PHYSICS 5054

MEASUREMENTS

GRADE TEN

1. Identify basic units and derived units

Answers:

International System of Units (SI)

Quantity SI unit symbol

Time second  s

Length metre  m

Mass kilogram  kg

Electric current ampere  A

kelvin K
Temperature

Light intensity candela  cd

Amount of mol
mole 
substance

Derived units

QUANTITY  SI UNIT SYMBOL

Area square metre m2

metre per square m·s−2

Acceleration
second

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 Frequency hertz  Hz

Energy joule  J

Power watt  W

Force newton  N

Pressure Pascal  Pa

Electric charge coulomb  C

Potential difference volt  V

2. Recognise prefixes, multiples and submultiples of fundamental and derived units.

Answers:

The names of metric units are made by adding a prefix to the base unit of measurements.

To tell how large or small a unit is you look at the prefix.

 Prefixes in the Metric System

met
er

kilo- hecto- deca- gra deci- centi- milli-

m

liter

1,000
10
times l 100 10 100 1,000
times lar base
arger t times large times smal times smal times smal
ger than unit
han r than base ler than ler than ler than
base s
base unit base unit base unit base unit
unit
unit

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The most commonly used metric prefixes

PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR NUMERICALLY NAME

Giga G 109 1 000 000 000 Billion

Mega M 106 1 000 000 Million

Kilo k 103 1 000 Thousand

Centi c 10-2 0.01 Hundredth

Milli m 10-3 0.001 Thousandth

Micro μ 10-6 0.000 001 Millionth

Nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 Billionth

3. Use scientific notation and significant figures in numerical problems.

Answers:
 Scientific notation: numbers written using powers of ten
1. Use scientific notation
Answer:

 Helps to make it easy to read large or small numbers which are inconveniencing when
they are not converted to scientific notation. Scientific notation is the use of power in
writing numbers in a form of Z x 10n
 Z is the non-zero figure on either the left or right hand side of the decimal point.
 n is the positive or negative exponent
 Determine Z by shifting the decimal point in the original number to either the right or
the left until a non-zero digit is on its left.
 n is determined by counting the number of places the decimal point has been moved. It
is positive if it is moved to the left and negative if it moves to the right.
 Example 1.  Write 0.00000031 in scientific notation.
 Move the decimal place to the right to create a new number from 1 up to 10.

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 So, Z = 3.1.

 Determine the exponent, which is the number of times you moved the decimal.
 In this example, you moved the decimal 7 times; also, because you moved the decimal
to the right, the exponent is negative. Therefore, n = –7, and so you get
 Put the number in the correct form for scientific notation is 3.1 x 10 -7
 Example 2. Write 300 000 000 in scientific notation
 Z=3
 n=8
 scientific notation = 3 x 108

 Significant figures: important figures

 Use of significant figures is one way of indicating the accuracy of measurements
 They are figures in numbers known with certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain
Rules/examples
 All non-zero figures are significant e.g. 449.5 has 4 sig. figures
 All zeros in between non zeros are significant e.g. 103. 006 has 6 sig. figures
 All zeros to the right hand side of the decimal point are not e.g. 0.00753 has 3 significant
figures i.e. 753.
 Zeros to the right of the decimal point following a non-zero figure are significant e.g.
0.07020 has 4 sig. figures i.e. 7020

Length and time

4. Demonstrate the use of various measuring instruments to determine length
Answers:
Metre rulers
 Rules come in various forms. These include metre rule, measuring tape, etc.
 A meter rule is used to measure medium lengths i.e. 0 to 1m. It has an accuracy of
0.1cm.

 A measuring tape measures long lengths i.e.  0 to 100m .It has an accuracy of 0.1 cm

 A metre rule is the most commonly used to measure length in the laboratory.
Use of rules to determine length:

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  Study the markings on the rule (cm and mm)
 Align the rule to the object to be measured.
 Take the reading by placing the eye correctly as shown in the diagram to
prevent error by parallax. Parallax error is the error caused due to reading from
the side of the Tape or the Rule. For accurate measurement, the eye must
always be placed vertically above the mark being read.

Vernier Calipers:

Vernier calipers are actually used to measure smaller lengths to acquire a greater accuracy as
it’s precision is 0.01 cm i.e. 0.1 mm. The inside jaws shown are used to measure the internal
diameters of objects while the outside jaws are to measure the external diameter. The vernier
calipers have a main scale and a sliding vernier scale.

Error in a Vernier caliper

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Zero error is actually an error in the instrument which occurs when the zero of the main scale
and vernier scale do not coincide when the jaws of the calipers are closed.

 Negative zero error: Occurs when the zero of the Vernier scale is to the left of the
Vernier scale when the two jaws are in contact.
 To take the precise value for the measurement we are taking, we have to add the value
of the negative zero error to the obtained measurement.
 No zero error is the precise arrangement of the meter scale and the Vernier scale so that
the zeros of both scales fit each other.
Precautions

i. Zero the instrument before taking measurements

ii. Lubricate moving part
iii. Do not store the instrument in a dump place to avoid rusting

Task: Google how the zero error is corrected in vernier calipers.

How to take measurements using a vernier calipers.

1. Firstly, just read the centimeter mark on the main scale to the left of the 0-mark on the
vernier scale. (10 mm in this case)

2. Now, find the millimeter mark on the main scale that is just to the left of the 0-mark on the
vernier scale. (6mm as you can see)

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3. Now we have to take the readings on the sliding vernier scale. For this, look along the ten
marks on the vernier scale and the millimeter marks on the main scale, until you find the two
that most nearly line up. (0.25mm on the vernier scale)

4. Okay so finally, just simple add this found digit to your previous readings to obtain the
diameter of the object, as shown:

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Micrometer Screw Gauge:

The micrometer screw gauge is an instrument used to measure thickness of very thin objects
like a sheet of paper, thickness of a razor blade, diameter of hair and very thin wires, etc.

And a simpler, more closer diagram:

the micrometer screww gauge has an accuracy of 0.01mm. it has two scales namely the sleeve
(main) scale and the thimble (rotating) scale. the sleeve scale is fixed while the thimble scale
rotates. the thimble scale has 50 equal divisions equal to 0.5mm. Thus each complete turn of
the thimble moves through a distance of 0.5mm

How to measure using a micrometer screw gauge

 Turn the thimble by the ratchet until the object is gripped between the anvil and the
spindle when the first click sound is heard from the ratchet.
 Read the mark that comes just before the edge of the thimble, on the main scale on the
sleeve.
 Find the mark on the rotating scale that is in line the horizontal line of the line on the
sleeve. Multiply this value by 0.01mm and record the result as thimble reading.
 Add the thimble reading to the main scale reading.
Example

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To measure even smaller lengths, micrometer is used as it has an even smaller precision i.e.
0.001 cm or 0.01 mm. Its range is less than 2 cm

The object whose diameter is to be measured is placed between the anvil and spindle (shown
above). The ratchet which is a kind of knob is turned to tighten the spindle until a ‘click’ is
heard.

So now the thing is, what do we do after this? It’s simple. Take a look at the diagram below.

 Read the main scale on the sleeve. This reading would be in millimeters.
 In the diagram below, the reading is 5.5mm.
 Then read the line on the circular scale that coincides with the line on the main scale.
 In the diagram below, the 28th line on the circular scale coincides with the line.
 So, the reading would be 0.28mm.
 Then add 5.5 with 0.28 and you will obtain your answer in millimeters.

Parallax Error

Parallax errors affect the accuracy of the measurement.

 Consistently using the incorrect angle to view the markings, measurements will be
displaced from the true values by the same amount. This is called systematic error.
 If different angles are used to view the markings, measurements will be displaced from
the true values by different amounts. This is called random error.

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Precautions

i. Zero the instrument before taking measurements. Zero error is absent if the zero of
thimble scale coincides with the line on sleeve (datum line) when the anvil and
spindle are closed.
ii. Lubricate moving part for easy sliding.
iii. Do not store the instrument in a dump place to avoid rusting.
iv. Clean the anvil and the spindle to remove dust particles because it can even take the
measurement of dust particles.

ACTIVITY

Q1. What is the reading on the vernier calipers below?

Q2. What is the reading on the micrometer

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5. Demonstrate the use of clocks and devices for measuring an interval of time
Answers:
 Clocks
 A unit of time is any particular time interval, used as a standard way of measuring or
expressing duration.
 The International System of Units (SI), is the second (s).
 It is calculated in a variety of ways such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, and
etc.

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 TYPE OF CLOCK/WATCH USE AND ACCURACY

Atomic clock Used to measure very shorty time intervals of about 10 -10
seconds

Digital stopwatch Used to measure short time intervals of minutes and seconds to
an accuracy of ±0.01 s±0.01 s

Analogue stopwatch Used to measure short time intervals of minutes and seconds to
an accuracy of ±0.1s±0.1s

Ticker-tape timer Used to measure short time intervals of 0.02 s

Watch Used to measure longer time intervals of hours, minutes and

seconds

Pendulum clock Used to measure longer time intervals of hours, minutes and
seconds

Radioactive decay clock Used to measure LONG time intervals of years to thousands of
years

Analogue/Digital Clocks

 Can be read in hours, minutes and seconds.

How to use: 

 The clock is set to commence at a particular time or the start time is noted.
 The time event is then allowed to occur, and at the end of the event, the end time is
noted. The difference provides the required time interval.
 Accuracy: ± 1 s

Stopwatch and Stopclock

 A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed

from a particular time when it is activated to the time when the piece is deactivated.

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  A large digital version of a stopwatch designed for viewing at a distance, as in a sports
stadium, is called a stopclock.

 In manual timing, the clock is started and stopped by a person pressing a button.

 In fully automatic time, both starting and stopping are triggered automatically, by
sensors.

 The timing functions are mostly controlled by two buttons.

 Pressing the top button starts the timer running, and pressing the button a second time
stops it, leaving the elapsed time displayed.

 A press of the second button then resets the stopwatch to zero. The second button is
also used to record split times or lap times.

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  When the split time button is pressed while the watch is running, the display freezes,
allowing the elapsed time to that point to be read, but the watch mechanism continues
running to record total elapsed time.

 Pressing the split button a second time allows the watch to resume display of total time.
 Precautions
 Inaccurate reading of the time when using an analogue stop watch (stop clock), parallax
error should be avoided.
 Repeat the experiment to get an accurate reading by taking an average of the readings.
 Human reaction error can also generate a difference in the time recorded and original
time.
Ticker Tape Timer

A ticker tape timer produces a dot on a tape at a fixed time interval.

How to use: The tape is attached to an object and the state of motion of the object can be
deduced from the dots on the tape.

 Reading the tape from ticker tape timer

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The procedure to deducing the state of motion from the resulting tape is best explained using
an example. The 3 tapes, X, Y and Z, have a length of 1 m from the first dot to the last dot. The
dots are made by a ticker tape timer with a time interval of 0.1 seconds.

For X, the dots are evenly spaced. Since the length is 1 m, the spacing between each dot is 0.2
m. We can calculate the speed of the object using 

Speed=Distance X time=0.20s X 1m =2m/s

Hence, X represents the tape from an object that is moving at constant speed.

For Y, the spacing between the dots increases as time passes. Since the dots are made with a
fixed time interval, the time in the formula above is fixed. We will get an increasing speed as
the distance between the dots increases. Hence, Y represents the tape from an object that
is accelerating.

For Z, the spacing between the dots decreases as time passes. Using the same reasoning as
above, Z represents the tape from an object that is decelerating.

Period of a Pendulum (T=t/n)

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A simple pendulum makes use of a swing (oscillation) of the metallic bob to measure time
period.

Note:  

The oscillation refers to a swing of bob from left to right and back to the starting position.

The Time period of the pendulum is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

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Frequency is the number of oscillations of the pendulum in one second.
Answer:

How to find the period (T) using a Simple pendulum.

 First measure time for 20 complete oscillations using a stop watch or a stop clock

(remember measuring time period of just one oscillation will not be accurate and can
introduce errors)
t
 Find T1 (time period 1) using formula total time for 20 oscillations/20 ( )
n
 Once you have found T1 repeat the experiment for next four times to find T2 T3 T4 T5
 To get an accurate reading of time period takethe average of the 5 time periods

T 1 +T 2+T 3 +T 4 +T 5
i.e. 
5
6. Identify factors that affect the period of a simple pendulum
Answers:
 The period is affected the length of the pendulum (i.e. distance from fixed point to the
middle of the bob). When the length increases time period increases.
 It is also affected by the gravitational force. When gravitational force increases time period
decreases.

N.B. Mass of the bob and amplitude has no effect on the periodic time

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 Mass and weight
7. Distinguish between mass and weight
Answers:
 Differences between mass and weight in terms of units, measuring instrument and quantities

Mass Weight
 S.I. unit is Kilogram  S.I. unit is Newton
 Measured using a tripple beam balance  Measured using a spring balance
 Is the amount of substance in an object  Is the pull of gravity on an object
 Is constant every where  Varies from place to place
 Is not affected by the force of gravity  Is affected by the force of gravity
 Is a scalar quantity  Is a vector quantity

8. Demonstrate how to measure mass and weight

Answers:
 How to use a Triple beam balance to measure mass
Tri ple be am balanc e c onsist of thr ee be am s with know n m asses stuck
on e ac h be am

Method:

 Put the solid substance to be measured on the scale pan.

 Start sliding the bigger mass until the pointer is pushed below the zero mark.
 Keep sliding the other masses to and fro until the pointer points towards the
points towards the zero mark

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  Sum up the readings of the three masses to get the total mass of the object.
Therefore, the mass of the object in the pan is 335.0 grams (300 grams + 30
grams + 5.0 grams).
Pr ecauti ons:
 Clean the pan and the beams to remove dust
 Zero the scale (the pointer must point at the zero mark) before measurement
is started.

 How to measure weight using a spring balances

The spring scale has a spring that stretches when an object is attached to it.

The amount of stretching increases with increasing weight. We use standard weights to
calibrate the stretch of the spring. An object that stretches the spring the same distance a
standard weight does has the same weight as the standard.  If the sample stretches the
spring half the distance than the standard did, then the object weighs half as much. 
9. Demonstrate how to locate the centre of mass of an object
Answers:
 For regularly shaped objects

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 Use of lamina to locate centre of mass of an object
 For a regular shape: centre of mass is at the geometric centre.
 For an irregular lamina:
a. Make three holes near the edge.
b. Hang the lamina on a nail using one of the holes and allow it to swing freely.
c. Hang a plumb line by the same nail and trace along it.
d. Repeat procedures b and c for the other holes.
e. The point where lines meet is the centre of mass.

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10. Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of an
object.
Answers
 The lower the centre of gravity (G) is, the more stable the object. The higher it is
the more likely the object is to topple over if it is pushed. Racing cars have really
low centre of gravity so that they can corner rapidly without turning over.

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  Increasing the area of the base increases the space within which the line of G
operates. This also increases the stability of an object. The bigger the area the
more stable the object. Rugby players will stand with their feet well apart if they
are standing and expect to be tackled.
 The higher the centre of gravity the more likely an object is to topple over if it is
tilted.
 If an object is tilted it will topple over if a vertical line from its centre of gravity
falls outside its base.

 Stability of objects in terms of the position of the centre of mass e.g. equilibrium(stable
,unstable and neutral)

Types of Equilibrium:

1. Stable equilibrium

● occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would
raise its centre of gravity
● the centre of gravity still falls in its base so it returns to its original position (as an anti-
clockwise moment is created as shown above by the arrow)

2. Unstable equilibrium

● occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would
lower its centre of gravity
● the centre of gravity no longer falls in its base so it topples over to fall into a more stable
position (a clockwise moment is created shown by an arrow above)

3. Neutral equilibrium

● occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would not
change the level of its centre of gravity
● no such moment is created

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The following diagrams will make it clearer:

Take a look at the above diagram, in (a), the block is in stable equilibrium and it won’t topple. In
(b), the wooden block is disturbed and an anti-clockwise moment will cause it to return to its
original position as the centre of gravity still falls in its base. While in (c), the centre of gravity
does not fall in its base so it topples over as a clockwise moment is created.

Density
11. Determine the density of floating objects
Answers:
 The formula for density is

Mass
Density =
Volume
 To find the mass of an object, it can be weighed using a spring balance or a digital scale.
The units will be in grams.
 To find the volume of that object of a floating object, you need to find out how much
water the object displaces. Therefore, you need a graduated cylinder with a known
quantity of water. Next, drop the object into the cylinder and the water level will rise to
a new volume.

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  Subtract the two numbers and this will give you the volume of the object.
 Using the density formula, plug in the mass in grams and divide by the volume in
milliliters.
 For floating objects the density is less than 1 gram per milliliter. Other solids that can
float in water are ice, stryfoam, wood and some clothing.

12. Determine the density of a mixture of liquids

Answers:
 Density of miscible liquids: e.g. alcohol and water(þ=(m1+m2)/(v1+v2))

13. Describe what relative density is

Answers:
 Relative density as ratio without units
 Relative density is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of a given
reference material. It has no units. It is just a number which shows how many times
the material is denser than the standard substance (water =1000kg m-3, for solids and
liquids and hydrogen =0.1kg m-3 for gases).

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 density of t h e substance
relative density=
density of t h e standard substance

When relative density of Relationship with the Sinking and floating

substance is: standard
Less than one Substance is less dense Substance will float on
than the standard the standard e.g. ice on
water
Greater than one Substance is denser than Substance will sink into
the standard the standard
Exactly one Densities are equal

14. Calculate relative density of air

Answers:
 Use of formula; Relative density of substance(relative density =density of
substance/density of water )
Examples:

A globe of steel has a mass of 12g and a volume of 15.2cm³, find its relative density.

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To measure relative density of liquid by density bottle

 Find mass of empty bottle –m0

 Find mass of bottle and liquid-m1
 Empty the bottle and rinse it with water
 Fill the bottle with water and find mass m2

Mass of liquid= (m1-m0)g

Mass of equal volume of water= (m2-m0)g

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Example

The mass of density bottle is 19g when dry and empty, 45g when filled with water and 40g
when full of liquid x. calculate the density of the liquid x.

Scalars and Vectors.

15. Describe what scalar and vector quantities are
Answers:
Scalars Vectors
-size and no direction -size and direction

16. Distinguish between scalars and vectors.

Answers:
Scalars Vectors
distance, mass , time, speed, length, area, weight, force, acceleration, displacement,
volume, temperature, density, work, velocity, moment
energy, power

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17. Demonstrate adding of vectors to determine a resultant
Answers:
 Resultant of vectors: Adding vectors using the formula FR= F1 +F2 and FR= F2-F1
Addition of Vectors:
When we add two vectors, we have to consider the direction, unlike in scalars. As for scalar
quantities we simply add up the magnitudes e.g. a weight of 50g and 20g gives a total of 70g.
When we add up two vectors, we are actually trying to find a single vector which will produce
the same effect as the two vectors added together. This single is called a resultant vector.

1. Addition of parallel vectors:

Okay in the above case, two parallel forces are acting on an object. How will we find the
resultant? It’s easy. First see if the forces are acting in the same direction or in opposite
direction. We can see the forces are in opposite direction: the 40N force is acting upwards while
the 25N force is acting downwards. So the resultant force in this case is 15N upwards: 40N -
25N. (Remember to state the direction while mentioning a vector quantity).

Observe the following summation of two parallel forces:

It makes it clearer, right? Good then, let’s move on!

2. Addition of non-parallel vectors:

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 Now what to do with such questions?

18. Demonstrate how to determine the resultant of two vectors graphically.

Answers:
 Resultant of two vectors graphically
We have all studies the Pythagoras’ Theorem in math, which goes like this:

Here’s how we’ll solve the big problems:

Now, does this make it clear? We’ll simply form a right angled triangle, apply the

Pythagoras’s theorem and we have the resultant force! But how will we state the direction
of the resultant in a written form?
Here! Now we can easily write down the direction: the
resultant is 15.6 N acting 45° anticlockwise. Not that of a

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 big question, is it? Wait; are you familiar with the trigonometric ratios: sin, cos, tan? Hmm,
if not, here we go:

Okay, so you might be asked to find the resultant by drawing a scaled vector diagram. Not
difficult at all. Just follow the steps!

Here, we have formed a parallelogram and found the resultant. We have to take a scale
first, let’s say 1 cm on paper represents an actual of 10N. We’ll measure the length of the
resultant and using the scale, will determine the actual magnitude.

Linear motion
19. Describe the terms used in mechanics.
Answers:
 Terms used : distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration
20. Demonstrate the use of equations of uniformly accelerated motion to solve problems
Answers:
 Use of the following equations of motion;
v = u + at,
s = (v + u)t/2,
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Examples:

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 A body starting from rest travels for 10s with an acceleration of 5m/s2. Find its
i. final velocity and
ii. the distance it cover in 10s.
Solution
Where v = final velocity, u = intial velocity, a = acceleration and t = time
Data: u = 0 m/s, a = 5m/s2, t = 10s
Solution:
v = u + at,
v= 0m/s + 5m/s2 X 10
v = 50m/s
ii. s = ut + ½ at2
s = (0m/s X 10s) + ½ X 5m/s2 X (10s)2
s= 250m
OR
iii. v2= u2+ 2as
502 = 02 + 2 X 5 X S
2500 = 10s
S = 250m

HOW TO DRAW SCIENTIFIC GRAPHS CORRECTLY

A graph is a visual representation of a relationship between two variables;

Independent variable: is the variable that changes on its own or that an investigator allows to
change. It is shown on the x-axis (the horizontal axis)

Dependent variable: is the variable that changes as time passes. It is shown on the y-axis (the
vertical axis)

The graphs make it easy to identify trends in data that we have collected. An example of a
correctly drawn graph is shown below.

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How to draw a scientific graph

Step Action Detail

1 Identify the variables  Place your independent variable on the x-
axis of your graph and the dependent
variable on the y-axis
2 Determine the variable range  Subtract the lowest data value from the
highest data value
3 Determine the scale of the  Determine a scale, (the numerical value for
graph each square), that best fits the range of
each variable.
 Use a scale that allows your data to be
graphed as large as possible in the space
provided.
 The range of each axis may be different.
They should each be large enough to cover
the needed range without lots of extra
space. They do not need to start at zero but
it is recommended as this allows you to
extrapolate
 The scale of each axis may be different but
each one must be consistent. If one box
represents one metre at the beginning of

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 the graph, one box always represents one
metre.
4 Number and label each axis  Clearly label the X and Y axes including the
units of measurements
5 Plot the data points  Plot each data value on the graph with a
cross (X)
6 Draw the graph  Identify a trend or a relationship between
the independent and dependent variables
 Remove any outliers for consideration
 Draw a curve or a line that best describes
the identified trend.
 Most graphs of experimental data in
Physics are linear and not drawn as
“connect the dots”.
 If required to extrapolate (extend the
graph, along the same slope, above or
below measured data), use dotted lines
7 Provide a descriptive title  Your title should clearly communicate what
the graph is about.

Common mistakes

Graph 1 shown below is missing labels.

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Mistakes in this graph include:

 Missing labels for the axes.

 Missing descriptive title.
 Extrapolated line is not drawn using a dotted line.

Graph 2 shown below contains inappropriate use of scale.

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Mistakes in this graph include:

 Incorrect scale
 Inappropriate use of the scale in x and y axes.
 Each box should represent the same value across each axis. For example, if each box is
set a value of 0.05 at the beginning of the graph, then one box should always represent
0.05 throughout the axis. The pupil should either start the scale at 0 or 0.20.

TYPES OF GRAPHS

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 a) Directly proportional Y
For an equation like Y= kX, the graph is a straight line, Gradient = k

through the origin. The gradient (or slope) = k

b) Linear but not directly proportional v

Gradient = a

Consider an equation like Y = kX + c

Or like v = at + u. For these equations the graph is

a straight line but not through the origin. U t

c) Inversely proportional
A graph P against V would give you a curve P

1
The equation is P = k x , so to get a straight line, Gradient=k
V

1
We must plot P against . Thus K = PV
V

1
V

CALCULATING GRADIENT FROM THE GRAPH

 Complete a right -angled triangle from the slope using dotted lines and let it cover
more than half the graph line drawn,
Δy y 2− y 1
 Use the equation or ,use correct interpolation, not from the table of
Δx x 2−x 1
results or plotted points
 Then the calculations must be correct to 1-2 decimal points and with units (unless it is
the gradient of similar quantities and of same units which normally cancel out during
calculations do not put units no units)
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21. Interpret graphical representation of distance-time, Displacement -time, speed-time,
velocity-time and acceleration-time
Answers:

 Graphical representation of motion in terms of ; rest, constant speed and constant

acceleration
Answers:
If the line is diagonal then its moving with a constant speed and if it is anything other than a
straight line then the speed is varying.

 A body is said to be in uniform motion when the body covers the equal distance in equal
time intervals.
o Graph for uniform motion
 In uniform motion, the distance time graph would be a straight line, because the equal
distance is covered in equal units of time.

 The three bodies A, B and C, are all in uniform motion but they have different slopes
because the slope of a distance-time graph determines the speed of that body.

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  The steeper the slope the greater will be the speed of the body. From the above graph,
body A has the highest speed and body C has the least speed.

Velocity time graph

It is the graph of velocity against time; it shows us how the velocity changes with respect
to time. The slope of a velocity-time graph determines its acceleration.

A flat horizontal line in a velocity-time graph states that the body is moving at a constant
velocity.

Constant acceleration

If the straight line has a slope, then that indicates the body is changing its velocity at a constant
rate, or it means that the body has constant acceleration.

In this graph, the bodies has uniform motion, their velocity does not change with respect to
time.

Uniformly accelerated

In the velocity time graph below the velocity changes at a constant rate with respect to time.
This is uniformly accelerating motion.

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The graph is a straight line with its slope indicating the amount of acceleration.

Identify motion from the shape of a speed- time graph

Use of graphs to solve

problems of motion

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40 | P a g e
22. Investigate the consequences of over speeding
Answers:
 Consequences of over speeding e.g. brake failure resulting into car crush, loss of control
23. Describe the acceleration of free fall for a body near the earth.
Answers:
 Reacti on ti me: the time it takes between a people perceiving a danger and reacting to
it is compromised.
 Braking distance: the distance a car travels before stopping when the brakes are
applied depends on a number of variables. These include slope or grade of the roadway,
the frictional resistance between the road and the car's tyres and high speed.
 Impact on a pedestrian: The impact speed increases rapidly as the travel speed
increases, because the brakes are unable to bring the car to a stop in time.
 Impact on a large object: increases as the velocity increases.
 Less control: At higher speeds cars become more difficult to manoeuvre, due
to inertia. It is inertia that keeps a passenger moving when the car suddenly stops
(unless restrained by a seatbelt).
 Killer speed: the risk of being involved in a casualty crash increases dramatically with
increasing speed. The risk doubled with every 5 kilometres/hour above the speed limit.

24. Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with and
without air resistance
Answers:
 The falling motion of bodies in a uniform gravitational field: falling terminal velocity
 An air-filled tube containing a coin (the guinea) and a feather is held vertically first, then
quickly inverted.
 The coin falls faster than the feather because air resistance acts differently on the two
objects.

 The experiment is repeated with all the air inside the tube evacuated.
 The coin and feather, though with different mass and size, now fall at the same rate. They
reach the bottom at the same time with an acceleration due to gravity of 10m/s2.

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 Terminal velocity
 The faster an object falls, the more the air resistance increases.
 Eventually the velocity of an object falling with constant velocity with the air resistance
exactly balances the force of gravity.
 When this happens the net force on the object is zero.
 At this stage, the object will move with a constant velocity downwards.
 This velocity is called terminal velocity.

Forces

25. Explain what force is.

Answers:
 Force as “pull” or “push”

26. Explain the effect of forces on bodies.

Answers:
 Effects of forces :change in shape, change in size, change direction, change of motion
 Force causes a body to change its state of rest by making it start to move

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  Force can change the state of motion of a body by making it speed up or slow down or
change direction.
 Force can change the shape and size of a body by compressing, stretching, bending or
twisting it.
27. Describe the inertia law
Answers:

 Newton’s 1st law

 If an object is at rest, it will continue to stay at rest,
 If it is moving, it will keep moving at a constant speed in a straight line,
 Unless there is a resultant force acting on it to change its state.

What is Inertia?
 Inertia of an object is the reluctance of the object to change its state of rest or
motion
Example:
 Place a cardboard on an empty tumbler and a coin on the cardboard as shown in
the figure.

Now, flick the cardboard with the finger. What do you observe? The coin drops into the
tumbler.

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  How can we explain it in terms of inertia? When we flick the cardboard the
cardboard moves fast whereas the coin continues in its state of rest (i.e. inertia!)
and hence drops into the tumbler. This tendency of an object to resist any
change in its state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia. A bit easier now,
isn’t it?
 In the below diagram, the driver is saved from hitting his head in the windscreen
due to a seat belt.
 How? Without a seat belt, if the driver suddenly applies brakes, he will continue
to move forward due to his inertia and crash into the windscreen.

28. Demonstrate the relationship between force and acceleration

Answers:
 Newton's second law of motion indicates that the relationship between force and
acceleration is directly proportional. If the force applied to an object is increased,
the acceleration of that object increases by the same factor. In short, force equals
mass times acceleration.
 A constant force produces a constant acceleration
acceleration α Force
29. Demonstrate the relationship between mass and acceleration.
Answers:
The relationship between mass and acceleration is one where if one increases, the other
decreases. For the same force, a body with a larger mass will accelerate less than a body
with a smaller mass. They are inversely proportion i.e. acceleration is inversely
proportional to mass, provided that the force applied remains constant. 
1
acceleration α
mass

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30. Perform calculations on force.
Answers:
 How to calculate force: Using formula;Force = mass ×acceleration
Example:
Calculate the acceleration of a 200kg body pushed along a horizontal surface with a 20N force.

force
acceleration=
mass

20 N
a=
200 Kg
a = 0.1m/s2

31. Investigate the effect of force on a spring.

Answers:
 Hooke’s law (F α e) including graphs.

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46 | P a g e
  Graphical expression of force against extension graph

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 Examples on graphs

32. Demonstrate the effects of friction on the motion of a body.

Answers:
 It causes energy loss and reduces the efficiency of machines through heat.
 It causes rapid tear and wear.
 It converts mechanical energy to noise.

33. Describe the motion in a circular path due to a perpendicular force.
Answers:

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 Moment of forces

34. Perform calculations based on the principle of moments.

Answers:

 Principle of Moments

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 For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the
sum of anti-clockwise moments about the same point.

F1 x d1 = F2 x d2
OR

F1 x d1 =( F2 x d2+F3 x d3)

Verification of the principle of moments

Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their weights.

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Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst person B’s weight is trying to
turn the seesaw clockwise.
Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum
1000 x 1 = 1000 Nm

Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

500   x 2   = 1000 Nm
Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium

Let us solve this question together to find the value of F when the body is in equilibrium

First, determine the clockwise forces and the anti-clockwise forces. Let’s learn a simple way of
doing that! Just turn the head of the arrow of force F towards the pivot and keep turning it in a
circular direction. What direction do you get? Umm...It’s anti-clockwise! Now for the 5 N force,
turn the arrow head towards the pivot and you’ll see it turns in a clockwise direction. More
practice will make it easier for you.

As we learnt that anticlockwise moments are equal to clockwise moments for a body in
equilibrium, we can form an equation easily:

Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments

F1 x d1 = F2 x d2

F (0.25) = 5 ( 0.5)

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 F = 2.5 / 0.25

F = 10 N

Question: At which part of the door, A or B, is the least effort required to open it?

Expected answer: A larger force is needed if the force is applied nearer the hinge (i.e. B) and
a smaller force is needed if the force is applied further away from the hinge.
Why is that so? We know that in both cases, same moment will turn the door. Keeping this in
mind, we shall conclude that decreasing the distance from the hinge (pivot) will automatically
need a greater force in order to create the same magnitude of moment. Conversely,
increasing the distance from the pivot requires a lesser force to create the same moment

35. Investigate the everyday application of moments.

Answers:
 opening a door or window,
 opening a bottle with an opener,
 a see-saw,
 on tightening a nut with a spanner etc

Work, Energy and Power.

36. Explain the meaning of the terms work, energy and power.
Answers:
 The definition of Work, Energy and Power:
 Work(force x distance in direction of force)
 Energy(ability to do work)
 Power(rate of doing work)

37. Identify the units of measurement for work, energy and power
Answers:

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 The units of work, energy and power:
 Work(joule)
 Energy(joule)
 Power (watt)
38. Calculate work using the appropriate formula
Answers:
 The formulae of work:

Work = (Force) x (distance moved in the line of action of the force)

39. Identify the different forms of energy
Answers:
 Different forms of energy: e.g. mechanical (Kinetic and gravitational potential energy),
Chemical, electrical energy etc
40. Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the terms gravitational potential and kinetic
energy.
Answers:
 Potential and Kinetic Energy:
 Gravitational potential energy(energy due to position)
Gravitational potential energy (EP = mgh)
 Kinetic energy(energy due to motion)
Kinetic energy (EK = 1/2mv2 )
41. Describe sources of renewable and non- renewable energy.
Answers:

42. Explain the effects of the use of energy sources on the environment.
Answers:
Effects of use of energy sources on the environment:
 air pollution
 water pollution
 deforestation

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  land degradation etc
43. Demonstrate energy transformation from one form to another
Answers:
 Transformation of energy: e.g. chemical energy(Battery) to electric energy (wire)to light
energy( bulb)

44. Describe the conservation of energy

Answers:
 Law of conservation of energy
It states that energy can be changed from one form to another, but it can neither be created
nor destroyed.

45. Demonstrate the calculation of efficiency of energy conversion using the appropriate
formula
Answers:

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46. Demonstrate calculation of power using the appropriate formula
Answers:

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 Simple machines
47. Describe what a simple machine is
Answers:

 Enables a large load to be overcome by a small effort

48. Identify the different types of simple machines
Answers:
 Types of simple machines: e.g. Levers, pulleys, gears, inclined planes, wheel and axle

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49. Describe the distances moved by the effort and the load in a simple machine
Answers:
 Distance moved by the load is greater than distance moved by the effort.

50. Explain the terms of Mechanical advantage (MA), Velocity Ratio (VR) and Efficiency.
Answers:
 The definition of Mechanical advantage (MA), Velocity Ratio (VR) and Efficiency
 Mechanical advantage (MA = Load/Effort)

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  Velocity Ratio (VR = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load)
 Efficiency (Efficiency = (MA/VR) x 100%)
workoutput
Efficiency = X 100%
workinput

But Work = Force X Distance

Therefore;

LoadXdistanceloadmoves
Efficiency =
EffortXdistanceeffortmoves

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 Load y
Efficiency = X
Effort x

Load
/x
Efficiency = Effort
y

M.A.
Efficiency = X 100%
V .R.

51. Perform calculations involving simple machines

Answers:

A machine with an efficiency of 70% raises a load of 35N through a distance of 1m. Calculate
the work input of the machine.

Expected answer;

workoutput
Efficiency = X 100%
workinput

LoadXdistanceloadmoves
70% = X 100%
Workinput

35 X 1
70% = X 100%
Workinput

35
Work input = X 100
70

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Work input = 0.50 X 100

Work input = 50J

Pressure

52. Explain what pressure is.

Answers:
 Pressure(force/area)Units (pascals, N/m2 ,millibars)

53. Describe how pressure relates to force and area using appropriate examples and formula
Answers:
 Relating force and area as on when force increases pressure increases and when area
increases pressure reduces (Calculations using the formula P = F/A)

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 Calculate the pressure exerted by each shoe

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54. Identify factors affecting pressure in liquids.

Answers:
 Depth of the liquid
 height of the liquid and
 density of the liquid

In fact, when it is at equilibrium, pressur must be the same at any point along the same depth
(h).

55. Describe the transmission of pressure in hydraulic systems.

Answers:
 Applications of pressure(Pascal’s Law): e.g. hydraulic brakes, press and jack

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56. Calculate pressure in liquids.
Answers:

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57. Explain the mechanism of a mercury barometer.
Answers:
 Use in determining atmospheric pressure

Since the height of the mercury column reflects the value of atmospheric pressure,
atmospheric pressure can be expressed in terms of the height of a column of mercury.

Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm is 760 mm or 76 cm Hg (Hg is mercury)

58. Explain the mechanism of a manometer.

Answers:
 Use in determining gas pressure

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 When both arms are open, same atmospheric pressure is exerted on the liquid surfaces and
they are at the same horizontal level. If the pressure of the gas supply is lower than
atmospheric pressure, the liquid level of the limb nearer to the gas supply is higher. The gas
pressure then is atmospheric pressure subtracting the pressure due to height difference
between the liquid levels in limbs of U-tube.

59. Explain principles of upthrust and floatation.

Answers:
 Archimedes principle

60. Describe how upthrust relates to floatation in fluids.

Answers:

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 GRADE ELEVEN
THERMAL PHYSICS

61. Explains what the kinetic theory of matter is:

-matter is made of tiny particles that are in motion.

-these particles attract each other strongly when close but the attraction weakens if they
move further apart.

62. Describe quantitatively the molecular model of matter

 The arrangement and movement of particles and strength of intermolecular

forces determine which physical state (solid, liquid or gas) the substance is in.

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63. Apply kinetic theory to explain rates of diffusion, Brownian motion, evaporation and
cooling effect of evaporation.

 Diffusion occurs because particles or molecules of diffusing substance (gas and

liquids) are constantly bumped into or jostled by particles of the fluid around them.
 Diffusion is the movement of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of
low concentration. Both gases and liquids will mix spontaneously without
mechanical or outside help

 The rate of diffusion depends on the temperature and the density of the substance
involved

 Brownian motion provides an evidence of the continuous random motion of

molecules in air OR it is the random movement of microscopic particles suspended
in a liquid or gas. The movement is caused by collision of the molecules of the
surrounding gas or liquid.

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 Haphazard motion

 Evaporation is defined as the change of a liquid into a gas at the surface. It occurs
more at any temperature, but occurs more rapidly at higher temperature because
heat gives more kinetic energy to the molecules and they escape from the surface
faster

 Evaporation –is the change of state of a liquid to a gas. It occurs at the surface of
the liquid, because some particles have a greater kinetic energy than others.

 Cooling effect of evaporation: when faster particles escape from the surface of the
liquid, they take away thermal energy from the liquid, leaving behind slower
particles; hence the temperature of the liquid is less than before.
64. Applies kinetic theory to explain gas pressure.

 When a gas is enclosed in a container it exerts a pressure on the container. This gas
pressure is caused by the collision of the gas particles with the walls of the container
 Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of a dry gas at constant temperature, the
product of its volume and pressure is constant.
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

65. Explain what temperature is;

- Degree of hotness or coldness of a substance.

- Or it’s the measure of average kinetic energy of particles in the substance.

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66. Describe physical properties of substances which change with temperature.

- Physical properties of substance which with temperature are:

(i) State of matter (ii) density (iii) thermal expansion (IV) electrical resistance (V)
solubility

m
 Density (D = ),-from the formula it can be deduced that at constant mass, Density is
v
inversely proportion to volume.
 Therefore, when a substance is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and need space to
move further apart. (Volume increases). Thus density reduces.
 Increase in volume is called thermal expansion.
 Electrical resistance - when wires that conduct electricity become hot, atoms that make
up the wires vibrate more, the electrons do not move easily because of increased
collision within the atoms, thereby reducing the speed of electron movement. This is
called electrical resistance.
 There for the hotter the metal the higher the electrical resistance and the slower the
current.
67. Show how determine the lower and upper fixed points

i) Laboratory thermometers

ii) Clinical thermometers both thermometers are calibrated by using the lower and up
fixed points

The experiment below shows the calibration of thermometer using the lower fixed
point.
Procedure:

 Place the bulb of the un calibrated thermometer into pure melting ice.
 The liquid in the thermometer drops and remains at the same level.
 Mark the point as 0oc.

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The reading on the thermometer is 0℃ indicating the lower fixed point. Pure ice is used
because it has in impurities that can affect the melting or boiling points.

The upper fixed point can be determined using the experiment below.

 The bulb should not touch the water because it may have impurities that may affect the
correct thermometer reading. The bulb is suspended in steam because steam is pure
water vapour with a boiling point of 100oc. Hence where the liquid level ends is the
100oc point of the thermometer.
 The diagrams below show structures of clinical and laboratory thermometers.

Clinical (ordinary) Clinical (digital)

70 | P a g e
Laboratory thermometer

68. Describe the suitability of alcohol and mercury for use in a liquid – in –glass thermometers

Colour - mercury is easily seen because it’s opaque and silvery, alcohol is colourless
though it can be coloured.
 Expansion – alcohol expands six –times than mercury making it more sensitive than a
mercury thermometer.
 Conductivity – mercury is a good conductor of heat reaches the same temperature as its
surrounding while alcohols take longer to react.
 Mercury has a high boiling point as compared to alcohol; hence it can measure high
temperatures.
 Alcohol has a much lower freezing point than mercury; hence alcohol is used in lower
temperature thermometers.
 Mercury does not wet glass while alcohol sticks to the side as it contracts which leads to
inaccurate readings
69. Describe the relationship between Celsius and kelvin scales.

 In both scales, the difference between the two fixed points (melting and boiling point of
pure water) is the same, which is 100.
 This implies that each kelvin is equal to a degrees Celsius on the Celsius scale .i.e.
K = 0C + 273
0
C = K - 273.

70. Describe the structure and use of a thermocouple thermometer

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  It is made up of two different metals e.g. copper and iron that are joined together at
the ends to form junction. In between is a free end that is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer as shown above.
 Use, its suitable for measuring temperature difference that vary rapidly in the range
2500c to 18000c, because they respond very quickly and is more sensitive than a
liquid in – glasses.
71. Demonstrate the measurement of temperature using appropriate thermometers. (e.g. an
appropriate liquid in – glass - thermometer).

 Sensitivity; - some thermometer are more sensitive to temperature change than

others .the thread of the liquid moves further in a thermometer with a narrower tube
than the one with a wide tube. It also moves further in a thermometer with big bulb
than the one with a small tube
 Responsiveness: some thermometers respond quickly to a change in temperature than
others. A thermometer with a larger bulb or thicker glass round the bulb is less
responsive because it takes longer for the mercury or alcohol to reach the temperature
of the surrounding.
 Linearity- the thermometer must use thermometric liquid that expands linearly, e.g.
mercury.
 Range - an appropriate thermometer should have a range suitable for the substance
being measured.
EXPANSION OF GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS.

72. Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of gas, liquids and solids.

 Thermal expansion is the process by which particles in the substance move further
apart due to the gain in kinetic energy after being heated .
 When molecules or particles gain thermal energy, their kinetic energy increases hence
they need large spaces between them. (This is called expansion or thermal expansion)
 Generally gases expand the most because of the weak intermolecular force between
the molecules followed by liquids then solids expand the least.
73. Explain the effects of expansion of water on aquatic life (anomalous expansion of water).

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  As water cools it contracts until it reaches a temperature of 40c, it begins to expand .

 Below the temperature of 40c, water freezes into ice has the greatest volume and least
density as compared to liquid water at 40c.
 Thus ice floats and water (at 40c) sinks .the heat cannot escape from liquid water due to
the ice layer; this allows aquatic life to survive the cold winter.

 Other effects of anomalous expansion of water.

 Causes frostbite
 Icebergs float on water becoming a hazard to ships.
 Water pipes can bust when water expand due to freezing.
 It causes weathering of rocks.
74. Demonstrate that solids, liquids and gases expand at different rates.
 Solids vary greatly in their response to heat.

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  In a bimetallic strip, thin strips of two different metals are joined together
 When heated, one metal expands more than the other as shown below.


One application of a bimetallic strip, is that it’s used in thermostats - a device
used to regulate temperature in some electrical appliances e.g. pressing iron,
geysers etc.
 Liquids expand at different rates, depending on their composition.
 Expansion of liquid (like mercury and alcohol) due to heating and contraction,
due to cooling is used to measure temperature.
 Gases- on average gases expand at the same rate when heated.
 Application of expansion of thermal expansion
 Engines and turbines are powered by expansion of gases, refer to internal
combustion engine.
 Bread rises in an oven due to expansion of carbon dioxide.
 Wheel fitting - a slightly large axle fits in the wheel after cooling it ,as it warms
it expands to its normal size , thus fits tightly in the wheel .
75. Demonstrate how to determine the boiling point and the melting point of different
substance.
 Melting point is the temperature at which a pure substance (solid) turns into a liquid at
standard temperature and pressure
 a pure sample will be represented by a curve below e.g. pure water.

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  temperature remains constant at the boiling and melting point.
76. Explain the effect of pressure on the melting and boiling point.
 If pressure is higher or above the standard pressure melting point of substance is
lowered but the boiling point is raised.
 The tiny bubbles of vapour from the substance are squashed by the high pressure in the
surrounding which lead to a rise in boiling point.
77. Investigate effects of impurities on the melting and boiling point of substances, (conduct
an experiment using in pure water).
 Some impure sample will have a lower melting point but higher boiling point because
impurities lower the melting point but raise the boiling point
78. Demonstrate the effect of varying pressure on the volume of a gas.

 When the piston is moved from point a to b, without changing temperature of the
enclosed air, pressure is trebled.
 According to boyle`s law – the volume of the fixed mass of a dry gas is inversely
proportional to pressure acting on the gas at constant temperature.
Type equation here .-mathematically;
1
Vα or P×V= constant
P
- Graphically

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  This means that when pressure (p1 ) is increased to pressure ( p2) then volume( v1 ) will
decrease to (v2.) i.e. p1v1 = p2v2.
79. Describe the relation between temperature and volume of a gas.
 Charles law – states that the volume of a fixed mass of a dry gas is directly proportion to
its Kelvin temperature at constant pressure.

 In the experiment above, the pressure is kept constant, as the temperature increases so
does the volume.
V
₌ Constant or v ₌ constant × T
T

 This means that if the volume increases from an initial temperature T1to T2then volume
increases proportionally from V1to V2.

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 V V
₌
T T

80. Explain the Kelvin scale from the relationship between temperature and volume.
 This uses absolute zero as its zero (OK). Its units the Kelvin (K) is the same as the degree
Celsius (OC). To convert from OC to (K) you just add 273.
K = oC + 273

81. Demonstrate the use of the ideal gas equation to solve simple numerical problems.
 Boyles law, Charles law and Gay – Lussac’s law can be combined for fixed mass of gas.
This is known as an ideal gas equation.
PV
=¿ Constant.
T

 If the fixed mass of a gas begins with conditions P1, V1, and T1 and ends after a change
with P2, V2, and T2 then;

p1v1 =p2v2 (temperature must be expressed in Kelvin)

T1 T2

THE 4 STROKE ENGINE

A machine is a Mechanical device which enables an Effort force to overcome a Load force.

82. Explain what an internal combustion engine

An Engine is a machine with moving parts which converts power into motion. It is specifically
designed to convert one form of energy into Mechanical energy.

Answer:

Internal Combustion Engine

The Internal combustion engine basically transforms Thermal energy of the burning air-fuel
mixture into Mechanical energy.

83. Identify the different parts of an internal combustion engine

Answers:

Parts of the internal combustion engine.

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 84. Describe the different strokes in a four stroke internal combustion engine
Answers:

It is called 4 stroke because it takes 4 strokes for the piston to make a complete combustion
cycle. These piston strokes are Intake, Compression, Power and Exhaust.

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79 | P a g e
Basically the 4 stroke combustion engine is comprised of valves, piston, spark plugs, cylinder.

Intake

At the beginning of the intake stroke, the Piston moves down. Air-fuel mixture are drawn into
the cylinder

Compression

The piston moves up. The mixture of air and fuel is forced into a smaller volume and
compressed hard.

Power

A spark ignites the hot Air-fuel mixture. The mixture then makes a controlled explosion. The
heat energy produced causes the gases to expand. This expansion provides mechanical energy
for the piston to move down with power. Movement of the piston turns the crankshaft which
in turn transfers mechanical energy to the wheels

Exhaust

During this stage the piston moves up. The waste exhaust gases are forced out of the cylinder
to come out as smoke through the exhaust pipe.

At this stage the cylinder is empty and the whole process starts.

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 85. Describe the operation of the spark plug

Answer:
The Spark Plug

The spark plug is a device for delivering an electric current from an Ignition system to the

combustion chamber.

After compression the spark plug ignites the fuel to cause a controlled explosion. The primary

purpose of a spark plug is to start up an explosion for the power stroke in an engine.

86. Describe efficiency of a petrol and diesel engine

Answer:

Efficiency of a diesel and petrol engine.

 Diesel engine use 15-20% less fuel as compared with a petrol engine. Diesel
engines greater efficiency means its Carbon emissions are 20% lower than a
petrol engine.

 Diesel is cheaper than petrol for this reason its more economical to run.

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  Diesel engine cars deliver better mileage numbers than petrol ones

 Diesel cars offers more low speed torque so they have better towing ability.

HEAT TRANSFER

87. Explain methods of heat transfer.

 Methods of heat transfer are conduction, convention and radiation.
 Conduction - is the method of heat transfer, through a material without the movement
of any part of the material itself.
 Convection – transfer of heat from place to place by movement of heated particles of a
gas or liquid.
 Radiation – transfer of heat via electromagnetic waves or through absorption of infra-
red waves.
88. Use kinetic theory to explain heat transfer.

- When particles or molecules absorb thermal energy, they gain kinetic energy hence they
vibrate or move transmitting thermal energy, from one particle to another or from place to
place.

89. Demonstrate heat conduction in different substances.

- After about 5 to 10 minutes it’s found that the wax on the copper melted the most. This shows
that conductivity depends on the material.

83. Demonstrate conduction of heat in water.

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The ice at the bottom does not melt even as the water at the top boils, this shows that no
heator very little of it travels at the bottom. Thus water is a very poor conductor of heat.

90. Demonstrate the uses of bad and poor conductors of heat.

GOOD CONDUCTORS BAD CONDUCTORS

- Making cooking utensils. - Making handles of cooking utensils.

- base of pressing iron - Wool is used in cold climate to prevent heat
- used in thermometric liquid e.g. mercury. from being conducted from the body. Same
applies to fur, hair and feathers on animals.
- Bricks, mud and grass as building materials,
to keep warm in cold season and cool in
warm season.

91. Demonstrate convection in liquids and gases.

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  Water above the flame becomes heated, it expands and its density reduces hence rises
up and is displaced by cold water on top. The result is a circulating stream called
convectional current.
 As the particles are circulating they transfer thermal energy to other parts of the beaker.

Convection in air.

 As air above the candle is heated it expands and its density reduces hence escapes,
through chimney 1. Cold air is drawn in through chimney 2 as a result convectional
current of smoke particles is set as shown above.
 Convection current in nature, - sea and land breezes. Page 32 of progress in science.

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92. Demonstrate the differences between bad and good absorber of radiant energy.

 Show which substance is good absorber of radiant energy.

Result – thermometer in the black surface records a rise in temperature rapidly

compared to the one on the white surface.
 Conclusion – black is a good absorber of radiant energy.
Comparing good and bad emitters

 The metal cube is filled with boiling water which heats the surfaces to the same
temperature.
 Conclusion – the black surface emits more radiant energy as compared to the white
surface.
 The dark or black color is good absorber and emits than bright or shinny colors.
93. Explain everyday applications of knowledge on conduction, convection and radiation.

 During construction of infrastructure

 In thermometers
 Construction of power lines
 Opening of tight lids

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94. Vacuum flask – to prevent heat loss and gain by radiation convection and radiation.

Features that help a vacuum flask to reduce thermal radiation flow.

(i) An insulated stopper – reduces conduction and convection.

(ii) Double silvered walls – to reduce thermal radiation.
(iii) Vacuum – to reduce conduction and convection.

Hot water system

 Cold water in the tank sinks down to the boiler, where it’s heated.
 Heated water rises up to the storage tank, in this way, convection current keeps the
water in the tank hot.
 Hot water flows out of the tap.
Note: the storage tank is insulated to reduce thermal energy losses by convection and
convection.

Room heating

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  Warm air rises above the heater or radiator carriers’ thermal energy all around the
room, through unfortunately the coolest air is always around your feet.
Refrigerator – warm air from food rises up and cold air sinks below the freezer compartment.

 This sets up a circulating current of air which cools all the food in the refrigerator.
Sea and land Breezes.

Land breeze – the opposite happens at night.

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  During the day, the land has a high temperature as compared to the sea.
 Warm air above the land rises over the land and it’s replaced by the cold air from the
sea, this is called sea breeze.
Greenhouse effect.

 The heat trapping action of the atmosphere is called the greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse acts as heat traps, they are made of glass or transparent plastic. Thermal
radiation from the sun passes easily through the glass or plastic. The ground inside
warms up and heats the air.
 The hot air is trapped; it cannot escape by raising or flowing away.

Solar panels.

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  The blackened layer absorbs the radiant energy and warms up the water flowing
through the pipes.
Measurements of heat

96. Demonstrate the differences between temperature and heat energy

Answer:

97. Describe the terms of heat capacity and specific heat capacity

Answers:

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Identify the SI units of specific heat capacity

Answers:

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98. Demonstrate how to measure specific heat capacity of solids and liquids

Answers:

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The apparatus consists of a thermometer, a calorimeter, a low-voltage immersion heater,
stirrer, voltmeter, ammeter and a stop watch.

Set up the apparatus as shown below:

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Place 200g of water at room temperature in the calorimeter and record its temperature (The
calorimeter is simply a lagged copper can).

Switch on the immersion heater for exactly five minutes. Switch off, stir the water and record
the final temperature.

Assuming that all the heat energy produced by the heater went to raise the temperature of the
water and none was lost to the surroundings (i.e. stirrer, supports for heater, thermometer
glass, etc) we can say:

Heat lost by heater + Heat gained by the water

This is called the heat equation. The heat produced by the heater is given by:

E + VIt, where V is the voltage measured by the voltmeter, I is the current measured by the
ammeter, and t is the time in seconds measured by the stop clock.

VI is also called electrical power, and so the energy can be given by:

E = Power × Time

The heat energy received by the water is given by:

H=mc ∆ T

Where m is the mass of the water,

C is its specific heat capacity,

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∆ T is the temperature change.

The heat equation now becomes:

VIt =¿ mc ∆T

From this we can calculate the specific heat capacity as:

VIt
C=
mc ∆ T

Describe the terms latent heat, specific latent heat of fusion and of vaporisation

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99. Demonstrate the solving of numerical problems on heat measurements

Answers:

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102 | P a g e
 WAVE MOTION

100. Explain what is meant by wave motion.

Answers
- A wave is a means of transferring energy from one point to another, without there
being a transfer of matter between the points.
- A disturbance that carries energy as it moves from one point to another.

101. Describe a transverse and a longitudinal wave.

Answers:
- a transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the transmitting medium oscillates
at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave. Examples are water waves,
waves in a rope and electromagnetic wavese.g. (light waves).
- A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the transmitting medium
oscillates in the same direction as the direction of travel of the wave. Examples
sound waves, wave in a spring.
102. Describe the terms associated with waves.
Answers:

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Wave length (λ) –is the distance between two successive particles that are at the same stage in
their motion. It is also the distance between two successive troughs or crests. It is measured in
meters.

-Wave length for a longitudinal wave is the distance between two centers of successive
compression or two centres of successive refection.

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Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position.

Frequency (f): The number of oscillations made by a particle per minute. It is measured in hertz.
(Hz).

Period (T): The time taken for a particle to complete an oscillation. It is measured in seconds(s).

103. Demonstrate the use of the wave equations in solving wave motion problems.
Answers:
Example: The graph below shows a displacement- distance graph.

4cm

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5

d (m)
a) State the value of the Aptitude.
4÷2=2 cm
100cm→1m
2cm →2cmₓ1m
100 cm
=0.02m
b) How many waves are being produced?
3 waves.
c) What is the wave length of the wave?
0.5 m
d) If the frequency is 100HZ.Calculate the speed of the wave.

V= fx

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 = 100x 0.5

= 50mls.

The graph below shows a displacement time graph of a wave.

+3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-3

Time (sec)

a) What is the period of the wave?

2s
b) Calculate the frequency of the wave.
f= 1/1
=1/2
= 0.5 Hz.

SUMMARY

T=t/n T= Period (s)

T=1/8 t= Time (s)

f=n/t f=frequency (Hz)

f=1/1 λ= wavelength (m)

V=fλ V=speed of a wave (m’s)

104. Explain the use of waves in everyday life

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 Answers:
- Used in radio communication, television and hospitals.

Electro-Magnetic Spectrum.

105. Describe the main components of electromagnetic spectrum.

Answers:

The main component includes gamma rays, ultra violet, visible light, infrared, microwaves radio
waves and x-rays.

NAME WAVE SOURCE DETECTION USE

LENGTH
(M)
Radio waves 10-10 Radiation Radio T.V radar Communication
circulates aerials in
TV,radio,phones
Microwaves 10-10 Special electric Special circuits Forrada,
circuits cooking in
microwaves.
Infrared 7.5x10-10 All matters e.g. Transistor photographic Burglar alarms
hot objects, sun films,blankened security lights,
heat thermometer remote controls,
heating
purposes.
Light 3.5x10- Lamp flames, hot eye photographic film Seeing
7.5x10 objects photocells

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 Ultra –violet 10-3.5x10 Hot object Fluorescent photographic, In hospitals to
mercury vapor photocells kill microbes.

106. Describe the properties of electromagnetic spectrum.

Answers:
- In vacuum they ravel at 3.0x10mls

- are produces by varying electric and magnetic fields

- are not affected by either electric or magnetic fields

- are not transverse

- Travel in straight lines

- show interference and diffraction

108. Describe the methods of detection of each of the following

Answers:

- Gamma ray: Geiger Mueller

- X-rays: Geiger Mueller tube and photographic plates.

- Ultra –violet: by photographic plates, photocells and photo electric devices.
- Infrared-by photographic plates, heat sensitive detectors, thermopiles.
- Micro-waves : by electric circuit
- Radio waves: by T.V Radios.

109. Describe the use of each of the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.

- X-rays are used in hospitals to detect fractures in bones,xray photo

- Gamma is used in welding

- Radio waves are used in TVs and radios.

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 110. Explain the harmful effects of ultra-violet radiation, gamma rays and x-
rays to life.
Answers:
 Ultra-violet radiation from the sun is known to cause skin cancer in fair-skinned people:
People with darker skins can absorb more ultraviolet radiation, and so the rays do not
penetrate deep into the skin, It also damages the eyes, which is why people wear
sunglasses with ultraviolet filters in them in harsh sunlight.
 X-rays damage cells and cause mutations, which lead to cancer and cell death
 Gamma rays also damage cells, causing mutations, which may lead to cancer and cell
death

SOUND WAVES

111. Explain how sound is produced.

Answers:
Sound is caused by vibration.

Example

When you place your finger-tips against the front of your throat, you can feel the vibrations of
your vocal cord when you make a noise.
- If we bang a turning folk on a cork, the prongs vibrate and we hear a sound. if the
vibrating prongs are quickly dipped into water, we see that the water splashes.
- These examples show that sound is caused by vibration.
112. Describe rare factions and compressions.
Answers:
Sound is longitudinal wave. Longitudinal waves appear as a slightly higher pressure
(compression). And in some places the molecules are further apart at a slightly lower pressure
(rare faction).

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 - The succession of compressions and rarefactions move across the air and travel at
the speed of sound. Air molecules do not move across the air. They just vibrate to
and from.

R=

rarefaction: C= compression: λ = wavelength

113. Describe the approximate range of audible frequencies
Answers:
- Audible frequencies are frequencies that can be heard by a human ear.
- The range of audible sound frequencies are (20HZ to 20,000 HZ)
114. Demonstrate that sound requires a material medium for transmission.
Answers:
- Sound waves need a medium for transmission. They cannot travel through a vacuum
because there are no molecules to pass on the vibrations. However, sound can be
transmitted through solids, liquids and gases as well.
Apparatus: as shown below

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 Electric bell suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar
An electric bell is suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar connected to a vacuum
pump. As the electric bell circuit is completed, the sound is heard. Now if the air is
slowly removed from the bell jar by using a vacuum pump, the intensity of sound goes
on decreasing and finally no sound is heard when all the air is drawn out. We would be
seeing the hammer striking the gong repeatedly. This clearly proves that sound requires
a material for its propagation.

115. Describe a simple method of determining the speed of sound in air.

Answer:

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 B




Procedure
 Observe A and B stand at a distance s, from a large flat wall. Measure and record
with the measuring tape.
 Observe A bangs two blocks of wood together, and listens to the echo. Repeat
the bang on hearing the echo
 Observe B starts the stop watch and counting from zero till the 50th bang. The
time taken t1 is recorded.
 Repeat step 3 to find the average time for 50 bangs. Hence calculate the time
material t between successive claps.
2d
V=
t
T=t1/50 V=speed of sounding mls
V= 25/t S= displacement (m)
T= time (s)
Example
- A boy claps his hands once and hears an echo from a vertical cliff after 0.75s.
- The cliff is 129m away. Calculate the speed of sound in air according to this experiment.

Data V=2s/t
S=129m = 2t12 qm
T=0.75s 0.75s
V=?=344mls
116. Describe the relative speed of sound in solid liquid and gas.
Answers:

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 - Sound travels the fastest in solids, followed by liquid and lastly in air.
- The speed of sound in solids is approximately 5000mls, liquids 1,500 and solids 340mls.

117. Demonstrate relationship of the loudness of sound waves to amplitudes and the pitch
to the frequency.
Answers:

Sound A Sound B

Loudness depends on amplitude. The larger the Amplitude of vibration, the more intense the
sound is, and consequently the louder it is, e.g. the graph shows two sounds. Sound A is louder
than sound B which sound is louder.

A is louder because it has a larger amplitude.

Pitch and Frequency

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 - The highness or lowness of sound is called pitch. Pitch varies with the frequency of
vibration. The higher the frequency of vibration, the higher the pitch of the sound
produced.

118. Describe the factors which influence the quality of sound.

Answers:
- Pitch, loudness and tone can affect the quality of sound.
119. Describe ultra sound?
Answers:
- Sound above human hearing range.
120. Describe the uses of Ultra sound.
Answers:
- Ultra sound is used for hearing quality control and pre-natal scanning.
121. Describe sound pollution and measures to minimize it.
Answers:
- Noise: Sound with irregular vibrations is classified as noise. When the levels of noise are
too high, they lead to noise pollution.

Measures to minimize sound pollution.

- Use of double glassed windows (two panes of glass with an air gap between them)
- Use of heavy curtains, they reduce the noise coming in from outside.
- Use of carpets and plastic wall coverings, because they absorb much sound.

LIGHT

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  Visible light, often referred to as light is a form of radiation that is visible to the human
eye.
 Light can be linked to a stream of very light particles which can be detected by special
chemicals in our eyes.
 Being a form of radiation light can pass through a vacuum.
 IT travels at the speed of 3.0x108 m/s purely by means of waves
122. Describe the rectilinear propagation of light.
Answers:
Light travels in a straight line until it strikes some object. This behaviour of light is referred to as
rectilinear propagation of light.
To investigate the rectilinear propagation of light.

Procedure: manage three pieces of cardboard as shown below

Pass a thread through the holes and pull both ends to make it taut. Adjust the cardboard so
that all the three holes are in line. Remove the thread.
- Bring a bulb or candle near card A and look through the hole in C. Record your
observation.
- Displace anyone of the cards so that the holes are not in alignment. What do you
observe?

Observation

- The light can be seen from end C only if all the three holes are in line. Displacing any of
the cards obscures the ray of light and hence the ray is no longer seen at the other end.
- Light travels in straight lines.

123. Investigate the formation of shadows and eclipse.

Answers:
A shadow is an area where direct light from a light source cannot reach due to the obstruction
by an object.

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 - An umbra is a shadow from which all light has been removed.

- A penumbra is a shadow from which some light has been removed.

- An eclipse occurs when one heavenly body passes into the shadow cast by another.

- Solar eclipse or eclipse of the sun: this happens when the moon comes between the
sun and the earth, so that the earth (in shadow) darkens during the day. At the time of
total eclipse, only the light from the outer edge of the sun can be seen.

- Lunar eclipse or lunar eclipse of the moon: this occurs when the moon moves into the
earth’s shadow. The moon moves into the earth’s shadow. The moon does not emit
light itself, but only reflects light from the sun. Therefore when the moon passes in the
earth’s shadow, no sunlight can reach it and it is seen to go dark.

- Annular eclipse: an annular (ring-formed) eclipse is a type of solar eclipse where the
moons umbra suits to reach the earth at all as a result of variations in the distances of
the sun and moon from the earth in this kind of eclipse, the moon appears two small to
cover up the sun completely, causing the sun to be seen as a dark shadow encircles by a
light ring.

124. Describe reflection of light.

Answers:

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 - Laws of reflection:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of the reflection. i = r.

Diffused and Regular reflection.

The reflection by a plane surface is called regular reflection.

The reflection by a rough surface is called irregular reflection.

125. Investigate the laws of reflection of light.

Answers:
- Angle of incidence -= angle of reflection and incident ray,
- reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

126. Demonstrate the formation of images by plane mirrors.

Answers:

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An image in a plane mirror will have the following properties:
1. Same size as the object.
2. Late rally inverted
3. Erect
4. Virtual
5. As for behind the mirror as the object is m for out.

Example
1. A person stands 4.0m in front of a plane mirror. How far from the person is her image?
The image is 8m from the person.

2. The diagram shows a patient having her eyes tested. A chart with letters on it is placed
behind her and she sees it reflected in a plane mirror.

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 3 2

Mirror
C chart

Patient

(i) How far from the patient will the chart seem to be?
Position of the image of the chart from the mirror = 2m + 3m=5m. Distance of the
image from the chart from the patient= 5m+2m=7m.

127. Identify the position of an image using plane mirrors.

Answers:

3- Step method of drawing a ray diagram:

- Step 1: Locate the image behind the mirror.
- Equidistant and perpendicular to the mirror
- Image size must be the same as the object.

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Step 2: Join the image to the eye by two light rays.
- Virtual rays behind the mirror (dotted line)
- Real rays in front of the mirror (solid line)

Step 3: Draw the incident rays by means of the reflected rays.

- Do not forget to draw the arrow heads on the solid lines to indicate the direction of light
rays.
-

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128. Describe what refraction of light is.
Answers:
- Refraction of light is the bending of light when it passes from an optically less dense
medium to an optically denser medium or vice versa.

Cause of refraction:

Refraction is due to the different speeds of light as it travels from one medium to another.
- When light is travelling from less dense to denser medium it is refracted towards the
normal.
- When light is travelling from denser to less dense medium it is refracted away from the
normal.
- When a light ray enters another medium perpendicularly to the boundary or (along
normal) ,there is no deviation of the ray even when there is a change of medium.

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129. Explain the terms refraction of light.
Answers:
Laws of refraction:

1. The incident rays the refracted ray and the normal are all in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction is a constant.

sini
=n ( constant ) n=¿ is the refractive index
sinr

130. Describe what refractive index is:

Answers:
- In snells law, the constant is called the refractive index, n, of the medium if the light ray
travels from vacuum (or simply air) to the medium.
Sini=n
Sini
- Alternatively, the refractive index n,of a medium can also be defined as the ratio of the
speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium.

n= speed of light in vacuum (or air)

speed of light in medium

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 n= Apparent depth
Real depth

n= Sin i
Sin r

The greater the refractive index, the more the light is bent.
Example
The table shows measurements taken during an experiment in which a ray of light is shown at
one of the sites of a rectangular block of glass.

Angle of incidence 26.0°

Angle of refraction 15.5°

What is the refractive index of the glass?

A= sin
Sini
= sin 26.0°
Sin 15.5°
= 1.54

131. Investigate the refractive index of a glass block.

Answers:
- Refractive index of glass.
- Calculate refractive index of a substance (n) using real and apparent depth.

Example:
A pin is placed at the bottom of a jar of water which is 8cm below the surface of the water.
If its image is at a depth of 6cm, calculate refractive index of water.

Data
Real depth= 8cm n= real depth
Apparent depth =6cm apparent depth
Réfractive index= ? = 8/6= 1.33

3. A coin is placed at the bottom of a jar containing water 10cm deep. Calculate the
apparent depth of the coin, given that the refractive index of water is 4/3.

Data.

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 Real depth= 10cm n= real depth
= 4/3 apparent depth
Appendix depth=...........? Apparent depth = real depth
n
= 10cm
4/3
= 10ₓ3/4
= 7.5cm
132. Describe the relationship between critical angle and refraction index.
Answers:
How to calculate the critical angle C?

N= 1
Sin C C= sin -1(1/n)
Sinc = 1
n
C= sin -1 (1)
n

133. Explain how total internal reflection occurs.

Answers:
- When light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium
and the angle of incidence is greater that the critical angle, all the light is reflected back
into the optically denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection.
- Total internal reflection takes place only when :
1. The rays are travelling in an optically dense medium towards a less dense medium
and
2. The angle of incidence is grater that the critical angle.

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134. Explain how total internal reflection is used.
1. A periscope (by using 45-45°-90° principle)
2. binoculars ,bicycle reflector and cats eyes reflector ( by using the 45°-45°-90° prism
3. Optic fiber for communication
- In medicine endoscope is used for viewing internal organs.

LENSES

135. Describe different types of lenses.

Answers:
Concave: thicker at the middle.
Concave: thinner at the middle

C is the centre of the lens and is called the optical centre.

F is the principle focus.

f is the focal length

P is the principle axis.

136. Explain the action of lenses on beam of light.

Answers:

- A converging lenses converges a parallel beam of light after refraction.

- A diverging lenses diverges a parallel beam of light.
- Demonstrate how to determine the focal length.
Focal length can be calculated using the following formula.

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 I=I +i
Fj v

Magnification = height of image = image distance (v)

Height of object distance (v)

M= I = v
J u

137. Demonstrate how to obtain images formed by converging lenses.

Answers:

Ray Diagrams.

- A lens is represented by a line and refractions are assured to occur on this line. Two
types of rays are used.
- The ray originally parallel to the principle axis which after refraction will pass through
the principle focus.
- The ray passing through the centre of the lens which is undevaited

1. Object beyond 2F

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 2. Object at 2F

3. Object at infinity

The image is:

(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Diminished
(iv) On opposite side of lens to object at F.
Used in: Object lens of a telescope.

4. Object at F1

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  Formed at F2

 Inverted

 Real

 Highly diminished

5. Object at F and O

The image is -

 Formed on the same side of the lens

 Virtual

 Erect

 Magnified

138. Describe the uses of lenses in everyday life.

- Use of lens : in correcting objects in vision

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 - Short – sighted – concave lens.
- Long sighted- convex lens.
- LCD
- CAMERA

MAGNETISM

139. Describe the properties of magnets

Answers:

A magnet is an object that can attract or repel another magnet because it has a field
around it. The following are the properties of magnets:
I. A magnet has two opposite regions near its end called poles, where magnetic
strength is mostly concentrated. This can be demonstrated by sprinkling iron
fillings over a bar magnet, tap gently and observe their distribution over the bar
magnet. You will notice that the iron filling concentrate at either end of the bar
magnet. These areas of greatest attraction are called magnetic poles.
II. When you suspend the magnet freely, it will rest with poles pointing in a North-
south direction. The pole that points to the north is known as the North-seeking
pole or North Pole (N) and the pole pointing to the south is the south-seeking
pole or South Pole (S). The poles are usually marked with an ‘N’ or an ‘S’ for
identification purposes. However, sometimes the poles are identified by colour,
a north pole is painted red and a south pole is painted blue.
III. When two north poles or south poles are brought close together they repel each
other. A north pole and a south pole, on the other hand, will attract each other.

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 This can be summed up in a law, known as the law of magnetic poles or law of
magnetism, which is simply stated as follows:
Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

 The sure test for a magnet is repulsion. If the two materials repulse one another the
material being tested is a magnet.
 Substances which are attracted by a magnet are known as magnetic or Ferro-magnetic
substance. These include; iron ,steel ,nickel, cobalt and some iron oxides, metal alloys;
Alnico (nickel, aluminum and copper), Mu-metal (nickel, copper and iron) and Heusler
(combination of copper, aluminum and manganese. On the other hand substances that
are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic substances. These include
plywood, plastic, copper, aluminum, bronze, stainless steel, cloth, and rubber.
1. Explain the domain theory of magnetism?
When a magnet is broken in two, the fracture remains magnets with two poles. If you
continue breaking the factures, you will finally remain with an atom of a magnet. Every
atom of Ferro-magnetic substances behaves as a tiny magnet with a north and a south
pole. Each atom is called a dipole. The atoms are grouped in microscopic regions called
domains. Each domain contains billions of atoms whose poles point in the same
direction. Therefore, within each domain, the strength and the direction of the magnet
is the same.

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 When all the domains align themselves in one direction the magnet cannot be
magnetized any further it reaches a limit called magnetic saturation point
In unmagnetised material, the domain point in all directions, the net effect being that
the bar shows no polarity.

2. Demonstrate induced magnetism?

This is the transfer of magnetic properties from a magnet to a magnetic substance
without contact. This can be demonstrated by holding an unmagnetised piece of iron
bar near some nails and observe the behavior of the nails. Repeat the procedure, now
bring near a strong magnet and observe and remove the magnet and observe again.
When the unmagnetised iron bar is used, it will not attract the nails. But when the
strong magnet is used, the nails are attracted to the magnet and one another. This is
due to the fact that the nails become induced magnets for them to be attracted to the
magnet as magnetic induction always precedes magnetic attraction. The pole induced in
the nail must be of opposite polarity to the pole or the bar magnet.

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 140. Demonstrate the making of a magnet.
Answers:
I. SINGLE TOUCH (STROKING) METHOD
Take a permanent magnet and stroke the ends of the steel bar in one direction
only. Between successive strokes the pole is lifted high above the bar, otherwise
the magnetism already induced in it will tend to be weakened.
The end of the magnetic material where the stroke ends will have a pole
opposite to that of the end of the contact magnet.
II. DOUBLE TOUCH STROKING METHOD

The magnets are moved in opposite directions from the middle of the bar

Outwards or from the ends to the Centre as shown in the figure 7 below:

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The permanent magnets have the opposite poles in contact with the steel bar. This produces a
stronger magnet than the single touch method

III. ELECTRICAL METHOD

This is the method used to produce strong, permanent magnets in industry. The steel bar is
placed inside a coil of several hundreds of insulated copper wire, called a solenoid. A direct
current (d.c.) of between 6-12V is passed through the solenoid for a specified period of time.
When the steel bar is removed from the solenoid and tested, it has been transformed into a
magnet.

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 The polarity of the magnet produced depends on the direction in which the electric

current was flowing. The following two simple rules of thumb help to determine the

polarity of the magnet:

i. Polarity of a solenoid
If you look at the end of the solenoid with the current flowing in a clockwise over the
top of the bar, then that end of the solenoid will be the South Pole; if the current flows
anti-clockwise over the top of the bar, then that end will be the North Pole.
ii. The Right-hand grip rule
If the solenoid is gripped in your right hand so that your fingers curl in the direction of
the current, then your thumb will be pointing in the direction of the North Pole.

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 141. Demonstrate the methods of demagnetizing of a magnet
Answers:
The methods to demagnetize a magnet include;
(i) Electrical method
To demagnetize a magnet; the magnet is placed in a coil in series with 12-24V a.c
supply. The magnet is withdrawn along geographically east-west direction until the
magnet is a large distance away from the coil. The magnet will be found to be
demagnetized after testing it.

(ii)Other methods of demagnetizing a bar magnet are; heating the magnet to red hot,

hammering on it or dropping it many times leaving it lying in the east-west direction.

 Demonstrate the making of magnetic field lines.

A magnetic field is the space around a magnet in which it exerts its magnetic force.

This is can be demonstrated using either iron fillings or magnetic compass.

1) Using iron fillings

Place a stiff piece of paper over a bar magnet and sprinkle iron fillings evenly over the
surface of the paper. Tap the paper gently with your finger for a few moments. You will
notice that the filings arrange themselves in a very distinct pattern as indicated in the

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 figure below:

Properties of magnetic field

 The magnetic field forms lines of force or magnetic field lines. A magnetic field line is a
line along which a freely suspended magnet would swing around in order to line itself

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 up in a north-south direction. They run from North Pole to South Pole direction. A group
of lines of force resulting in three dimensions called magnetic flux.
 The field forms closed curves which neither touch nor cross each another.
 The magnetic field is strongest close to the magnet and grows weaker as the distance
from the magnet is increased.
 The closer the magnetic lines of force are to each other, the stronger the magnetic
field. The magnetic flux density is a measure of the field lines of force through unit area.
 The magnetic field lines from two like poles repel one another sideways (laterally).This is
why they are curved rather than straight. When the field lines are from two like poles
they repel one another-hence the repulsion of like poles. If the kike poles of two
magnets are close together, a neutral point is created between them Where the two
magnetic fields are equal but in opposite direction (A neutral point is an area where the
magnetic fields cancel each other out.)

 When two unlike poles are close together, there is mutual attraction between their field
lines, just as if as the lines were under tension, pulling on their poles of origin. This is
what causes the attraction of unlike poles.

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II USING A MAGNETIC PLOTTING COMPASS

Place a plain paper on a board and trace outline of the bar magnet at its mid-point. Identify the
north pole of this magnet and place the plotting compass near the end of the North Pole. The
north pole of the magnet will repel the north pole of the plotting compass.

Mark the ends of the compass needle with penciled dotted compass is then moved so that its
needle lines up with the previous dot made, and so on.

Join the penciled dots using broken line as you come up with a curve magnetic field as shown in
the figure below;

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 142. Distinguish the magnetic properties of iron and steel?
Answers:
Iron is easily magnetized and demagnetized, it is a soft magnetic material and steel is
difficult to magnetize and demagnetized, it is a hard magnetic material. This can be
concluded by iron has a greater magnetic susceptibility while steel has a greater
magnetic retentivity to magnetism.
If two identical bars, one of steel and the other of steel are successively brought into
contact with a bar magnet they will each attain magnetic properties. If whilst still in
contact with the magnets they are dipped into piles of iron fillings, it will be observed
that more fillings are attracted and lifted up by the iron bar than by steel because iron is
easy to magnetize than steel.
When the bar magnet is removed from the two bars, more iron fillings will fall off
immediately from the iron bar ,whereas a few fillings on the steel bar will continue to
cling on because iron easily loses magnetism than steel, which retains magnetism. The
magnetism induced in iron is temporary whereas magnetism induced in steel is more
permanent

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 143. Explain the use of magnetic screening and magnetic keepers?
Answers:
Magnetic screening is used for shielding equipment while magnetic keepers are used to
prevent loss of magnetic strength.
Magnetic screening (or shielding)
If a soft iron bar is placed in a magnetic field, the flux passes through it rather than through
air as iron is more permeable to magnetic flux than air. If the soft iron bar is replaced by
a soft iron ring, all the lines of force pass through it and none pass through the Centre.
The space inside the ring has been screened or shielded from the magnetic flux. Some
watches and delicate electrical measuring instruments are sometimes enclosed in soft
iron cases to shield them from magnetic fields which could reduce their accuracy.
Magnetic keepers
When magnets are stored, they should always be placed in pairs with unlike poles opposite
and soft iron pieces known as iron keepers across their ends. The soft iron keepers
become induced magnets. The induced poles in the keeper neutralize the pole of the
magnet and the domains of the two magnets and the domains of the keepers form
closed chains with no free poles. This greatly increases the life of a magnet.
144. Describe the uses of magnets
Answers:
 They are used in loud speakers, motor and generators as an integral part in these
devices.
 Magnetic door catches to ensure that the doors are closed tightly for example in the
fridge the rubber lining of the door is flexible magnet to keep the door firmly closed.
 Electromagnets as a temporary magnet used in cranes, circuit breakers, electric
bells, relay switches, telephone ear piece and in medical field to remove splinters of
magnetic substances from eye injury
 Paint thickness gauge to check the thickness of paint coating on ships and car
bodies to prevent rusting. The gauge uses a magnet and a spring balance to
measure the force with one or two more coats of paints between the magnet and

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 the steel body of the car or ship. It can also tell you if the steel has rusted away or
been replaced by fibre glass.
 Magnetic inks are made by mixing very small particles of a magnetic substance with
a liquid. The mixture, a dark brown colour can be used as a paint to make magnetic
tape for tape-recorders, and floppy disc for computers.
Banks use magnetic ink on cheques so that the cheques can be sorted automatically
by a machine which detects the magnetic field round each number.
Automatic cash-cards (ATM cards) also use magnetic ink to store information on the
card
 Magnetic liquid is made with oil and smaller particles of magnetic substance so that
it does not dry out. This magnetic liquid can be used to detect very small cracks in
the surface of steel pipelines. The pipe is magnetized by simple coil and painted
with magnetic liquid so that if there is a crack, some of the magnetic lines of force
leak out of the pipe at the crack.
Magnetic oil is also used to lubricate the shafts of motors and the coil of
loudspeakers. A magnet is used to keep the magnetic oil in the right place.

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 GRADE TWELVE

STATIC ELECTRICITY

145. Demonstrate the existence of static charges

Answers:

There are positive and negative charges and these charges obey the law of electric charge
which states that like charges repel while unlike charges repel.

Rub a plastic pen or comb on your sleeve and then hold it near some tiny pieces of paper. The
papers are attracted to the pen or comb because of friction with your sleeve, the plastic object
has been charged with stationary or static electricity.

146. Explain how to detect the electric charges

Answers:
Charges can be detected by an instrument called Gold leaf electroscope. The
electroscope also measures the electric charge on an object.

Structure and operations of a gold leaf electroscope

Electrostatic charge can be detected using a leaf

electroscope as above. If a charged object is placed near
the cap, charges are induced in the electroscope. Those in
the goldleaf and metal plate repel. so the
leaf rises.

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The round cap on top of the electroscope is connected to a narrow copper plate that is on the
inside. The very thin and flexible strip of gold foil is attached to a metal plate. The metal rod
passes through a plug of insulating material and is mounted in a metal case which has glass
windows .The metal case protect the leaf from air currents (draughts) while the glass window
enables the leaf to be seen. When the metal cap receives a charge, the charge is redistributed
by induction and is conducted through the metal plate and rod down to the leaf. The metal
plate and the leaf receive the same charge and consequently repel each other. The gold leaf
moves away from the metal plate when the charged object is taken permanent.

On the other hand, the electroscope can be charged by contact as the charged rod is
scraped on the edge of the metal cap. In this case, the gold leaf should diverge and stay
up even when the bar is taken away. The reason for the permanent charge is that some
of the electrons were actually transferred by conduction to the metal plate and the leaf
when the polythene rod touched the metal cap. The electroscope can be discharged by
touching the cap to the metal case.
If a like charge is brought closer to a permanently charged electroscope, the gold leaf
diverge more as the amount of repulsion between them increases. If an unlike charge is
brought close to the electroscope there is a decrease in the amount of repulsion. In this
way the electroscope can be used to determine the charge of any object brought close
to it.

147. Describe the properties and uses of static charges

Answers:

Properties Of Static Charges

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 I. Static charges obey the law of electrostatics which states that: Like charges
repel, unlike charges attract.

Electric field close to a

Electric field between
Electric two parallel
field between two
negatively charged sphere
plates opposite
with opposite
point charges
charges on them.

Note that X is the neutral point where the electric fields from both charges
cancel out each other. There is no electric effect at X.

II. Conservation of charge: charge can neither be destroyed nor created, but it can
only be transferred from one material to another.

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 III. Sparks: The force of attraction between two oppositely-charged objects may be
so great, that it may cause some electrons to jump from one object to the other,
without the objects touching. Each electron heats the air around it as it jumps,
and with enough heat, the air heats up to the point where it glows. This happens
very quickly, so all we see is a very brief spark.
USES
1) Reducing air pollution: electrostatic smoke and dust precipitators are
used in chimneys to attract tiny particles of smoke and dust to metal
plates with opposite charges, unable to escape into the air, thereby
reducing the amount of air pollution.
2) In photocopying machines: photocopiers use static electricity to form an
image of a document on a charged drum. The powdered ink (toner) is
attracted to a light-sensitive plate that has an image of the document
projected onto it by electrostatics. Wherever the document has dark
areas, the plate keeps its charge so that it can attract the toner. When a
piece of paper is pressed against the plate, the toner is transferred to the
paper. The same idea is used in inkjet printer, except that in the printer,
ink is used instead of powder. It uses electrostatics to position the tiny
droplets of ink on the paper.
3) Paint spraying: bicycles and cars are painted using an electrostatic spray.
The nozzle is given a charge and this makes a better spray - the droplets
of paint all have the same charge and repel each other so that the paint
spreads out to form a large even cloud. Less paint is needed because the
charged droplets are all attracted to the object because it has an opposite
charge. The same idea is used to make crop-spraying more efficient for
farmers.
4) Finger printing: the paper is placed near a charged wire and a fine black
powder is used. The powder sticks to the fingerprint but not to the clean
paper.

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 5) Preventing fires : A liquid flowing in a pipe can become charged and this
can be dangerous if it causes a spark and the liquid is inflammable. For
this reason, whenever an aero plane is being re-fuelled by a tanker lorry
they are always connected together by a copper wire. For the same
reason, spare petrol for cars should always be carried in metal cans,
never plastic.
148. Describe the electric charging and discharging of objects?
Answers:
1) Charging by friction
Electric charging can be done by friction; when a glass or Perspex rod is rubbed
against with fur or cotton wool, it acquires positive charges as electrons flows
from the surface of the rod to the cloth so that the cloth would have had the net
negative charge. On the other hand, a polythene rod when rub to the woolen
cloth ,it gains electrons from the cloth and it will have a net negative charge
while the cloth will have a net positive charge by losing electrons.
Charging by contact :
An electroscope can be charged by touching the cap with a charged object.
Similarly, a neutral object such as polystyrene ball can be charged by touching it
with a charged object. When two charged objects touch each other, the total
charge of the system is conserved. If they each have same amount of opposite
charges, they will both become neutral after touching.

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 2) Charging by Induction:
 A charged object can transfer or induce a charge in a neutral object
simply by coming close to that object. When a negatively charged rod is
brought near the metal cap of an electroscope electrons are repelled
down to the metal strip and the leaf, this causes the leaf to diverge by
electrostatic induction.
 When you rub a balloon on your clothes and then put it on the wall or
ceiling, it stays there because the negative charge on the rubbed balloon
repels some of the electrons in the ceiling away from the surface. This
leaves the surface positively charged and so the negative balloon is
attracted to the ceiling. The separated charges in the ceiling are called
induced charges.
 To demonstrate the effects of charging by induction

I. Using a single metal sphere and a charged rod: a negatively charged polythene
rod is brought near uncharged metal sphere held by insulator stand, the negative
charges are repelled to the left hand side of the metal sphere. While the rod is

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 still there touch the side farthest from the charged rod with your finger,
electrons are conducted right through your body to the earth (earthing effect)
and remove your finger away from the sphere. The electrons can no longer
return to the sphere and this will leave it with a permanent deficiency of
electrons, resulting into a positively charged metal sphere.

II. Similarly, when a charge Perspex rod (positively) is brought near the uncharged
metal sphere and earthed, the end result will be a negatively charged sphere as
electrons flow to the sphere from the earth.

III. Two metal spheres touching each other but held by separate insulating stands: bring a
charged polythene rod near the first metal sphere A, like charges, negative charges will be
repelled to the other metal sphere B, While the charged rod is still there, separate the two
spheres using their insulating stands. Metal sphere A, becomes positively charged and B,
becomes negatively charged.

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 Discharging of objects by static electricity.
Any imbalance of charge can be corrected by earthing the object. This means the object is
connected to the earth by some conducting material. Any statically charged object can be
earthed by touching the object with your hand, provided your body is touching the ground.so,
your body acts as the conductor, and the excess charge flows through you and into the ground,
or enough electrons flow from the ground through you and into the object to cancel out the net
positive charge. Therefore,

(i) Objects can be discharged by touching the metal cap with the finger. The
electrons flow to the earth if the electroscope is negatively charged or
electrons flow from the earth if the electroscope is positively charged.
(ii) Bringing the cap of the charged electroscope near a water tap.
(iii) Putting a bare flame of a candle close to the cap
149. Explain the relationship between current and static electricity
Answers:
The relationship between current and static electricity in terms of effects as static
electricity produces same effects as current electricity. The effects include lighting.
-Both involve the movement of electrons, but differ in the following ways:

STATIC ELECTRICITY CURRENT ELECTRICITY

-builds up on the surface of insulating -moves through conducting materials
materials such as rubber and plastic such as copper and silver

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 -cannot travel inside wires -can travel inside wires
-is generated by friction, contact and -is generated by batteries and power
induction methods plants
-moves by transferring electrons from one -moves by transferring electrons from
surface to another(through air) in an one atom to another in a controlled
uncontrolled and sudden manner manner.

150. Investigate effects of static charges on the environment

Answers:
a) STATIC SHOCKS
-the effect of static electricity is greater when the humidity in the air is lower
-in buildings where air –conditioners or heaters are used, the natural moisture
content in the air is reduced. So, people are most likely to experience static shocks
under these conditions,
- for the same reason passengers sliding off a car seat on to the ground sometimes
gets a shock,
-in dry weather, people walking on nylon carpets may get a shock if they touch a
radiator or a metal door knob
b) DUSTY ENVIROMENT

-A mirror or window polished by a dry cloth on a dry day soon becomes dusty

- Cassette-cases, records, T.V screens and objects soon become dusty.

c) STATIC ELECTRIC FIRES

When refueling an aircraft, charge can build up in fuel pipes. A single spark caused by static
build-up is enough to ignite the fuel vapour surrounding the fuel pipes and tanks.

Large ships have been known to explode because their tanks were being cleaned out by a high
speed water-jet which become charged and caused a spark

-some anaesthetics used in operating theatre can explode because of lack of conducting floor
tiles.
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 d) LIGHTNING
- This is the most destructive form of static electricity. It is the best known example of a
natural spark.
- A very large charge jumps across an air gap and releases an explosive burst of energy,
which can destroy houses, can cause wild fires and can kill people or animals.
-on the other hand, lightning can be beneficial to us as it helps to add nitrogen in the
atmosphere.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

151. Describe the terms associated with electricity

Answers:
(i) Current is the flow of charge in a metallic conductor
(ii) Electric charge is the quantity of electric current passing a point every
second.
(iii) Potential difference is the work done in moving a coulomb of charge
between two points or the energy lost when one coulomb of charge
passes between two points and it can also be defined as energy required
moving a unit charge between two points in a circuit.
(iv) P.d = Energy transferred between two points
The charge moving between the two points
V = W/Q expressed in SI unit Volt (V)
(v) Volt is joule per coulomb ,1 V = 1 J/C

152. Identify the units of electric charge and current

Answers:

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 Electric current is measured in Amperes (A) and Electric charge is measured in
Coulombs. (C).But current also has a derived unit of volt per ohm.
-Current= amount of electric charge; expressed in Ampere (A)
Time
-Electric charge= current x time
Unit; Ampere-second (As), which is known as a coulomb (C)
152.Differentiate between potential difference (PD) and electromotive force (EMF)?
Answers:
The difference is in terms of work done per unit of charge in driving charge in a circuit
and through a component. In (PD) energy is lost while in (EMF) energy is gained.
ELECTRIC CELLS
153.Describe the structure of the primary and secondary cells
Answers:
Cells are reserves of chemical energy that can be transformed into electrical energy.
There are two types of electric cell; namely primary and secondary cells.
Primary cells
This is a type of electric cell that cannot be re-used once the chemicals inside it have
been used up. Examples are simple cell and dry cells.
Structure of a simple cell
A simple cell consists of a Zinc plate and a copper plate in a dilute solution of sulphuric
acid. When the two plates are linked by a conducting path, the zinc slowly dissolves in
the acid solution. The zinc goes into the solution in the form of positive, so electrons get
left behind on the plate. The copper plate on the other hand, doesn’t dissolve away in
the acidic solution. It loses electrons to positively charged ions of hydrogen in the acid,
turning them into uncharged molecules of hydrogen gas which bubbles up around the
plate.

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 The overall effects of these reactions is that the dissolving zinc plate becomes negatively
charged, the copper is left with a positive charge, and electrons flow from the zinc round
to the copper.
A simple cell has two main defects: polarization, due to the formation of blanket of
bubbles on a copper plate and reduce the electron flow. However a depolarizer such as
potassium dichromate is added to acid solution to remove the hydrogen bubbles
chemically and restore the current to its original level.
The second effect is local action, caused by impurities in the zinc like traces of iron which
form miniature cells with zinc on the surface of plate and caused tiny currents to
circulate continuously within the plate itself, and the zinc goes on dissolving even when
the cell isn’t in use. The p.d. between the terminals is 1V.
The Dry Cell
This is a cell that does not contain any liquid. It contains ammonium chloride in ‘dry’ jelly
form as an electrolyte e common dry cell is the zinc-carbon cell, often referred to as a
‘dry Leclanche ‘cell. It has the positive terminal on the central carbon rod, while the zinc
case acts as the negative plate and terminal .The p.d between the terminals is about
1.5V.

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 The manganese dioxide depolarizer is mixed with powdered carbon to improve its
conducting ability, and packed around the carbon rod.
SECONDARY CELLS
This is a cell that can be recharged. They are sometimes known as storage cells or
accumulators. For example Lead- acid accumulator and car battery .The pd across its
terminal is 2V but for the car battery six accumulators are arranged in series to form a
strong 12V battery. The Lead-acid Battery uses lead-based electrodes in an acid
electrolyte.

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 The cells consists of two sets of plates in dilute solution of sulphuric acid which is an
electrolyte (this is why it is called a wet cell).Both sets are made of pure lead (anode)
and another is made of lead (IV)oxide or lead dioxide, as cathode.

154.Demonstrate charging and discharging of the accumulator

Answers:
Charging: The reduction and oxidation (Redox) reactions power the accumulator.
Essentially, the cations are reduced, as electrons are added at the cathode during
charging, while anions are oxidized, as electrons are removed at the anode.
In a car battery, an alternator recharges it while the car is running. The alternator
supplies electrical energy to the battery to charge it, this causes the original chemical
reaction to reverse, so that the lead sulphate is converted back to lead on the anode
and lead dioxide on the cathode.
Discharging: The Redox process is reversed. The accumulator discharges (gives out
electrons) as the lead and lead dioxide on the plates are slowly converted to soft lead
sulphate. The reaction dilutes the acid, making it less dense.
In a car battery, electrons are produced at the anode (lead) and consumed at the
cathode (lead dioxide), forming a thin layer of lead sulphate on the terminal. The net
effect of these reactions is the flow of electricity through the electrical circuit of the car.

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 This battery can be cared for by checking the relative humidity of the acid solution
constantly and topping it up with distilled water to replace any water that is lost
155.Identify methods of disposal of used cells.
Answers:
Some batteries contain chemicals that are toxic to humans and the environment, so
throwing them away into the landfill sites only causes toxic pollution of the soil and
underground water, which may affect humans and animals with serious health
problems. Therefore, re-cycling batteries makes ecological sense.
 Recycling lead-acid batteries is the most successful programme in the world.

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  Nickel-cadmium batteries are hazardous to the environment, hence the need to re-use
or re-cycle them.
 Lithium-ion batteries do not contain hazardous chemicals, but can be re-cycled so that
the metal components and lithium salt can be re-used

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

156.Explain the meaning of resistance

Answer:
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current in an electric circuit. In opposing the flow of
electricity, resistance results in transforming electricity into heat or light energy, as in a light
bulb or pressing iron. The conducting wire and a number of components resist the flow of
current. Sometimes, a resistor is placed deliberately in the circuit to offer resistance and
prevent short circuits

The SI unit for electrical resistance is an Ohm. The symbol for Ohm is Ω.
Factors affecting Resistance
 Length of the conductor: Resistance increases with an increase in unit length.
When you double length of the wire, resistance is also doubled. Thus, resistance
is proportional to the length of the wire.
 The cross-sectional area (thickness) of the wire: Resistance increases with a
reduction in thickness of the conductor. The thicker the wire has, the lesser the
resistance. Thin wires offer higher resistance. If you double the thickness or
cross-section area of the wire, you halve resistance. Therefore, resistance is
inversely proportional to the cross-section or thickness of the wire.
 Type of material of the conductor: Good conductors have less resistance, such
as copper ,nichrome, magnine and constantan whereas poor conductor offer
higher resistance. Insulators such as glass, plastic, rubber and mica have very
high resistance.

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  The temperature of the conductor :In metal conductors, an increase in
temperature causes an increase in resistance. In semi- conductors, resistance
increases with reduction in temperature-they do not conduct when cold such as
silicon, germanium and graphite.
157.Describe what the internal resistance of a cell is
Answer:
This is the resistance of a cell offered by the material it is made from (metals, chemicals
or electrolyte) in cells or batteries. A cell doesn’t maintain the same p.d. under all
conditions. If the current of the cell rises, the p.d. across its terminals drops. The cause
in drop in p.d is resistance within the cell itself called internal resistance. This means the
part of the electric potential energy supplied by the cell is used to do work inside the
cell, so the p.d. that drives the current through the rest of the circuit is reduced and is
called the Terminal potential difference (VTPD ).
The p.d. across the terminals of a cell when it is not supplying a current is called the
electromotive force or e.m.f. of the cell, which is measured in volts (V) .The dry cell, has
an e.m.f. of 1.5V.This is the maximum p.d.
The terminal p.d. is always less than the e.m.f. and the difference between them is
called the “lost volts” (VL ),represents the p.d. required to send the current through the
internal resistance of the cell. This can be obtained only by subtracting the terminal p.d.
from the e.m.f.
VL = e.m.f. – VTPD
Therefore; the maximum p.d = p.d. available to the circuit + p.d. across the resistance of
the cell (the ‘lost volts’)
e.m.f. = VTPD + VL
= IR + Ir
Note that, the internal resistance of a dry cell is usually low as 0.5 Ω to 1.0Ω.
Internal resistance = “lost volts”
Current
R = VL

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 I
 How to determine the resistance in a simple circuit?

-Use Voltmeter-ammeter method.

Set up the experiment as shown in the figure below.

The current through the resistor of unknown resistance, R, is set to any convenient
value by adjusting the rheostat at five different points and obtain at least five set of
voltmeter and ammeter readings respectively. For each set of reading, calculate the
resistance, R, using the equation:
R = Voltmeter reading ; R = V/I express the answer in ohms (Ω)
Ammeter reading

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 The relationship between current (I) and potential difference (V) can be demonstrated
by setting the circuit as shown in the figure below.

Use the rheostat to adjust the current to a convenient value and note the readings of
the ammeter and voltmeter. Move the rheostat to four different points and each time
get the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
Record your results as shown in the table below;
p.d (V) Current (A) P.d/ current (Ω)

Using the table of results plot a graph of P.d (voltage) against current and interpret it.
Voltage (V)

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 Current (A)

The graph produces a straight line graph from the origin, which shows that voltage
increases with current and dividing the voltage by the corresponding current you obtain
a constant called resistance. Therefore voltage is directly proportional to current.
Mathematically; Vα I
V = KI , were V= voltage across the metallic conductor in V
I = Current through it in A and
K = constant = Resistance in Ω
That results in the following equations; V =I R and R = V / I and I = V / R –These
equations are known as ohm’s law equations.
Ohm’s law states that, the voltage across the conductor is directly proportional to the
current through it, provided temperature and other physical conditions of the conductor
remains constant.

157.Describe the relationship between current and potential difference in ohmic

and non-ohmic conductors
Answers:
Ohmic conductor is those which obey ohm’s law. The normally produce a straight lined
graph from the origin, if voltage is plotted against current. For example, copper,
aluminum and nichrome.
Non-ohmic conductors are materials which does not obey Ohm’s law. Their graph of
voltage against current is not straight line but curves
Filament lamp
When current increases, the filament gets hotter and so its resistance increases. This
means the graph gets flatter (Curved graph)

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 Thermistor
Thermistor is made from semi-conductors. Examples of semi-conductors are silicon,
germanium and Phosphor arsenide. As current increases, the thermistor temperature
increases, resistance is reduces consequently voltage is reduced. The graph gets
steeper.

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 A semi-conducting Diode
When voltage is applied in the reverse direction, virtually no current flows. So resistance
is high. A current flows in the forward direction whenever the voltage is more than
about 0.6v.

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  Calculate the resistance in series and parallel circuits with ohm’s law?
There are two basic methods of joining resistors or other circuit components together,
namely, series and parallel connections.
SERIES CIRCUITS
Basic rules
I. The current is the same at all points round the series circuit.
II. The sum of the p.d.s across the resistors is the same as p.d. across the battery ;
Main p.d = p.d across resistor 1 + p.d across resistor 2…and so on. [ V = V1 + V2
]
III. Combined resistance of resistors in series is higher than any one of the resistor
by itself. It is equal to the sum of all resistors in series circuit. Therefore,
combined resistance in series circuit = Resistance for resistor 1 + resistance for
resistor 2. [ R= R1 + R2 ]
EXAMPLE
Study the circuit diagram in figure below.

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 a) Calculate the current through the battery,
b) How long would it take a charge of 4.5C to flow through the
battery?
c) Find the p.d across the 1Ω resistor.
Solutions
a) I =V/R were, V = 6V,
I = 6V/5Ω R = R 1 + R2
I = 1.5A R= 1 Ω + 4Ω
R = 5Ω
b) Charge= current x time
Q = It
t = Q /I
t = 4.5C/ 1.5A
t=3s
d) V1 = I X R1
V1 = 1.5A X 1Ω
V1 = 1.5V

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Basic rules
I. Each resistor in a parallel circuit arrangement has the same p.d across it.
II. Where a circuit divides into several parallel branches, the currents through
different branches add up to equal to the current in the main circuit
III. If two or more resistors are connected in parallel, they give a lower resistance
than any one of the resistors by itself. Therefore, combined resistance in parallel
circuit is equal to :
1=1+ 1+ 1 , and so on

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 R R1 R2 R3
Where two resistors only are joined in parallel, the equation can be rearranged to give:
Combined resistance = Resistance product
Resistance sum

R= R1 x R2
R1 + R2
EXAMPLE
Study the circuit diagram below and answer the questions.

a) Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit

b) What is the reading of the ammeter?
c) Calculate the p.d. across the 3 Ω resistor,
d) Determine the current through the 4Ω resistor?

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 SOLUTIONS
a) R =R1 x R2
R1 + R2
R = 6Ωx 3Ω = 18 = 2Ω
6 Ω+ 3Ω 9
b) Reading of the ammeter is the main current in the circuit, I
I=V
R
I = 8v =4A
2Ω
c) P.d. across the 3Ω resistor is equal to the p.d. across the battery for all resistors
connected in parallel = 8v
d) Current through the 3Ω resistor is I2
I2 = V
R2
I2 = 8v = 2.66A =2.7A
3Ω

COMBINED RESISTANCE IN A COMBINED NETWORK OF RESISTORS

The first stage is to find total resistance in the circuit by calculating the resistors in in
parallel and then in series separately, then add the two resistance to obtain the total
resistance.
WORKED EXAMPLE
Study the circuit in the figure below.

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 ii. Determine the effective resistance in the circuit;
iii. What is the p.d. across the 3Ω resistor?
iv. Find the current through a 6Ω resistor.
SOLUTIONS
a) Effective resistance = Resistance in series circuit + resistance in parallel
RT = R 1 + R2 x R3
R2 + R3
RT = 4Ω + 3Ω x 6Ω
3Ω + 6Ω
RT = 4 Ω + 2Ω = 6Ω
b) P.d. across the 3 Ω resistor ,V2 and main current, I = 18v/ 6Ω = 3A
Main p.d. across the battery = p.d across series + p.d across parallel
18v =( I x R1) + (Parallel )

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 18v = (3A x 4Ω ) + Vparallel
VParallel = 18v -12v = 6v
Therefore, p.d. for 3Ω resistor = Vparallel =6v
c) Current through a 6 Ωresistor, I3
I3 = Vparallel
R3
I3 = 6v/ 6Ω = 1A

HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

The energy of an electric current can be converted into various forms for example
(i) Electrical can be converted to mechanical energy in motors and washing
machines.
(ii) Electrical energy can be converted to sound energy in record players and
telephones
(iii) Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy in heating elements
(iv) Electrical energy can be converted to light energy or radiant heat like in filament
lamps. A light bulb has a thin filament which is coiled to provide high resistance
and reduce the cooling effect of the convection currents which circulate in the
surrounding gases. The filament is made of tungsten which has a high melting
point. This filament is enclosed inside the glass bulb which contains an inert gas
such as Argon. This inert gas is kept at low pressure to prevent evaporation of
the filament when it glows white hot.

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 158.Investigate the heating effect of an electric current?
Answers:
In appliance where the heating effect of an electric current is needed, such as electric
stoves, kettle, heaters and geysers, it is ideal for the current to produce the maximum
amount of heat possible. The device contains a heating element, which are made of
metal alloys. The heating element acts as a resistor to generate as much heat as it can.
The length of resistance wire of an element is coiled to take up less space
Generally, the alloys used are nichrome (nickel and chromium), Manganin (copper and
manganese) or constantan (copper and nickel).These are materials of high melting
point. For nichrome, it resists oxidation when red hot.
Pressing iron
In a pressing iron, the heating element is a spiral wire made from nichrome. The spiral
wire is then wound on a thin sheet of transparent mica and covered on both sides by
mica. Mica simply acts as an electrical insulator because of this high resistance to
damage when subjected to heat. Furthermore, the heating element has a thick pad of
asbestos above it, which is a very efficient thermal insulator; hence it provides a barrier
to heat from escaping above. In this way, most heat from the element needed is made
to go downwards to the base of the iron.

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 ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY
159.Describe the relationship of potential difference, current and power
Answers:
Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is expended or transferred.
Power = work done or transfer of energy divided by time. P = W/t or P= E/t and the unit
is a watt (W) .1W = 1J/s.
Power = p.d. x current
P = Vx I P= VI.
For resistors, we can combine P=VI with ohm equations, V=IR, so that we get alternative
equations:
P= VI
P= I2R
P= V2
R
The work done by the electricity in overcoming the resistance is converted into heat as
current flows through the conductor. The work or energy is the product of the potential
difference and the quantity of electric charge flowing in the circuit;
W = V x Q or E = V x Q but Q =It ,
E= VIt
E=P x t taking P=VI
Other alternative formula:
E= I2Rt
E=V2 t
R

170. Demonstrate how to calculate the cost of using electrical energy?

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 Answer:
Electrical Energy can be calculated using the formula E= Pt where power is in Kilowatt
and time should be in hours to form Kwh multiplied by cost per unit (KWh).
Cost of electricity= power in KW x time in hours x cost per unit expressed in kwacha or
Ngwee in Zambian currency.
1KW= 1000W and 1 hour = 3600 seconds
It follows that; 1KWh = 3 600 000 joules
 Describe the uses of switches, fuses, earthing and three-pin plugs
Ans.These serve as safety electrical components which prevent electrical shock and overload of
power.

 SWITCHES
Switches are used to turn on and off the current in the circuit, thereby acting as safety
measures and as electricity cost savers. The switches are fitted in the live wire to make sure
that if the circuit is switched off, it cannot transfer any electricity.

If the switch was mistakenly fitted in the neutral wire, it could equally work well but the wire in
the flex would then still be live when the switch is turned off and this present a danger if, for
example, the cable were
broken accidentally.

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  FUSES
This is a short piece of thin wire which overheats and melts if current of more than a
certain value flows through it .It protects the appliance from damage in case of current
overload or dangerously produce high currents. A fuse is placed in live wire and often in
form of a small cartridge inside a plug.
If a fault develops in an appliance and too high a current flows, the fuse ‘blows’ and
breaks the circuit before the cable can overheat and catch fire.
Fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry without melting. Fuse rating
is therefore, slightly higher than the normally current flowing in circuit. Only certain
values are available, for example, 3A, 5A,, 13A, and 30A.So if the normal current
flowing in an appliance is 2A- the fuse rating would be 3a or for 11.5a normal current
would require a fuse rating of 13A

 EARTHING
This is the connection of metal casing of appliance to the earth in order to protect the
user from shock or injury. It prevents appliances from becoming live if a fault develops.
If the live wire were to work out loose and touch the body of and appliance, a current
would immediately flow to the earth. And blow he fuse.
 THREE PIN PLUG

earth live

fuse

neutral

cord grip

A plug provides a convenient and safe method of connecting different appliances into
the mains circuit. When wiring a plug, it is important to check that the three wires in the

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 cable are connected to the correct terminals. The cable ‘colour code’ is shown in the
figure above.
Live wire: brown (Red)
Neutral wire: blue (Black)
Earth wire: green (yellow/green-yellow)
The fuse must be fitted in the in live correctly to save its purpose of protecting the
appliance.

180. Explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double insulation
Answers:
The earth wire is a safety wire which connects the metal body (casing) of an appliance
such as an electric kettle, toaster, to earth and prevents it becoming live if a fault
develops.
Double insulation of electric appliance is the insulation around the electrical wires as
well as another layer of insulation in the form of the outer case of an appliance, such as
a radio, pressing iron need to therefore, have two-pin plugs. The double insulated
appliance need not to be earthed as the electric field will be altered and may cause
damaging the appliance.

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 190. Describe the meaning of three wires found in the cable
Answers:
The three types of wires: Live (brown), earthing (green and yellow) and neutral is blue
The Live wire
This is the source of electricity in the circuit. It is at a high potential, 240V in Zambia. The
potential of the live wire goes alternately negative and positive, make 50Hertz per
second. It can give you a nasty shock if you touch it accidently
The Neutral wire
This is the return path of current in the circuit. It is at zero potential and poses no
danger if you touch it accidentally. The electricity board (ZESCO) normally earths the
neutral wire by connecting it to a metal plate buried in the ground.
The Earth Wire
This is the third wire in the cable, which is the safety precaution to prevent us from shocks. The
metal casing of the appliance is earthed and the wire is at zero potential. It only takes current
to the earth if there is a fault in the circuit.

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 200. Describe the domestic electrical wiring system
Answers:
A cable from ZESCO (electricity board) runs into each house and it contains a Live and a
neutral wire. At the consumer unit or’ circuit breaker box’, these wires branch into
several parallel circuits which carry current to the lights, the cooker, the immersion
heater, and the various mains sockets. The advantage for circuits being in parallel is
that; each circuit has a full p.d. and can also be controlled by individual switches .The
cable for each circuit contains an earth wire as well as a live and a neutral. Each circuit
passes through a circuit breaker in the consumer unit:
 Lighting circuit 5A circuit breaker
 Immersion heater circuit 15A circuit breaker
 Cooker circuit 30A circuit breaker
 Mains socket circuit 30A circuit breaker

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The circuit breaker is automatic switch which open when the current rises above the specified
value, but can be closed again by pressing a button.

THE RING MAIN CIRCUIT

The 13A mains sockets are connected to a ring main circuit as shown in the figure below. This is
a cable which begins and ends at the consumer unit, with live, neutral and earth wires in the
cable each forming a long loop or ‘ring’ around the house. An advantage of the system is that
there are two conducting paths to each socket, so thinner cables can be used. The ring main is
protected by a single 30A circuit breaker in the consumer unit. In addition, each appliance is
protected by the fuse in its plug.

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 201. Describe ways of conserving electrical in homes and industries
Answers
Since the demand outweighs the supply, electrical energy need to be conserved by all
domestic and commercial consumers. Some ways of conserving electricity are as
follows:
GENERAL USES
 Replace old appliances with energy saving models
 Unplug all appliances that are turned off, as they still consume power even in
that state;
 Switch off any appliances for example, TV, geyser, radio, etc, if no one is using
them
IRONING

 Switch off the pressing iron once it has reached the correct temperature

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  Iron many clothes at once instead of in small batches.
COOKING

 When cooking nshima, first boil the water in an electric kettle, and only boil as
much as you need;
 Use smaller cooking appliances as they cost less to operate
 Plan your cooking so that several things can be cooked or baked at the same time
in the oven
 Use alternative source of energy such as charcoal, gas cooker or solar energy for
cooking.
LIGHTING

 Keep the lights switched off during the day

 Whenever possible, use sunlight for lighting a room during the day
 Use energy-saving light bulbs
 Turn off the security lights early in the morning

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS

202. Explain the magnetic field patterns of electric currents
Answers:
A wire carrying current has a magnetic field round it. This is known as electromagnetic
effect or electromagnetism. The electromagnetic effect can be demonstrated by placing
a plotting compass near a wire carrying current. The compass needle will deflect and
point in the direction of the magnetic field. The type and shape of the conductor/wire
determines the magnetic field pattern that will exists around it, be it a straight wire, a
coil or along coil/solenoid.

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 MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN OF A STRAIGHT WIRE
Using the apparatus shown below, sprinkle some iron fillings on to the horizontal card.
Pass a large current through the vertical wire briefly, while tapping the card so that the
iron fillings show the shape of the magnetic field. Place a small compass on the card to
find the direction of the magnetic field lines. Reverse the direction of current and
observe the pattern and direction of the field.

The pattern of the fillings on the card shows

that the field lines are concentric circles or
circles centered about the wire. To know
the direction of current and magnetic
field, apply the Right-hand grip rule, as
you imagine gripping the wire, with your right
thumb pointing the same way as the current, then your fingers are curling the same way as the
magnetic field lines.

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The field lines run clockwise about the wire when the current direction is into the page .On the
other hand, when current direction is out of the page, the field line runs anticlockwise

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN IN A COIL OR LOOP

Sprinkle iron filings round a coil and pass a large current and tap the card. Use a small
magnetic compass to find the direction.
The figure shown below illustrates the field pattern by a current flowing in a circular coil.
Outside the coil, the field lines run in loops from one face of the coil to the other. The
magnetic field lines between the two sides of the loop are in the same direction and
they add up to produce a stronger field around the Centre.

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN IN A SOLENOID

Along coil or solenoid is simply a cylindrically-shaped coil that produces a magnetic field
when an electric current passes through it. It is made up of a number of turns of wire.
When a current is passed through the solenoid, each turn acts as a single coil and
produces a magnetic field as described in the figure below. Together, the turns give a

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 combined field similar to the field around a long bar magnet, and the coil behaves as if
has a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other. The right-hand grip rule can
be used to work out the polarity, the thumb points to N pole and the finger curls in the
direction of conventional current.

For a solenoid of any given length, the strength of the magnetic field can be increased
by:
I. Increasing the current;
II. Increasing the number of turns;
III. If the ferromagnetic material is present through the middle of the solenoid.
204. Describe the applications of the magnetic effect of an electric current
Answers:
Applications of the magnetic effect are mainly used in making simple electro magnets
which are used in variety of devices which include electric bell, relay switches
,electromagnetic cranes, circuit breakers, electromagnetic door lock, in hospital dealing

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 with eye injuries by removing splinters of iron or steel and in telephone earpiece or
radio earphone.
RELAY SWITCH
A relay is a magnetic switch, used so that a small current can switch on large current.
When current flows in the control circuit, the electromagnet attracts a soft-iron
armature, which pushes the contacts in the second circuit together, thereby completing
the second circuit. When current is switched off, the contacts open again, switching the
circuit off. For example, in a car the starter motor needs a very large current, thus a
relay switch is used so that this large current is switched on by a smaller current in the
dashboard switch, relay switches are also used in electronic circuits to control large
currents

Relay machine

ELECTROMAGNETIC CRANES
These use the magnetic force of attraction to lift and retain scrap iron while the current
flows through the circuit. The crane operator can release the collected load by switching
off the current.
CIRCUIT BREAKER
This is a simple electromagnetic switch which cuts off the current if it gets too big. It is
an automatic safety switch. The electromagnet inside it attracts an iron catch if the
current flowing through the electromagnet becomes too high. Once the iron catch has
moved, the circuit is broken. But a reset button completes the circuit again.

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\

ELECTRIC BELL
In an electric bell, the electromagnet attracts a soft iron armature when the cirt is
complete. In this way, the hammer connected to the armature hits the gong and the bell
sounds. This movement breaks the contacts, so that current stops flowing and switches
off the electromagnet. The spring pulls the armature back so that contact is made and
the sequence begins again.

THE TELEPHONE EARPIECE OR RADIO EARPHONE

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 This converts varying electric currents into sound waves. The varying electric currents
pass round the coils of an electromagnet, which attracts an iron disc. As the currents
vary, the movement of the disc varies. This makes a sound wave in the air.
203. Explain the behavior of an electric current in a magnetic field
Answers:
Ans.When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced
as the conductor move either upwards or downwards depending on the direction of
flow of current or magnetic field. This effect is known as the motor effect.
When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, there will be an interaction
between the two fields which will create a force and this force will be induced in the
current carrying conductor.
The force on the wire can be increased by using:
i. a large current ;
ii. a stronger magnetic field (use strong magnets);
iii. a greater length of wire in the field (longer wire or increase the number of turns
in a coil).
We can show the direction of the force of current or magnetic field using

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (motor rule).which states that:

If the Thumb First finger and Second finger of the left hand are held at right angles to
one another;
 the ThuMb points in the direction of the Motion or Movement or Thrust (force)
of the wire,
 the First finger points in the direction of the magnetic Field (from N to S)
 the SeCond finger shows the direction of Current (Conventional current, from +
to - )

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 204. Describe the application of a current carrying wire placed in a magnetic field
Answers:

i. THE MOVING- COIL LOUDSPEAKER

This converts electrical energy to sound energy, as it changes electrical vibrations
into vibrations of the air molecules.

It consists of a moveable coil attached to the large cone. The coil fits loosely
over the Centre of a cylindrical permanent magnet so that the coil is in a
strong magnetic field
If the current flowing one direction, the coil moves either to the right or left
as you apply Fleming’s left hand rule to check this effect .This makes the cone
and coil to vibrate, and sound waves are given out as a result. The nature of
the sound wave produced depends on the frequency and amplitude of the
alternating current flowing through the coil. The current is either supplied by
a signal generator or an amplifier.

ii.

GALVANOMETERS AND AMMETERS

These devices rely on the movement caused by a current interacting with a magnetic field.
When the circuit is switched on the current flows through a coil which sets up a magnetic field.

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The magnetic field from a permanent magnet pushes the coil and the needle, which is attached
to the coil, to indicate the amount of the current in the circuit.

iii THE SIMPLE DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MOTORS

D.C motor makes use of an electric current within a magnetic field to rotate its armature coil to
cause motion. It contains a coil which is free to rotate between the poles of permanent
magnets. The coil is connected to the battery leads by two carbon contacts known as brushes.
These are pushed against the two halves of the copper split ring or commutator by two small
springs. The commutator is fixed to the coil and turns round with it.

When the coil turns through 90◦ (so that the coil is vertical) the current stops flowing because
the gaps in the commutator break the circuit. However, the coil keeps turning because of its
own momentum.

When the brushes make contact again, both the commutator and the coil have turned over so
that the wire which is now nearest the N-pole has current coming out towards us. This means
that the force on it is upwards and so the coil still turns clockwise. That is, the commutator
makes sure that whichever wire in the diagram is nearest the N-pole, it always has current
moving out toward us and so the wire keeps turning clockwise.

With the current direction reversed, the forces acting on the coil are also reversed, and the coil
is pulled round another half turn until it is again vertical. At this point, the current and forces
are again reversed and the coil is pulled round another half turn, and so on.

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 Simple motor
axle

magnet
205. Describe the
coil
nature of forces
N S between parallel
split-ring
commutator currents

carbon brush

Answers:
There is attraction and repulsion between parallel currents. Two parallel wires that carry
current in the same direction attract each other. Their magnetic field lines cancel out in
the space between the wires, causing a weak magnetic field at the Centre. On the outer
sides, the magnetic field lines add up to create a stronger field. Because the magnetic
field strength is imbalanced, the wires move in the direction where the magnetic field
strength is weaker, towards each other.
Two parallel wires that carry current in the opposite direction repel each other. The
magnetic field is stronger between the wires than on the sides. The wires therefore
move away from each other.

206. Describe the effects of magnetic fields on human health and environment

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 Answers:
 Long period exposure of magnetic field includes; stress, restlessness and headaches, in
some cases, hearing impairment.
 Magnetic field also cause interference with the radio waves used in radio broadcasting
or telephone communications.
 Exposure to magnetic fields can occur through the use of various electrical devices such
as hairdryers, electrical shavers, electric blankets and vacuum cleaners

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

207. Investigate the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

Answers:

Connect a straight piece of wire to a sensitive galvanometer. Then move the wire across a
strong magnetic field. The wire when moved, it cut across lines of flux, and then an e.m.f. is
induced in the wire, if the wire forms part of a circuit, the induced e.m.f. causes the current to
flow. The current can be detected using a sensitive galvanometer and this phenomenon is
called electromagnetic induction. If the wire moves along the magnetic field lines there is
current/ e.m.f induced. It has to cut across the field.

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 208. Describe the factors that affect the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f.
Answers:
Connect a coil with a large number of turns to a Centre-zero galvanometer and quickly
move the North Pole of a bar magnet into the coil and observe the deflection of the
galvanometer pointer. Then move the bar magnet slowly into the coil and observe the
galvanometer pointer.
Repeat the same procedure but move in a weak magnet and then a strong magnet at
the same speed and observe the movement of the pointer. Finally, try the experiment
with another coil having only a few turns and observe the pointer deflection.
It is observed that, the galvanometer pointer deflects more to the right when a north
pole of a bar magnet is moved in quickly, use strong magnet and when the coil of more
turns was used. On the other hand, the pointer deflects less when the pole of magnet is
moved slowly, weak magnet is used and a coil of few turns is used. The deflection of the
galvanometer indicates the rate at which e.m.f. is induced
Therefore, the size of the induced e.m.f. can be increased by:
(i) Increasing the speed of either magnet or coil
(ii) Increasing the Strength of magnet (use strong magnets)
(iii) Increasing the number of number of turns of a coil, as this increases the length
of wire cutting through the magnetic field.

The above results are summed up by Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction, which states
that:

The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate at

which the conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines.

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 209. State the direction of current produced by an induced EMF
Answers:
To determine the direction you use Fleming right hand rule. If the thumb and first two
fingers of the right hand are held at right angles to one another; the second finger gives
the direction of the induced current if the first finger points in the same direction as the
field and the thumb points in the direction of the motion.
Connect a coil with a large number of turns to a Centre-zero galvanometer and quickly
move the North pole of a bar magnet into the coil, then hold the magnet still inside the
coil and finally pull it out of the coil. Repeat the experiment but this time use the south
pole of the magnet.
When a pole of the magnet approaches the solenoid or recedes from it, the direction of
the induced current is such that it produces a like pole at the near face of the solenoid
on approach, and an unlike pole on withdrawal. Thus the induced pole opposes the
motion of the magnet. This is stated in a law called Lenz’s law, that; the direction of the
induced current is such that it opposes the change producing it. Similarly, there is no
induced e.m.f., if the wire is held still, nor if it is moved parallel to the field.

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 SIMPLE AC AND DC GENERATORS
210. Describe a simple AC and D.C generator
Answers:

AN A.C. GENERATOR

axle

magnet

coil

N S
slip rings

carbon brush

This is also known as alternators .It consists of a rectangular coil made of insulated copper
wire which rotates between permanent magnets. The simple alternators has slip rings (fixed
to the coil and rotates with it); and two brushes (carbon) which are contacts that rub
against slip rings, producing Alternating current (Ac.).The coil is rotated from different
sources of energy (hydro electric ,wind ,nuclear, geothermal)

SIMPLE D.C. GENERATORS

A DC generator is known as a dynamo. It consists of a single copper split rings commutator

(fixed to the coil and rotate with it). It produces Direct current (D.C.) that varies periodically in
magnitude, but not in direction. The commutator reverses the connections with the outside

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circuit every time the coil passes through the vertical, so that the current in the outside circuit
always flows in the same direction. An example of a practical D.C generator is a bicycle dynamo.

211. Compare a simple AC generator with a simple DC generator in terms of structure

and

Its nature.

THE SIMPLE AC GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)

As the coil rotates its side cut the magnetic flux, and therefore a current is induced in it.
Application of Fleming’s right- hand rule indicates that the current flows back to front along
side DC and from front to back along side AB. When viewed from above the current therefore,

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flows in a clockwise direction round the coil.The figure below shows graphically how the
induced e.m.f. generated in the coil varies over one complete rotation. When the coil is vertical
and AB is uppermost, its sides move parallel to the lines of force. Since the sides do not cut the
lines of force at this instant, no e.m.f. is induced.

As the coil rotates through the first quarter of the revolution (0◦ to 90◦), the induced e.m.f
increase to a maximum. During the second quarter of the revolution (90◦ to 180◦) the induced
e.m.f. reduces and become zero when the coil becomes vertical and is uppermost at this time.
During the third quarter (180◦ to 270◦) the e.m.f. again increases to a maximum, but in the
reverse direction and then reduces to zero during the last quarter (270◦ to 360 ◦).

The direction of the induced current also reverses in the external circuit because AB and DC
exchange positions after half a revolution. This behavior of the induced current earns it the
name alternating current (AC).

THE SIMPLE DC GENERATOR (DYNAMO)

The e.m.f is zero when the coil is vertical. It increases to the maximum during the first quarter
turn and reduces back to zero during the second quarter turn. The current leaves the generator
via brush d hence this brush is positive.

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As the coil continues rotating from the second quarter turn to the third the commutator change
positions. Commutator is now in contact with brush a while commutator d is in contact with
brush d but the current continues flowing in clockwise direction. Brush d remains positive and
brush a remains negative and hence the current through R continues in the same direction
through it reverses in the coil itself.

The e.m.f. induced between the beginning of the third and the end of the fourth quarter of a
revolution varies in the same way as that between the beginning of the rotation and the end of
the first half of the rotation.

212. Describe the action of a diode in rectification

Answer:

A diode is any two-terminal device which allows current to pass through it in one direction but
not the other. The diode is drawn symbolically, the arrowhead showing the direction in which
conventional current can flow and this is known as forward bias. The opposite of this is called
reverse bias –flowing opposite to conventional current.

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Diodes are also known as rectifiers. They can be used to change AC into DC, a process called
rectification. There are two types of rectification; -half –wave rectification and full-wave
rectification. A semi- conductor diode placed in series with an a.c. source allows current to flow
only in the forward direction. A cathode ray oscilloscope, which is used to study the wave-form
of currents and voltages in electric circuits can be connected to the terminals of the a.c. supply
and then across the resistor connected in series with the diode.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

This requires a single diode. The positive half of the a.c. sine wave is allowed to pass through
the circuit while the other half is blocked. The output voltage is lower, but still varies with time,
even though it only moves in one direction.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

This may require two or more diodes and the all input wave is converted, but the negative half
at each wave is ‘flipped’ up into the positive range. This allows for a higher average output
voltage

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 213. Explain the conversion of an A.C generator to a D.C generator
Answers:
A rectifier is an electric device which coverts AC. current to DC.There are a number of
rectifiers such as vacuum tube diode, Mercury-arc valve, copper and selenium oxide
rectifiers, semi-conductors, silicon controlled and silicon-based semi-conductor
switches.If the slip rings and brushes of the simple AC generator are replaced by a single
split ring with two diametrically opposed brushes the machine becomes converted into
a simple DC generator. The brushes are arranged so that when the coil is passing
through the vertical position the two halves of the split ring are just on the point of
charging contact from one brush to another.

214. Contrast the current produced by the DC generator with that produced from
batteries
Answers:
 Batteries and solar cells produce a direct current, which flows in one direction and is
Constant when the circuit is closed, whereas the current produced by a DC generator
flows in one direction but varies with time.
 A comparison of battery current, and DC generator current shows that for battery
current the graph line in flat showing constant current in unit time, while the DC
generator’s current shows only waveforms in the positive range during rectification.

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 TRANSFORMERS

215. Demonstrate the principles of mutual induction

Answers:
Ans. Principles of mutual induction says that changing current in one coil gives rise to
current in the other. When two coils are wound side by side on a piece of soft iron ring
and the second coil is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, the magnetic flux builds
up through the iron ring and the secondary coil, making the galvanometer to give a
momentary deflection as current is induced in the secondary coil in the opposite
direction. This ensures that practically all of the primary flux becomes linked with the
secondary, with a consequent increase in the secondary e.m.f. Any arrangement of two
coils such that a current is induced in one when the current is changed in the other is
said to possess mutual inductance
216. Describe the structure and operation of iron core transformer
Answers:
The soft iron core transformer is an electromagnetic induction device which uses mutual
inductance for its operation.
STRUCTURE

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 It is composed of a central closed soft iron laminated core. The primary coil wound on
the initial limb of the core from an a.c input supply and the secondary coil wound on the
far end limb of the core connected to the output a.c. load as shown in the figure below:

OPERATION

The main a.c. from the input supply flows through the primary coil and the primary
coil induces a continuously changing magnetic flux in the soft iron core which links the
secondary coil. The secondary coil cuts the flux and induces an e.m.f consequently, a.c
flows in the secondary coil to the load.
Basically, the e.m.f induced in the secondary coil can be larger or smaller than the input
e.m.f. in the primary depending on whether the number of turns is greater or smaller in
the secondary than in the primary.
If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil, then it is a step-up
transformer, because the primary voltage is smaller than the secondary voltage. If the
secondary coil has fewer turns than the primary, it is a step-down transformer, having
more voltage in primary coil than in the secondary coil.

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 217. Apply the transformer and power equations to solve numerical problems
involving ideal transformers
Answers:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f will depend on the e.m.f applied to the primary and
on the relative numbers of turns in the two coils. It may be shown that:
secondary e . m. f ( voltage) number of turns∈secondary
=
primary e . m. f (voltage) number of turns∈ primary
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

WORKED EXAMPLE
A step-down transformer is required to transform 240V a.c. to 12V a.c. for a model
railway. If the primary coil has 1000turns, how many turns should the secondary have?
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
12V Ns
=
240V 1000turns
12
Ns = x 1000
240
Ns = 50 turns

218. Calculate the efficiency of a transformer given data

Answers:

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 If there are no energy wasted in a transformer ,all the power supplied to the primary
will be delivered by the secondary. This type of transformer is known as an ideal
transformer, which is 100% efficient. Therefore, the:
Power in the primary coil (input) = power in the secondary coil (output)
Primary voltage x primary current = Secondary voltage x Secondary current
Vp x Ip = Vp x Is

WORKED EXAMPLE
A step-down transformer reduces the voltage from 220V to 11V. The input current is
0.50Aand losses are negligible. (i) If there are 660 turns in the primary, how much
current flows in secondary output coil? (ii) Calculate the efficiency of this transformer?
(i) Primary power input = secondary power output

PINPUT = POUTPUT
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is
11V
Is = 220V x 0.50A = 10A

power∈secondary coil
(ii) Efficiency = x 100%
power ∈the primary coil
VsIs
E = x 100%
VpIp
11 V X 10 A
E = X100%
220V X 0.50 A
E= 100%
In practice a real transformer is less than 100% efficient due to energy losses. The
following are factors causing energy losses:
 Eddy currents in the core, caused by the conductivity of the iron core in a
changing magnetic field. The induced currents circulate in loops perpendicular to
the magnetic flux. The iron block causes resistance in the coil. This is reduced by

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 laminating the iron core, as the core is made from thin sheets of soft iron which
are insulated from each other with varnish or oxide layer, so that their total
resistance is high.
 The resistance of the coils (copper losses) which give heat when current is
flowing through. Reduce the resistance of the coils by using thicker copper wires.
 Rapid magnetization and demagnetization of the core. Work has to be done to
alter sizes and direction of domains and heat is released in the process. This is
reduced by making a core from soft iron with a high magnetic susceptibility (ease
to magnetize and demagnetize).

219. Explain the advantages of high alternating potential difference power

transmission
Answers:
 The advantage is that it helps reduce power losses in cables.One of the main
advantages is that it can be easily and cheaply changed from one voltage to
another by a transformer with very little loss of energy. So electric power is
conveyed by a.c., as it can be transformed to a very high voltage and transmitted
over long distances with minimum power loss. The cables provide resistance to
the current.
 Electricity is generated in the power stations (kariba power station) at 11kv to
33kv and then stepped up to 400kv by transformers. It is fed into the grid
(overhead power lines) at this voltage and subsequently stepped down in
successive stages at sub-stations in the neighborhood of towns and other areas
where the energy is to be consumed.

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  The voltage drop is reduced. The greater the resistance, the greater the energy
loss and the greater the voltage drop. With a lower current, less energy is lost in
the transmission
 The costs are reduced as wires are either made of thin copper or aluminum
cable.
220. Describe the implications of underground power transmission compared to
overhead lines
Answer:
 Underground cables are buried underground thus cable location is not always
obvious, which can lead to unwary diggers damaging cables or being
electrocuted, whereas overhead transmission cables are suspended on
aluminum pylons and are visible to locate and may prove safer to locate.

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  Underground transmissions are not hazardous to aircraft or wildlife, whereas
overhead transmission can be hazardous to aircraft or wild life.
 Underground transmission cannot affect the landscape whereas as overhead can
affect the landscape and is affected by bad weather
 Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of underground
cables produce large charging currents and so makes voltage control more
difficult than in overhead cables transmission.
 Underground installation cost can be expensive because of digging, whereas
overhead can be cheap to install. And pylons are relatively inexpensive.
 In underground transmission it is difficult and time-consuming to locate and fix
faults, whereas overhead transmission is easy to access cables for maintenance
and repair.
 Underground transmission does not require maintenance and repair so often
and are not prone to cable theft or damage. On the other hand, in overhead
transmission maintenance and repair maintenance and repair is needed more
often because of lightning, vehicle or aircraft accidents, cable theft, poor
weather and sabotage.
221. Describe the effects of improper management of transformers?
Answers:
Ans: The effects can cause energy losses if transmission lines are not properly
managed and these can be caused by:
 Overheating can weaken the transformer and decrease its operational life span.
This may be caused by excessive loading or cooling problems that can push the
transformer above its maximum power rating. To minimize this problem
transformer are oil-cooled.
 Low voltages and also high voltages: if the input voltage varies, the transformer
will struggle to regulate the output power. Over-voltages over a long period also
lead to overheating of the system.

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 If the transformers in a transmission system are not maintained and managed
properly:

 The efficiency of electricity production decreases and costs increase, affecting all
consumers who may pay high electricity tariffs.
 They can fail, leading to blackouts’ that affect thousands of consumers.
BASIC ELECTRONICS
222. Describe what thermionic emission?
Ans. This is a process of releasing electrons from a heated metal. The metal is heated
to white hot, then the electrons gain enough energy to escape from its surface.
223. Investigate properties of cathode rays?
Ans. i) they travel in a straight line
ii) They can be deflected by a magnetic and electric field
iii) They produce fluoresce when they strike a metal
iv) They are negatively charged.

The deflection is caused by

repulsion of the negative plate
and attraction by the positive
plate. Like charges repel and
unlike charges attract. The
electron beam is negative by
nature. Hence the phenomenon
exhibited

224. Distinguish between direction of flow

of electrons and flow of conventional current.

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 Conventional current flows from positive to negative while electrons flows from
negative to positive.
225. Describe applications of electron beams?
Ans. Electron beams can be applied in CRO, TV set, X-ray machines.
When very fast electrons are suddenly stopped X-rays produced.
a) This principle is used in the X-ray tube
shown on the right, where X-rays
are emitted from a tungsten target when
electrons strike
b) CRO-The brilliance or intensity control,
which is sometimes as the on/off switch.
c) The beam strike the screen and causes it
to fluorescence.

226. Describe basic structure an action of cathode- ray oscilloscope?

Ans. The parts of CRO are described below in the diagram.

It is made up of electron gun, control grid, anode Y-plates, X-plates a fluorescent

screen.
The Y-plates are horizontal but create a vertical electric field which deflects the beam
vertically. The X-plates are vertical and deflect the beam horizontally

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 Electron gun
This consists of a heater H, a cathodeC, another electrode called the grid G and two or
three anodesA. G is at a negative voltage with respect to C and
controls the number of electrons passing through its central hole fromC to A; it is the
brilliance or brightness control. The anodes are at high positive voltages relative to C;
they accelerate the electrons along the highly evacuated tube and also focus them
into a narrow beam.
227. Describe the uses of cathode-ray oscilloscope?
Answers:
Uses of CRO include measuring peak voltage, time and frequency. For the measuring
time intervals and frequency these can be measured if the CRO has acalibrated time
base. For example, when the time base is set at 10 ms/cm, the spot takes 10
milliseconds to move one division horizontally across the screen graticule.

228. Identify symbols of basic circuit component.

Answers:

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 229. Determine resistor values using standard colour codes.
Answers:

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 230. Describe the action of variable potential divider?
Answers:
It is a simple circuit that uses resistors or thermistors or LDR’s to supply a variable
potential difference. They can be used as audio volume controls, to control the
temperature in a freezer or monitor changes in light in a room

A B

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 A In this potential divider, the lower resistor has half the total resistance of the
two resistors. so its share of the battery's voltage is also half.
B If one of the resistors is replaced by a variable resistor, the output voltage can be
varied. Here, it can range from 0 to 3 V, depending on the setting on the variable
resistor.

231. Explain the action and application of thermistor and light dependent resistor?
Ans. The action of an LDR depends on the fact that the resistance of the
semiconductor cadmium sulfide decreases as the intensity of the light falling on it
increases. When light from a lamp falls on the ‘window’ of the LDR, its resistance
decreases and the increased current lights the lamp. LDRs are used in photographic
exposure meters and in series with a resistor to provide an input signal for a transistor

a Thermistor; b thermistor demonstration

circuit;
c high-temperature alarm

Thermistors are semiconductor devices that

are used to measure temperature.
Thermistors have an electrical resistance
that is proportional to temperature

Thermistor
A thermistor contains semiconducting

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 metallic oxides whose resistance decreases markedly when the temperature rises. The
temperature may rise either because the thermistor is directly heated or because a
current is in it.

a LDR; b LDR demonstration circuit; c light-operated

intruder alarm

232. Investigate the charging and discharging of capacitors?

Ans. Charging through a resistor can be done by connecting a capacitor to current flow
and discharging can be done through a resistor when not connected to current flow.

Charging a
capacitor

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 Charging a capacitor
A capacitor can be charged by connecting a battery across it. The+ terminal of the battery
attracts electrons (since they have a negative charge) from plate X and the−terminal of the
battery repels electrons to plate Y. A positive charge builds up on plate X (since it loses
electrons) and anequal negative charge builds up on Y (since it gains electrons). During the
charging, there is a brief flow of electrons round the circuit from X to Y (but not through the
dielectric). A momentary current would be detected by a sensitive ammeter. The voltage builds
up between X and Y and opposes the battery voltage. Charging stops when these two voltages
are equal.
Discharging a capacitor
when a conductor is connected across a charged capacitor, as shown above, there is a
brief flow of electrons from the negatively charged plate to the positively charged one,
i.e. from Y to X. The charge stored by the capacitor falls to zero, as does the voltage
across it. The capacitor has transferred its stored energy to the conductor. The ‘delay’
time taken for a capacitor to fully charge or discharge through a resistor is made use of
in many electronic circuits.
233. Describe the role of capacitors in electronic equipment?
Ans. The role of capacitors in electronic equipment is to filter circuits, delay circuits,
smothering rectified currents. The other function is to store electrical energy in
electronic devices.

234. Explain how reed and relay switch work?

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 Ans. The works of reed switch and relay switched is by attraction of two iron reeds to
switch on/off current and relay switch works as an amplifier. [ A reed switch is an
electromagnetic switch used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit] while an
relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current that
turn on or off a much larger electric current.

235. Describe application of reed switch and reed relay?

Ans. The application of reed and relay switch is in alarm bells, starter motor and
telephone.
236. Describe the action of a bipolar transistor?
Ans. Action of a bipolar transistor is current amplifier and they are also used as
electronic switches.
237. State the different types of logic gates?
Ans. NOT, AND, or NAND, NOR

This has two inputs

and one output. For
the output to be
HIGH, both inputs
must be HIGH. In
other words. Output
Q is HIGH, if inputs A AND B are HIGH.

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 This has two inputs
and one output. For
the output to be
HIGH atleast one of
to the inputs be
HIGH must be HIGH.

This has one input and one

output.The output is HIGH if the
input is low, and vice versa
Output Q is HIGH if input A is NOT
HIGH.

NAND gate
Truth Table

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Logic gates operate in only twostates. OFF (0) and ON (1). So they are igital devices
The diagram below gate shows one use of the logic gate. The recorder will only start
recording if the 'record' and 'play' buttons
are pressed together; For most practical
applications, combinations of gates are
needed Often each input sensor forms part of

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 a potential divider,the small output current switches on lamps, motors, and other
devices via a relay.

The diagram above shows how sensors and logic gates can be used to control a security lamp.
The sensors and gates have been connected so that, if it is dark and someone approaches, the
lamp comes on automatically, The last gatecannot provide enough power for the lamp, so it
switches on a relay instead.
l' This switches on a separate circuit with the lamp in it.

238. Describe uses of bistable and astable circuits?

Ans.in which the circuit is stable in either state. It can be flipped from one state to the
other by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a flip-flop. It can store
one bit of information, and is widely used in digital logic and computer memory.

Bistable circuit

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 Astable circuit
In an astable circuit, the output continually switches between the high and low states
without any intervention from the user, producing a 'square' wave.  An astable has no
stable state - hence the name "astable".

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 ATOMIC PHYSICS
239. Describe the structure of an atom?
Answers:
An atom is a smallest particle of an element which take part in a chemical reaction
and it is made of up of nucleus and electrons. The nucleus is made of protons and
neutrons.

240. Describe the nature of radioactivity?

Answers:
Nature of radioactivity can either be random or spontaneous.

An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus

It contains two protons and two neutrons.

241. Describe the characteristics of Alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (ϒ)
Answers:

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 RADIATION PENETRATION IONISATION CHARGE MASS NATURE STOPPED BY
POWER POWER

ALPHA Weak Strong 4amu Helium Piece of paper

+

BETA Medium Medium 0 electron 5mm of

- aluminum foil

GAMMA Strong Weak Electromagnetic Lead

energy concrete

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 242. Describe the methods of detecting radioactive emissions?
Answers:
You can detect radioactive emission by using Geiger Muller (G.M) tube, photographic
film, scintillation counter and Cloud chamber, Gold leaf, Ratemeter.
 Photographic film gets exposed.
 G.M. tube contains Argon /Neon. Charged particles of alpha and beta ionize the
Argon and Neon atoms. The electric field accelerates the ions leading to further
collisions. This collision produces more ionization to give a pulse on the meter
connected to output.
243. Explain the origin and effects of background radiations

Answers:
Causes of background radiations are;
(i) Cosmic rays
(ii) Radioactive elements under rocks

244. Describe what radioactive decay is?

Answers:
Radioactive decay is the disintegration of nucleus by alpha, beta and gamma
emissions.
245. Describe what nuclear fusion and fission is?
Answers:
Nuclear fusion occurs when nuclei of light elements are forced to combine together at a
high temperature and releases enormous energy while nuclear fission is the splitting
process of nucleus.

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221 | P a g e
 246. Explain uses of radioactive substances?
Answers:
Radioactive substances are used;
 in treatment of cancer,
 as tracers to check the flow of liquids underground,
 to sterilize hospital utensils detection of certain metals
247. Define half-life?

Ans. Half-life is time taken for half the nucleus of a radioactive element to decay.

To obtain a graph like the one above, a GM tube is used to detect the particles emitted
by the sample. The number of counts per second recorded by the ratemeter is adjusted
to allow for background radiation.The adjusted figure is proportional to the activity –
though not equal to it, because not all ofthe emitted particles are detected.

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 Activity and half-life
In a radioactive sample, the average number of disintegrations per second is
called the activity. The SI unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq). Activity of,
say, 100 Bq means that 100 nuclei are disintegrating per second.

Alpha decay .
Radium-226 (atomic number 88) decays by alpha emission. The loss ofthe alpha particle
leaves the nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons less than before. So the mass number
drops to 222 and the atomic number to 86. Radon has an atomic number of 86, so
radon is the new element formed:

The decay process can be written as a nuclear equation:

226 → 222 4
Ra Rn + α
88 86 2
Beta decay
Iodine-131 (atomic number 53) decays by beta emission. When this happens, a
neutron changes into a proton, an electron, and an uncharged, almost massless
relative ofthe electron called an antineutrino.The electron and antineutrino leave the

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 nucleus at high speed, as a proton has replaced aneutron in the nucleus, the atomic
number rises to 54. This means that a the nucleus of xenon-131 has been formed

Gamma emission
With some isotopes, the emission of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus
leaves the protons and neutrons i11 an 'excited' arrangement. As the protons
and neutrons rearrange to become more stable, they lose energy. This is
emitted as a burst of gam1na radiation. Gamma emission by itself causes no change in
mass number or atomic number:

248. Describe the safety precautions necessary when handling or storing radioactive
substances
Answers:
Use protective materials such as gloves, goggles, overalls and lead shields.
249. Explain the effects of radioactive substances on the environment and health?
Answers:
The effects include radiation pollution and health hazards.
250. Investigate management practices which safeguard the environment from
radioactive contamination.
Answers:
Spent fuel cans are taken to a reprocessing plant where unused fuel and plutonium are
removed. The remaining waste, now a liquid, is sealed off and stored with thick
shielding around it. Some of the isotopes have long half-lives, so safe storage will be
needed for thousands of years. The problem of finding acceptable sites for long-term
storage has still not been solved

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