?
16. If the same kinds of pests are present, are the same sprays applied at the
same dates to the same trees in different years?
Problems
1. You have a mature apple orchard of 1,000 trees which you intend to spray
in the "pink stage" for the control of apple scab. State the materials that you
would use, the quantity of each and the manner of preparing the spray.
2. Specify the horticultural plantings about your home, and describe the type
of spray outfit that you would purchase that would be adequate to use under such
conditions.
2. LA1JRIE, ALEX, and G. H. POESCH, "Commercia"! Flower Forcing," pp. 258-
310, P. Blakiston's Son & Company, Philadelphia, 1939.
3. MASON, A. F., "Spraying, Dusting, Fumigation of Plants," The MacmiIJan
Company, New York, 1928.·
4. TALBERT, T. J., and A. E. MURNEEK, "Fruit Crops," pp. 187-207, Lea &
Febiger, Philadelphia, 1939.
5. WAITS, R. L., and G. S. WAITS, "The Vegetablp. Growing Business," pp.
159-182, Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, 1939.
CHAPTER XVII
HARVESTING AND STORING THE PRODUCTS OF
HORTICULTURAL PLANTS
Harvesting and storing the products of horticultural plants are

important practices. Harvesting consists of removing the product
from the plant, and storing consists of placing it under environmente.I
conditions that retard the rate of the life processes.
FIG. 133.-Harvesting potatoes with a two-row, tractor-drawn digger. (Courtesy oJ

W. E. SchrumpJ.)
The many commercial problems of grading, packing, transporting

and storing that are associated with harvesting and storing horti-
cultural products will not be discussed, but only these problems in
their relationship to the amateur or home gardener.
HARVESTING
The time and method of harvesting are the two principal problems
involved in the removal of the product from the plant.
TIME
The best time for harvesting various horticultural products is

usually determined by the degree of maturity of the particular kind
and variety of product. The proper degree of maturity for harvesting,
342
HARVESTING AND STORING THE PRODUCTS 343
in turn, depends upon the keeping qualities of the particular kind and
variety of product, the particular method of disposing of the product
and the method of storage.
The proper degree of maturity for harvesting often depends upon
the particular kind of product and occasionally on a particular variety.
Apples and pears are practically the only fruits stored by the average
home gardener as fresh products. The other kinds of fruits are too
highly perishable to be stored with success in common storage. There
is a wide variation in the storage quality of the different varieties of
apples and even of the same variety grown in different regions. For
example, the McIntosh grown in the Middle Atlantic states is practi-
cally an early fall apple suitable for only a few days' storage, whereas
the same variety grown in northern New York or New England can
be held in storage satisfactorily for as long as four months. Summer
apples, which are generally used for immediate cons1}mption, soften
so rapidly, even when picked green, that picking before they are fully
ripe is often necessary. Most pears should never be allowed to ripen
on the trees. Their fine eating quality develops only when they are
picked in an early stage of maturity and ripened away from direct
sunlight. If picked too early, they shrivel and wilt before ripening.
The relative maturity of apples and pears can be judged by the chang-
ing of the ground color from green to yellow-green and by the ease
with which the stem separates from the tree. Peaches and most
varieties of red raspberries and cherries develop their best flavor if
allowed to ripen on the plant.
The proper degree of maturity for harvesting also differs with the
kind and variety of vegetable. Parsnip, parsley and horseradish may
be kept all winter in the ground where they are grown if proper care
is taken to prevent alternate freezing and thawing. Kohlrabi, beets,
turnips and rutabagas may become tough and woody if allowed to
reach too large a size before harvest. On the other hand, the develop-
ment of the hard outer shell of squash and the protecting surface skin
of the Irish potato are developed only on the matured product, and this
protective covering aids in successful storage. Sweet potatoes must be
mature for successful storage, but cauliflower and celery should be
harvested before fully mature when placed in storage. Varieties of
the same crop often vary in" the time they are ready for harvesting.
Onions for home storage should be of the American type, because
white Bermuda onions start to grow in common storage. Late vari-
eties of cabbage keep far better in storage than do the early varieties.
The best degree of maturity for harvesting such cut flowers as
China aster, chrysanthemum, calendula, gaillardia and zinnia is after
the blossoms are opened fully. On the other hand, the best time for
harvesting roses, peonies and poppies is when the flower is in an early
opening bud stage. Daffodils and other bulbous flowers should be
harvested when the flowers are half open.
The best time for harvesting is influenced greatly by the disposition
that is to be made of the particular product. When fruits or veg-
etables are to be consumed immediately or are to be frozen and kept
for a period of time, they should be harvested when they are in that
degree of maturity associated with the highest eating quality. Prod-
ucts destined for common storage, however, should be picked earlier
than those used at once. Apples that are to be consumed soon after
harvesting should ripen on the tree until softening begins, but apples
destined for storage must be picked at an earlier stage of maturity.
The longer the storage period the less should be the degree of maturity
when harvested. Irish potatoes may be harvested from the time they
are of sufficient size until the vines have fully ripened, but Irish
potatoes that are to be stored should be harvested after the vines are
fully withered.
The method of storage is also an influencing factor in determining
the degree of maturity at which the particular product should be
harvested. Cold storage, where temperatures are kept constantly low
by mechanical refrigeration, makes it possible to store a more mature
product or a product of any degree of maturity for a longer length of
time than is possible in cool storage or a house cellar, where tempera-
tures are usually higher and more irregular. Some fresh fruits and
vegetables may be frozen and kept in refrigerated storage lockers
indefinitely.
METHOD
The removal of the product from the plant and the necessary
handling during harvest generally bruises and wounds some of the
tissues. This wounding or bruising permits the entrance of decay
organisms and leads to the more rapid decay of the product. Conse-
quently, all harvesting operations should be done carefully, and
handling of the products should be reduced to the minimum. Com-
mercial growers use padded receptacles for harvesting easily injured
products and exercise every precaution to reduce injury by handling.
Much handwork is required in harvesting horticultural products.
Most fruit and many vegetable crops are harvested entirely by hand.
Instruments such as sharp knives, spading forks and special diggers
are used to facilitate harvesting in the case of certain crops. A sharp
knife is the best instrument to use in harVesting cut flowers; spading
forks are often employed for digging Irish potatoes; plows with special
attachments are used for sweet potatoes; and the commercial Irish
potato crop is dug mainly with a special type of digger which digs one
to four rows at a time.
STORING
Storing at low temperatures makes it possible to retard the rate of

the plant's life processes, thus lengthening the season during which
horticultural products can be obtained in the fresh state. The rather
pronounced seasonal distribution of perishable horticultural products
has been largely eliminated because of satisfactory means of storage.
FACTORS' INFLUENCING STORAGE
The successful storage of horticultural products requires a con-

sideration of the temperature, humidity, air and light conditions in
the place of storage.
The proper temperature for storing horticultural products varies;
but unless 40°F. or less can be maintained for most of the storage
period, it is not advisable to store many vegetables or fruits. Some
few vegetables, such as sweet potatoes, require a temperature of 55°F.
The rate of chemical change within the tissues of the stored products
is affected materially by temperature. The starch of Irish potatoes
begins to change to sugar if the tubers are held below 38°F. Later if
the tubers are stored for a time at 45 to 50°F., much of the sugar is
changed back to starch. Kieffer pears may be stored at 32°F.; but
for the attainment of maximum eating quality they should be ripened
at a temperature of 60 to 65°F. Root crops stored at high tempera-
ture lose weight because of the oxidization of dry matter and the loss
of moisture. Squash stored at 50°F. or above undergo rapid destruc-
tion of carbohydrates. Apples are commonly stored at 32°F., but
they keep equally well with less evidence of certain storage troubles at
a temperature of 34°F.
The relative humidity of the air in the storage rooms has a direct
relation to the keeping qualities of the products held in them. If it is
too low, wilting occurs in most fruits and vegetables; and if it is too
high, it favors the-development of decay, especially,in rooms where the
temperature is high Il;nd variable.-- -'l'he-proper humidity of the storage
room varies with the kind of product stored~ For most fruits a
relative humidity of 80 to 85 per cent is best. . Leafy vegetables an<~
root crops require a relative humidity of 90 to 95 per cent; and other
vegetables, with a few exceptions, do well at a humidity of 85 to 90
per cent. A satisfactory atmospheric humidity approximates the per-

centage of water in the product stored.
Ventilation, in the sense of providing pure air, is rarely necessary
but air circulation is useful mainly for cooling and preventing moistur~
from collecting on the stored product. What little ventilation is
necessary is provided by the opening and closing of doors in conducting
the necessary work in the storage room and in common storage by
the unavoidable leaks around doors and air inlets and outlets.
Some products, like Irish potatoes and onions, become green if
exposed to much light while in storage, and celery and endive fail to
blanch. Generally darkness is maintained in storage rooms except
when light is necessary for the performing of necessary operations.
TYPES OF STORAGE
Both cold storage and common storage are in general use for horti-
cultural products. Both types are successful if in favorable locations
and suitably managed.
Cold storage is that type in which the desired temperature is
'Obtained and maintained by artificial means of refrigeration. The
common mechanical home refrigerator is a small cold-storage plant.
Cold storages have been used commercially for a long time, but they
have become important in the storing of fruits and vegetables for
farm and urban families only rather recently with the introduction
of refrigerated lockers. At the present time many fruits and veg-
etables that are produced by the home gardener are frozen and stored
in refrigerated lockers where they may be kept indefinitcly.
Common storage is that type in which the natural outdoor tempera-
ture is depended upon to establish and maintain the desircd storagc
temperature. House cellars, caves, pits and specially constructcd
buildings are used by the home gardeners as common storages. A
simple common storage may be built around a north window of thc
basement. The window may act as an inlct for cold air and be con-
structed so that it can be held open at various widths. An air outlet
over the door of the storage room will allow much of the warm air to
be removed with the upward drafts from the basement. Ko furnace
flues or steam or hot-water pipes should go through the storagc room .
Caves are often used by farm families as a place for storing fruits
and vegetablcs. Permanent caves may be made of concrete, clay
blocks or bricks. Pits, trenches and mounds of various styles can he
used successfully. Shallow pits or a barrel or box sunk into the
ground may be used during the winter for vegetables that are not
injured by being held in a frozen condition. Thc soil should be
mounded around the pit, barrel or box to prevent surface water from
entering. Some of the vegetables adapted for storing in this way are
cabbage, parsnip, parsley, horseradish and salsify. These vegetables
may be harvested after freezing weather begins, stored in convenient
piles and covered to protect them from alternate freezing and thawing.
FIG. 134.-Left, a storage room inside a basement. It may be much smaller and
simpler than this one. Air islet in through a window and out above the door. Center,
the inside of this storage room with stored products at the side so that freezing air won't
drop onto them directly. Right, the simplest form of outdoor cave. (Iowa Extension
Service.)
FIG. 135.- '\ permanent storage cellar built in &ide hill. (Michigan Extension Service.)
They should be placed in pits as soon as frozen. The box or barrel

containing the vegetables should be covered first with a piece of burlap
or carpet, then with a mouseproof board cover and finally with straw
or similar material. When they are taken from the pit, they may be
thawed out overnight in cold water, after which they may be kept in
common storage for a considerable length of time.
Rooms in the house that are kept close to freezing may serve as
places for storing onions, cabbage, potatoes, apples and nuts. Rooms
kept dry and at a temperature of 50 to 55°F. are also good storage
places for squash, pumpkins and sweet potatoes.
HARVESTING AND STORING SELECTED PRODUCTS

The basic principles influencing the harvesting and storing of horti-
cultural products are the same, but the specific practices will vary
somewhat with the particular plant or crop.
FRUITS
. Apples, pears and nuts are the principal fruit products adapted for
home storage. The strawberry, raspberry, dewberry, blackberry,
cherry, peach, blueberry and apricot are adapted for preservation by
freezing. All varieties of these fruits, however, are not equally
satisfactory for preserving by freezing.
TABLE 35.-A FEW VARIETIES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF FRUITS ADAPTEJ) FOR
FREEZING PRESERVATION IN LOCKER STORAGES
Strawberry Raspberry Cherry Plum Peach Apricot
Senator Red: Montmorency Red Wing Elberta Blenheim

Dunlap Latham Early Richmond Monitor J . H. Hale Moorpark
Beaver Chief English Morello Damson
Blakemore Black: Elliott
Premier Cumberland
Wayzata Black Pearl
(everbear-
ing)
Apples and Pears.-Apples to be placed in common storage should

be picked when in the hard, ripe stage of maturity. Red varieties
will gain in color as long as they remain on the tree; but if they become
too mature, their storage period will be greatly shortened. Only
sound fruit is suitable for storage. The fruit should be picked care-
fully,and every precaution taken to avoid bruising. After picking,
it should be sorted for condition, and the sound fruit placed in clean
boxes, baskets or crates. The containers of fruit are stacked in the
storage room, where a temperature of 34 to 36°F. is maintained.
They should never be so full as to permit bruising.
Most varieties of apples develop scald in storage. This disease
causes the skin of the apple to turn brown and later permits rot to
start. Scald can be partially prevented oy wrapping each fruit in
specially prepared oilpaper or by mixing about H lb. of shredded oil-
paper through each bushel of fruit. Early winter varieties, including
Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Delicious, Northwestern Greening and
Mdntosh, may be kept in common storage until the middle of Decem-
ber in northern latitudes. Later varieties including Winesap, Stay-

man Winesap, Ben Davis, Willowtwig, RaIls and Mammoth Black
Twig may be stored satisfactorily until February and March. Fall
varieties such as Wealthy should not be stored longer than February.
Pears are harvested and stored in much the same way as that
suggested for apples, the most notable exception being in the degree
of maturity at time of harvest. Most pears develop their fine eating
quality when they are picked green and ripened away from direct
sunlight. The proper degree of maturity for harvesting is determined
to a great extent by the appearance of the minute pores, or lenticels,
that ' cover the surface of the fruit. These lenticels are first visible
as smalllight-colored spots. These spots eventually become brown;
when this occurs, the openings have been covered by the development
of a layer of cork, and there is little danger of the fruit's shriveling
after removal from the tree. Some varieties of pear, like Kieffer, if
left too long on the trees become gritty because of the development of
stone cells.
VEGETABLES
Many kinds of vegetables, including Irish potatoes, cabbage, onions,

beets, turnips, carrots, squash and sweet potatoes, can be kept success-
fully in common storage. The most satisfactory kinds for preserva-
TABLE 36.-A FEW VARIETIES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF VEGETABLES ADAPTED
FOR FREEZING PRESERVATION IN LOCKER STORAGES
Snap beans Sweet corn Lima beans Peas Spinach Brooooli Squaah Asperocua Greena
--- --- --- --- --- ---- -
Green pod: Golden Hender- Little Kine of Italian Golden Mary BwiBo
Burpee's Stringless Sunshine son's Marvel Denmark Green Hubbard Wuhina. Chard.
Bountiful Golden Bush Thomas Lone Sprouting Golden ton Lucullua
Giant Stringless Bantam Burpee Laxlon Standine COal.. Delicious Kale,
Golden Improved Telephone BlOOlll8- b.-) Green Dnrf
Asgrow Stringlesa Cross dale Hubbard Scotch
Bantam Nobei Muatard
Wax pod: Improved (Giant Giant
Pencil Pod Black Golden Nobei) Curled
Wax Bantam BeettOpe
Round Pod Kidney Tender- Oth...
W.... gold 1Ifeen8
Keeny's Stringlesa Country
Kidney Wax Gentle-
Pole bean: man
Kentucky Wonder SloweU'.
Ever-
IIfOOD
tion by freezing and storage in refrigerated lockers are peas, lim~ beans,
corn cut off the cob, snap beans, asparagus, spinach, broccoli, Swiss
chard, kale, cauliflower, carrots and squash. All varieties of these

vegetables, however, are not equally satisfactory for preservation by
freezing. .
Irish Potatoes.-lrish potatoes are harvested from the time they
are of sufficient size to use satisfactorily until a considerable time after
the tops have died. The time of digging depends upon whether the
crop is for immediate consumption or for storage. Potatoes that have
been allowed to remain in the ground until injured by frost should
never be stored, because it is almost impossible to sort frozen potatoes
from sound ones.
FIG. 136.-Large commercial potato-storage houses at Caribou, Me.
Although power-drawn diggers are used on large commerical

acreages, hand tools such as a spading fork or a potatoe hook are used
by the home gardener. The latter should be used carefully in order
to avoid bruising the crop. Early morning !!ond late evening are good
t,imes for digging potatoes in hot weather. Potatoes dug in the even-
may be left to cool aUnight on the ground and be picked up and
,d early the following morriing. In large commercial plantings
they are picked up immediately .after digging, placed in suitable con-
tainers and stored as soon as possible.
Irish potatoes may be stored satisfactorily in open-mesh sacks
which are stacked in tiers with 4-in. air spaces between them. The
lower tier of sacks should rest upon a slatted or false floor of wood)
because burlap next to a concrete or earthen floor ~ rot. The best
temperature for storing is just under 40°F.
Cabbage..:..-cabbage should be harvested when the head is firm.
Late varieties are the best for storage and should be harvested before
the head is too mature. The head is severed from the stem with a
sharp knife or hatchet. A good moist potato storage is also a good
cabbage storage. Cabbages may be stored in crates, in baskets or on
slatted shelves. The temperature of the storage should be 32°F., and
the humidity about 90 per cent.
Onions.-Onions should be harvested before prolonged rains in the
fall and thoroughly cured or dried at once. Bermuda onions are har-
vested as soon as large enough for market, but varieties to be stored
must be more mature. When about 60 per cent of the tops have
ripened at the neck and fallen over, the bulbs may be pulled from the
row. A well-cured onion should be firm and not readily dented at the
base when held in the hand and pressed with the thumb. The bulb
should show no sprouting and no new roots. Onions are best for
storage when they are topped about 1,Y2 in. above the bulb. They
should be stored in a cold, dry storage because high temperatures
start sprouting, and dampness starts new roots.
Root Crops.-Early root crops, as carrots, beets and turnips, are
usually harvested when they reach edible size. Early beets are usually
pulled when they reach 1,Y2 in. in diameter, and turnips are harvested
when they attain a diameter of 2 in. The late crop should be harvested
before the roots become too mature and woody. The best storage
temperature for these crops is 32°F., and the humidity should be 90
to 95 per cent. These crops may be stored for home use with the
roots placed in moist sand or earth.
Sweet potatoes may be harvested when they reach marketable
size. The main crop, which is to be stored, should be allowed to
'ripen fully, as indicated by the yellowing of the foliage. The com-
mercial crop is ordinarily dug with a plow with a sharp rolling colter
and a small moleboard with rods attached. The rolling colter on
the beam cuts the vines ahead of the plow, and the iron rods project-
ing from the moleboard free the potatoes from the soil and vines.
Successful storage depends upon proper curing~ This usu~l' · ·
requires a period of ten days to three weeks when the potatoe~ , A
exposed to a temperature of 80 to 85°F. After curing, the potatoes

are stored at a temperature of 55°F. /l.nd a humidity of 60 to 70 per
cent.
ORNAMENTALS
Cut Flowers.~The best time for harvesting cut flowers is when the
plant is turgid, usually before ten o'clock in the morning. The
maturity of the bloom at cutting time is another important considera-
tion, because many kinds of flowers are not at their best when fully
mature. No definite rule can be given as to the proper stage of matu-
rity, but experimental data indicate that the composites, such as China
aster, chrysanthemum, calendula, gaillardia and zinnia, may be
allowed to open fully before cutting. Commercial florists often cut
the aforementioned kinds of flowers a trifle in advance of the mature
stage. Roses, peonies and poppies will open their blooms when their
stems are placed in water, and it is best to cut them when the flower
is in an early opening-bud stage. Daffodils and most bulbous flowers
are gathered commercially when the flowers are about half open,
because they develop quickly after they are removed from the plant.
The best instrument for removing flowers from a plant is a sharp
knife. It causes less injury to the tissues of the stem than do scissors
or the method of breaking off of the flowers. A long, clean, slanting cut
made between the nodes allows for more surface in the water after the
flowers are placed in containers. A cut at right angles to the stem
often leaves a small surface which comes in contact with dirt in the
bottom of the container and shortens the time of keeping the flowers
in good condition. After cutting, flower stems should be placed in
water as soon as possible. In fact, it is a good plan to place the stems
in a pail partially filled with water immediately after they are removed
from the plant.
Most cut flowers are benefited by a freshening period of a few hours
in ' water at 50°F. immediately after being cut. After flowers are
removed from the garden and placed in a roomy receptacle filled with
cool water, they should be left in a cool moist room for at least 2 hr.
Various kinds of cut flowers vary in keeping qualities regardless of the
method of preservation. Under the average room temperature of
70 to 75°F. one may' expect such cut flowers as sweet alyssum, colum-
bine and lupine to keep from 2 to 5 days, whereas bachelor's-button,
chrysanthemum, coreopsis, gaillardia, pentstemon and veronica will
keep from 6 to 10 days. Flowers will keep better and longer at room
temperature ifa small portion of the base of the stem is removed each
day when they are given fresh water.
Rhizomes, T~bers, Corms, Bulbs.-Many ' hardy herbaceous
perennials, as peony, iris, crocus, narcissus and hyacinth, are allowed
to remain in the ground over winter. Some of the tender herbaceous
perennials, however, as dahlia, canna, gladiolus and often certain
varieties of tulip, must be dug and stored during. the winter months
in order to avoid damage by low temperatures. Dahlias and cannas
are usually dug after the tops are killed back by frost. Gladiolus
should be dug before the ground is frozen. Tulips are dug before
HARVESTING AND STORING THE PRODUC7'S 353
the tops are completely dried, as the top assists in the operation of
harvesting.
Many of the hardy herbaceous perennials are usually stored imme-
diately after digging. Gladiolus and often tulips are generally c~lfed
in a well-ventilated shed or room for a period of three to six weeks
before they are placed in storage. Cannas and dahlias are stored in
shallow trays containing dry soil or sawdust. Gladiolus should be
stored dry in shallow trays with ample ventilation.
Review Questions
1. What are the two principal factors considered in harvesting horticultural
products?
2. What determines the time for harvesting a particular horticultural product?
3. Why is careful handling so important in harvesting horticultural crops?
4. What is the function of storage?
6. What factors influence the successful storage of horticultural products?
6. What are the two principal types of storage?
7. What is meant by cold storage?
8. What is meant by common storage?
Problems
1. Select a location, and make diagrammatic sketches showing the construction
of a common storage suitable for the crop from the home apple orchard and potato
patch.
1. AUCHTER, E. C., and H . B. KNAPP, "Orchard and Small Fruit Culture,"
2. CARRICK, D. B., and A. M. GOODMAN, The Common or Air-cooled Apple
Storage and Its Management, N . Y . Agr. Col. (Cornell) Ext. Bul., 286: 1-29, 1934.
3. COMIN, DONALD, The Common Storage, Its Construction and Management,
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 573: 1-49, 1936.
4. ROSE, D. H., et al., The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and
Florists'Stocks, U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 278: 1-39, 1938.
5. THOMPsON, H. C., "Vegetable Crops," pp. 170-176, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
. 6. WATTS, R . L., and G. S. WA'ITS, "The Vegetable Growing Business," pp.
204--211, Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, 1939.
[NDEX
A Apple trees, rejuvenation, 274
spray schedule, 339
Abelia, 83, 154 seedlings, 218
African daisy, 83 soil management, 232
Afterripening, seeds, 198 soils, 190
Ageratum, 83 storing, 348
Agriculture, 1 training, 258
Agronomy, 1 yield,91
Almond,63 Apricot, fruitfulness, 124
Alkalinity, soil, 184 storage, 348
Alyssum, 83 Arborvitae, 84
Amateur floriculture, 51 Areas, under glass, 15
Ammonium sulfate, 237 home grounds, 70
Annual flowers, 83 private, 70
Anthracnose, 316 public, 70
control, 317 service, 71
life cycle, 311 Arsenate of lead, 327, 335
Ants, 304 Asexual propagation, 199
Aphids, 302 Asparagus, ] 39
control, 304 storage, 349
life cycle, 303 Asters, 53, 83
Apple, age of bearing, 91 Azalea, 83, 154, 185
Apple blotch, 315 Azotobacter, 183
control, 316
life cycle, 316 B
Apple rust, 318
control, 319 Babies' breath, 83
life cycle, 318 Bacteria, 307
Apple scab, 311 Balsam, 83
control, 313 Banana, 27.
life cycle, 312 Barberry, 82
Apple trees, budding, 219 Bark,115
climate, 60 Beans, lima, storage, 349
consumption, 10 snap, storage, 349
double-worked, 220 Bearing, influence of training on, 251
fruitfulness, 123 Beech,84
fruiting habit, 141 Berry, defined, 4
grafts, 218 Biennials, 82
harvE'.sting, 343, 348 Bittersweet, 85
planting distances, 89, Black heart, 151
production, 21 Black rot, 315
propagation, 21'1 control, 315
pruning, 277 life cycle, 315
355
Blackberry, fruitfulness, 125 Carbohydrates, 133

Bleeding heart, 82 accumulation, 13!
Blueberry, 185 utilization, 134
Bordeaux mixture, 331, 336 Carbon disulfide, ·329
Borders, flower, 85 Carnation, 185, 206, 215
Boron, 239 Caves, 346
Botany, 1 Cedar apple rust (see Apple rust)
Bound water, 149 Cell, 109
Broccoli, storage, 3(9 division, 111
Brown rot, 313 enlargement, 111
control, 314 growth, 111
life cycle, 314 inclusions, 110
Bud scars, 117 maturation, 112, 137
Bud stick, 220 parts, 110
Budding, apples, 219 ray, 116
Buds, 118 stone, 112
dormant, 118 wall, 110
flower, 118 Centaurea, 83
latent, 118 Certified plants, 101
mixed, 118 Chemical pest control, 325
selected, 101 Chemical laws, 332
shoot, 118 Cherry, fruitfulness, 124
Bulbs, harvesting, 352 storage, 348
planting depths, 105 training, 257
planting distances, 105 Chelving insects (see Insects, biting)
storage, 352 Chloroplasts, 119
Chromosomes, 110
C Chrysanthemum, 132, 268
Clarkia,83
Cabbage, 29 Classification, evergreens, 99
acreage, 30 horticultural crops, 3
harvesting, 350 fruits, 5
-soil, 58 ornamentals, 6
storage, 350 vegetables, 5
Calcium, 238 insects, 289
Calcium arsenate, 327 Clematis, 83
Calendula, 83 Climate, 14, 43, 284
Calliopsis, 83 Codling moth, 290
Callus, 219 control, 291
Cambium, .113,116 life cycle, 290
Campanula, 82 Cold frame, 158
Collar rot, 151
Candytuft, 83
Collenchyma, 114
Cankerworm (see Spring cankerworm)
Colorado potaU; beetle, 285
Canna,85,l54
control, 298.
Canning crops, 50 life cycle, 298
Cantaloupe (see Muskmelon) Columbine; 82
Capejasmin~hardiness, 154 Combination sprays, 336
Carbohydrate-nitrogen, hyPothesis, 134 Commerciallloriculture, 51
relationship, 139 Companion crop, 230'
INDEX 357
Compat ibility, 123 Deutzia ,82

Conduc tive tissues, 114 Dewberry, fruitfulness, 125
Conserv atory plants, 51 Dioecious, 122
Contact insecticides, 327 Disbudd ing, training , 262
Cool season, 145 Disease, 'immuni ty, 322
fruits, 145 pests, 306
omamen tals, 146 resistance, 322
vegetables, 145 Diseases, bacteria , 307
Copper, 240, 331 fungi,31 1
Copper dusts, 331 mosaic, 319
Coreopsis, 82 virus, 319
Cork cambium , 113 Dogwood, 83
Corms, harvesti ng, 352 Dorman cy, seeds, 198
storage, 352 Dorman t period, defined, 129
Cortex, 116 vs. rest period, 131
Cosmos, 83 Dorman t season, tempera ture, 148
effect of light, 177, 178 Double-working, 101
Cotonea ster,83 apple, 220
Covent Garden Market, 18 Drupe, defuied, 4
Cover crops, 229 Dry-mix, sulfur-lim~, 330
Crepe myrtle, 154 Dusting , equipme nt, 334
Corcus, 84 sulfur,3 31
Crop rotation , 325 Dusts, 336
Crops, cool-season, 145 Dwarf trees, 90, 91
soils, 187
warm-season, 147 E
Cross-pollination, 122
Crown gall, 310 Elemen tal sulfur, 331
control, 311 Elm, American, 83, 154, 200
life cycle, 310 Englem ann creeper, 83, 154
Cucumbers, hardiness, 154 Epidermis, 115
training , 268 Espalier, 263
Culture, extensive, 1 Evening primrose, 82
intensiv e, 2 Evergreens, 99, lOO, 207
Curculio (see Plum' curculio)
Currant , 89, 91 F
Cuttings , leaf, 207
root, 205 False fruit, 4
stem, 206 Farmste ad, plan, 69
Cynoglossum, 82 Fertiliza tion, defined, 123
Cypress, 83 self-, 123
Fertilizers, 235
D amounts , 242
applying, time, 244
Dahlia, 84, 154, 268 boron, 239
Dandelion, 307 calcium, 238
Daphne ,82 commercial, 241
Date palm, 23 copper, 240
Deciduous, 4 elements, 236
Delphinium, 82 iron, 239
Fertilize rs, kinds, 240 Fruitfuln ess, 123

lawne, 243 apple, 123
magnesi um, 239 apricot, 124
mangan ese, 240 blackbe rry, 125
nitrogen , 237 r.herry, l24
phospho rous, 237 aewberr y, 125
potassiu m, 238 grape, 125
use,235 nuts, 125
zinc, 240 peach,l 24
Fibers,1 14 pears, 124
Fir,83,1 55 pecans, 125
Fire blight, 307 plum, 124
control, 309 prune, 124
life cycle, 309 raspberr y, 125
Flax, 82 self-, 123
Floricul ture, 51 strawbe rry, 125
amateur , 51 Fruiting habits, 141
commercial, 51 Fruits, 47
Flower, imperfe ct, 122 aggrega te, 5
parts, 121 • areas, 48
accessory, 121 bearing age, 91
essentia l, 122 berry, 4
perfect, 122 Chicago market, 54, 51\
Flower border, 85, 86 consump tion, 10
Flower buds, 137 cool-season, 145
formatio n, 137 deciduous, 5
cause, 137 definition, 4
strawbe rry, 138 drupe, 4
time, 137 export, 18
Flower garden, formal, 86 false, 4
Flowering habits, 141 frozen, 348
Flowers, 121 groups, 4,5
annual, 83 harvesti ng, 348
biennial , 82 home, 87
under glass, 64 multiple , 4
harvesti ng, 343, 351 planting , 89
herbaceo us, 83 distance s, 89
perennia l, 82 plan, 90
storing, 351 pome, 4
training , 268 producti on, 16
Forestry , 1 trends,1 7·
Forget-m e-not, 82 · small, 5
Forsyth ia, 82 soils, 188
Framew ork, plants, 249 storing, 348
Free water, 149 subtropi cal, 23
Freezing, 149 tempera te regions, 18
Frost, 152 tree, 5
depth in soil, 233 trends,3 6
Fruit trees, dwarf, 90 tropioa1 regiOIlB, 25
grades, 100 true, 4
INDEX 359
Fruits, types, 4 Harvesting, maturity, 343
value, 47 methods, 344
warm-season, 147 onion, 351
Fumigants, 329 ornamentals, 351
Fumigation, 335 pear, 348
Fungi, 311 potatoes, Irish, 350
Fungicides, 330 sweet, 351
rhizomes, 352
G root crops, 351
time, 342
General nurseries, 51 tubers, 352
Geranium,' propagation, 217 vegetables, 343, 348
Germination, seeds, 198 Heading back, 252
Gladiolus, 84, 105, 154 Heating, artificial, 157, 158
Glass, areas, 15 Hedges, pruning, 281
Gooseberries, 89, 91, 204 Heeling in, 102
Graftage, 208 Hemlock,83
Grape, 18 Herbaceous biennials, 82
fruitfulness, 125 Herbaceous perennials, 32
production, 19 harvesting, 352
training, 265 storing, 353
Grapefruit, 62 Hickory, shagbark, 83
Grass, 76 Holly, American, 83, 154
mixtures, 78 HOllyhock, 82
Greens, storage, 349 Home gardening, 50
Growing habits, 140 Home grounds, areas, 70, 71, 73-75
Gr0wing period, 129 private, 70
Growing season, temperature, 148 public, 70
Growth, 129 service, 71
factors, influencing, 132 farm's tead, 69, 72
environment, 132 plan, 66
food supply, 133 preparation, 73
phases, 134 requirements, 66
plant, 129 plants, 76
reproductive phase, 134 type, 70
vegetative phase, 134 unity, 68
utility, 67
H Honey locust, 83
Honeysuckle, 154
Hardening, 156 Horse chestnut, 83
Hardiness, vegetable, 154 Horticultural crops, 1
Harvesting, 342
classification, 3
apples, 342, 348
fruits, 16
bulbs, 352
geographical distribution, 14
cabbage, 350
corms, 352 Horticultural enterprises
flowers, 343, 351 home, 66
fruits, 348 trends, 36
herbaceous perennials, 352 United States, 36, 46
horticultural products, 342 world,14
Horticultural pests, 284 Horticultural troubles, 284

animal, 286 classification, 286
anthracnose, 316 importance, 284
ants, 304 commercial, 8
aphids, 302 Horticulture, 1
apple blotch, 315 concept, 2
apple rust, 318 definition, 1
apple scab, 311 divisions, 3
artificial control, 323 importance, 2
bacteria, 307 objective, 3
brown rot, 313 Hotbed, 1'59
codling moth, 290 Humidity storage, 345
Colorado potato beetle, 297 Humus, 241
control, 322 Hydrocyanic acid, 329
crown gall, 310
dandelion, 307 I
environment, 323
Insect pests, 289
fire blight, 307
Insecticides, 326
fungi,311
contact, 327
immunity, 3~2
stomach poisons, 326
insects, 289
Insects, biting, 289
introduction, 285
boring, 290
mice, 287
classification, 289
moles, 288
sucking, 298
mosaic diseases, 319
Intercrops, 230
natural control, 322
Intersterile, 123
natural enemies, 323
Inter-unfruitful, 123
nematodes, 305
Iris, 84, 154, 208
oyster-shell scale, 301
Iron, 239
peach-tree borer, 294
Irrigation, 244
plants, 306
amount, 247
plum curculio, 293
effect on temperature, 157
rabbits, 287
time, 246
San Jose scale, 299
types, 244
spring cankerworm, 292
Ivy, 83, 154
strawberry leaf roller, 296
sucking insects, 298 J
virus diseases, 319
Horticultural plants, areas, 9 Juniper, 82, 99, 154, 216, 252
functions, 109 K
sources, 7
structure, 109 Kerria,82
uses, 8 Kniffin 'system, 265
value, 9 Kolkwitzia, 82
Horticultural products, harvesting, 342
storing, 342 L
Horticultural trends, economic, 40 Lawn, 76
influencing factors, 39 f er\ilizers,. ~43
physical, 42 pl.anting, 76
INDEX 361 I
Lawn, seeds, amount, 77 Monocotyledonous stems, 117

selecting, 77 Monoecious, 122
Laws, chemical, 332 Morning-glory, 85
inspection, 332 Mosaic diseases, 319
transportation, 332 Mountain laurel, 82
Layerage, 203 Mulching, 156
Lead arsenate, 327 Muskmelon, 57
Leaf, 119
functions, 119, 121 N
influence of horticultural practices, Narcissus, 85
120 Native species, 7
structure, 119 Natural enemies, 323
Lemon, climatic requirements, 62 Nematodes, 305
Lettuce, acreage, 59 control, 306
Light, 173 life cycle, 305
definition, 173 Nicotine, 328
influence, of duration, 175 Nitrate of soda, 237
of intensity, 174 Nitrification, 183
of kind, 173 Nitrogen, 237
long-day plants, 177 Non-growing period, 129
neutral plants, 177 Nucleus, 110
plant, 172 Nurseries, 51
propagation, 211 location, 52
short-day plants, '177 types, 51
storing, 346 Nursery, products, 12
Lilac, 82, 154, 216, 279 stock,33
Lily, 85 specification, 100
Lime-su1fur,330 Nutrient solutions, 192
Linden,83 Nuts, fruitfulness, 125
Lobelia, 83
o
M Oils, 328
Magnesium, 239 Olericulture, 3
Manganese, 240 Onion, 29
Manures, 240 acreage, 31
Maple, 83, 154 harvesting, 351
Maps (see Production regions) soils, 191
Marigold, 83 storing, 351
Market gardening, 50 Orange, 23
Maturity, 343 climatic requirements, 62
Mechanical guards, 324 production, 24
Mechanical tissues, H~ Oriental popp~', 82
Mercury, 332 Ornamental crops, value, 11
Meristem tissues, 113 Omamenhl evergreens, shape, 99
Mice, 287 Ornamental flowers, 6 .
Mineral elements, 236 Ornamental plants, groups, 6
Moisture, 15 . Omamentals, 32, 50
plant, 161 concept, 6
soil, 233 cool-eeason, 146
Moles, 288 hardy, 154
36~ TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL HORTICULTURE
Ornamentals. harvesting, 351 Pests, horticultural, 284

shrubs, 6 Petals, 121
soils, 191 Petunia, sa, 185
storing, 352 Pfitzer juniper, sa
tender, 154 Philadelphus, 82, 154
trees, 6 Phloem, 114
trends, 39 Phlox, 82, 154
types of flower growing, 51 Phosphorus, 237
warm-season, 148 Photoperiodism, 177
Oxygen, propagation, 211 Photosynthesis, 120
Oyster-shell scale, 301 Pine, sa
control, 302 Pistil, 122
life cycle, 301 Pith, 116
Planting, 101
P bulbs, 105
Paradichlorobenzene, 330 depth, 105
Parenchyma tissues, 113 herbaceous perennials, 103
Paris green, 327 manner, 104
Peach, 20 season, 102
fruitfulness, 124 deciduous plants, 103
fruiting habit, 141 evergreens, 104
production, 22 seeds, season, 103
pruning, 278 trees, 106
soils, 190 large, 104
spray schedule, 340 vegetables, 96-97
storing, 348 Plants, activity, 129
Peach-tree borer, 294 cells, 109
control, 296 forcing, 132
life cycle, 295 functions, 109
Peach yellows, 319 growth,l29
control, 319 hardiness, 150
life cycle, 319 herbaceous annuals, sa
Pear, fruitfulness, 124 herbaceous biennials, 82
harvesting, 348 herbaceous perennials, 82
storing, 348 improvement, 194
Pecan, climatic requirements, 63 light, 172
fruitfulness, 125 obtaining, 95
Pedigreed, 101 propagation, 194
Peony, 85, 105, 154, 277 asexual, 199
Pericycle, 113 sexual, 196
Pests, classification, 286 pruning, 270
control, 322 quantity required, 95
chemical, 325 relation to moisture, 161
crop rotation, 325 selecting, 76
equipment, 332 omantentals, 76
legal, 332 8hrubs, deciduous, ·82
mechanics, 332 evergreen,sa
natural means, 322 quality,~8
physical, 324 8Ources,95
pruning, 325 'Structure, 109
INDEX 363
Plants, temperature, 144, 153 Production regions, United States,
training, 249 potato, Irish, 56
trees, quality, 98 strawberry, 60
water requirement, 163 sweet potato, 57
Plastids, 110 toma toes, 59
Plum, fruitfulness, 124 vegetables for home use and sale, 9,
storing, 348 49
Plum curculio, 293 walnut, 63
control, 294 Propagation, 194
life cycle, 293 apple, 217
Poison bait, 288 asexual, 199
Pollination, 122 methods, 201
agencies, 123 reasons, 199
cross-, 122 requirements, 199
defined, 122 detached parts, 207
seif-, 122 double-working, 209
Pome, defined, 4 factors influencing, 209
Pomology,3 age of seed or vegetative part used,
Portulaca, 83 213
Potash (see Potassium) chemical treatments, 215
Potassium, 238 leaf area, 214
Potato, Irish, 29 light, 211
acreage and production, 29 moisture, 210
harvesting, 350 oxygen supply, 211
spray schedule, 340 position of cut, 214
storing, 359 rooting medium, 215
sweet, climatic requirements, 57 size of seed all vegetative part used,
harvesting, 351 212
storing, 351 temperature, 209
Primary branches, 117 time, 211
Privet, 82, 264 geranium, 217
Production regions, United States, graftage, requirements, 208
almond,63 lagerage, 203
apple trees, 60 leaf cuttings, 207
cabbage, 58 methods, 196
citrus, 62 plants, 194
flowers, 50 on own roots, 201
fruits and vegetables, value, 9 rhizomes, 203
grapevines, 61 root cuttings, 205
grass, 77 on roots of other plants, 208
horticultural plants under glass, 64 runners, 203
lettuce, 59 sexual, 196
muskmelon, 57 stem cuttings, 206
nurseries, 52 stolons, 203
nursery stock, flower and ·vegetable tomato, 216
seeds and bulbs, 64 vegetative, 199
onion, 58 Protective tissues, 115
orchards and vineyards, 48 Proteins, 134, 137
peach trees, 61 Protoplasm, 110
pecan, 63 Prune; fruitfulness, 124
Pruning, 325 Rooting, mediums, artificial, 192

apple, 277 Roots, cap, 126
degree, 273 definition, 125
influence, on amount of growth, 273 distribution, 126, 188
on vigor of growth, 273 fibrous, 125
relation to fruiting habit, 274 functions, 125
hedges, 281 tap, 125
manner, 272 types, 125
objects, 270 Rose, pruning, 281
facilitate horticultural operations, soils, 192
272 Rotation, 325
improve product, 271 Rotenone, 328
maintain Vigor, 271 Runners, 203
peach, 278
plants, 27(' s
protectioJ. temperatures, 157 Salpiglossis, 83
roses,. 28. Salvia, 83
shade tre("', ~82 San Jose scale, 285
shruhs, 2'iJ control, 302
degree, 2ku . life cycle, 299
kind of pruni.f?" 279 Sanitation, 324
time, 2':"5 Scabiosa, 83
ddrmallt sca.qon, 276 Seeds, 33, 196
growing se'ason, 276 cleaning, 197
(See also Training) dormancy, 198
Pyrethrum, 328 formation, 196
germination, 198
R grading, 325
Rabbits, 287 nurseries, 52
Raspberry, fruitfulness, 125 production, 53, 196
mosaic, 320 purifying, 325
storing, 348 storing, 197
Respiration, 133 Self-fertile, 123
Rest period, 130 Self-fruitful, 123
breaking, 132 Self-pollination, 122
causes, 131 Self-sterile, 123
definition, 130 Self-unfruitful, 123
vs. dormant period, 131 Sepals, 121
duration, 131 Shoot, 117
postponing, 132 Shrubs, 79
shortening, 131 border, 79
significance, 131 deciduous, 82
temperature, 150 evergreen, 83
Rhizomes, harvesting, 352 foundation planting, 81
storing, 352 pruning, 279
Rhododendron, 82, 192 uses, 79
Ringing, 138 training, 264
Root crops, harvesting, 351 Site, selecting, 153
storing, 351 Snapdragon, 83
Root hair, 127 So~ps, 329
INDEX 365
Sod,225 · Sprays, combina tion, 336

Soils, 15, 46, 181 Spring cankerw orm, 292
acidity, 184 control, 293
alkalinit y, 184 life cycle, 293
apple, 190 Spruce, 83
classified, 181 Spur, defined, 117
cultivati on, 324 Squash, storing, 349
definition, 181 Stamen, 122
fertility, 181 Stems, 115
fertilizer s, 235 classes, 117
fruit, 188 diagram matic sketch, 116
depth, 189 dicotyle donous, 115
heavy textured , 186 function s, 115
ideal, 187 herbace ous, 116
irrigatio n, 244 modified, 118
light textured , 187 monoco ty ledonou~
manage ment, 224 propaga tion, 206
objects, 224 structur es, 115
systems , 225 woody, 115
fertilizers, 235 Steriliza tion, 334
mulch,2 31 Stomach poisons, :a~
rotation , 234 Stomate s, 119
sod,225 Storage, apples, 348
tillage, 227 bulbs, 352 .
medium textured , 187 cabbage , 350
moisture , 233 cold,34 6
nutrient supply, 183 common , 346
onion, 191 corms, 352
organism s, 183 flowers, 351
o.rnamen tals, 191 freezing, apricot, 348
peach, 190 asparagu s, 349
physical conditio ns, 185 beans, bush, 349
potato, Irish, 191 snap, 349
reaction , 184 broccoli, 349
rhododc ndron, 192 cherry, 348
root distribu tion, 188 greens, 349
rose, 192 peach,3 48
strawbe rry, 190 peas, 349
texture, 186 plum, 348
t.omato, 191 raspberr y, 348
topograp hy, 181 spinach, 349
tulip, 192 squash, 349
vegetabl es, 190 strawbe rry, 348
Specialized nurserie s, 51 sweet corn, 349
Spinach , storage, 349 vegetabl es, 349
;;pray material s, prcparat ion, 335 fruits, 348
·lpraying, amount; 338 herbaceo us perennia ls, 353
equipme nt, 332 horticul tal products , 342
manner, 337 humidit y, 345
t.ime, 337 .influencing factors, 345
Storage, onion, 351 Temperature, protecting from unfavor-

pear, 348 able hardening, pruning, 157
potato, Irish, 350 screening, 155
sweet, 351 top-working, 157
rhizomes, 352 protection, 152, 157
root crops, 351 rest period, 150
temperature, 345 selection of plants, 153
tubers, 352 storage, 345
types, 346 unfavorable, 148
ventilation, 346 winter killing, 151
Storage organs, development, 140 Thinning out, 253
Strawberry, climatic requirements, 60 Tillage, 227
fruitfulness, 125 Time, ordering plants, 181
leaf roller, 296 propagation, 211
control, 297 pruning, 276
life cycle, 296 Tissues, 112
soils, 190 conductive, 114
storage, 348 mechanical, 114
Sulfur,329 meristem, 113
dry-mix, 330 parenchyma, 113
elemental, 331 protective, 115
lime-,330 Tomato, 31
wet table, 331 climatic ,requirements, 59
Sunscald, 151 propagation, 216
Sweet corn, storing, 349 soils, 191
Sweet Potato (see Potato, sweet) Topography, 181
Top-working, effect on winter injury, 157
T Training, bearing, 251
Temperature, 15 disbudding, 262
after rest period, 150 espalier, 263
cool season, 145 flowers, 268
dormant season, 148 framework, 249
effects, high, 148 grape, 265
low, 149 manner, 252
favorable, 144 cutting, 252
growing season, 144 heading back, 252
influence, of altitude, 45 placing, 255
of location, 152 thinning out, 253
of site, 153 objects, 249
of water, 43 plants, 249
injury, 152 shrubs, 26:i
maximum, 144 formal,264
minimum, 144 informal, 264
optimum, 144 systems, 255
propagation, 209 trees, central leader, 256
protecting from unfavorable harden- modified leader, 258
ing, 156 natural system, 255
heating, 157 open center, 257
irrigating, 157 vegetables, 267
mulching, 156 vines., 265
INDEX 367
Transpiration, 121 Virginia creeper, 83
Transplanting, 106 Virus, 319
time, United States, 102 Virus diseases, 286
Trees, balled, 104
ornamental, deciduous, 84 W
evergreen, 84
planting, 106 Water, 161
shade, pruning, 282 availability, 165
training, 255 bound,149
ruck crops, 50 capillary, 167
runk,117 free, 149, 163
.'ubers, harvesting, 352 functions, 162
storing, 352 gravitational, 167
Tulip, soil, 192 hygroscopic, 167
Twig, 117 loss by plants, 165
obtaining, 161
v plant nutrient, 163
\' in plants, 161
Vegetables, 28 requirements, definition, 163
: areas, 49 influencing factors, 164
~hicago market, 54, 55 in soil, 167
c,ompanion cropping, 95 amount, 164, 168
Ct)ncept,5 conditions, 167
c()\ol-season, 28, 30, 145 excess, 169
fOJocing,5O movement, 168
gai-den plan, 92, 93 rate of supply, 164
gI"l;)uPS, 5, 6 shortage, 170
hI! rdiness, 154 using, 162
hlarvesting, 343, 348 influencing factors, 164
Wome, 94 Watersprout, 117
purpose, 93 Weigela,82
p~anting data, 96-97 Wettable sulfur, 331
p'roduction (per capita), 11 Wine, production, 20
~, imports, 34 Winter injury, 150
8!Oils, :190 influencing factors, 150
sitorage, 349 degree of low temperature, 151
~uccession cropping, 94 duration of low temperature, 151
training, 267 kind of plant, 151
,trends, 37 parts of plant, 151
, types of farms, 50 rapidity of temperature changes,
value, 48 151
and areas, 9 time of low temperature, 151
warm-season, 147
yields, 94 x
<7 ent1ation, storage, 346
Xylem, 114, 116
'erb'llJla,83
'eronica, 82
ibumum, 82, 154 ,
z
nes, ornamental, 85 Zinc, 240
training I 265 Zinnia, 83, 185
J
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Textbook of General

Julian Claude Schilletter

Published by BIOTECH BOOKS

Showroom 4762-63/23, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,

Printed at Chawla Offset Printers

materials, it has been found advisable to refresh his memory on certain

JULIAN CLAUDE SCHILLETTER,

Horticulture is that division of agriculture which relates to the

tobacco, that require intensive culture. Crops receiving intensive

To the botanist a fruit is a ripened ovary, but the horticultural

has established such fruits as the raspberry, blackberry, cranberry and

No convenient or accurate definition can be given for the great

Ornamental horticulture confines itself to those plants which are

When the Norsemen discovered North America, they named the

Commodity 1934 1935 1936 1937

statistics to prove this to be a fact. Unfortunately official statistics

FARM VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CROPS. 1936

TABLES GROWN FOR SALE AND KOME USE

TABLE 2 .-ApPARENT UNITED STATES CONSUMPTION OF IMPORTANT

Pounds per capita

Apples ... ...... .... . .. . .. . . . . . . ... . .. . 60.2 46 .3

total per capita consumption of 12 principal fresh fruits shows a slight

not available for comparing present vegetable consumption with that

TABLE 3.'-PER CAPITA PRODUCTION OF SIXTEEN VEGETABLES BY SPECIFIED

Commodity Market Manufacture Total

1918- 1921 1932-1936 1918-1921 1932-1936 1918-1921 1932-1936

Asparagus . ..... 0.5 1.8 0.4 0.8 0 .9 2.6

TABLE 4.-RECEIPTS FROM SALES OF ORNAMENTAL CROPS·

Flowers and flowering plants .. . ....... .. ..... . 62 98

The data in Table 4 indicate a marked increase in the value of orna-

Suggested Collateral Readings

Temperature and moisture, the two chief agencies of climate, which

alone can limit production. The absence of adequate available water

Netherlands ...... . ............ 190,082,563 t 80.0 20 .0

Commerce in fruits on a large scale is of comparatively recent devel-

90 AV. 1931. 32 "34. 35 '36·37 ' 37.38

of national and international trade. Although fruit production is

entering world trade include almonds, Brazil nuts, chestnuts, coconuts,

in the United States devoted to this species is in California. Its great-

FIG. 5.-Grape vines planted on terraces in Uermany.

minor role in foreign trade, but considerable quantities of canned and

conditions. It is more subject to early spring frost and to winter kill-

Italy. In Germany, Holland, Belgium and the north of France and

FIG. 9.-General vi~w of an orchard in Cape Province. South Africa. in September;

Fruits of Subtropical Zones.-The regions where subtropical fruits

FIG. ll.-Qranges: tot.al production in leading countries reporting. (U.8. Department

readily. Less important tropical fruits include the jujube, ceriman,

FIG. 13.-Papaya orchard in Hawaii. (U.S. Department 01 Agriculture.)

people of Guatemala. hold the avocado in great esteem; Guatemalans

Banana.-The banana is the great starch food of the tropics.

FIG. 14.-Harvesting the banana. (Ur.i,ted Fruit Co.)

Bananas are produced in great quantities in Central and South

On account of the large bulk and perishable nature of fresh vege-

Russia (Europe and Asia) ... ... .. 14 101 30 23

TABLE 8.-CABBAGE: TOTAL ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION IN LEADING COUNTRIEIi

United States . ....... . . 193 2,572 24.0 27t

* .. International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1937," Rome, 1937.

FIG. 15.-Grading onions, Egypt. (Courtul W. V. Cmus.)

Warm-season Crops.-Some of the most important warm-season