General Science/GS

General Science
Student Note book
Grade 8
SEPTEMBER 30/2022/2023 G.C

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General Science
Student Note Book
Grade 8
By
Shewafera Getaneh
BSc and BA degree in Biology & Management

E-mail: [email protected]
Telegram: https://t.me/ShewaferaGetaneh

GS For Grade 8 Middle Level School

September 2015/2022

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 UNIT ONE
BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION=18P
Contents of the Unit
1.1 Scientific Measurement (8 periods)
1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation (10 periods)
1.1 Scientific Measurements=8
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
 describe the various indigenous methods of measurement;
 distinguish between the basic and derived physical quantities;
 categorize the basic and derived units of measurements (length, mass, time, temperature, volume, area, density, force);
 identify prefixes and perform conversions among units of measurements;
 distinguish between accuracy and precision in measurements.

Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed standard.
Measurements: is the comparison of something with a given standard units.
Both the indigenous and modern methods of measurement used.

The indigenous method of measurement refers to a measurement practiced locally while the
modern method refers to a measurement applied by the scientific community.

Indigenous Methods of Measurements refers to measurement methods that are practiced locally for a
long period of time and are passed from generations to generation.
A. Length
Length is a measure of the distance between two points. In Ethiopia we use different indigenous units
of length measurement. The commonly used ones are:
1. Hand-span: is the measure from the tip of your little finger to the tip of your thumb when your
hand is stretched out.
2. Digit: is the width of an adult human male fingertip.
3. Cubit: is the measure of distance from the tip of one‘s elbow to the tip of the middle finger when
your arm is extended.
4. Foot: is the measure of distance from the back of the heel to the tip of the big toe.
5. Pace: is the linear distance measure of a person‘s extended walk.
6. Arm span: Arm span also known as fathom is the distance from the middle fingertip of the left
hand to that of the right hand when you stretch your arms out as far as they can reach.

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B. Mass
The amount of matter present in a substance is called mass. The following are some examples of the
indigenous unit of mass measurement used in Ethiopia.
1. Weqet is a mass measuring unit usually used to measure the mass of powder of gold in local
markets.
2. Quntal is a bag used to measure the mass of grains. It is equal to a hundred kilogram.
3. Feresula is used to measure the mass of pepper and coffee which is equal to 17 kilogram.
C. Time
Time is the measure of the duration for an interval. Example: Our elders were used the shadow of a
tree to measure time.
D. Volume
Volume is the measure of the space occupied by an object.
1. Jog: A plastic cup used for measuring the volume of liquids.
2. Tassa: A can used to measure cereals, pulses, liquids and solids.
3. Sini: A small ceramic cup often used for measuring coffee, pulses and spices.
4. Birchiko: A glass often for measuring pulses and liquids.
5. Kubaya: A mug, often used for measuring cereals, pulses and liquids.
1.2. Physical Quantities and Scientific Methods of Measurement=10
A physical quantity is a property of an object that can be measured or calculated from other physical
quantity. Generally, physical quantities are classified into two types, namely: fundamental quantities
and derived quantities
1. Fundamental Physical quantities and their units
Fundamental quantities, also known as base quantities, are quantities which cannot be expressed in
terms of any other quantity. They are the bases for other quantities. There are seven fundamental
(basic) physical quantities.
The Seven Fundamental Physical Quantities
Basic quantities The SI Basic Units
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Amount of a substance M Mole Mol
Electric current I Ampere A
Luminous intensity - Candela Cd
Length l Meter m
Mass m Kilogram Kg
Temperature T Kelvin K
Time t Second S

The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French Système international (d’unités))
is a system of measurement based on base units. SI is currently used all over the world.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known quantity. This known
fixed quantity is called a unit. The result of a measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is a
number and the other part is the unit of the measurement.
For example, if a student has a mass of 32 kg: The quantity being measured is mass, the value of the
measurement is 32 and the unit of measure is kilograms (kg).
 The first is the number which indicates the magnitude of the quantity.
 The second indicates the unit (standard) of that quantity.
Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived units.

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  The units used to measure fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. It does not
depend on any other unit.
2. Derived Physical Quantities and their Units
Physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities for their measurements are
called derived quantities.
 Examples of derived quantities, speed, area, volume, density and force. The units used to
measure derived quantities are called derived units.
 It depends on fundamental units for their measurement.
 SI derived units are described by mathematically combining (dividing, multiplying or
powering) the base units.
Some of the derived quantities and their units
Name1 Symbol Unit Symbol
2
Area A Square meter m
Volume V Cubic meter m3
Density ρ Kilogram/ cubic meter Kg/m3
Speed V Meter/ second m/s
2
Acceleration a Meter/ second m/s2
Force F kilogram-meter/ second 2 Kg.m/s2=Newton(N)
Pressure P kg.m/s2= Newton = N/m2
m2 square meter
Example 1.1: Show how the unit of (a) area and (b) speed is derived from the fundamental units.
Solution:
a) The equation for the area of rectangular surface is Area = length x width.
 Both length and width are length measurements. Hence they are measured in meter.
 Unit of area = unit of length x unit of width
 Unit of area = m x m = m2
b) The equation for speed is Speed = distance/time
 Thus the unit of speed is the unit of distance (m) over the unit of time (s) = m/s
Exercise 1.4:
Show how the units of the following derived quantities are derived from the unit of base quantities.
(A) Volume, (B) Density (C) Force.

Prefixes and Conversion of Base Units

Prefix
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and very small. A short hand form of
writing very large and very small numbers is known as a prefix.
Scientific notation is representation of a quantity in the form of a ×10n. Where ‗a‘ is a number lying
between 1 and 10 and ‗n‘ is an integer number

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A few of the prefixes used in the SI system of units
Prefix Symbol The base unit is Name Decimal Representation
multiplied
tera T 1012 Trillion 1 000 000 000 000
9
giga G 10 Billion 1 000 000 000

Multiplies
mega M 106 Million 1 000 000
3
kilo K 10 Thousand 1 000
2
hector h 10 Hundred 100
deca da 101 Ten 10
-1
deci d 10 Tenth 0.1

Sub multiplies
centi c 10-2 Hundredth 0.01
milli m 10-3 Thousandth 0.001
-6
micro 10 Millionth 0.000001
nano n 10-9 Billion 0.000 000 001
pico p 10-12 Trillion 0.000 000 000 001
For example in the quantity 5km, m is the symbol of meter. The letter ‗k‘ is a prefix. ‗k‘ stands for 10 3.
Thus, 5km = 5 × 103 m.
Conversion of base units
Example 1.2: Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g).
Solution: Since k is a prefix representing 1000, so:
6.5 kg = 6.5 × (1000) g = 6500 g
Example 1.3: Convert 200 meters to kilometers.
We know that 1 km = 1000m. Then we will ask if 1000m is 1km then what will be 200m in km?
Solution: 1 km = 1000m
? = 200m

200km/1000=0.2km
Exercise 1.5
1. Convert the following:
a) 0.6 km to cm c) 30 min to hour e) 0.25 kg to g
b) 500 g to kg d) 50 m to mm f) 0.5 hour to second
2. Write the following quantities in units with the appropriate prefixes:
a) 3500 m b) 0.0012 sec c) 0.01 g

Measuring Physical Quantities

The measurement of a physical quantity is done by using measuring instruments. Example:
 Mass
 Length
 Time, and
 Temperature using their appropriate devices.
Measuring the mass of objects
Mass is defined as the amount of matter contained in a body.
 Instruments which are used to measure mass are known as balances.
 The balance compares the mass of an object with a known mass.

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Figure: 1 Instrument Used to Measure Mass
Note that, before taking measurement check that the balance is on a level surface, and reads zero
when no load is placed on it.
 The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). For small mass we use gram (g).
 To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use milligram.
 To measure the mass of big objects we use quintal and tone.
The relationship between different units of Mass.
1 kg = 1000 g.
1 g = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
1mg=1000
mg cg dg g dag hg kg* quintal tone/metric ton

Example 1.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram?

Solution: 1200g= 1200 x kg= 1.2kg
Exercise 1.6:
Convert the following measurement:
A) 2.5 kg to gram,
B) 200 gram to milligram.
Measuring Length
Length is a measure of how long an object is. Different types of length measuring instrument.

Figure 2: Instruments used to Measure Length

The SI unit of length is meter (m).
 When we want to measure larger lengths, we can use kilometers.
 If we want to measure small lengths, we can use millimeters or centimeters
There are also non- SI units of length includes
mm cm dm m dam hm Km

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The relationship between different units of Length.
1km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10 mm
Note that when we are measuring length using these device do not forget to place the zero mark
exactly at one end of the thing you are measuring and read the scale at the other end.
Example 1.5: How many millimeters are there in a meter?
Solution: 1m = 100 cm = 100 x 10 mm = 1000 mm
Exercise 1.7:
Convert the following into the required measures:
A) 8 meters to millimeter.
B) 5500 meters to kilometer.
Measuring time
Time is used to quantify the duration of events. Time is measured with a stop watch or clock.

Figure 3 Time measuring Instruments

The SI unit of time is second (s).
 For longer intervals of time we use: Day, Month, Year, Decades, Century and Millennium.
 We measure time mainly with seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years:
 µS MS SE MI HO DA WE MO YE de ce Mi
The relationship between different units of time
 1000 Nanosecond =1 Microsecond  7 days =1 week
 1000 microsecond =1 millisecond  30 days =1 month
 1000 milliseconds =1 second  365/366 days or 12 months =1 year
 60 seconds =1 minute  1 decade =10 years
 60 minutes =1 hour  1 century =100 years
 24 hours =1day  1 millennium = 1000 years

Example 1.6: Convert one hour into seconds.

Solution: 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 second = 3600 seconds.
Exercise 1.8: How many (a) minutes, and (b) seconds are there in one day?

Measuring Temperature
Temperature can be defined as the hotness or coldness of a body or as the average kinetic energy
of the particles of a body.
Thermometer is the device used to measure the temperature of a body or an object or place. It
measures temperature in degrees (°). The first thermometer was made in 1592, by the Italian scientist
called Galileo.
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Figure 4 Temperature Measuring Devices
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. Degree Celsius (°C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F) are other units
of temperature Thermometers could be analogue or digital.
The three most common temperature scales; namely the
1. Centigrade (Celsius) scale
2. Fahrenheit, scale
3. Kelvin scale

Accuracy and Precision in Measurement

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its accepted or known value.
Example 1.7: If in a laboratory you obtain a mass measurement of 8.2 kg for a given substance, but
the actual or known mass is 10 kg, is your measurement accurate?
Answer: This measurement is not accurate, because your measurement (8.2 kg) is not close to the
known value (10kg).
Precision refers to how close two or more measurements are to each other, regardless of whether
those measurements are accurate or not.
Example 1.8: In the above example 1.7, if you measure the mass of the given substance five times,
and get 3.2 kg, 3.1 kg, 3.25 kg, 3.3 kg and 3.2 kg. Is your measurement precise?
Answer: This measurement is precise, because the values are close to each other but not accurate
because it is far from the known value (10 kg). This shows that precision is independent of accuracy.
You can be very precise but inaccurate. You can also be accurate but not precise.
Exercise 1.9: The figure below shows 3 results of a student playing a dart game.
In the space provided below each figure, write whether the result is
(A) Accurate but Not Precise (C) Precise but Not Accurate
(B) Accurate and Precise (D) Neither Precise nor Accurate

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 Exercise 1.10:
1. Define the following terms:
 Physical quantity:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Fundamental quantity:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Derived quantity:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. State the various indigenous methods of measurement used in Addis Ababa.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are prefixes? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What is the difference between accuracy and precision in measurements? ---------------------------------------------

1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation 10P

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 describe the components of a scientific investigation;
 demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with others in performing fair testing;
 practice scientific investigation procedures using appropriate contents to their age levels.

Introduction to Scientific Investigation

Science is a process of learning about the natural world through observation, inquiry, formulating and
testing hypotheses, gathering and analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings. This
process is referred as the scientific investigation or scientific method.
1.2.1 Scientific Method
What are the applications of scientific method?
All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what is called the Scientific method.
Scientific method is the process by which scientists approach their work.
The Steps of the Scientific Method
Based on the type of question being asked, the type of science being applied and the laws that apply to
that particular branch of science, you may need to modify the method and alter or remove one or
several of the steps.
1. Ask Questions
2. Perform Background Research
3. Establish your Hypothesis
4. Test your Hypothesis
5. Analyze the Results and Draw a Conclusion
6. Communicating Results
Example 1.9: Simple experiment with candle that shows the necessary of air for burning. Consider
how the scientific method applies in this simple experiment with air necessary for burning under two
different conditions.
1. Ask Question: Is air necessary for burning?
2. Do back ground Research: From different literatures ‗‗air is necessary for burning.‘‘
3. Formulate Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there will be no air needs for burning.
The alternative hypothesis is that there will be air needs for burning.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of observations.
4. Test Hypothesis by Experiment & Collect Data:
 Take a candle and fix it on a table. Light the candle.
 The candle will continue to burn due to continuously available fresh air providing the
required oxygen for combustion.
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  Now cover the burning candle by putting an inverted gas jar over it.
 After a short time, the candle stops burning and gets extinguished.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw Conclusion:
 When the burning candle is covered with gas jar,
 Then the candle takes away the oxygen necessary for burning from the air enclosed in the gas
jar.
 After some time, when all the oxygen of air inside the gas jar is used up,
 Then the burning candle gets extinguished.
 This proves that air is necessary for combustion or burning of substances.
6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a written report as an oral
presentation. Air is necessary for burning.

Activity 1.7
Form groups and conduct investigations on activities listed below. After investigation present your findings to the
class.
A. What is the effect of sunlight on the growth of bean plant?
B. Does a coiled nail act like a magnet?
C. How do plants store their food in their leaf?

Exercise 1.13
Describe the components of a scientific investigation.
Project 1.3 Conduct some investigations (for example, making injera) using local materials and
methods (procedures) in groups by reading different reference books or asking a person who is
knowledgeable and experienced in the area.
Define the following Key Terms:
 Fundamental quantity,  Prefix,
 Derived quantity,  Accuracy
 Fundamental unit,  Precision
 Derived unit,  Scientific method.

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 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT ONE
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative
1. Which of the following quantities is a fundamental quantity?
A) Area C) Temperature
B) Volume D) Force
2. The difference between fundamental and derived unit is
A) Fundamental units are big in value but derived units are small in value.
B) Fundamental units are derived from derived units.
C) Derived units are derived from fundamental units.
D) There is no difference between them.
3. Which of the following is a derived quantity?
A) Mass C) Time
B) Area D) Length
4. The SI unit of density is
A) kg/m2 C) kg/m
3
B) kg/m D) g/m3
5. The prefix that represents is__________.
A) kilo C) centi
B) mega D) milli
II. Fill in the blank spaces with an appropriate word.
1. Length, mass, time and temperatures are ________quantities.
2. Area, volume, density and force are ___________ quantities
3. One million centimeter is equal to _____________ meter.
4. The prefix for a number 0.01 is _______________.
5. The SI unit of volume is ____________________.
III. Match the quantities in column-I to their units in column-II:
Column-I Column-II
--------1.Area A. K
--------2.Temperatures B. m3
--------3.Density C. m2
--------4.Volume D. kg
--------5.Mass E. kg/m3
IV. Give short answers
1. Write four fundamental quantities with their units.
2. Write four derived quantities with their units.
3. Write the measurement 0.005 m using prefix.
4. Convert 1000 cm to kilometer.
5. The value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Earth is known to be 9.81 m/s 2. In an
experiment students have found the following results. 12.2 m/s2, 12.3 m/s2, 12.1 m/s2 and 12.08
m/s2. Is this measurement accurate or precise?
6. List the steps used in scientific method.

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 UNIT TWO
COMPOSITION OF MATTER=12P
Main contents
2.1 Early thinking about the composition of matter =2P
2.2 Inside of an atom=6P
2.3 Molecules=3P
 Molecules of elements
 Molecules of Compounds
2.1 Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter 2P
After completing this section, students will be able to:
 give a short history of the concept of the atom;
 compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness (discontinuity) theory of matter;
 compare earlier conceptions of the structure of matter with their conceptions.

The ancient Greek philosophers described matter as continuous or discrete. Some of them argued that
matter is continuous i.e., it could be divided endlessly in to smaller pieces. Others believed that matter
is discrete; i.e., it cannot be infinitely divided.
Democritus (460 - 370 B.C)
 expressed the belief that all matter consists of very small, indivisible particles.
 He thought of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape & size which could join
together.
 According to Democritus matter is discrete.
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C)
 argued that matter is divided into smaller & smaller parts,
 He did not believe in microscopic building particles of matter.
 Aristotle believed that, matter is continuous
 He believed that matter consisted of the combinations of fire, earth, air, and water.
Table 2.1 Comparison between the discrete and continuous theory of matter
Discreteness Theory Continuous Theory
 Proposed by Democritus  Proposed by Aristotle
 Matter is discrete  Matter is continuous
 There is a limit to which matter is broken  Matter is infinitely divisible
 Believed in the existence of atoms  Rejected the idea of atoms

Exercise 2.1
1. Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness theory of matter.

2.2 Inside of an Atom =6P

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 describe the structure of an atom as a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells
(energy levels);
 state the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a proton, a neutron and an electron;
 draw hydrogen atoms, including the location of the protons and electrons, with respect to the nucleus;
 differentiate between mass number and atomic number;
 determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.

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Atom: is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
An element: a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler form by chemical means.
What are the two parts of atom?
 An atom consists of a tiny dense nucleus surrounded by electrons.
 The nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, so it is positively
charged.
The electrons are negatively charged.
 Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass and are about 1800 times more massive
than an electron. This means that most of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus.
 However, most of the volume of an atom is occupied by its electrons.
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of the atom

The Subatomic Particles
Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which are
called subatomic particles.
 A subatomic particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms.
 An atom contains three fundamental sub atomic particles: proton, electron and neutron.
 An atom has a definite number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
 Proton: A tiny positively charged particle found in atomic nucleus.
 Electron: A subatomic particle with a negative charge that exits outside an atomic nucleus.
 Neutron: A subatomic particle with a charge of zero that exists in the atomic nucleus.
 Atomic nucleus: The dense central region of the atom that consists of protons and neutrons.
 Atomic mass: The average mass of the isotopes of an element.
 Isotope: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
 The structure of the atom describes how these particles are arranged to make an atom.
 The relative charge of a proton is +1, the electron is assigned a charge of −1 and The neutron is
assigned 0 charges.
 Since an atom has equal number of protons & electrons, it is electrically neutral.
 A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24g, and a neutron has a mass of 1.675 × 10–24 g.
 Thus, a proton and a neutron have almost the same mass.
 Since the mass of an electron is very small, 9.109 × 10–28 g, its mass is assumed to be negligible or
approximately zero because it is 2000 times less heavy than both the proton and neutron.
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Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic number (Z): is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
 All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain.
 The atomic number (Z) of an atom equals the number of protons in its nucleus.
 The atomic number is also the number of electrons that surround the nucleus of a neutral
atom. Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons= number of electrons
 Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom. Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and
no neutrons,
 All atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
 Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons.
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified using the notation:

Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons

Activity 2.5
Form groups and discusses the following activity. Share your opinion with your group members.
1. Use a periodic table to tell the atomic number, mass number, proton numbers, neutron numbers and
Electron numbers of the first 10 elements.

 Proton is equal to the atomic number of atoms.

 Number of protons = atomic number (Z)
 Electron: The atom is neutral therefore the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons.
 Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
 The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the
atomic number or proton number.
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons or Atomic number

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 Exercise 2.2 Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Complete the following table.
Particle Location Actual Mass (g) Relative Mass (amu) Relative Charge
Proton
Electron
Neutron
2. A nucleus consists of 9 protons and 10 neutrons. Determine:
i. The element by referring periodic table
ii. Mass number
3. How many neutrons, protons and electrons are there in an atom of the element?
4. What are the atomic numbers and mass numbers of elements whose atoms are made up of
a. 13 protons, 14 neutrons and 14 electrons.
b. 16 protons, 16 neutrons and 16 electrons.
5. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in atoms of the following elements?
a. Calcium (Z =20, A = 40)
b. Sodium (Z = 11, A =23)

2.3 Molecules=3P

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 define molecules;
 give examples of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecules;
 use models or particles model diagram to represent molecules of elements and compounds.

Activity 2.6
Form groups and discuss the following activity. Share your opinion with your group members. After discussion
present your findings to the class.
1. What is molecule?
2. Mention some examples of monoatomic, diatomic and poly atomic molecules.

Molecules of Elements
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that can exist freely in nature.
A molecule of an element consists of only one type of an atom. Molecules of elements can be
classified as
 monoatomic,
 diatomic and
 polyatomic.
1. Monoatomic molecules of elements
Monatomic" is a combination of the words "mono" and "atomic", and means "single atom". It is
usually applied to gases: a monatomic gas is a gas in which atoms are not bound to each other.
Monoatomic molecules are molecules that contain one atom of the element.
What are the 7 monatomic elements?
 Helium (He) ·  Xenon (Xe) ·
 Neon (Ne) ·  Radon (Rn) ·
 Argon (Ar) ·  Oganesson (Og).
 Krypton (Kr) ·

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2. Diatomic molecules of elements: are molecules that contain two atoms of the element.
Diatomic elements are pure elements that form molecules consisting of two atoms bonded together.
We call them diatomic elements because the atoms appear in pairs.
What Are the 7 Diatomic Elements? I Bring Cookies For Our New House
1. Hydrogen H2 5. Chlorine Cl2
2. Nitrogen N2 6. Iodine I2
3. Oxygen O2 7. Bromine Br2
4. Fluorine F2

Figure 2.2 Diagrammatical representations of Ne and H2.

3. Polyatomic molecules are molecules that contain more than three atoms of the element.
Examples: O3, P4, S8 are polyatomic molecules.
Molecules of compounds A molecule of a compound always contains two or more atoms of different
elements combined chemically.
 Water (H2O),
 Ammonia (NH3), Are some examples of molecules of compounds.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
Exercise 2.3 Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What is a molecule?
2. Classify the following molecules as monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic?
A. Ar C. S8 E. He
B. N2 D. O3 F. Br2
3. Draw the diagram representation of ozone (O3) molecule.
4. Which of the following molecules are molecules of elements? And which of them are molecules of compounds?
A. Ne C. HCl E NH3
B. H2O D. Br2 F.P4

Define the following Key Terms

Atom Electron shell
Atomic nucleus Mass number
Atomic number Molecule
Continuous theory Monoatomic molecule
Diatomic molecule Neutron
Discreteness theory Polyatomic molecule
Electron Proton

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 REVIEW EXCISES FOR UNIT TWO
I. Write ‘‘True’’ if the statement is correct and write ‘‘False’’ if the statement is incorrect.
---------1. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
---------2. Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
---------3. Molecules of elements consist of two or more different type of atoms.
---------4. Proton and electron have approximately the same mass
---------5. Different elements have the same number of protons.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
-----6. The idea that matter is ‗continuous‘ was proposed by
A. Democritus C. Dalton
B. Aristotle D. None
-----7. The idea of ‗atoms‘ first proposed by the Greek philosopher---
A. Aristotle C. Dalton
B. Plato D. Democritus
-----8. Which of the following particles located in the nucleus of an atom?
A. Proton and electron C. Electron and neutron
B. Neutron and proton D. Proton, electron and neutron
-----9. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as
A. Atomic number C. Mass number
B. Atomic mass D. Number of electron
-----10. The number of neutrons in are
A. 12 B. 11 C. 24 D. 13
-----11.Which of the following statements concerning the nucleus of an atom is correct?
A. Contains only neutrons
B. Contains all protons and all electrons
C. Is always positively charged
D. Accounts for most of the total volume of an atom
-----12. Which of the following molecule is diatomic molecule?
A. O2 B. O3 C. P4 D. S8
-----13. Which of the following statement is false?
A. Molecules of elements consist of only one type of atoms.
B. Nucleus is positively charged.
C. Molecules of compounds consist of only one type of atoms.
D. Neutrons have no charge.
-----14. Which of the following molecule is molecule of elements?
A. H2O C. H2
B. NH3 D. HCl
III. Give short answers for the following questions.
15. What are the two main parts of an atom?
16. What are the fundamental sub-atomic particles?
17. Determine the atomic number, number of protons, number of neutrons, number of electrons and
mass number for .

17
 UNIT THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS=23P
Main contents
3.1 Introduction=2P 3.3 Inorganic compounds=10P
3.2 Organic compounds=7P 3.4 Neutralization reaction and salts=4P
3.1 Introduction=2P
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 define organic compounds as carbon containing compounds and give examples;
 define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other than carbon.

Activity 3.1
Form groups and discusses the following activity. After the group discussion, choose a group representative to
present the group‘s opinion to the class.
1. State earlier definitions of organic and inorganic compounds.
2. Do you agree with the notion that says: “organic compounds can be synthesized only from animals and plants”?
3. State modern definitions of organic and inorganic compounds?

A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements that are combined chemically in
a definite proportion by mass.
During the latter part of the 18 century and the early part of the 19 century, chemists began to
categorize compounds into two types: organic and inorganic.
 Compounds obtained from living organisms were called organic compounds, and
 Compounds obtained from mineral constituents of the earth were called inorganic compounds.
 During this early period, chemists believed that a special ―Vital force” supplied by a living
organism was necessary for the formation of an organic compound.
 This concept was disproved in 1828 by the German chemist Friedrich Wohler.
 Wohler prepared Urea, an organic compound, from the reaction between solutions of inorganic
compounds Ammonium chloride and silver cyanate.

 Soon other chemists had successfully synthesized organic compounds from inorganic starting
materials.
 As a result, the vital-force theory was completely abandoned.
The terms organic and inorganic continue to be used in classifying compounds, but the definitions of
these terms no longer reflect their historical origins.
All organic compounds contain
 Carbon (C) and
 Hydrogen (H2), along with other possible elements such as
 Oxygen (O2) ,
 Nitrogen (N2),
 Sulphur (S8),
18
  Phosphorus (P4)
 Halogens (F2,Cl2,Br2,I2 & At2 )and
 Except the
 Oxides of carbon CO2,
 Carbonates (CO32-),
 Hydrogen carbonates (HCO-3),
 Cyanides (CN) and
 Cyanates (CNO).
 Examples of organic compounds are carbohydrates, fats (lipids), proteins, and nucleic acids,
which are the basis for the molecules of life. Organic compounds also include petroleum and
natural gas, which are the main components of fossil fuels.
Inorganic compounds
 Are the compounds consisting of mineral constituents of the earth or
 Generally found in non-living things.
 Inorganic compound refers to all compounds that do not contain carbon. Although,
 Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2),
 Carbonates (CO3) and
 Hydrogen carbonates are carbon-containing compounds, which are classified as
inorganic compounds.
 Examples include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, all metals, and most elements (such as
calcium).
Exercise 3.1 Classify each of the following compounds as organic or inorganic.
A. C12H22O11 Maltose/Sugar malt H. Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3
B. NaCl Sodium Chloride I. Acetic acid CH3COOH
C. CaO Calcium Oxide J. Carbon dioxide/CO2
D. C2H5OH Alcohol or Ethanol K. Marble /calcite or dolomite /CaCO3
E. CH3Cl Chloromethane is also known as methyl L. Magnesium sulphate /MgSO4
chloride M. Citric acid C6H8O7
F. F.C2H4 Ethylene N. Copper(II) oxide/CUO
G. Glucose C6H12O6

3.2 Organic Compounds=7P

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define hydrocarbons and mention at least one source of hydrocarbons;
 Write the general formula of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
 Write the specific chemical formulas of the first ten members of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
 Describe a homologous series and its general characteristics;
 Name the first eight members of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
 Identify some common uses of organic compounds.
Hydrocarbon

Activity 3.2
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion with your group members.
1. What is hydrocarbon?
2. List the sources of hydrocarbons and indicate their location in Ethiopia.

19
  A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms.
 The sources of hydrocarbons are natural gas, petroleum and coal.
 Hydrocarbons divided into three large classes:
1. Alkanes
2. Alkenes
3. Alkynes.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2, where, n is the number of carbon
atoms present, n = 1, 2, 3…..
 For example, the molecular formulas of the first four alkanes are
 C1H2×1+2 = CH4,
 C2H2×2+2 = C2H6,
 C3H2×3+2 = C3H8,
 C4H2×4+2 = C4H10, respectively.
 When we compare the formulas of CH4 and C2H6 or C2H6 and C3H8, they differ by one carbon
and two hydrogen atoms or – CH2 – group called the methylene group.
 A family of compounds in which each member differs from the next by one methylene (-CH2-)
group is called homologous series (homo is Greek for ―the same as).
 The members of a homologous series are called homologues.
Exercise 3.2
1. Write the formulas of alkanes that contain 5, 7 and 9 carbon atoms.

Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n, where, n is the number of carbon
atoms present, n = 2, 3…..
 For example, the molecular formulas of the first three alkenes are
 C2H2×2 = C2H4,
 C3H2×3 = C3H6,
 C4H2×4 = C4H8.
Exercise 3.3
1. Write the formulas of the alkenes that contain 6, 8 and 10 carbon atoms.

Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3, 4, ----.
 For example, the formulas of the first three alkynes are
 C2H2×2-2 = C2H2,
 C3H2×3-2 = C3H4, and
 C4H2×4-2 = C4H6, respectively.

Exercise 3.4
1. Write the formulas of the alkynes that contain five-eight carbon atoms.
Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons

Activity 3.3
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion with your group members.
1. How do we give specific name to a hydrocarbon?
2. Are hydrocarbons named based on certain rules or randomly?

20
 The name of hydrocarbons is derived from the number of carbon atoms present (prefix) and the
ending it contains (suffix).The names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes end with the suffixes -ane‘, -
ene‘ and -yne‗, respectively.
I. A prefix- indicating the number of carbon atoms (listed in Table 3.1) and
ii. A -suffix indicating the type of the functional group present in the molecule or the type of
hydrocarbon. Table 3.1Prefixes commonly used to indicate one to ten carbon atoms.
Number of carbon Prefix Number of carbon atoms
atoms
1 Meth- C
2 Eth- C2
3 Prop- C3
4 But- C4
5 Pent- C5
6 Hex- C6
7 Hept- C7
8 Oct- C8
9 Non- C9
10 Dec- C10
11 Undec- C11
12 Dodecane C12
13 Tridecane C13
14 Tetradecane C14
15 Pentadecane C15
Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.
Solution:
 CH4 contains one carbon atom. So, we use the prefix ‗meth-‗and adding the suffix -ane‗
i.e. meth + ane. Thus the name of CH4 becomes methane.
 C3H8 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‗prop‘and adding the suffix ‗-ane’
i.e. prop + ane. Thus the name of C3H8 becomes propane.
Example 2: Write the names of alkenes; C2H4 and C4H.
Solution:
 C2H4 contains two carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‗eth-‘ and adding the suffix ‗-ene’
i.e. eth + ene. Thus the name of C2H4 becomes ethene.
 C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‗but-‘ and adding the suffix ‗-ene’
i.e. but + ene. Thus the name of C4H8 becomes butene.
Example 3: Write the names of alkynes; C3H4 and C4H6.
Solution:
 C3H4 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‗prop’ and adding the suffix ‗-yne’
i.e. prop + yne. Thus the name of C3H4 becomes propyne.
 C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‗but-‘ and adding the suffix ‗-yne’
i.e. but + yne. Thus the name of C4H6 becomes butyne.
Exercise 3.5
1. Write the formulas and names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes containing five to ten carbon
atoms.

21
 Uses of Common Organic Compounds
Many organic compounds are very useful in our daily life. Some important organic compounds and
their uses are described in the following section.
1. Methane, CH4
 Methane is used primarily as fuel for cooking, heating and generating electricity.
 Methane is the main constituents of biogas that is used as a domestic fuel.
2. Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10)
 The mixture of propane and butane is compressed at a moderate pressure and stored in steel
cylinders.
 It is marked as bottled gas and commonly known as ―butagas‖.
 It is mainly used for cooking and heating.
3. Ethyne (C2H2)
 One of the main uses of ethyne is to produce oxyacetylene flame,
 which is used in the cutting and welding of steel and iron.
4. Ethanol /Ethyl alcohol (C2H6O or C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH)
 Ethanol is used in the intoxication ingredient of many alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, tella,
ouzo, teji, etc.
 Nowadays ethanol mixed with petrol is used as a fuel.
 It is also used in the production of acetic acid, and
 in hospitals and clinics for cleaning wounds
5. Ethanoic Acid (Acetic acid) CH3COOH

Activity 3.4
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion with your group members.
Why we add ‗acheto‘ or ‗vinegar‘ when we eat uncooked vegetables such as salad?

 Acetic acid is also known as ethanoic acid, ethylic acid, vinegar acid, and methane carboxylic
acid;
 Acetic acid is a byproduct of fermentation, and gives vinegar its characteristic odor.
 Table vinegar (Acheto) contains 4% to 8% acetic acid.
 Vinegar is used as food flavoring agent.
 It is also used as a disinfectant.
 For use in preserving vegetables (pickling) it typically ranges up to 18%
6. Formalin (CH2O)
 When formaldehyde is dissolved in water it is called formalin.
 Formalin contains 40%, by volume, of formaldehyde.
 Formalin is used for the preservation of biological specimens, because it makes proteins hard and
insoluble.
Exercise 3.6 : Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Classify each of the following hydrocarbons as alkane, alkene or alkyne.
A. C5H10 E. C10H18 H. C10H20
B. C10H22 F. C9H18 I. C12H26
C. C8H14 G. C9H20 J. C10H18
D. C8H18
2. Write the uses of methane, ethyne, formalin, acetic acid and ethanol.

22
 3. Write the formula of each of the following compounds.
*a. An alkane containing twenty two hydrogen atoms.
*b. An alkene containing twenty six hydrogen atoms.
*c. An alkyne containing twenty four hydrogen aatoms.
d. An alkane containing six carbon atoms.
3.3 Inorganic Compounds=10P
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 state that inorganic compounds are classified into oxides, acids, base and salts;
 classify oxides into metallic and nonmetallic;
 describe the properties of acidic oxides and basic oxides;
 predict the nature of common oxides;
 prepare sulphur dioxide in the laboratory by burning sulphur in air and use moist blue litmus paper to test its acidic
nature;
 prepare magnesium oxide in the laboratory by burning magnesium ribbon in air and use red litmus paper to test its
basicity in water solution;
 define acid and base;
 describe properties a of acids and bases;
 Relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions and basic properties to the presence of hydroxide ions.
 name and write formulas for some common acids (HCl, HNO3, H2SO4) and bases (NaOH, KOH, NH4OH), using the
periodic table, a list of ions, and rules for naming acids;
 describe how indicators can be used to classify solutions as acidic or basic;
 investigate properties of bases/alkalis experimentally;
 in group, with guidance, prepare their own indicator by extracting the colour from a vegetable, such as beetroot, or
flowers and evaluate the indicator;
 investigate household chemicals using locally prepared indicators;
 explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;
 create a safety booklet dealing with the handling of acids and alkali.

Inorganic compounds can be classified into four groups according to their composition and their
properties. These include
1. Oxides, 3. Bases
2. Acids, 4. Salts.
1. Oxides

Activity 3.5
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group discussion, choose a group representative to present
the group‘s opinion to the class.
1. Define oxides and give some examples that are not listed below.
2. Are all compounds containing oxygen oxides? Why?

Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other element.
Element + Oxygen → Oxide
Some common examples of oxides are
 Water (hydrogen oxide, H2O),
 Carbon dioxide (CO2),
 Lime (calcium oxide, CaO),
 Rust (iron (III) oxide), etc.

23
 Exercise 3.7: Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define oxides.
2. Which of the following compounds are oxides?
A. CaCO3 D. Rust G. SO3
B. KOH E. H2CO3 H.CO2
C. H2O F. CaO
2.1 Types of Oxides
Most oxides are classified as
2.1.1 Metallic oxides
Metallic oxides are binary compounds containing only metals and oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic Oxide
Examples:
Calcium Oxide (CaO),
Sodium Oxide (Na2O),
Potassium Oxide (K2O)
Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3),
Magnesium Oxide (MgO, etc.
2.1.2 Non-metallic oxides.
Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only non-metals and oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic Oxide
Examples:
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
Water (H2O),
Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
Sulfur Trioxide (SO3), etc. are common example of non-metallic oxides.
2.2 Classification of Oxides
Oxides are also classified as acidic and basic oxides depending on their properties or behaviours.
2.2.1 Acidic oxides
 Acidic oxides are oxides that react with water to form acids or acidic solutions.
 They are mostly non-metallic oxides.
 Some examples of acidic oxides are
o Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
o Tetraphosphorus hexoxide (P4O6),
o Carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
2.2.2 Basic oxides
 Basic oxides are oxides that react with water to form bases or basic solutions.
 They are mostly metallic oxides. Metal that does not form an oxide: Gold( Au), Silver( Ag), and
Platinum( Pt), Ruthenium are highly stable.
 Some examples of basic oxides:
o Sodium Oxide (Na2O)
o Lithium Oxide (Li2O)
o Potassium Oxide (K2O)
o Calcium Oxide (CaO)
o Magnesium Oxide (MgO), etc.
24
Exercise 3.8 : Give appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Predict whether or not the oxide formed from each of the following elements is a basic oxide and an acidic oxide.
A. Calcium C. Sodium E. Sulphur
B. Carbon D. Magnesium F.Phosphorus
2. Classify the following oxides as metallic or non-metallic oxides.
A. CO2 C. SO3 E.NO2
B. MgO D. CaO F.K2O

Properties of Oxides
Properties of Acidic Oxides

Activity 3.6
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group discussion, choose a group representative to present the
group‘s opinion to the class. Predict the nature of the oxides formed by some non-metals such as carbon and phosphorus.

A. Oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide (CO) its nature is neutral &
carbon dioxide (CO2) its nature is acidic.
B. Common oxides of phosphorus are phosphorus (III) oxide, also known as phosphorus trioxide
(P2O3) or tetraphosphorus hexoxide, P4O6 and phosphorus (V) oxide (P4O10) both are acidic in
nature.
1. An acidic oxide or acid anhydride dissolves in water, to form acidic solution or an acid.
Acidic oxide + Water → Acid
Examples: SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
2. Acidic oxides react with bases to form salts and water.
Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
Examples: SO3 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + H2O
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
3. Acidic oxides react with basic or metallic oxides to form salt.
Acidic oxide + Basic oxide → Salt
Examples: CO2 + Na2O → Na2CO3
SO3 + CaO→ CaSO4
Properties of Basic Oxides
Activity 3.7 Form groups and discusses the following activity.
 After the group discussion, choose a group representative to present the group‘s opinion to the class.
 Predict the nature of the oxides formed by some metals such as sodium, potassium and calcium

1. A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a base or alkali.
Basic Oxide + Water → Base (Alkali)
Examples 1: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
K2O + H2O → 2KOH
2. Basic oxides react with acidic oxides to form salts.
Basic Oxide + Acidic Oxide → Salt
Examples 2: CaO + CO2→ CaCO3
Na2O + SO3→ Na2SO4

25
3. Basic oxides react with acids to form a salt and water.
Basic Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Examples 3: CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
Na2O + H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O
Exercise 3.9
1. What are the missing products „X‟, „Y‟ and „Z‟ in the following equations?
A. CO2 + H2O → X H2CO3
B. CaO + H2O → Y Ca(OH)2
C. CaO + CO2→ Z CaCO3
2.Write the acid anhydrides of the following acids.
A. H2CO3 CO2
B. H2SO4 SO3
C. HNO3 N2O5, NO2
3. Write the base anhydrides of the following bases.
A. NaOH Na2O
B. KOH K2O
Laboratory Preparation of Sulphur dioxide and Magnesium Oxide
Sulphur dioxide and magnesium oxide can be prepared in the laboratory by using direct synthesis
method.
Direct synthesis involves the combination of oxygen with active metals and non-metals.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
Example 1: S + O2 → SO2
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic oxide
Example 2: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Exercise 3.10
1. Describe how you could prepare each of the following oxides.
A. MgO B. SO2

Acids and Bases

Activity 3.8
Form a group and perform the following activities. Imagine a taste experiment using orange and lemon. After
tasting, present your feeling to the class.
1. What do you feel during tasting lemon?
2. What do you feel during tasting orange?
3. Are they having the same taste?
4. Are they acidic in nature? Why?

1. Acids
Acids are a group of substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when they are in aqueous solution.
Acids are found in nature or can be prepared in the laboratory. HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3 are
common laboratory acids. They are also called mineral acids.
Properties of Acids
Physical properties of acids
1. Acids are sour in taste. (Warning: Do not taste any chemical).
26
 A. The sour taste of most citric fruits is due to the presence of citric acid. For examples
B. Fruits like lemon and orange contain citric acid (C6H8O7) and
C. Vinegar contains acetic acid. CH3COOH
D. Lactic Acid (C3H6O3) is also known as milk acid. When milk sugar (lactose) undergoes
fermentation, the product obtained is lactic acid. It is found in cottage cheese, leban, sour milk,
yoghurt, and Koumiss.
E. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed from carbon dioxide dissolved in water is present in some of
the soft drinks.
F. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), which helps in the digestion of food, is also present in our body.
2. Acids have the ability to conduct electricity. Aqueous acidic solutions are used as strong

electrolytes.
3. Acids are corrosive in nature. Should be handled with care otherwise, they can corrode our skin

4. Acids are mostly present in liquid or gaseous forms. But we do have solid acids like zeolitic
materials.
5. Acidic fumes will burn your nose (Warning: Never inhale acidic fumes)
6. Acids are turn blue litmus paper to red.
7. Acids are colorless with the addition of phenolphthalein
8. Acids turn red with the addition of methyl orange
9. Acids are identified by shades of red and yellow color with universal indicator solution.
10. Most acids can be diluted with water to reduce the intensity of their acidity.

Chemical properties of acids

1. Acids have a pH of less than 7.
2. Acids have the ability to give hydronium ions in aqueous solutions.
3. Acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum to form Salt and
hydrogen gas.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Example: Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) +H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) →FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3(s) + 3H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4 → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

27
 4. Acids react with a base and basic oxides to produce/form salts and water.
Acid + Base →Salt + Water.
Examples: 2HCl + Ca (OH)2→CaCl2 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
The reaction of an acid with a base is called neutralization reaction.
5. Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to release/form salt, water, & carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example: 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
2HCl (aq) + MgCO3(s) →MgCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate →Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example: H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) →CaSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaHCO3 (s) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Examples of weak acids are:
1. Formic acid (HCOOH) 5. Nitrous acid (HNO2)
2. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) 6. Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
3. Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) 7. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
4. Oxalic acid (C2H2O4)
Examples of strong acids are:
1) Hydrofluoric Acid (HF)
2) Nitric Acid (H2NO3)(67,000 times stronger than Hydrofluoric Acid)
3) Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) (70 times stronger than Nitric Acid)
4) Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) (1000 times stronger than Sulfuric Acid)
5) Chlorosulfuric acid (HSO3Cl) (8.8 million times stronger than Hydrochloric acid)
6) Perchloric Acid (HClO₄) (2.2 times stronger than Chlorosulfuric Acid)
7) Triflic Acid (CF3SO3H) (100 times stronger than Perchloric Acid)
8) Carborane Acid (H(CHB11Cl11)) (1,000 times stronger than Triflic Acid)
9) Magic Acid (F6HO3SSb ) (100,000 times stronger than Carborane acid)
10) Fluoroantimonic Acid (SbHF6)(100,000 times stronger than Magic Acid)
Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element (the central element).
The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the central element
and then O. We use the following five common oxoacids are
A. H2CO3 carbonic acid D. H2SO4 sulfuric acid
B. H3PO4 phosphoric acid E. HNO3 nitric acid
C. HClO3 chloric acid

28
Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but a different number of O atoms.
Starting with our reference oxoacids, whose names all end with “-ic,” we use the following rules
to name these compounds.
 Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “per . . . -ic” acid. Thus, adding
an O atom to HClO3 changes chloric acid to perchloric acid, HClO4.
 Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “-ous” acid. Thus, nitric
acid, HNO3, becomes nitrous acid, HNO2.
 Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “hypo . . . -ous” acid. Thus,
when HBrO3 is converted to HBrO, the acid is called hypobromous acid.
The rules for naming anions of oxoacids, called oxoanions, are
1. When all the H+ ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.” For
example, the anion CO32- derived from H2CO3 is called carbonate.
2. When all the H+ ions are removed from the “-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
Thus, the anion ClO2- derived from HClO2 is called chlorite.
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all of the hydrogen ions have been
removed must indicate the number of H ions present. For example, consider the anions
derived from phosphoric acid:
1. H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
2. HPO4- Hydrogen phosphate
3. HPO42- Dihydrogen phosphate
4. PO43- Phosphate
Note that we usually omit the prefix “mono-” when there is only one H in the anion.
Uses of Hydrochloric Acid, Nitric Acid and Sulphuric Acid
Name of Acids with Formula Use of Acids
 For pickling metals.
 To prepare drugs, dyes, paints, photographic
Hydrochloric acid HCl
chemicals.
 To remove excess mortar from bricks.
 To produce nitrate fertilizers, nylon, plastics and
organic dyes.
Nitric acid HNO3  To manufacture explosives.
 Picking stainless – steel.
 Etching metals.
 To produce fertilizers, synthetic fibres, paper, plastics,
dyes, explosives paints, drugs, car batteries, etc.
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
 For cleaning corroded metal surfaces.
 In the production of phosphoric acid.
2. Bases
Bases are substances that release hydroxide ion (OH–) in water solution.
A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal which neutralizes acid to form salt and water. Bases which
are soluble in water are called alkalis. An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when
dissolved in water.
1. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq),
2. calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2(aq), and
3. Aqueous ammonia, NH4OH is common alkalis used in the laboratory, industry and at home.
29
Preparation of Bases
I Reaction between active metals and water
Active metals such as sodium, potassium and calcium react with water to form bases and hydrogen
gas. Active metal + Water → Base + Hydrogen
Examples
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium Water Potassium hydroxide Hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Water Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen
II Reaction between metal oxides and water
When metal oxides react with water, a base is formed.
Basic anhydride + Water → Base (Basic oxide)
Examples
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
Potassium oxide Water Potassium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
Sodium oxide Water Sodium hydroxide
Properties of bases are due to the presence of hydroxide ions.
Physical properties of bases
 Bases are bitter to taste. (Warning: Do not taste any chemical).
 Bases release a hydroxide ion in a water solution.
 Aqueous base solution dissociates into ions to conduct electricity. For example, KOH dissociates
into K+ and OH– ions in water.
 Bases are corrosive in nature depending on their pH and concentration. Handle all chemicals
regardless of pH(acid or base) with care.
 Bases are mostly present in solid forms. But they do exist in solution and gaseous forms.
 Bases generally do not have an odor except for ammonia which has a pungent odor.
 Bases would turn red litmus paper blue
 Bases turn pink with the addition of phenolphthalein indicator
 Bases turn yellow with the addition of methyl orange
 Bases are identified by blue and violet color with universal indicator solution.
 Bases can be diluted with water to reduce the alkalinity of the solution.
Chemical properties of bases
A. Bases have a pH greater than 7.
B. Bases have the ability to accept protons from a proton donor.
C. Bases react vigorously when dissolved in water. The reaction is exothermic.
D. Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
E. Bases like certain basic solid-zeolites have catalytic properties.
Example of weak Bases List
1. Ammonia solution NH4OH 7. Trim ethylamine (N(CH3)3)
2. Ammonia (NH3) 8. Zinc Hydroxide (Zn(OH)2)
3. Lead Hydroxide (Pb(OH)2) 9. Aniline (C6H5NH2)
4. Aluminum Hydroxide (Al (OH)3) 10. Methylamine (CH3NH2)
5. Copper Hydroxide (Cu (OH)2) 11. Pyridine(C5H5N)
6. Ferric Hydroxide (Fe (OH)3)

30
Example of strong Bases list
 Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)₂  Potassium Hydroxide KOH.
 Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)₂  Rubidium Hydroxide RbOH.
 Cesium Hydroxide (CsOH)  Sodium Hydroxide NaOH.
 Lithium Hydroxide LiOH.  Strontium Hydroxide Sr(OH)₂
 Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)₂
The uses of sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide.
Name of the Base and Common Name Use
Formal
Sodium hydroxide/ Lye or caustic soda o Oven cleaner, for soap and detergent
NaOH production,
o To manufacture paper and pulp, textiles,
dyes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and
o In petroleum refining.
Magnesium hydroxide/ Milk of magnesia (in o As stomach anti acid to neutralize acids
Mg(OH)2 suspension form) (HCl).
Calcium hydroxide Lime water (in o To make mortar
Ca(OH)2 solution form) or o To neutralize soil acidity
slaked lime o To remove temporary hardness of
water.
o To manufacture bleaching powder.
o To test carbon dioxide gas.
Activity 3.9
Form groups and discusses the following activities. After the group discussion, choose a group representative
to present the group‘s opinion to the rest of the class.
1. Write the formulas of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
2. Write the formulas of sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide & ammonium
hydroxide.

 When naming an acid, you can consider the acid to consist of an anion combined with as many
hydrogen ions are needed to make the molecule electrically neutral.
 Therefore, the chemical formulas of acids are in the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic
or polyatomic anion and n is a subscript indicating the number of hydrogen ions that are combined
with the anion.
The rules that used to named an acid with the general formula H nX.
1. When the name of the anion (X) ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the prefix hydro-. The
stem of anion has the suffix –ic and is followed by the word acid.
2. When the anion name ends in–ite, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ous,
followed by the word acid.
3. When the anion name ends in–ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix –ic
followed by the word acid.
31
 Table 3.2 Naming of common acids
Anion ending Example Acid name Example
-ide Chloride, Cl- Hydro-(stem)-ic acid HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
2-
-ite Sulfite, SO3 (Stem)-ous acid H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
-ate Nitrate, NO3- (stem)-ic acid HNO3 (Nitric acid)
2-
Sulphate, SO4 (stem)-ic acid H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
Bases are named in the same way as other ionic compounds: the name of the cation is followed by the
name of the anion i.e. hydroxide.
Examples:
 NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide)  KOH (Potassium Hydroxide)
 Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide)  NH4OH (Ammonium Hydroxide)
Exercise 3.11: Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define the following terms and give some examples for each.
A. Acid B. Base
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?
3. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise book .
Name Formula Name Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Nitric acid HNO3 Potassium hydroxide KOH
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Mach the following acids formula with their names.

1. HClO4 A. Perchloric Acid
2. HClO3 B. Chloric Acid
3. HClO2 C. Chlorous Acid
4. HClO D. Hypochlorous Acid

Acid – Base Indicators

Acid-base indicators are dyes extracted from plants that show the presence of an acid or a base by
undergoing specific color changes when placed in a solution.
Litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein are common indicators.
Precautions while Working with Acids and Bases
Safety Precautions while Working with Acids
Acids can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or blindness if splashed in your
eyes. If taken by mouth, they will cause severe internal irritation and damage. Especially
 Hydrochloric acid,
 Sulphuric acid and
 Nitric acids are dangerous, poisonous and corrosive. Therefore, they must be handled with
great care.
The following measures are immediately taken if a concentrated acid is spilled on your skin,
enter your eyes or accidentally drink.
 If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your skin, wash thoroughly the affected part with
water, and then wash it with 10% Na2CO3 solution.
 If an acid enters your eye, wash thoroughly with water for a long time and then seek medical
treatment.
32
 If you accidentally drink corrosive acids, take a base such as Mg(OH)2 which is available in the
pharmacy to neutralize the acid.
Safety Precautions while Working with Bases
Just like acids, bases can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or blindness if enters
in your eyes. For example,
 NaOH and
 KOH are corrosive and poisonous. Therefore, they must be handled with great care and you
have to avoid contact with your skin and other parts of your body while working with bases.
The following measures are useful if a concentrated base is spilled on your skin or enters your
eyes.
 If a base is spilled on your skin, wash the affected area with plenty of water and then treat the
affected part with a weak acid such as dilute acetic acid to neutralize the base.
 If a base comes into contact with your eyes, wash the eyes with plenty of cold water and advice
medical doctor.
 If you drink a base by accident, neutralize it by drinking 1-2% dilute solution of acetic acid or
lemon juice and then seek medical treatment.
 If a base is spilled on your working table wipe the spillage immediately.
 Whenever bases are splashed on your cloth wash the affected part with running tap water.
Common precautions when working with acids and bases (alkalis) include:
 Wearing eye protection (goggle).
 Wearing protective clothing such as an apron or laboratory coat.
 Keeping reagent bottles stoppered when not in use.
 Wiping up all spillages straight away with a wet cloth.
 Wear shoes that cover your feet
 Do not smell any chemicals directly!
 Do not taste any chemical! Even food, drink and chewing gum are prohibited in the
chemistry laboratory.
 Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. Add acid to water carefully.

Activity 3.10
In this activity you are expected to perform the following task in groups by reading different chemistry reference books.
After the discussion, present the group‘s opinion to the class. Write laboratory safety rules dealing with the handling of
acids and alkalis.

Exercise 3.12
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define acid-base indicator.
2. Write the colour of each of the following indicators in acidic and basic solution.
A. Litmus paper B. Methyl orange C. Phenolphthalein
3. Complete and balance the following reactions:
A. 2HNO3 + Na2CO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
B. 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
C. 2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2
4. What measures should you take if:
A. a base enters your eyes? Washing the eye with plenty of water and then seek medical treatment
B. you accidentally drink an acid? Drinking a base such as Mg(OH)2 and then seek medical treatment
33
3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts =4P
After completing this section, you will be able to:
 identify some everyday uses of neutralization;
 define and give examples of salts;
 Name and write formulas for some common salts using the periodic table, a list of ions, and rules for naming salts.

The reaction of acids with basic oxides or bases to form salt and water is called neutralization reaction.
Applications of Neutralization in Daily Life

Activity 3.11
Form a group and perform the following activity. After the discussion, present the group‘s opinion to the class.
1. What are the important uses of neutralization in daily life?
2. Why our hairs get rough after applying shampoo and again turn shiny after we add conditioner?

In our everyday life we come across many situations which involve neutralization reactions.
1. Neutralization at Home
 Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by bacteria in our mouth.
 Baking powder (NaHCO3) is usually used to help the cake rise.
 Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair which make your hair
unmanageable.
2. Neutralization in Health
 Anti-acids contains bases such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3 and magnesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2 to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
 Vinegar is acidic in nature which is used to cure wasp stings that are alkaline in nature.
 Baking powder is alkaline which is used to cure bee stings and ant bites that are acidic in
nature.
3. Neutralization in Agriculture
 Acidic soil is treated with powdered lime, CaO, limestone, CaCO3 or ashes of burnt wood.
 The acidic gas from the decomposition of compost neutralizes the alkalis in basic soil.
Salt
Salts are group of chemicals that are obtained by the reactions of acids and bases. These reactions are
called neutralization reactions.
Salt is defined as a compound consisting of the positive ion of a base and the negative ion of an acid.
The positive ion in the salt can be that of a metal ion or ammonium ion. Examples of salts.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl),
 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
 Potassium nitrate (KNO3),
 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3),
 Diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4)
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts

Activity 3.12
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group discussion, choose a group representative to present the
group‘s opinion to the rest of class. Write names and formulas of some common salts.

34
The group names of salts are related to the names of the acids from which they are derived.
Table 3.5 Names of some acids and group names of their salts
Name of the acid Group name of salt Example of salt
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 Carbonates, CO32- Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Chlorides, Cl- Sodium chloride, NaCl
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Sulphates, SO42- Calcium sulphate, CaSO4
-
Nitric acid, HNO3 Nitrates, NO3 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

The name of a salt is derived from the names of two parts.

The first part comes from the base and the second part comes from the acid. You can always work
out the name of the salt by looking at the reactants. As illustrative examples, see the following
chemical equations:
Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium chloride (salt) + Water
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H 2O
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word ‗sodium’ from the name of the
base and ‗chloride’ from the name of the acid by dropping the word ‗hydro’ and changing the ending
‗-ic acid’ to ‘-ide’.
Follow the following simple rules to write the formula of salts.
1. Break the name of the salt up into the name of the cation (positive ion) which is derived from
base and the name of anion (negative ion) which is derived from acid.
2. Use the cation’s name to determine the formula for the cation and anion’s name determine the
formula for anion.
3. Now criss cross the charges and put the numbers below the formulas.
Example: a. Write the formula of Calcium carbonate.
1. Name of cation is calcium and name of anion is carbonate.
2. Formula or symbol of cation is Ca2+ and anion is CO32-
3. Ca2+ CO32 = Ca2(CO3)2 , Simplify and write the simplest formula of the salt. Thus, the formula
of calcium carbonate is CaCO3
1. In case of naming salts of binary acids like HCl, HBr, H2S, HI, etc. you need to drop the prefix
„hydro’ and change the ending ‘-ic acid’ to ‘-ide’. Thus, the second word in the name of the salt
becomes; chloride, bromide, suphide, iodide, etc.
2. In case of naming salts derived from ternary or oxy acids such as nitric acid, chloric acid, etc.
change the ending ‘-ic acid’ to ‘-ate’ to get the words, nitrate, chlorate, etc.
3. To name salts derived from the acids such as sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid, modify the main
word in the name to end in ‘-ate’ to get the words sulphate and phosphate.
Exercise 3.13 Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What are the applications of neutralization in everyday life?
2. Write the formula of the following salts.
A. Sodium chloride /NaCl
B. Potassium nitrate /KNO3
C. Calcium carbonate /CaCO3
Classification of salts:
There are different ways of classifying salts. According to the number of elements they contain. They
are
 Binary salts and
 Ternary salts.
35
1. Binary salts are salts which contain only two elements. For example,
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) contains the elements sodium and chlorine,
 Magnesium bromide (MgBr2) contains the elements magnesium and bromine.
 Lead chloride (PbCl2) contains the elements Lead and chlorine
 Calcium sulfide (CaS) contains the elements calcium and Sulphur
 Calcium chloride (CaCl2) contains the elements calcium and chlorine
 Potassium Bromide (KBr) contains the elements potassium and bromine
 Sodium Iodide (NaI) contains the elements sodium and bromine etc.
2. Ternary salts are salts which consist of three elements. For example,
 Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) contains three elements sodium, sulphur and oxygen.
 Calcium nitrate (Ca (NO3)2) contains three elements calcium, nitrogen and oxygen.
 Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) contains three elements magnesium, carbon and oxygen.
 Potassium chlorate (KClO3) contains three elements potassium, chlorine and oxygen.
 Aluminum sulphate (Al2 (SO4)3) contains three elements Aluminum, sulphur and oxygen etc.
Uses of Some Salts
Name of the salt and Name of acid and base Important uses
Formula that form the salt
 to prepare food
Sodium Hydroxide &  in the manufacturing of sodium,
Sodium Chloride/ NaCl
Hydrochloric Acid sodium hydroxide and chlorine
 to make sodium hydrogen carbonate
 in the extraction of iron
 as building material in the form of
Calcium Hydroxide &
Calcium carbonate/ CaCO3 limestone and marble
Carbonic Acid
 in the manufacture of glass
 to produce calcium oxide (quick
lime) and calcium hydroxide.
Sodium bicarbonate  to make baking powder.
Sodium Hydroxide &
(hydrogen carbonate)/  in fire extinguishers
Carbonic Acid
NaHCO3
Potassium nitrate/ KNO3 Potassium Hydroxide &  as a fertilizer
Nitric Acid  to make gun powder
Diammonium phosphate  as a fertilizer
Ammonium Hydroxide &
(DAP)
Phosphoric Acid
(NH4)2 HPO4

Activity 3.13 In this activity you are expected to perform the following tasks in groups by reading different chemistry
reference books. 1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required information. Prepare five minutes
presentation on the uses of the salts listed below.
Name of the salt Formula of the salt Uses
Sodium chloride NaCl  to prepare food
 for the manufacturing of
 sodium,
 sodium hydroxide and
 chlorine
 to make sodium hydrogen carbonate
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3  to make baking powder
 in fire extinguishers
Potassium nitrate KNO3  as a fertilizer
 to make gun powder

36
Define the following Key Terms
• Acid • Base • Neutralization
• Acidic oxide • Basic oxide • Non-metallic oxide
• Alkali • Hydrocarbon • Organic compound
• Alkane • Indicator • Oxide
• Alkene • Inorganic compound • Salt
• Alkyne • Metallic oxide
REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT THREE
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for each of the following questions.
1.Which of the following is the first organic compound synthesized from inorganic compounds?
A. NH4CNO C. AgCNO
B. (NH2)2CO D. NH4Cl
2. All of the following compounds are hydrocarbons except:
A. Ethane C. Ethyne
B. Ethene D. Alcohol
3.The general formula of alkene is:
A. CnH2n C. CnH2n-2
B. CnH2n+2 D. CnH2n+1
4.Which one of the following formula represents an alkene containing eight carbon atoms?
A. C8H8 C. C8H18
B. C8H16 D. C8H14
5.Which of the following formula represents an alkane containing six carbon atoms?
A. C6H12 C. C6H10
B. C6H14 D. C6H13
6.The general formula of alkyne is:
A. CnH2n C. CnH2n-2
B. CnH2n+2 D. CnH2n+1
7.Which of the following compound is found in all alcoholic beverages?
A. Ethanol C. Butanol
B. Formalin D. Propanol
8.Which of the following compounds can be used for oxyacetylene torch?
A. Propane C. Ethyne
B. Ethene D. Acetic acid
9.The characteristic property of a base is due to the presence of:
A. Hydride Ions C. Hydrogen Ions
B. Hydroxide Ions D. All
10. Which of the following is an example of acidic oxide?
A. Sulphur dioxide C. Barium oxide
B. Calcium oxide D. Sodium oxide
11. Which of the following is an example of basic oxide?
A. SO3 C. P4O6
B. N2O5 D. Na2O
12. Which of the following oxides reacts with water to form an acidic solution?
A. CaO B. Na2O C. CO2 D. NO
37
13. Which one of the following statements is true about oxides?
A. Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen.
B. All non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides.
C. All metallic oxides are basic oxides.
D. all of the above
14. What is the missing product ‘X’ and ‘Y’ in the following equation?
NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) →X + Y
A. Na2SO4, H2O C. NaCl, H2O
B. Na2SO4, H2 D. Na2SO4
15. Which of the following salts is used as making gun powder?
A. NaCl C. CaCO3
B. NaHCO3 D. KNO3
16. Which one of the following cannot be used for neutralizes the acidic soil?
A. CaO C. CaCO3
B. CaCl2 D. Ca(OH)2
17. Nitrates are salts of:
A. Hydrochloric acid C. Phosphoric acid
B. Sulphuric acid D. Nitric acid
18. Which one of the following compounds can be used for preserving biological specimens?
A. Formalin C. Ethanol
B. Vinegar D. Decane
19. The characteristic property of an acid is due to the presence of:
A. Hydride ions C. Hydrogen ions
B. Hydroxide ions D. Oxide ions
20. When the following equation representing a reaction, is completed, the products are:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl (aq) →
A NaCl and H2O C 2NaCl, CO2 and H2O
B H2O and CO2 D NaCl, CO2 and H2
21. What is the missing product ‗X‘ in the following equation? 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → X
A. NH4NO3 C. (NH4)3PO4
B. (NH4)2SO4 D. (NH4)2S
22. The formula of sodium carbonate is:
A. Na2CO3 C. NaHCO3
B. Na2SO4 D. NaHPO4
23. The salt used as a fertilizer with the commercial name ‗DAP‘ is represented by the formula:
A. Ca3(PO4)2 C. (NH4)2HPO4
B. KNO3 D. CaSO4
24. Which one of the following pairs of compounds produces calcium sulphate?
A. Calcium oxide and hydrochloric acid. C. Calcium oxide and water.
B. Calcium hydroxide and nitric acid. D. Calcium hydroxide and sulphuric acid.
25. Which of the following group of salts can be prepared by direct combination of elements?
A. Sulphates C. Chlorides
B. Nitrates D. Phosphates

38
26. Sulphates are salts of:
A. Hydrochloric acid C. Phosphoric acid
B. Sulphuric acid D. Nitric acid
27. Sodium nitrate is not:
A. formed by direct combination
B. a ternary salt
C. a salt of nitric acid
D. formed by the reaction of NaOH and HNO3
II. Give short answers for each of the following questions.
28. Give the name of:
A. An alkyne containing 10 hydrogen atoms C6H10
B. An alkene containing 10 carbon atoms C10H20
C. An alkane containing 8 carbon atoms C8H18
29. Write the molecular formula of:
A. Nonane C9H20
B. Heptene C7H14
C. Decyne C10H18
30. Define the following words:
A. Organic compound -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. Hydrocarbon---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C. Inorganic compound------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D. Acid ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E. Base ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
F. Salt -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
31. Write the formulas of the following compounds.
A. Nitric acid HNO3
B. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
C. Potassium hydroxide KOH
32. Write the names of the following compounds.
A. H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
B. Ca (OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
C. KNO3 Potassium nitrate

39
 UNIT FOUR
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH=34P
Main contents
4.1 Integumentary System 4.5 Respiratory System
4.2 Muscular System 4.6 Circulatory System
4.3 Skeletal System 4.7 Reproductive System
4.4 Digestive System
Introduction
Human body parts must be keeping healthy by take care with different methods. In human there are different
types of body systems with specific types of functions.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 distinguish the major structural components of human integumentary system;
 describe the main functions of human integumentary system;
 explain, by giving examples, how structure and function are related;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human integumentary system.

Our bodies are made up of 11 basic organ systems that manage all the essential body functions. These
systems, while interdependent, can become out of tune.I2R2 SUM CEND
The 11 organ systems include the
1. Integumentary System 7. Reproductive System
2. Skeletal System 8. Nervous System
3. Muscular System 9. Endocrine System
4. Circulatory (Cardiovascular & Lymphatic) 10. Urinary System
5. Respiratory System 11. Immune System
6. Digestive System

Activity 4.1: Identify and discuss on the parts of integumentary systems

- The teacher shows for you the charts of integumentary systems.
- Then, present your observation results for the class mate

4.1 Integumentary Systems=5P

The integumentary systems are the organ of the body that forms a physical barrier between the external
environment and the internal body part that it serves to protect and maintain.
4.1.1. Components of integumentary system
The integumentary systems are the human body systems that used to perform different types of
functions such as protection and excretions. The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nail,
and glands.

Activity 4.2
Discuses on the layers of human skin In groups discuss on skin layer and their functions & then present for the class mate.

1. Skin: -
The skin is the outer layer of the body that covers the internal parts of the body.
Skin is body‘s largest and heaviest organ covers 1.5 to 2m2; composes 15% of body weight. Human
skin has three major layers. These are:-
A. Upper layer/Epidermis
This layer is the outer most layer of the skin and called epidermis which is made up of dead cells.
40
These used to
 reduce excess water loss,
 protect from light ray (UV light) and
 entry of disease causing microorganisms.
B. Middle layer/dermis
This layer is the dermis which containing
 Blood vessel (which are responsible for thermoregulation),
 Lymph vessel,
 Sweat gland,
 Sensory receptors and
 Hair follicles.
Thermoregulation:- The process of temperature regulations in body.
C. Lower layer
This layer of skin also called hypodermis, which contains
 Fatty tissue that used to store energy and
 Act as an insulation layer that means protecting you from loss of excess heat.

Figure: Layers of human skin

2. Hair: -
 Hair come from follicles, which are simple organs made up of cell called epithelial cells.
 Hair is made up of different structures and layers.
 The outer layer of hair is shaft that made up of dead cell that turned in to keratin and binding
materials.
The hair shaft is formed from three layers.
1. Cuticle/eponychium: outer layer of hair shaft is thin and colorless.
 It serves as protection of the cortex.
 Help protect the skin,
 Regulate body temperature, and
 Lend itself to the evaporation and perspiration process.
2. Cortex: middle layer of hair shaft which provide
 Strength,
 Color and
 Texture of hair fibre.
41
3. Medulla: deepest layer of hair shaft, only seen in large and thick hairs.

Figure: layers of hair shaft

3. Nail: is the hard covering at the end of the finger or toe. Like other body parts, it consists of several
parts including:
 The nail plate: The part of the nail that is visible.
 The nail folds: The folds of the skin located on the sides of the nail plate.
 The nail bed: The skin that lies beneath the nail plate.
 The lunula: The white-colored half-moon-shaped area.
 The cuticle/eponychium: The thin line of tissue that is located at the base of the nail and
overlaps the nail plate.
 The matrix: Part of the nail that is not visible,
 Located underneath the cuticle,
 This is the area responsible for the growth of the fingernail.

Figure: structures of human nail

4. Gland: is an organ that makes one or more substances such as hormone digestive juice, sweat, tear,
saliva or milk. Integumentary systems have four types of exocrine glands that secrete some type of
substances outside the cell and body.
These includes
1. Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands that is hollow, cylindrical under skin that excretes sweat
through small opening at the skin surface.
2. Sebaceous glands: very small tubular shaped glands in dermis which used
 To release oil in to the hair follicle to help lubricate and protect the hair shaft,
 Keeping it from becoming hard and brittle.
3. Ceruminous glands: located in ear canal and it produce ear wax (medically coined cerumen) for
protections.
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 Wax:- substance produce in ear and prevent entrance of dust and pathogens in to ear.
4. Mammary glands: In female, the gland functions to produce breast milk after giving birth.
5. Salivary glands: salivary glands create and secrete saliva.
 Salvia helps you chew, swallow and digest your food.
 It also helps lubricate and protect the inner lining of your tissues.
6. Lacrimal glands: are your tear glands.
 Lacrimal glands are located above your upper eyelids.
 Tear salty solution/NaHCO3/ that contain an enzyme called Lysozyme that kills some bacteria.
 Tear glad produce large amount when they enter to our eye any foreign matter enter the eye
until the object removed & clean.
 They create and secrete a fluid that gets into your eyes every time you blink.
 This fluid helps keep your eyes moisturized.
7. Stomach glands: Glands in your stomach release enzymes that help break down food.
 They also help your body absorb important nutrients.
8. Brunner glands: The Brunner glands are located in the first part of your small intestine.
 This is called your duodenum.
 The Brunner glands produce mucus that protects your duodenum from stomach acid.
 They also help your body digest food and absorb nutrients.
Exercise 4.1
Part I: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is not parts of integumentary
A/ Hair B/ Skin C/ Glands D/ Nail E/ Kidney
2. The outer layer of the human body is _______
A/ Gland B/ Skin C/ Nail D/ All
3. The middle layer of the skin is ________
A/ Dermis B/ Hypodermis C/ Epidermis D/ Endodermis
4. Layers of skin that made from dead cell are called ________
A/ Upper Layer B/ Lower Layer C/ Meddle Layer D/ All
5. The outer layers of the hair is ________
A/ Medulla B/ Cuticle C/ Cortex D/ None
Part II: describe briefly
1. Briefly describe the structural components of the integumentary systems with their functions.
2. List the functions of the sweat glands.

4.1.2. Functions of Integumentary Systems

The Skin is remarkably complex organ which carries out a number of important functions in your
body.
 Some of these functions are, include
 Serving as an enclosing barrier and providing environmental protection,
 Regulating temperature,
 Producing pigment and Vitamin D,
 Sensory perception and homeostasis.
 Besides the skin also contain many numbers of sense organ which are
o Light touch, o Pressure, o Vibration,
o Pain o Temperature,

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“Homeostasis is the state of steady internal chemical and physical conditions maintained by living
systems.”
The Hair
 The primary function of human hair is to insulate the human body. It does this in two ways.
1st) It serves as a physical barrier between external cold air and the skin, and
2nd) It also traps warm air in between the skin and the hair, keeping the body warmer.
The Nail
 Used to protecting the upper end of each finger & toe of humans.
 And most other organisms from injury.
 And also used for sensation with sense of touch.
The Glands
Glands in the body are used to secret different chemicals. Some types of glands are used to
 excrete wastes,
 cooling down the body,
 release oil in to the hair follicle,
 produce ear wax for protections, and
 also used to produce breast milk for feeding the baby.
4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases and Disorders
Skin diseases are a broad range of conditions affecting the skin, and include diseases caused by
 bacterial infections,  fungal infections,  skin cancers, and
 viral infections,  allergic reactions,  Parasites.
Skin disorders vary greatly in symptoms and severity.
 They can be temporary or permanent, and may be painless or painful.
 While most skin disorders are minor, others can indicate a more serious issue.
There are many different types of skin disorders.
1. Acne/Bigur:
1. Commonly located on faces, neck, shoulders, chest, and upper back.
2. May leave scars or darken the skin if untreated.
3. Its symptoms are tips, large, solid, painful, and lump under the skin.
4. Caused by when the pores of your skin become blocked with oil, dead skin or bacteria

2.Rosacea:
The skin condition rosacea is most commonly associated with Redness.
1. However, there are four sub types of rosacea that cause other symptoms as well. These are:
 Erythematotelangiectatic Rosacea
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  Papulopustular (Acne) Rosacea
 Phymatous Rosacea
 Ocular Rosacea
Each of these types of rosacea is most likely to occur on the face, head, and neck. In rare (and often
more severe cases), rosacea may affect other parts of the body. While the specific underlying cause of
rosacea has not been determined definitively, inflammation is the main source of the skin condition,
and many dermatologic researchers believe that the different types develop due to increased, unchecked
inflammation.

3.Eczema/Chife:
These are the range of persistent skin conditions. These includes dryness and recurring skin rashes
that characterized by
 Red ness,  Crusting,
 Skin swelling,  Cracking or
 Itching and dryness,  Bleeding etc.

4.Hives:
1. Hives are itchy welts that are raised up from the normal layer of the skin.
2. It is frequently caused by allergic reactions in the body but
3. It also caused by outside factors such as
 Stress,  Illnesses, or  Tight clothes.

45
5.Warts/Kintarot:
 It typically occurred on humans‘ hands or feet but often in other locations.
 It caused by viral infections especially by human papilloma virus (HPV).
 They often go away on their own,
 However unsightly warts can be treated with liquid nitrogen or medicated creams.

6.Cold sore/Grfat or Michi:

 A red, fluid-filled blister usually found near the mouth.
 The sore itself is painful or delicate.
 Itching or burning sensations on the site before the sore is visible.
 Cold sores are caused by the Herpes Simplex Virus, and
 There is no known cure for the virus.

7.Carbuncle/Ebachi:
 Staphylococcus aureus bacteria make their way into the hair follicles and cause an infection, a
carbuncle is produced.
 This is a red, irritated lump underneath the skin.
46
  The lump/ እብጠት quickly fill with pus and become swollen. Other symptoms include
 Tiredness,
 Itching on the site of the lump, and
 Fever.
 Carbuncles are treated with antibiotics and antibacterial washes.

8.Blister:
 A blister is a bubble of fluid under the skin.
 The clear, watery liquid inside a blister is called serum.
 If the blister remains unopened, serum can provide natural protection for the skin beneath
it.
 Blisters exactly heal by
 Wash hand and blister by soap warm water
 Swap blister by iodine
 Sterilize clean, sharp needle with rubbing alcohol etc.

9.Actinic keratosis:
An actinic keratosis is
 A rough, scaly patch on the skin that develops from years of sun exposure.
 It‘s often found on the
 Face,  Forearms,  Neck or back of the
 Lips,  Scalp, hands.
 Ears,

47
10. Latex allergy:
 Latex allergy is a reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex, a product made
from the rubber tree.
 Latex allergy may cause itchy skin and hives or even anaphylaxis, a potentially life-
threatening condition that can cause throat swelling and severe difficulty breathing.

11. Chickenpox:
Chickenpox consists of
 an itchy,  back
 red rash that breaks out on the face,  to a lesser extent,
 scalp,  arms and legs.
 chest,
 The spots quickly fill with a clear fluid, rupture and then turn crusty.
 Chickenpox is an infection caused by the Varicella-Zoster Virus.

48
Exercise 4.2 Part: I: choose the best answer from the given alternative
1. Which of the following is outer layer of skin?
A. Lower B. Hypodermis C. Epidermis D. Dermis
2. The outer layer of the body is called ______
A. Lung B. Hair C. Skin D. Gland
3. Which one of the following is NOT used to prevent skin diseases?
A. Washing C. Avoid smoking
B. Keep skin moist D. Good sanitations
4. ___is a skin disease and characterized by bubble of fluid under the skin
A. Hives B. Rosacea C. Cold Sore D. Blister
5. Which system is the largest system in the human body?
A) Digestive system C) Respiratory system
B) Integumentary system D) Excretory system
6. The protection of fingers and toes and made up of dead cells packed with keratin is
A) Hair B) Nails C) Lips D) Nose
7. The structure of nails and pale present at the base of the nail is
A) Lunula C) Cuticle
B) Eponychium D) Nail fold
8. Which of the following is not a function of the hypodermis?
A. protects underlying organs C. source of blood vessels in the epidermis
B. helps maintain body temperature D. a site to long-term energy storage
9. Sebaceous glands ________.
A. are a type of sweat gland
B. are associated with hair follicles
C. may function in response to touch
D. release a watery solution of salt and metabolic waste
10. In humans, exposure of the skin to sunlight is required for ________.
A. Vitamin D synthesis C. Folate production
B. Arteriole constriction D. Thermoregulation
11. Which of the following human skin diseases is caused by human papilloma virus?
A. Warts C. Latex allergy
B. Cold sore D. Chickenpox
12. A red, fluid-filled blister usually found near the mouth is
A. Warts C. Latex allergy
B. Cold sore D. Chickenpox
13. Staphylococcus aureus bacteria make their way into the hair follicles and cause an infection is
A. Warts C. Carbuncle
B. Cold sore D. Blister
14. Which of the following skin diseases is associated with a red, irritated lump underneath the skin?
A. Blister C. Cold sore
B. Carbuncle D. Warts
15. The clear, watery liquid inside a blister is called.
A. Serum C. Carbuncle
B. Warts‘ D. Acne
16. The skin disorder in the body that form a bubble of fluid under the skin is -
A. Blister B. Carbuncle
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 C. Serum D. Warts‘
17. A rough, scaly patch on the skin that develops from years of sun exposure is
A. Blister C. Latex allergy
B. Actinic keratosis D. Chickenpox
18. Which of the following human skin diseases is caused by Varicella-Zoster Virus?
A. Blister C. Latex allergy
B. Actinic keratosis D. Chickenpox
19. Which of the following skin disorder is caused by the skin blocked with oil, dead skin or bacteria?
A. Acne C. Serum
B. Carbuncle D. Warts‘
20. the range of persistent skin conditions includes dryness and recurring skin rashes that characterized
by redness, swelling, crusting and crashing skin is
A. Cold sore C. Hives
B. Eczema D. Warts
Activity 4.4:
1. Compare and contrast in your groups on the severity of different skin diseases.
2. What do you do, if your skin color is changed to redness?
3. How you take care about your skin?

4.2 Muscular System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. distinguish the major structural components of human muscular system;
2. describe the main functions of human muscular system;
3. identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human muscular system.

What are muscular systems?

 The muscles account for around 40 percent of a person‘s weight with the largest muscle in the
body being the gluteus Maximus in the buttocks.
 Muscles are tissues that composed of cells that are called muscle fibers.
 Muscles can be used to perform different types of body movements like
 Pumping blood,
 Stability,
 Posture,
 Digestions,
 Circulations,
 Breathing air in and out etc.
 The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.
4.2.1. Components of Muscular System
There are three distinct components of muscular systems these are
 Skeletal muscles,
 Cardiac or heart muscles, and
 Smooth (non-striated) muscles
1. Skeletal muscle
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 1. Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously or voluntarily controlled.
2. They are contracting the muscles causes‘ movement of those bones.
3. They found attached to the end bone.
Examples: Chewing, Talking, Facial Expressions, Drinking.
2. Smooth (non-striated) muscles
 Smooth muscle lines the inside of vital organ blood vessels, eye, airway and organs such as the
stomach, digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts, and others.
 Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be consciously controlled.
3. Cardiac muscle
 Located only in the heart,
 Cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body by involuntary action.
 They are auto rhythmic.
 Cardiac muscle stimulates its own contractions that form our heartbeat.
Auto rhythmic: - capable of contracting spontaneously without hormonal control.
4.2.2 Function of Muscular Systems
The muscular system consists of various types of muscle that each plays a crucial role in the function
of the body.
 Muscles allow a person to move, speak, and chew.
 They control heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.
 All muscles cells can share the different types of properties for functions and used commonly by
each muscles.
Some of these properties are:
 Contractility: is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten.
 In order to contract or flex the angle of your joint is decrease then your elbow contract or
shorten.
 Then your muscle can only pull but never push.
 Extensibility: is the power of the muscle to be stretched.
 In human body the extensibility of muscle is very high at the age of adults.
 But when the age goes up extensibility reduced and it is called spasticity.
 Excitability: is ability of muscle to give response to stimuli which come from motor neuron and
hormone.
 Elasticity: is the quality or state of being elastic and capability of strained body to recover its size
and shape after deformations.
4.2.3. Major Muscle Disease and Disorders
Muscle Disorders are the diseases that affect the human muscle system and their main manifestation
is skeletal muscle weakness.
1. They can be caused by different types of factors and
2. Make the muscle weak and reduction of its strengths.
There are many disorders but some of these are:
1. Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited diseases characterized by weakness and wasting
away of muscle tissue, with or without the breakdown of nerve tissue.
Its different types involving an eventual loss of strength, Increasing disability and possible
deformity.

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2. Muscle strains are an injury to a muscle or a tendon the fibrous tissue that connects muscles to
bones.
Sometimes called pulled muscles, strains commonly occur in the lower back and in the muscles at
the back of the thigh (hamstrings).
Exercise 4.4:
Part I: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Muscles are tissue that composed of cells are called ______.
A. Long B. Muscle fibers C. Muscle fatigue D. All
2. One of the following is NOT common for all muscles.
A. Contractility B. Excitability C. Extensibility D. None
3.Which of the following types of muscles never tire?
A. Smooth muscles C. Skeletal muscles
B. Cardiac muscles D. Ligaments
4.Skeletal muscles are muscles attached to the bones by
A. Ligament B. Tendons C. Cartilage D. A and B
5. Which of the following type‘s muscles is voluntary muscle?
A. Cardiac muscles C. Skeletal muscles
B. Smooth muscles D. D. All
6.Which types of muscles is found only in the heart?
A. Skeletal muscles C. Voluntary muscles
B. Smooth muscles D. Cardiac muscles
7.Which one of the following human muscles never fatigue?
A. Muscles of the lung C. Muscle of the intestine
B. Muscle of the heart D. Muscle of the uterus
8.Which one is TRUE about smooth muscles?
A. They surround tubes of the intestinal organs.
B. They have voluntary actions.
C. They surround external organs.
D. They regulate the body movement.
9.Which one of the following types of muscle tissues is found in the wall of the stomach, intestines and
blood vessels?
A. Cardiac muscles C. Skeletal muscles
B. Smooth muscles D. Voluntary muscles
10. Which of the following types of muscle tissues is responsible for moving most parts of the body?
A. Cardiac muscles C. Smooth muscles
B. Skeletal muscles D. Involuntary muscles
Part II: Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.
1. The quality of muscle being elastic is called ______
2. __________ is a type of muscle located on the hearts
3. The disease that infected muscle systems is called ________.

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4.3. Skeletal System
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human skeletal system;
 describe the main functions of human skeletal system;
 identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human skeletal system;

4.3.1. Structural Components of Skeletal System

 The skeletal system consists of components of
 Bones and  Ligaments.
 Cartilage,  Joints/Articulates/
 Tendons,
 It‘s also called the musculoskeletal system.
A. Bone: It is mineralized connective tissue that contains:
o Collagen
o Calcium phosphate and
o Mineral crystal.
 Because of calcium phosphate the bones are
o Firmness,
o compact or spongy,
o Provide and protection of body‘s organ.
 They are made up of living cells and so called living organs.
 An adult human skeleton contains 206 bones.
Types of bone
Based on their shape bones can be divided in to four major groups:-
1. Long bones: it is hard and compact, tubular filled with yellow bone marrow. Example
 Upper and lower limb, Arm, Leg, Finger and Thigh bones.
NB. Bone marrow is soft structure in the bones where Red blood cells are made.
2. Short bone: are compact bones with chambers or partitions but without marrow. Example
 Wrists(carpal bone),
 Finger,
 Toes and
 Tarsal (Ankle) bone.
3. Flat bones: are thin, flat, compact and typically curved. They have no cavity or hollow. Example
 Ribs,
 Sternum,
 Cranial bone and
 Scapula.
4. Irregular bones: are typically thin membranes which have nerves & blood vessels that nourish the
bone.
On their surface there are small holes for entry and exit of materials in to and out of bone. Example:
 Hip bones,
 Facial bones and
 Vertebrae
5. Sesamoid bones are bones within tendons. Example: kneecaps/patella/

53
Calcium is the most abundant metallic mineral element in the human body, and 99%
of it is stored in the bones. Along with building strong bones, calcium also helps your
heart, muscles, and nerves function.
Bones are also divided into two major groups by based on their positions.
1. Axial skeleton:
The axial skeleton forms the vertical axis of the body and consists of 80 bones including the:
1. Skull,
2. Vertebral column, and
3. Thoracic cage.
1. Skull: Raskill contains 28 bones include bone of
1. Cranium (8 bones): Protects the brain,
2. Facial bones (14 bones): Provide structural for upper and lower jaw cheeks and nose.
a. Maintain the shape of the face.
3. Auditory ossicles (6 bones):
a. They transmit vibrations
b. They are smallest bone in the body
c. The middle ears consists of 3 tiny bones
i. Malleus/ Hammer
ii. Incus/ Anvil, and
iii. Stapes/ Stirrup)
4. Hyoid: U-shaped bone in neck between larynx and chin.
 U shaped
 Found in the upper neck
 The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue

2. Vertebral column (Coccyx-/ Atsime jirat/ and Sacrum/Bezid) 26 bones

 It is also called back bone or spinal vertebrae.
 It is extended from the end of Skull to the pelvis/hip/
3. Thoracic cage: includes 12 pairs of Ribs (Atsme Mesenglet) & Sternum /Breast bone (Atsime
firmba).
 Sternum is the breast bone found in the middle of the rib cage attached to it by cartilage.
 Ribs are 12 pairs of thin and flat bones.1-7 true ,8-10 fals,11-12 float ribs
The functions of Ribs are
a. Ribs help to breath

54
 b. Protective cage around the internal organs in the upper body.
2. Appendicular Skeleton:
It supports the limbs and connects them to the axial skeleton.
There are 126 bones in the AS of an adult
 It composed of bones of the
1. Pectoral girdle/Shoulder/
2. Upper limbs/Forelimbs/
3. Pelvic girdles/pelvis/hip bone/coxal bone-
1. Ilium/ Atsime dale/
2. Pubic bone/Dale genda/
3. Ischium/ Atsime qit/
4. Lower Limbs/Hindu limbs/
1.Shoulder bones: are composed of Clavicle/ Collar and Scapula.
 The clavicle or collar bone is connected to the sternum in front while
 The scapula bone is at the back.
2. Upper limbs/ fore limbs are the front limbs that refer to the arms, the forearms and the hands.
It consists of various types of bones such as
1. Hummers/upper arms/- Atsime worch
2. Radius/Outer lower arms/-wuchi Atsime knd
3. Ulna /inner lower arms/-wuste Atsime knd
4. Carpals/wrists/-Atsime Ambar 8 bones
5. Metacarpals /hands/- Atsime medafoch 5 bones 27 bones
6. Phalanges/fingers/- Atsime ije Tatoch 14 bones
3. Hip (coxal) Bone/Pelvic girdles/- composed of three hip bones.
1. Ilium,
2. pubic bone,
3. Ischium

4. Hind limbs/Lower Limbs: are the back limbs or appendages and consist of different bones.
These bones include:
1. Femur /upper leg or thigh/ Atsime chin
2. Fibula /outer lower legs/ wuchi Atsime bat
3. Tibia /inner lower legs /wuste Atsime bat
4. Patella /knee cap/Lomi Atsime
5. Tarsals /ankles/- Atsime qurchimchimit 7 bones
6. Metatarsals /feet/- Atsime chamawoch 5 bones 26 bones
7. Phalanges /toes/ Atsime igre Tatoch 14 bones

55
B. Cartilage: Cartilage provides flexible and elasticity structures support for certain structures in adult
humans, including the nose, trachea, and ears.
C. Tendon: It is a fibrous band of connective tissue that is connects muscle to bone.
D. Ligament: It is stretchy and flexible band of tissue which held together at the joints or in between
the bones of a joint and it is a firm rubbery tissue.
E. Joints: It is a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined together.
 It has two main jobs, which are
 keep bone far apart and
 to hold bone in place as they move or rotate.
Types of joints
There are two different types of joints, namely immovable and movable joints.
 Immovable joints: are fixed in place and do not move at all. E.g skull.
 Moving joints: permits to move up and down or twist and bend in some directions. It grouped in to
four
1. Hinge joint: allow/permit movements‘ front and back in a single/one direction.
 The joints that located on elbow, knee, fingers, and toes are the best examples.
2. Ball and socket joint: These types of joints can permit movements in every direction.
 Examples: shoulder and hips joints.
3. Gliding joints: allow sliding surface movement b/n adjacent bones. Bones slipping over other
bones with a free flowing movement.
 Example of gliding joints are Inter tarsal and Inter carpal joints
4.Pivot joints: allow twisting movement. Bone resting atop another bone permitting a limited
rotation.
 Examples: Neck
4.3.2 Functions of Skeletal System
The skeleton system has the following major functions.
1. It protects vital organs:
 Spine for supporting the body,
 Skull protecting the brain, and
 Ribs protecting the organ of heart, lungs, digestive and excretory
2. It supports the body weight to help you stand and move
3. It gives us shape.
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4. It allows us to move body in particular ways.
5. It makes new blood cells to maintain a health blood stream.
6. It stores different types of minerals, like mineral salt, calcium, fats in bone marrow.
 Calcium phosphate that is needed for blood clotting, nerve function, and muscle activity.
Activity 4.7:- briefly identify and explain the following questions
1. Explain the role of the human skeletal system
2. Labelle and identify bone of body parts from the chart when your teacher show for you.

4.3.3 Major Diseases of Skeletal System

There are a numbers of diseases which can affect the skeletal systems of human. Some of these are:
1. Leukemia: is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and the
lymphatic system.
2. Osteoporosis: is a condition where bones become thin and lose their strength, as they become less
dense and their quality is reduced. It literally means ‗porous bone’.
3. Osteopenia, osteitis, deformans and osteomalacia: similar to osteoporosis, these are other types of
bones loss.
4. Osteoarthritis: is involving degradation of joints.
 Its symptom is joint pain, tenderness, stiffness, locking and sometimes an effusion.
5. Fracture: is in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone.
 It may be a partial or complete break in the bone.
Exercise 4.5:
Part I: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. How many numbers of bones are found in adult human?
A. 126 B. 80 C. 206 D. 106
2. Which of the followings are NOT examples of axial skeleton?
A. Skull B. Hyoid C. Thoracic D. None
3. _______ is a joint that fix in place and do not move.
A. Movable joint C. Ligaments
B. Immovable joint D. All
Part II: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
4. Which of the following types of joints move back and front?
A. Hinge joint C. Pivot joints
B. Gliding joint D. Ball and socket.
5. The most commonly broken bone in the body is called ---------------
A. Clavicle B. Scapula C. Femur D. Hummer
6. As the ribs protect the lungs, ________ protects the brain.
A. Facial bones B. Cranium C. Sternum D. Metacarpals
7. Which type of bones is wrongly paired with its example?
A. Long bone-humerus C. Short bone-vertebrae
B. Flat bone-ribs D. A and B

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8. One of the following is wrong?
A. Skeletal muscles move skeletal bones. C. Cardiac muscles work life long.
B. Smooth muscles are found in blood. D. Muscles work antagonistically.
9. Which of the following structures are called tendons join?
A. Muscles to muscles C. Bone to bones
B. Muscles to bones D. Help to upper leg
10. Which types of joint is wrongly paired with its locomotion?
A. Hinge joint – knee C. Immovable joint –skull
B. Ball and socket joint –shoulder D. Pivot joint -elbow
11. What do you call the joint that allows movement only back and forth?
A. Hinge joint C. Gliding joint
B. Pivot joint D. Ball and socket joint
12. Which of the following is an example of short bones?
A. Bones of upper arm C. Bones of ribs
B. Bones of fingers D. Bones of lower arm
13. Which of the following is statement is true about function of muscles?
A. Cardiac muscles cause the movement of bones
B. Smooth muscles contract to pump blood
C. Skeleton muscles allow body movement
D. Cardiac and skeletal muscles function similarity
14. Which of the following bones of human skeleton are categorized under the appendicular skeleton
bones?
A. Shoulder B. Skull C. Sternum D. Rib
15. Which of the following is NOT true about human skeleton function?
A. Produce calcium C. Support the body
B. Makes new blood cells D. Protect vital organs
16. Cardiac muscles are muscles found in the wall of:
A. Blood vessel C. Stomach
B. Heart D. Intestine
17. The bones forming the forearm are known as:
A. Radius and ulna C. Phalanges
B. Tibia and fibula D. Metacarpals
18. Which type of joint is found between the femur and the hip?
A. Pivot joints C. Ball and socket joints
B. Gliding joints D. Hinge joints
19. Compared with the dental formula of human, a mammal having a dental formula 0123 3123 is
having
A. less number of incisors C. more number of molars
B. less number of canines D. less number of molars
20. The Joints in fingers and toes is called-----
A. Hinge joint C. Pivot joint
B. Gliding joint D. Ball and socket joint
21. The human heart and lungs are protected by :
A. Appendicular skeleton C. Rib bones
B. Skull bone D. Hip bones
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22. Axial skeleton does not include
A. Clavicle B. Skull C. Vertebrae D. Ribs
23. The shoulder consists of clavicle and
A. Cranium B. Skull C. Scapula D. Sternum
24. The rib cage consists of the bones of the ribs and
A. Humerus B. Skull C. Patella D. Sternum
25. Bones are attached to one another with a tissue called ______.
A. Ligaments B. Tendons C. Cartilage D. Joints
26. Which of the following types of muscles never tire?
A. Smooth muscles C. Skeletal muscles
B. Cardiac muscles D. Ligaments
27. The up and down movement of the head is an example of one of the following joints?
A. Ball-And-Socket C. Pivot
B. Hinge D. Gliding
28. The bones of the skull are examples of one of the following joints?
A. Ball-and-socket C. Pivot
B. Hinge D. Fixed
29. Which one is necessary for healthy bones, muscles and teeth?
A. Proper diet C. Restlessness
B. Physical exercise D. D a and b
30. Which of these are correctly matched?
A. Ball and socket joint - wrist C. Hinge joint – elbow
B. Pivot joint - knee D. Gliding Joint – skull
Part II: Match descriptions in column B with the items in column A
‘‘A’’ ‗‗B‘‘
31. Irregular bone A. filled with yellow bone marrow
32. Flat bone B. finger, toes, wrist
33. Long bone C. have blood vessel and nerve
34. Short bone D. cranium, scapula, ribs
Part III: Match descriptions in column B with the items in column A
35. Skull A. It protects the brain
36. Ribs B. It protects the heart and lungs
37. Sternum C. The breast bone
38. Vertebral column D. Back bone or spine
39. Femur /upper legs/ E. The largest bone in our body
40. Stapes F. The smallest bone
41. Clavicle G. The most broken bones in the body
42. Long bones H. upper and lower limbs bones
43. Short bones I. fingers and toes bones
44. Flat bones J. Ribs, sternum, and scapula
45. Bone marrow K. Produce red blood cells
46. Immovable joints L. Skull and ear
47. Movable joints M. Hinge joints
Part III: Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.
48. Shoulder bone composed of ______ ___and ____ ___
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49. ______ run through your body from front to back and divide the body into equal right and left
regions.
Part VI: briefly describe
50. During which stage of development that we tend to have less total number of bones? Why?

Activities 4.8:- briefly identifies and explain the following questions

 What are the differences between axial and appendicular skeletons?
 Discuss and report on some roles of bone of lower extremities.
 Reason out, why joints are important at articulations of two or more bones?
 List and discuss many skeletal system diseases.
4.4. Digestive System
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 distinguish the major structural components of human digestive system;
 describe the main functions of human digestive system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human digestive system.

Digestion is the process in which the larger, complex, hard and insoluble food substances are changed
into smaller, simpler, easier and soluble by the action of the digestive organs.
4.4.1. Structural Components of Digestive System
The digestive system is an organ system which is made up of the alimentary canal or several organs
including the
 Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestines, and anus.
 It also has associated organs such as salivary glands, liver and pancreas.
Alimentary canal:-The whole passage along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus
during digestion.
 The two types of digestion are physical and chemical digestions.
 Physical digestion includes cutting and gridding food molecules in mouth by teeth.

Figure:-4.3 Human digestive systems

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4.4.2. Functions of Digestive System
 The major function of digestive system is the breakdown of food molecules in to smaller and
usable forms.
 The muscular contraction and relaxation of wall of alimentary canal produce movements of
digested food along in one direction.
1. Mouth:
 It is the first anterior opening parts of the gut which contains teeth.
 In mouth both types of digestion physical (mechanical) and chemical digestion occurs.
2. Teeth:
 Teeth of humans and other animals are hard structures that grow from jaw bone.
 They are used to bite and chew food.
 Each tooth consists of crown, neck and root.
 The true human teeth are made up of three layers these are
o Enamel: the outer layers, white and hardest substances in the body.
o Dentine: is the living layer under the tooth enamel.
o Pulp cavity: it is the central parts of the teeth.
 It contains the living tissue with blood vessels and nerves which supply the living tooth with
nutrients

Figure 4.4 human teeth structure

Mammals have two sets of teeth in their life.
1.In human the first set has 20 teeth is called milk teeth or temporary teeth. These milk teeth
are 20 in number - 8 incisors, 4 canines, and 8 molars.
 These milk teeth are appear first but loose and fall out when a child is about 6 years old and
replaced by the second or permanent teeth which is not replaced when once decay or loose.
2.The permanent teeth set have 28 teeth.
 When person is around 20-25 years old, four additional back teeth grow called wisdom teeth.
 This development and arrangement of teeth is known as dentition.
Permanent (adult) teeth include: 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars and 12 molars
(including 4 wisdom teeth). Because many adults have had their wisdom teeth
removed, it is common for many people to have only 28 teeth.

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Types of teeth
Human have four types of teeth. These are:
1. Incisors (I): chisel shaped and frontal teeth with sharp edge.
 They are four on each jaw and
 Used for biting, cutting and grinding food.
2. Canines (C): is long, sharp, pointed edge and located beside incisors.
 They are two on each jaw.
 Used to tear, piercing food and it is prominent in predator organisms like lion.
3. Premolars (P): located behind canines with relatively flat edge.
 They are four in each jaw.
 Used for chewing, crushing, or grinding food.
4. Molars (M): with wider and stronger ridges having depressions.
 There are six in each jaw.
 Their function is similar to premolars.

Dental Formula
Dental formula is the representing of the number, type and arrangement of teeth.
 It shows the number and type of teeth in one half of the upper and lower jaws.
 Because of these the teeth on the upper jaw are listed above the lower jaw.
 They listed as:- incisors (I), canines (C), premolar (P) and molar (M).
 Therefore the dental formula of adult human is: I= 2/2, C= 1/1, P= 2/2, M= 3/3
 Therefore, the total number of teeth in a given mammal can be calculated.
 First add the number of teeth in upper and lower jaws, and then multiply each jaw by two.
 Finally, sum up the product.
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3. Stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag that produces enzymes like pepsin for protein digestion.
 It also produces another solution which is called hydrochloric acid.
4. Small intestine
The first section of small intestine which is called duodenum is used to join the food with two liquids:
bile and pancreatic enzymes.
Bile is made by the liver cells and stored in gall bladder until it is needed. This bile has two important
jobs.
 Neutralize the acid from stomach and make the semi digested food alkaline.
 Emulsifies the fats in the food, which means breakdown of fat in to smaller droplets.
The small intestine has much finger like projection which called villi for absorption of digested food in
to blood vessels.
Digestion end product of protein is amino acids and butter (fat) is fatty acids and glycerol entering
in to small intestine to store for short times and absorptions in to blood.
5. Large intestine
 Its main function is absorption of water and formation of faces.
 Undigested food substances are unusable by cells and removed out through anus which is the
last part of gut. This type of process is defecation (removal of wastes from body parts
(egestion).
Exercise 4.6:- Answer the following questions
1. In your groups record and Labelle the various parts of alimentary canal from the chart when your teacher show you.
2. Brainstorming on how food move through alimentary canal and discuss in groups.
3. Students look their friend‟s teeth and determine their function, types and numbers.
4. Briefly discuss on parts of alimentary canal.
5. Students observe on associated glands of alimentary canal and their functions from the charts.

4.4.3. Major Diseases of Digestive System

The organs of digestive systems are can be affected by disease causing pathogens. There are a numbers
of diseases and some of them are:-
4.4.3.1. Constipations
If the faces in the large intestine stay too long, too much water absorption will take place and it
cause constipations.
The most common causes are lack of fiber food (roughage) and not drinking of enough water.
Roughage:-fibrous indigestible material in vegetable foodstuffs which aids the passage of food and
waste products through the gut
Prevention
Eating food which has more roughage gives the gut muscle work on.
Drinking sufficient amount of water.
4.4.3.2. Diarrhea
It is also called watery faeces.
It caused by an infectious of the gut & then the gut more contracts strongly & hardly than the usual.
It can cause dehydration.
Prevention
Treat patients by giving enough water salt to replace the loss fluid.
Stool examination and early treatment by the proper medicines.

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4.4.3.3. Hemorrhoids
Are swollen veins in your lower rectum.
Internal hemorrhoids are usually painless, but tend to bleed.
External hemorrhoids may cause pain.
Hemorrhoids also called piles are swollen veins in your anus and lower rectum.
Prevention
To prevent hemorrhoids and reduce symptoms of hemorrhoids, eat high-fiber foods.
Eat more fruits, vegetables and whole grains, drink plenty of fluids and
do regular exercise.
4.4.3.4. Gastritis
Is an inflammation, irritation, or erosion of the lining of the stomach.
It can occur suddenly (acute) or gradually (chronic).
Prevention
Gastritis can be prevented by avoiding known trigger foods,
quitting smoking,
managing and reducing stress,
avoiding alcohol,
maintaining a healthy weight,
avoiding abuse of over-the-counter pain medications.
Chronic:-happening or existing frequently or most of the time.
Acute:- very serious, strong, sensitive or dangerous.
4.4.3.5. Peptic ulcer disease
Peptic ulcer disease is a condition in which painful sores or ulcers develop in the lining of the
stomach
or the first part of the small intestine.
Normally, a thick layer of mucus protects the stomach lining from the effect of its digestive juices.
Prevention
Avoid tobacco products and alcohol.
Don‘t ignore your ulcer symptoms.
Protect yourself from infections by washing hands regularly and
Consuming foods that have been cooked thoroughly.
Exercise 4.7: Part I:-Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. One organism have I=3/3 C=2/2 P=3/3 M=2/2. Then what is the total number of teeth?
A. 34 B. 38 C. 40 D. 30
2. Which one is a chemical produced in stomach?
A. Bile B. HCl C. H2SO4 D. Amylase
3. Removing of acid from stomach is called _______
A/ Emulsification C/ Neutralization
B/ Acidification D/ All
Part II:-Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
4. Which of the following part of teeth is the hardest?
A. Enamel C. Canines
B. Incisors D. Molars
5. In the dental formula , the total number of premolars is
A. 4 B. 8 C. 12 D. 16
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6. Which association is correct about a tooth?
A. Enamel-covers the crown C. Pulp cavity – covers the gum
B. Dentine – the hardest structure D. Crown –contains blood vessels
7. What are the front chisels shaped teeth of humans?
A. Molars B. Canines C. Premolars D. Incisors
8. The total number of a mammal having a dental formula, I=0/2, C=1/1, P=3/3 and, M=3/3
A. 16 B. 26 C. 32 D. 34
9. The greater part of the tooth is made up of :
A. Pulp cavity B. Dentine C. Enamel D. Root cannel
10. The dental formula for the dog is I=3/3, C=1/1, P=4/4 & M= 2/3. How many teeth are there in the lower
jaw?
A. 22 B. 20 C. 11 D. 42
11. Which of the following types of teeth function as scissors?
A. Molars B. Premolars C. Canines D. Incisors
12. Types of teeth with the widest upper surface are:
A. Molars B. Premolars C. Canines D. Incisors
13. The shapes of teeth in humans is related to their:
A. size B. location C. function D. A and B
14. The dental formula of mammal is representing the number and type of:
A. teeth in one half of the upper jaws C. full set of teeth in the mouth
B. teeth in one half of the lower jaws D. A and B only
15. Which of the following shows the formula for incisors in the dental formula of an adult human?
A. 1/1 B. 2/2 C. 3/3 D. 4/4
16. If a given mammal has a dental formula of 0/3, 2/2, 2/3, 3/3, how many total teeth does the animal have?
A. 26 B. 36 C. 46 D. 56
17. Which of the following types of human teeth function as scissors and pincers in respectively?
A. Incisors –Canines C. Premolars - molars
B. Canines – incisors D. Incisors _Premolars
18. Which of the types of teeth are not found in a six years old baby?
A. Incisors B. Canines C. Molars D. Premolars
19. All of the following biological processes are involved in the human feeding except---
A. Ingestion B. Digestion C. Absorption D. Inhalation
20. Which of the following is the role of hydrochloric acid secreted by the wall of the stomach?
A. Controls the action of sphincter muscle at the entrance of stomach
B. Creates conductive environment for the action of pepsin.
C. Facilitates the digestion of lipids in the stomach.
D. Breaks down carbohydrates in the smaller sugar molecules.
21. Which of the following services as an excretory organ in your body?
A. Pancreas B. Liver C. Heart D. Lung
22. Which one of the following enzymes is active in the stomach?
A. Amylase B. Lipase C. Pepsin D. Trypsin
23. Which one of the following is different from the rest?
A. Maltase C. Pepsin
B. Lactase D. Sucrose
24. Which part of the digestive system given below can produce digestive juice?
A. Esophagus C. Rectum
B. Large intestine D. Small intestine

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25. Which of the following is correct about the stomach?
A. It produce lipase enzyme
B. Digested food is absorbed through its wall
C. The condition inside it is acidic
D. It produces carbohydrate digesting enzymes.
26. Which one of the following part of the alimentary canal does not produce any kind of digestive
enzyme?
A. Mouth C. Small intestine
B. Stomach D. Large intestine
27. The lining of the stomach is protected from digestive enzymes by
A. Mucus membrane C. Bone tissue
B. Muscular tissues D. Plasma membrane
28. In our body most of the digestive processes are completed in the—
A. Mouth C. Small intestine
B. Stomach D. Large intestine
29. Which of the following protein digesting enzymes is found in our stomach?
A. Hydrochloric acid C. Pepsin
B. Erepsin D. Trypsin
30. The longest part of the alimentary canal in human is
A. Esophagus C. Small intestine
B. Stomach D. Large intestine
31. The process by which soluble food pass through the wall of the small intestine in to the bloods
vessels is called
A. Ingestion C. Absorption
B. Digestion D. Egestion
32. Digestion in the stomach is limited to ---
A. Carbohydrates C. Fats
B. Proteins D. Vitamins &minerals
33. Which of the following enzymes begins digestion of meat?
A. Pepsin C. Ptyalin
B. Maltase D. Pancreatic amylase
34. The main region of the alimentary canal where food is absorbed is—
A. Stomach C. Ileum
B. Duodenum D. Large intestine
35. Which of the following is part of the small intestine?
A. Ileum B. Rectum C. Colon D. Anus
Part II:- Explain briefly the following questions

36. Where does digestion start in human?

37. What will be undigested food molecules?
38. What types of digestion take place in stomach? Why?
39. List and discuss on digestive system diseases in your groups from your personal experiences.
40. Give assignments to draw diagrams of human alimentary canal and label each part.

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4.5. Respiratory System
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 distinguish the major structural components of human respiratory system;
 describe the main functions of human respiratory system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human respiratory system.
Introduction
In single cell and small living organisms like amoeba and paramecium, oxygen diffuse from the air or
water in to the cell. In other ways carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cell. But in larger organisms like
human, diffusion of oxygen from air is enough.
Breathing is a process of bring oxygen into organism‘s body (inhalation) and removal of the waste
carbon dioxide (exhalation) from the body to the environments.
4.5.1. Structural Components of Respiratory System
The human respiratory systems have well developed and adapted structures for breathing of air. They
have nose with large surface area, good blood supply, lots of hair and mucus.
 The hair: filter out dust particles and pathogens from inhaled air.
 The large surface area: used to moist the air and increases the humidity of the air.
 The mucus: filter inhaled air and collects bacteria and dust particles.
 Good blood supply: helps to warm the air that we inhale into the body.
Organs of breathing include:
1. Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli, Lung etc.
2. The trachea which is one part of the respiratory organs has series of incomplete rings of cartilage
(which are C shaped) that used to support it and hold it open.
3. They are incomplete so that you can swallow your food
4. Inhalation: - taking oxygen into the body.
5. Exhalation:-removal of carbon dioxide out of body.
6. Cellular respiration:- combination of food and oxygen inside the body

4.5.2. Functions of Respiratory System

Respiration is the process by which a body gets and uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and
water. Respiration is divided into two parts.
 The first part is breathing which involves inhaling and exhaling.
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 The second part is cellular respiration, which involves chemical reactions or burning of food by
oxygen that release energy from food.
 Pharynx- is the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the
esophagus.
 Larynx- the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal
cords in humans and other mammals.
 Trachea- a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to
the bronchial tubes.
 Bronchus- any of the major air passages of the lungs that diverge from the windpipe or trachea.
 Bronchioles: are smaller tubes branching from each bronchus in the lung.
 Alveoli- are any of the many tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
 Lung- is to provide a place where oxygen can reach the blood and carbon dioxide be removed. The
shape of the lung can be controlled by the relaxation and contraction of the diaphragm and
intercostal muscle.
Activity 4.9:
1. Observe and record various labeled parts of respiratory tract.
2. Discuss on parts of respiratory systems and present for class mate students.
3. Discuss on roles of hair, cartilaginous rings of trachea and alveoli.
4. List and discuss on respiratory disease from your personal experiences in groups.
5 Give students an assignment to draw a diagram of human respiratory tract, label with the major parts, and submit it
individually.
4.5.3. Major Diseases of Respiratory System
Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and
pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism,
tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as COVID-19.
4.5.3.1.Asthma-
Asthma is the chronic lung disease or disorders that are marked by recurring episodes of airway
obstruction manifested by labored breathing.
 It accompanied especially by wheezing and coughing and by a sense of constriction in the chest
and that is triggered by hyper reactivity to various stimuli.
4.5.3.2.Sinusitis-
Sinusitis is a pain full swelling of the tissues inside the sinus or nose.
 It can be due to infections, allergies, or autoimmune problems.
 It is also an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the Para nasal sinuses.
4.5.3.3.Influenza-
 Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system your nose, throat and lungs.
 Influenza is commonly called the flu, but it‘s not the same as stomach ―flu‖ viruses that cause
diarrhea and vomiting.
4.5.3.4.Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD
 COPD:- refers to a group of diseases that cause airflow blockage and breathing-related problems.
 It includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Mainly it can be caused by smoking cigarette.
4.5.3.5.Bronchitis-

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 Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from
your lungs.
Exercise 4.8 Part I: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is used to filter inhaled air
A. Mucus B. Blood C. Hair D. A & C
2. Breathing through nose is better than breathing through_______
A. Lung B. Trachea C. Mouth D. Esophagus
3. One of the following is parts of respiratory organs
A. Large intestine C. Bronchi
B. Stomach D. Liver
4. Large membrane tube reinforced by ring of cartilage is _____
A. Larynx B. Trachea C. Pharynx D. Alveoli
5. Millions of air sacs in lung are called ________
A. Alveoli B. Bronchus C. Blood vessel D. All
Part II:- Explain briefly the following questions
6. What are the functions of alveoli in respiration?
7. Discus in your groups on how the human lung gets oxygen and carbon dioxide and present for
other groups.
8. List the respiratory disease and their causes.
9. Discuss in detail about the transmission of COVID 19 and present the results for the class mate.
4.6. Circulatory System
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 distinguish the major structural components of human circulatory system;
 describe the main functions of human circulatory system;
 identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human circulatory system.

Circulatory system is the systems of transports substances in the body of an organism.

 Mainly these systems are used to transport air, food, mineral, vitamin, and other liquid materials
and solutions between cells in the body.
 They also used to transport the waste materials in order to remove in to the outside.
4.6.1. Components of Circulatory System
 The blood can flow from the organ heart to the other body parts by blood vessel.
 The contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle can pump blood from heart to different body
part.
 In human being there are two different types of blood circulation systems which are so called
double circulations. These are:
1. Systematic circulations: blood flows between hearts and other body parts.
2. Pulmonary circulations: the blood flows between only heart and lungs.

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4.6.2. Functions of Circulatory System
Blood circulation systems consist of the three elements that are:
 heart,
 blood vessel and
 Blood.
In circulation systems the left side of the heart is always pump oxygenated blood while the right side
of the heart receives the deoxygenated blood.
A/ Heart
It is the muscular blood pumping organ which made from involuntary muscles which is called cardiac
muscle. Heart has four chambers.
 Right atrium: upper parts of the heart and carry deoxygenated blood to lung. It has thin wall.
 Left atrium: it is also the upper parts of the heart.
 It used to receive oxygenated blood from lung and pump to left ventricle.
 Right ventricle: lower chamber and pumps deoxygenated blood in to the lung.
 Left ventricles: it pumps the blood at long distance of the body because of these it has thicker and
muscular walls.
 Inside the heart the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood cannot be mixes together because
 The heart chamber can be separated by valves.
 Valves are the structures that used to prevent the back flow of the blood.

Figure 4.6. The parts of human circulatory systems

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Pathway of oxygenated blood flow:-
Lung Pulmonary Vein Left Atrium Left Ventricle Aorta Body Tissue.
Pathway of deoxygenated blood:-
Body Vena Cava Right Atrium Right Ventricle Pulmonary Artery Lung.
B/ Blood vessel
They are the pathway through which transportation of substances take place in the body. Based on
their functions there are three major groups of blood vessels.
1. Artery: used to carry blood away from the heart in to different body parts.
 They have thick and elastic wall.
 Except pulmonary artery and umbilical artery all artery carry oxygenated blood.
2. Vein: used to return the blood back to the heart.
 Most of them carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein and umbilical vein.
3. Capillaries: used to connect artery and vein and carry blood to the tissues and cells.
 They are narrow and thin wall blood vessel.
C/ Blood
 The blood is one of the three elements of circulations.
 It is a fluid tissue that used to carry nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolic wastes and other
substances.
 Blood made from 45% solid and 55% liquid which is called plasma.
 The liquid parts of the blood plasma are composed of 90% water and the remaining 10% is
dissolved substances such as amino acid and glucose.
 The solid part of the blood is made from the three types of blood cell.
Characteristics Red blood cells (RBC) White blood cells (WBC) Platelets
Scientific name Erythrocytes Leucocytes Thrombocytes
Shape Circular, biconcave, disk-shape Irregularly shape Biconvex shape.
Nucleus Non-nucleated Nucleated Non-nucleated
Smaller 6.2-8.2 µm in Larger RBC 12-17 µm in
Size Smallest 2-3µm in diameter
diameters. diameters.
Red due to the presences of
Color Colorless Colorless
hemoglobin pigment
Transport oxygen and carbon Prevent the body from disease Blood clotting when blood
Function
dioxide in human body causing pathogens. vessel is cut or damage.
4.6.3. Major Diseases of Circulatory System
There are different types of disease or disorders which affect the human circulation systems. Some of
the diseases are:
1. Hypertensions: it is also called high blood pressures. It caused by
 Age,
 Obesity,
 High salt consumption,
 Drug addiction,
 Stress,
 Kidney problem,
 Diabetes, etc.

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But it can treat by:
 Less consumption of salt and fat,
 Regular exercise,
 Avoiding the use of drugs,
 Regularly checkup in nearest clinic etc.
2. Heart attack:-
 Occurs when blood stops flowing to a part of the heart and
 The heart muscle is injured because of not receiving enough oxygen.
3. Strokes:-
 A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of your brain is interrupted or reduced,
 Preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen.
4. Heart failure:-
 is a chronic, progressive condition in which the heart muscle is unable to pump enough blood
to meet the body‘s needs for blood and oxygen.
Exercise 4.9:
Part I: - choose the correct one among the given four alternatives for the following questions
1. Which chamber of heart pump blood to the body
A. Left atrium C. Right atrium
B. Left ventricle D. Right ventricle
2. In pulmonary circulation blood flow from ______ to _______
A. Body to heart C. Heart to lung
B. Lung to heart D. B & C
3. Which blood vessels carry oxygenated blood from heart to body?
A. Platelets B. Vein C. Artery D. All
4. The only vein that carry oxygenated blood is called ________
A. Umbilical vein C. Pulmonary vein
B. Large vein D. A & C
Part II: describe briefly
5. What are the functions of blood circulations?
6. List elements of blood circulation, with their functions.
7. Describe parts of circulatory systems
8. Explain types of blood cell, heart chamber and reason of partitions.
9. Discuss the role of heart, blood vessel, blood and blood cells.
10. Explain the circulatory diseases.
4.7. Reproductive System
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. distinguish the major structural components of human reproductive system;
2. distinguish between the primary and secondary sexual characteristics;
3. describe the main functions of human reproductive system;
4. identify secondary sexual characteristics of males and females;
5. explain the concept of menstruation and menstrual cycle;
6. identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human reproductive system;

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Introduction
The unicellular organisms have no reproductive organs as they are made up of one cell. They are
smaller in size than the smallest animal and plant cell. However, most types of multicellular organisms
that reproduce sexually have distinct male and female reproductive organs.
4.7.1. Male and Female Reproductive Organs
The reproductive cells of human produced by male and female gonads, respectively, are sperm cells
and egg cells.
 When these sperm cells and egg cells unite together during sexual intercourse they produce
offspring.
A. Male reproductive organ
The human male reproductive system consists of the
1. Testes and other sex organs like 5. Vas deferens,
2. Penis, 6. Seminal vesicles
3. Scrotum, 7. Prostate glands, and
4. Urethra 8. Cowper‘s glands.

Figure 4.7. The structure of Male reproductive Organs

4.7.2. Functions of Male Reproductive Structures
Testes: are two male reproductive glands. In addition to sperm cells, testes produce the sex hormone,
testosterone.
Penis
 Is an erectile cylindrical organ for sexual intercourse.
 It ejaculates /transfer/ semen (sperm cells and fluid) to female uterus.
Scrotum
 A sac like structure on the lower end of the peins.
 It ventilates the testes to have lower temperature than the other body parts.
 Favours the maturation of sperms.
Seminiferous tubules
 These tubules lined with Germinal epithelium cells that produce sperm cells
Epididymis
 Is a collide tubules situated at the outside surface of the each testes
 It stores sperm cells for maturations
Vas deference/ sperm duct.
 Is a long tube extending from each epididymis to the urethra.
 Transportation of sperm cells mixed with a fluid.
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Prostate glands:
 Are small glands at the base of the urinary bladder.
 Produce alkaline fluid for sperm cells‘ motility through the vagina.
Cowper’s gland:
 Very small gland below the prostate.
 It secretes mucus to lubricate the end of penis and urethra.
Seminal vesicles:
 Are two small pouches behind the bladder.
 Expel stored nutrients during ejaculation.
 Help sperm cells movement.
Urethra:
 is a tube inside the penis to discharge sperm cells as semen during sexual intercourse.
 Pass out urine during urination.
Sperm: is a mass of male reproductive cells produced by the testis.
Semen: is a mixture of sperm cells and a watery secretion of
 Alkaline fluid from prostate glands.
 Lubricate mucus from Cowper’s gland.
 Nutrients from seminal vesicles.
Ejaculates: - release of sperm from male during sex.
The flows of sperm cells from inner to outer
Testes Seminiferous tubules Vas eference Epididymis Vas deference/ sperm duct Urethra Penis
B. Female reproductive organ
It consists of ovary and other structures such as
1. Vagina, 4. Fallopian tube,
2. Cervix 5. Clitoris, and
3. Uterus, 6. Vulva.

Figure 4.8. The structure of Female reproductive Organs

4.7.3. Function of Female Reproductive Structures
1. Ovaries: are two female reproductive glands made up of follicle cells, called graafian follicle to
produce ova or egg cells and sex hormones.
2. Vagina: used for sexual intercourse and serves as birth canal.
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3. Fallopian tube (oviduct):
 is a narrow tube from the ovary to uterus for movement of an egg and fertilization.
 It is a site for fertilization.
4. Uterus (womb):
 is wide muscular tube for implantation of the fertilized egg and development of an embryo.
 It is a site for pregnancy.
5. Cervix:
 is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus.
 It opens at the time of menstruation and child birth.
6. Clitoris: an erectile and sensitive tissue like a penis.
7. Vulva: is the external genital of the female reproductive system.
The flows of egg from inner to outer
Ovary Oviduct Uterus Cervix Vagina Vulva
Graafian follicle:-are ovarian follicles rounded enclosures for the developing ova in the cortex near
the surface of the ovary.
Activity 4.10: Discuss on the importance of reproduction in human and other organisms.
Procedures: - make a group in your class and discuss briefly and present your results in the class

The Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics

 Primary and secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that make males and females
look and behave differently from each other in certain species, including humans.
 Primary sexual characteristics are those that are present at birth.
 Primary sexual characteristics are being of maleness and femaleness.
 Secondary sexual characteristics appear during puberty.
Human and all other mammals are born with sex already determined.
 The males are born with the  The females are born with
o Penis o Vagina
o Testes o Ovaries
o Scrotum similarly o Uterus
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Reproduction is possible when one attains sexual maturity and this is shown by what we call the
secondary sexual characteristics. This occurs at puberty /adolescences and is displayed on the average
of 10-15 years.
 When the boy and girl are reach at puberty age the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
pituitary gland stimulates the testis and ovary to produce male sex hormone Testosterone and
female sex hormone estrogen. These two hormones can promote the development of secondary
sexual characteristics of male and female.
Secondary sexual characteristics of male
Puberty in boys usually begins somewhere between the age of 9 and 15 years old because it control
by chemical change in body. The pituitary glands in human brain start to produce increasing amount
of FSH. In turn it stimulate the male gonad or testis to begin developing and producing the male sex
hormone testosterone. The rising of this hormone trigger many changes that affect body during
puberty, and cause the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

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Secondary sexual characteristics of females
 The girls go in to puberty stage in between the age of 8-14. FSH from pituitary stimulates ovaries
to become active and producing female sex hormone which is called estrogen.
 Female also have gonad which is called ovary.
 Ovaries are the two female gonads located in the abdomen.
 It is associated with fallopian tube (oviduct) and uterus but not directly attached to them.
 When estrogen level rise in female body, all kind of change take place and female secondary
sexual characteristics develop.
Common secondary sexual characteristics of males and females
 Adolescents become more questioning and independents.
 Develops of desire to the opposite sex
 Enlargement of Genital organs (penis and Vagina)
 Fast body growth and increase height& weight
 Feel young and insecure, confused and angry.
 Hair grow around pubic and armpits.
 Look beyond their family.
 Whole body undergoes the adolescence growth spurt and become tall.
The secondary sexual characteristics of males and females
In males In Females
 Occurs at the age of 14-18 years old  Occur at the age of 10-14 years old
 Larynx enlarges & cause voice deepens.  Voice becomes thinner/ high pitch sound.
 Broadening and widening of chest and shoulder
 Widening of hips & Enlargements of breast
 Testis begins to produce sperm cell & sex hormone
 Production of sex hormone (progesterone &
(Testosterone)
Estrogen)
 Nocturnal emission of sperm cells
 Egg matured and start of menstruations.
 Growth of body hair, and facial hair
 Waist become thinners
 Developed more muscles.
 Penis enlarges & its skin of penis and scrotum
becomes darken

Activity 4.11:
1. Briefly explain the difference between primary and secondary sexual characteristics with example.
2. Observe and label parts of reproductive systems of both sexs from the charts when your teachers show you and create
a table then list this organ with their functions and present for class mate students.
3. Students Discuss on bodily changes then compare and contrast in male and female.

4.7.4. Menstruation
What does it means menstruation?
Menstruation is removal of unfertilized dead eggs with blood through the vagina.
The menstrual cycle is a sequence of events which takes place approximately every four weeks
throughout the fertile life of women, which is from the age of puberty to around 45 years of age. The
cycle occurs normally unless the woman gets pregnant or Menopause (45-50 years of age).
 Menopause is the age when menstruation, ovulation & menstrual cycle stops and end of giving
birth in females.
 It takes place from the time of puberty to menopause.

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 At puberty stage of female the FSH hormone from pituitary gland in brain start the ova to develop.
FSH also make ovary to produce female hormone estrogen.
In turn it stimulates the uterus to build up thick, spongy lining with enough of blood vessel ready to
support a pregnancy.
About 14 days before the ova start ripening, one of them burst out of its follicle. This process is
called ovulation.
Ovulation is the process of releasing egg cells (ova) every month from ovary to fallopian tube. Ovulation
is the movements of egg from ovary to fallopian tubes.
After ovulation the hormone level begin to reduce.
The remaining of follicle forms the corpus luteum (yellow body) which secret hormone called
progesterone.
Estrogen and Progesterone:-female sex hormone produced during puberty.
Progesterone keeps the thick,
1. Developments in height and whole body structure.
2. Hair grow around pubic and armpits.
3. Egg matured and start of menstruations.
4. Feeling of independent and questioning.
5. Breast developments.
6. Widening of hips.
7. Voice becomes thinner.
Activity 4.12:
1. Discuss in your groups about the concepts of menstruation and menstrual cycle.
2.Make a group then list and discuss many reproductive diseases from your personal experiences & present in the class.

4.7.5. Reproductive Health

What is reproductive health?
 Reproductive health is the physical, mental, and social health status of an individual related to
reproductive system at all stages of life.
 Due to lack of knowledge, there are a number of reproductive health problems in our country.
 These problems mainly affect the reproductive health of women.
 The problems include female genital mutilation, early marriage, rape, illegal abortion and
sexually transmitted infections.
1. Female genital mutilation (FGM)
 FGM is known by different names like female genital cutting and female circumcision.
 It is partial or total removal of the female genitalia.
 It is a harmful traditional practice which violates the right of girls and women.
2. Early marriage
Early marriage is marriage of children, mostly females, under 18 years of age which is practiced in some
communities.
The negative consequences of early marriage on women’s and girls’ reproductive health include
 Maternal deaths,  Infections with HIV.  Social problems.
 Fistula,  Psychological and
3. Rape
 Rape: is a practice in which human beings, most commonly females, are forced, intimidated or deceived
into the act of sexual intercourse.
 Act of rape is done without the will of the other partner.
 Rape, the fear of rape has significantly affected the lives of the victims.

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 o First, rape may affect the mental condition by causing depression
o Secondly may cause infections or physical damage.
Activity 4.13
1. Discus on how you prevent STDs.
2. Briefly describe the impacts of HIV on the society and community
Procedures:- list the discussion and then present in class.
4. Sexually transmitted diseases/STD
Sexually transmitted diseases are the disease that can be transmitted from infectious person to
healthy person during sexual contacts.
Some of these diseases are:
1. HIV/AIDS
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes the disease AIDS or Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome. So far, for this disease, caused by HIV and those damages the immune system
white blood cell specially T-cell, there is no cure or vaccine.
Basically, the high-risk groups include
 Homosexual men and women,
 Intravenous drug users,
 Sex workers, and Hemophiliacs; as well as the sexual partners of persons in these groups.
HIV virus mainly transmitted from infected to healthy person by four ways. These are during
 breast milk,
 sharing of contaminated needles,
 Unprotected sexual intercourse and from infected mother to baby during birth.
Prevention
Biological knowledge is quite important for controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS.
1. Creating awareness in the community about the issues related to responsible sexual behavior.
2. Applying ABC rules about the situation of STDs
A=abstain from sex, the most effective method is abstain from sex before marriage
B =be faithful to one sexual partner
C =condoms
2. Gonorrhea
 Gonorrhea is the other types of STDs and caused by bacterium which called Neisseria
gonorrhea.
 These bacteria are found on mucus area of body such as vagina, penis, throat and rectum.
 It transmitted during unsafe sexual intercourse.
Symptoms
 The symptoms are may appear after a week and
 It is burning sensation during urination and yellowish discharges from reproductive organ.
 If pregnant women are not treated, gonorrhea transmitted to her bay and cause blindness.
Preventions
 At the early stage it can be treated by the use of antibiotics.
 Remove sexual intercourse after infected until completely treatment.
 But the effective prevention methods are the respect of ABC methods.
3. Chancroids
 It is a disease which caused by Hemophilus ducreyi bacteria.
 Chancroid is the most common types of disease for men.
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  It increased risk of HIV/ AIDS.
Symptoms
 Its symptoms are occurs in two stages of first and second stage.
 These are ulcer elation on reproductive organs, bleeding and painful of ulcers, swollen gland
filled with pus, and may cause of loss of penis or groin.
Prevention
In first stage it prevented by the use of antibiotics but in addition to this it prevented by:
 good sanitation mechanisms,
 accepting and using of ABC rules,
 Appropriate use of drugs which are prescribed and check up in clinic.
4. Syphilis
 It is one of the most too dangerous STDs.
 It caused by bacterium called Treponema palladium.
 It is common for the adult age of human.
 It transmitted by unsafe sexual intercourse.
 It also transmitted from mother to her fetus.
Symptoms
The symptoms of syphilis have different stages.
 At the first stage, there is Painless sore on penis, vagina, mouth and rectum.
 At the second stage, Tiredness, fever, sore on throat, headaches, loss of appetite, etc.
 Finally change to irreversible problems, like illness of skin, bone, brain, and other organ.
Preventions
The prevention methods of syphilis are the same as to the other prevention methods of sexually
transmitted disease.
Exercise 4.10: Part I:- choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. Male sex hormone that produced during puberty stage is known as _______
A. Estrogen B. Progesterone C. Testosterone D. None
2. Which of the following is female reproductive cell
A. Sperm B. Egg C. Ovary D. Penis
3. The male gonad is called _______
A. Testes B. Ovary C. Testosterone D. Estrogen
4. The monthly discharge of blood through vagina is called______
A. Ovulation B. Ejaculation C. Excretion D. Menstruation
5. One of the following is reproductive diseases, which one
A. Syphilis B. Gonorrhea C. Chancroids D. HIV E.All

REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT FOUR

Part I: Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Which of the following is larger organ of the body?
A. Ligament B. Skin C. Bone D. Joints
2. Which layer of skin is external?
A. Hypodermis B. Dermis C. Epidermis D. All
3. The parts of the skin that store energy is ________
A. Epidermis B. Dermis C. Upper layers D. Hypodermis
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4. One of the following is not layers of hair?
A. Medulla B. Cortex C. Matrix D. Cuticle
5. ______ is the gland which secret oil in to hair follicles
A. Sebaceous B. Ceruminous C. Thyroids D. All
6. Which of the following are skin disease?
A. Rosacea B. Hives C. Warts D. All
7. Which of the following are self -care for skin disease?
A. Washing with cool water
B. Applying cool compresses
C. Limiting contact with common allergies
D. Applying calamine lotion E. All
8. ________ is the weakest type of muscle
A. Skeletal muscle C. Heart muscle
B. Smooth muscle D. All
9. Which of the following is called musculoskeletal systems?
A. Circulatory B. Respiratory C. Digestive D. Skeletal
10. ______ is hard and compact with yellow bone marrow
A. Long bone B. Short bone C. Flat bone D. None
11. The following one is parts of one of axial skeleton
A. Skull C. Thoracic cage
B. Hyoid D. All
12. ______ bone is composed of scapula and clavicle
A. Hip bone B. Limb bone C. Shoulder D. Appendage
13. The place where two bone meet together are called _______
A. Ligament B. Scapula C. Joints D. Tendon
Part II: Fill the blank space
14. The mouth has the cavity called_____
15. The major function of alimentary canal is_______
16. _____ is parts of teeth which are found above the gum.
17. _______ is the living layer under the tooth enamel.
18. The two important functions of bile are _______and ________
19. Breathing through the nose is better because _______ __________ ___________ __________
20. A millions of tiny air sacs that used to for exchange of gas in the lung is called _________
21. The two types of blood circuits are _________ and __________
22. Blood vessel that carry oxygenated blood is called ________
23. _______ is male sex organ that produces sperm cells.
24. The flow of blood from vagina approximately every four weeks are called _____
Parts III:-write short answer
25. How can you prevent yourself from different types of STDs?
Additional Multiple questions
1 Primary sexual characteristic of males do NOT include the presence of
A Testis B Scrotum C Penis D Sperm cells
2 Secondary sexual characteristics of females do NOT include the presence of
A Breast Enlargement C Ovum Production
B Voice Deepening D Pubic Hair
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 3 Which parts of the male and female reproductive system are equivalent?
A Testes and ovaries C Vas deferens and uterus
B Penis and cervix D Urethra and clitoris
4 Which of the following parts of reproductive structure are concerned with sex cells‘ transport?
A Vagina and epididymis C Uterus and urethra
B Fallopian tube and vas deferens D All of the above
5 Menstrual cycles involves the processes of
A Ovulation B Menstruation C Ejaculation D A and B
6 In humans, menstrual cycle normally takes place:
A In all adult females C During pregnancy
B Every 28 days D During menopause
7 During fertilization,
A. Zygote is formed C Egg cell disintegrates
B. Embryo is formed D All of the above.
8 All birth control methods are
A equally efficient to prevent fertilization C designed to prevent unwanted pregnancy
B used to kill sperm cell D without side effects.
9 The factor for reproductive health problem that involves cutting female genitals is:
A FGM C Rape
B STI D Illegal abortion
10 Reproductive healths are essential for young‘s to decide the right time for:
A marriage C having a partner
B giving birth D all of the above
11. The ovary produces
A. Sperm cells and ova C. Testosterone and Progesterone
B. Mucus and follicle stimulating hormone D. Female gametes and sex hormone
12. Which of the following is an example of male secondary sexual characteristics?
A. Enlargement of breast C. Widening of hips
B. Starting of menstruation D. Nocturnal emission
13. Sperm and egg in mammals normally unit in the:
A. Uterus C. Vagina
B. Oviduct D. Ovary
14. Suppose a woman has a regular menstrual cycle. If her menstruation begins on Ginbot 10, the process of
ovulation expected to occur in the days between
A. Ginbot 10-14 C. Sene 1-4
B. Ginbot 21-26 D. Sene 10-14
15. During pregnancy, the process of ovulation is prevented by the hormone called ---------
A. Progesterone C. Follicle stimulation hormone
B. Testosterone D. Luteinizing hormone
16. Which one of the following matched correctly?
A. Seminal vesicles – releases sex hormones C. Vas differences –transport eggs
B. Scrotum –produce sperm cells D. Epididymis – store male gamete
17. Which one of the following does NOT affect the reproductive health of a woman?
A. Early marriage C. Illegal abortion
B. Abstinence from sexual activity D. Female genital mutilation
18. What is fertilization? It is the
A. Union of sperm cells and an egg cells C. Growth of the embryo in the fallopian tube
B. Development of sperm cells in males D. Production of progesterone by the placenta

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1 9.The primary sexual characteristics include
A. The growth of hair on the face in males C. The presence of penis and testes in males
B. The production of egg cells in females D. The enlargement of genital organs in females
20. The male reproductive structure that helps lower the temperature of the testes is
A. Epididymis C. Penis
B. Scrotum D. Prostate gland
21. Contraceptives pills help in birth control by
A. Preventing growth of the embryo C. Preventing the implantation processes
B. Blocking the passage of the sperm D. Preventing the process of ovulation
22. Which of the following is true about the menstrual cycle?
A. It takes a longer time after menopause C. Its secretory phase involves loss of blood
B. It starts in females at puberty D. It takes a shorter time during pregnancy
23. Which of the following secondary sexual characteristics is common for males and females?
A. Deepening of voice C. Widening of hips
B. Enlargement of breast D. Fast body growth
24. In which part of a human reproductive systems fertilization takes places?
A. Oviduct B. Ovary C. Cervix D. Uterus
25. Which of the following processes found in human reproductive system is different from the other?
A. Fertilization C. Menstruation
B. Ejaculation D. Ovulation
26. Which of the following hormones is responsible to maintain secondary sexual characteristics in males?
A. Adrenalines C. Progesterone
B. Estrogen D. Testosterone
27. Which of the following is true about menopause? Menopause is the age that marks the:
A. End of giving birth in males C. Beginning of menstruation
B. End of giving birth in females D. Beginning of sperm cell production
28. An example of secondary sexual characteristics of males and females is:
A. Menstrual cycle C. Enlargement of genital organs
B. widening of chest and shoulder D. Deepening of voices
29. Which of these is matched correctly?
A. Testis - Ovum C. Prostate gland – alkaline fluid
B. Ovary – Testosterone D. Urethra – progesterone
30. The end of fertility in the reproductive cycle of human female is known as:
A. Adolescences C. Menstruation
B. Puberty D. Menopause
31. Which of the following is true about sperm cells?
A. Sperms cells are released once every 28 days C. Many sperms cells fertilized an egg
B. A sperm cells is fertilized an egg D. production of sperm cells stops at the age of 50
33. In the reproductive system of the human male, the tube that services as a passage for both the semen & urine is
A. Urethra C. Vas deferens
B. Ureter D. Epididymis
34. Suppose a woman has a regular menstrual cycle. If she decides to avoid pregnancy using her menstrual
cycle and if her menstruation begins on sene 12, she should avoid sexual intercourse in the days between:
A. Hamle 12-14 C. sene 16-18
B. Sene 23-28 D. Sene 12-15
34. Early marriage may cause all of the following EXCEPT:
A. maternal death C. Infection with HIV
B. fistula D. Breast cancer
35. Which of the following are examples of male primary sexual characteristics?
A. Uterus & Ovaries C. Pubic hair & enlargement of breast
B. Widening of cheats & shoulder D. Testes & Scrotum
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36. Which of the following is the correct pathway of sperm cells during sexual intercourse?
A. Epididymis, Testes, Vas deferens, Urethra C. Testes, Epididymis, Vas deferens, Urethra
B. Epididymis, Vas deferens, Testes, Urethra D. Testes, Urethra, Epididymis, Vas deferens
37. The process of fertilization takes places in the -----
A. Uterus B. Ovary C. Oviduct D. Cervix
28. Which of the following happens during pregnancy?
A. The wall of the uterus breaks down C. The levels Progesterone drops
B. An egg cell is released to fallopian tube D. The menstrual cycle stops
29. Which of the following are female sex hormones?
A. Progesterone & Estrogen C. Follicle stimulating hormones & Estrogen
B. Testosterone & Luteinizing hormone D. Progesterone & Testosterone
30. Pregnancy is possible if sexual intercourse takes places :
A. Before Puberty C. After using Pills
B. After menopause D. After Ovulation
31. Which of the following is NOT a harmful traditional practice?
A. Early marriage C. Female genital mutilation
B. Contraception D. Illegal abortion
32. Which of the following structure is associated with the human male reproductive system?
A. Seminiferous C. Endometrium
B. Graafain follicle D. Fallopian tube
33. In human, female fertilization takes place in :
A. Uterus C. Oviduct
B. Follicle D. Cervix
35. Which of the following sexual transmitted diseases can be damage every organ in the body including the
brain if not treated properly?
A. Gonorrhea C. Trichomoniasis
B. Chancroid D. Syphilis
35. In which of the human female reproductive organ does normal fertilization occur?
A. Uterus C. Vagina
B. Oviduct D. Cervix
36. Which of the following contraceptive methods prevents the implantation of the early embryo?
A. The Intra Uterine Device /IUD/ C. Sterilization
B. The diaphragm D. The mixed pill
37. The traditional belief behind female mutilation is that, it
A. avoids infection throughout their life.
B. increases the fertility of individuals
C. keeps girls clean and gets acceptance by men for marriage.
D. allows easy delivery of child during birth

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 UNIT FIVE
ECOSYSTEM AND CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES=35P
Introduction
Environments are a place where organisms are found. In this unit you will learn about ecosystems and
their components and also for types of interaction in that ecosystem. So ecosystems are the place
which contains both biotic and abiotic components. In ecosystems there are interaction between
organisms and their environments.
5.1.Ecosystem and Interactions =12 Periods
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 define ecosystem and components of ecosystem;
 identify and describe the types of biological interactions of organisms in an ecosystem;
 construct simple food chain and explain its components;
 differentiate between food chain and food web;
 distinguish between the different components of food chain;
 describe the role of nutrient recycling in nature;
 explain how energy flows from producers to consumers;
 explain why nutrients are said to recycle while energy flows (does not recycle).

What is an ecosystem?
Environment is the sum of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components in a given habitat.
Different types of living organisms can be interacts one another and with non-living things in their
habitats for the purpose of survive. The interactions are studied by science called ecology.
Ecology is branch of biology that study about the interaction between organisms and their habitat.
5.1.1. Definition and Components of Ecosystem
Ecosystems involve all organisms in the given habitat and their interactions between their physical
environments. Ecosystems can be affected by living (biotic) and nonliving things or physical
components (abiotic) of an environment. The main physical components that are vital for all form of
living organisms are water, sunlight, air, temperatures, and others. Therefore an ecosystem has two
major components are biotic and abiotic.
1. Biotic components
These components include all living organisms living in particular ecosystems like plant, animal,
bacteria, algae etc.
1.1.Types of biological interactions
Each organism is the parts of other organism‘s environments thus they interact in various ways. These
interactions of organism can be intraspecific or interspecific.
1. Intra-specific interaction
 These types of interaction occur between the same species.
 These may be for competition for food, territory, and for finding mate.

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Examples: lion and lion, birds with birds for food.

2. Inter-specific interaction
These are the interaction between one groups of species with the other group of species for various
numbers of purpose. e.g. hyena and lion.

1.2.Symbiosis:
Symbiosis is any type of biological association between two or more different organisms that living
in close physical association. . The association could be:
 Beneficial to both (+ +)
 Beneficial to one without benefiting/harmed/ to the other (0 +)
 Beneficial to one and harmed to the other (- +)
There are different types of symbiosis or biological interactions. These includes
A. Predation (- +): Feeding relationship between two animals in which:
 One is the killer - predator(+)beneficial
 One is killed - prey(-) harmed
 Predators are strong and skillful.
 Some are strictly carnivores. E.g. Lions and Tigers
 Some are omnivores. E.g. Bears
Characteristics of Predators
 Usually possess an excellent sense to find their prey
 Have special ability to capture the prey
o E.g. Predatory birds: possess outstanding eyesight
 Many species of predatory mammals have:
o Keen sense of smell that help locate their prey
o Many predators are very fast runner to catch their prey.

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Figure: A group of lion (pride) attacking a buffalo
B. Mutualism: the relationships in which both organisms are get benefitted and it is an obligatory
relationship.
Examples
 Plant-plant relationship (Lichen) : Algae and fungi association on the bark of trees
 Microorganisms-plants relationship (Rhizobium): N2 fixing bacteria which live in root nodules of
leguminous plants.
 Microorganisms-animal relationship: Termites and protozoa in the gut of termites.

C. Protocooperations:-the relation in which both organisms are benefitted but it is not obligatory
relationships. Example
 Animal- animal relationship: Crocodile and teeth cleaning birds.
 Animal-plant relationship: Flower and pollinating insects/bees/.

D. Commensalism: - in this relationship one organism is get benefit while the other is neither
benefited nor harmed.
Examples:
 Big tree and epiphytes.
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  Birds that follow large grazers, stir up insects and birds feed on insects.
 Remora fish attach itself to the underside of Shark and get:

E. Parasitism: - the relations in which one organism is benefited (the parasite) and the other is
harmed (host).
 In such relationship the host is the victim by providing food and shelter to the parasite.
 Parasites can be divided into two based on they were live related to the host.
Endo parasite: the parasite lives within the body of the host. Example:
 Tapeworm  Amoeba and
 Ascaris  Hookworm
Ecto parasite: the parasite lives on the outer body of the host. Example
 Bug  Fleas and
 Tick  Louse
F. Competition:-two populations compete for resources indirectly by efficient exploitation or directly
by physical forces.
 In this both populations are harmed. E.g sport man

Activity 5.1
1. Discuss on ecosystems and biological interaction.
2. Categories the components of ecosystems. In groups discuss on the following points
3. How do you understand ecosystem
4. Explain your summary about biological interactions.
5. Then present outcome of your discussion in the class

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2. Abiotic components
Abiotic are the physical or nonliving things that can affect the living condition of a given ecosystems.
Some of these components are
 Water,  Soil,  Others.
 Sunlight,  Temperature,
 Air,  Land topography and
A. Water:- is most important components of an ecosystems.
It serves as a habitat, sources of drinking water and for irrigation in farming activities.
B. Sunlight:- is primary source of energy for all life on earth during the process of photosynthesis by
green plants.
C. Air:-is the combination of different components of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and
water vapor.
D. Soil:-which mainly control the growth of vegetation by its fertility, pH level and other. It
determines the distribution of life in the ecosystems.
E. Temperatures:- it may be higher for some organisms and lower for other organism so greatly
affect organisms‘ distributions.
F. Land topography:-which may be the arrangements of land.
Exercise 5.1
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. ______ is used to sources of food for plant
A. Soil C. Topography
B. Temperature D. All
2. Which is not abiotic?
A. Temperature C. Plant
B. Water D. All
3. The students compare with other students in question and answers in order to get awards. Then this is what types of
interactions?
A. Mutualism C. Parasitism
B. Competition D. All
4. All types of animal can grouped in to _______
A. Heterotrophs C. Decomposers
B. Autotrophs D. None
5. The interaction between cat and rat is called ______
A. Parasitism C. Commensalism
B. Mutualism D. Predators
6. Which one of the following is NOT the nonliving factor affecting an ecosystem?
A. Light C. Wind
B. Fire D. Microorganism
7. Which of the following are biotic factors?
A. Bacteria and Plants C. Soil and temperature
B. Climate and Animals D. Light and water
8. Which of the following are physical factors of an ecosystem?
A. Climate and soil
B. Decomposers and soil
C. Producers and consumers
D. Plants and soil
9. Which of the following is the physical factor of an ecosystem?
A. Producers C. Primary and secondary consumer
B. Decomposers D. Soil
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10. The part of an ecosystem are:-
A. producer and consumer C. hosts and parasites
B. producer and decomposer D. living and nonliving things
11. The biological term of living together in a close association of two or more organisms of different species is called ----
A Parasitism C Symbiosis
B Commensalism D Predation
12. Parasitism is an association where
A one benefits while the other is harmed C neither benefits nor is harmed
B both benefits D none of the above
13. Ectoparasites are parasites that live
A within the host‘s body C both on the outer and within the host‘s body
B on the outer body D none of the above
14. One of the following is an example of mutual association between plants and plants
A. lichens C. crocodiles and birds
B. insects and bees D. none of the above
15. In a commensalism association
A one benefits while the other is harmed
B one benefits but the other neither benefits nor harmed
C both benefits
D none of the above
16. Which one of the following is an example of predator –prey relationship?
A. Tapeworm and human being C. Bird and cattle
B. Lion and zebra D. Tick and cattle
17. Which of the following statement is true about commensalism?
A. One organisms cannot live without the other
B. Both organisms benefit from the relation
C. One organism benefits while the other is unaffected
D. One organism kills and feeds up on the other
18. A relationship in which one organism is helped and another organism is neither helped nor hurt is called
A. Competition B. Commensalism C. Parasitism D. Mutualism
19. A form of symbiosis in which both organisms get benefit from the relation is
A. Commensalism B. Neutralism C. Parasitism D. Mutualism
20. A relationship between two species where one benefits while the other is unaffected is called
A. Mutualism B. Commensalism C. Parasitism D. Predation
21. Which of the following is an example of predation?
A. Relationship between bees and flowers C. Ticks living on the body of cattle
B. Tapeworm living in the body of humans D. A tiger killing a zebra
22. To which of the following group do fungi and bacteria belong?
A. Decomposers B. Scavengers C. Ectoparasites D. Predators
23. The interaction of Rhizobium with root nodules of plant is example of
A. Mutualism B. Predation C. Commensalism D. Parasitism
24. In commensalisms, the relationship of species ―A‖ and ―B‖ is such that
A. A and B are benefited C. A is benefited and B is not affected
B. A is benefited and B is harmed D. A and B. both are harmed
25. The association between lichens and acacia tree can be an example of
A. Predation B. Commensalism C. Mutualism D. Parasitism
26. Which type of biological relationship does the association between lichens growing on a tree refer?
A. Mutualism B. Commensalism C. Parasitism D. Saprophytes
27. What type of species interaction exists between the red fox and the muskrat living in the semen mountain national park?
A. Predator – Prey C. Competition
B. Host – Parasite D. Commensalism
28. What types of interspecific interaction exist between a Tiger and a Lion living in the Awash National Park of Ethiopia?
A. Mutualism C. Competitive predation
B. Parasitism D. Competition
29. The biological association between bacteria and leguminous plants is example of
A. Mutualism B. Commensalism C. Parasitism D. Predation
30. A biological association of two organisms where both benefit from the association is --------
A. Commensalism B. Parasitism C. Mutualism D. Scavengers
31. The relationship between a termite and a protozoon that live in the gut of the termites is an example of
A. Parasitism B. Commensalism C. Mutualism D. Ecosystem
32. Association of two different species where one is benefited and other is harmed is
A. Commensalism C. Mutualism
B. Saprophytism D. Parasitism
Part II: explain briefly the following questions.
33. Briefly explain the importance of biotic and abiotic factor for ecosystems.
34. Discus how ecosystems are affected by nonliving things.
35. Compare the advantage and disadvantage of biological interaction
36. Going to the school compounds and observe types of components.
5.1.2. Trophic (Feeding) Relationships
Based on the mode of nutrition living organisms can be grouped in to two major groups namely
autotrophs and heterotrophs organisms.
1. Autotrophs: are organisms which can synthesize their own energy from the raw materials in their
surrounding environments. They also classified as
A. Photoautotrophs:- use sunlight for primary sources of energy to synthesize organic food
materials. Also called producers because they are source of food for other.
 Examples: Green Plants, Algae and Photosynthetic Bacteria.
B. Chemoautotrophs:-these type of organisms release energy from simple chemical reactions.
 Examples: nitrifying bacteria and Methane bacteria
2. Heterotrophs: cannot make foods & feed on other organisms so called consumers. They are
 Herbivores,  Omnivores.
 Carnivores,  Scavengers
 Decomposer or
5.1.3. Food Chain and Food Web
Food chains
A food chain is the direct and simple feeding systems that involve the transfer of nutrient and energy.
 In food chain, the energy flows from one organism to the other organisms in one direction
autotrophs (producer) to heterotrophs (consumers).
 In the food chain each organisms occupies specific trophic level.
Trophic level:-a position in a food chain occupied by a group of organisms with similar feeding mode.
1. Producer (first trophic level):- all organisms directly or indirectly depend on first trophic level.
Sun is the main source of energy for all food chain.
2. Primary consumers (second trophic level): it contains herbivores and omnivores. They feed on
producers.
3. Secondary consumers (third trophic level): they are carnivores that mainly eat herbivores and
omnivores.
4. Tertiary consumers (fourth trophic level):- they are carnivores and mostly feed on other
carnivores.
Examples;- The wheat(producer) produce food by photosynthesis is eaten by goat. Then the goat eaten
by tigers. The tiger also eaten by lion.

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 Wheat Goat Wolf Lion
1st trophic level 2nd trophic level 3rd trophic level 4th trophic level
Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers
Food web
Food web is too complex feeding interrelation among the organisms which consists of many food
chains. It is differ from food chains because in food chain the energy flows in only one direction. But
in food webs there are more than one food chains.
Examples of food web
Birds
Snails Snakes
Photosynthetic plants Hawks

Insects lizard

Exercise 5.2
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. All types of animal can grouped in to _______
A. Heterotrophs C. Decomposers
B. Autotrophs D. None
2. Which of the following are consumers?
A. Flower B. Grass C. Sheep D. Plants
3. Autotrophs can be ________
A. primary consumer C. producers
B. secondary consume D. all
4. The organisms that feed on dead body parts are _______
A. Producer C. Decomposer
B. Consumer D. B & C
5. The following one is found at the end of food chain, which one?
A. Flower B. Fungus C. Grass D. All
Part II: explain the following questions
6. Compare and contrast food web and food chain.
7. Define the function of decomposers in the environment.
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5.1.4. Trophic Pyramids
Pyramid is the diagram that used to express the amounts of organisms presents in each trophic level. It
can be used to express the number of biomass, amount of energy and number of organisms in the
trophic level.
A) Pyramid of numbers:-The pyramid made based on the number of organisms at each trophic level.
A pyramid of numbers shows the total number of individual organisms at each level in the food chain
of an ecosystem.

B) Pyramid of biomass:- It provides more accurate representation of the energy contents at each
trophic level. It shows the mass of producers that are needed to support primary consumers, the mass
of primary consumers required to support secondary consumers, and so on.

C. Pyramid of energy/Trophic or Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation of the energy

found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The energy can be flow not recycled because its main
sources are the sun and then energy cannot be returned to the sun.

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Activity 5.2
1. Identify and explain the components of food chain and food web with their roles.
2. Brain storming on function of plant during photosynthesis.
3. Discuss and reason out why the number of organisms in each group (level) decreases from bottom to top.

5.1.5. Nutrient Cycles and Energy Flow

Living organisms require different kinds of chemical elements like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen ―SPONCH” etc for their metabolic and biological processes. The cyclic of elements from
environment to organism and back to environment are called nutrient cycle.

1) Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen moves through both living
and non-living things: the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals and bacteria. This atmospheric
nitrogen must convert to ammonia and nitrates by chemical synthesis especially by decomposers.
Producers use soil nitrates to synthesis protein for the consumers.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, mineralization, nitrification, and
denitrification.

A) Nitrogen fixation:- The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia is called nitrogen

fixation. Most nitrogen fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria such as clostridia,
azotobacters and cyanobacteria, and in symbiotic bacteria such as Rhizobium and Frankia. These
bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce
ammonia, which is then further converted by the bacteria to make their own organic compounds.
Nitrogen fixation converts N2 in the atmosphere into NH3 (ammonia), which is assimilated into
amino acids and proteins.
Rhizobium & Frankia
Nitrogen gas Ammonia
N2 2NH3 + (Nitrogen fixation)
B) Ammonification/ mineralization is the processes when plant and animal die or from their waste,
the organic nitrogen is convert to ammonium by decomposers.
Saprobiotic bacteria
Organic nitrogen Ammonium

C) Nitrification:- is conversion of ammonium (NH3) to nitrate (NO3+) is performed primarily by

soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria.
 The primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH4+) is performed by bacteria
such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO2-).
 Other bacterial species, such as the Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites
into nitrates (NO3-).
 It is important for the nitrites to be converted to nitrates because accumulated nitrites are toxic
to plant life.
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  The Overall Process of Nitrification
Nitrosomonas bacteria
+
1) Ammonia /NH3 Nitrites (NO2-).

Nitrobacter bacteria
2) Nitrite /NO2 Nitrates (NO3-)
The Nitrates (NO3) is usable forms of nitrogen by plants.
D) Denitrification:-is reduction of nitrate back to inert nitrogen gas (N2) completing the nitrogen
cycle. This process is performed by pseudomonas & clostridium bacterial species in anaerobic
conditions.
Pseudomonas & Clostridium bacterial
Nitrate /NO3 Inert Nitrogen gas /N2

2. Oxygen cycle
Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants and
animals) and the lithosphere (the earth‘s crust). The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is
made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. The main driving factors of the
oxygen cycle are the process of photosynthesis which has responsible for life.

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3. Carbon cycle
Carbon is released back into the atmosphere when organisms die, volcanoes erupt, fires blaze, fossil
fuels are burned, and through a variety of other mechanisms. It is one of the most important cycles of
the earth and allow for the most abundant elements to be recycled and reused throughout the biosphere
and all of its organisms. In carbon cycles, carbon move from atmosphere to plants, from plant to
animal, from plant and animal to soil, from living thing to atmosphere and from atmosphere to
ocean.

4. Hydrogen cycle
The hydrogen cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. The
hydrogen cycle consists of hydrogen exchanges between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
sources and sinks of hydrogen-containing compounds.
5. Water cycle
Water cycle is the continuous movements of water on above and below the surface of the earth. Water
can change its states among liquid(water), vapor (gas), and solid (ice) at various places in the water
cycle. The water evaporates and turns to clouds. It falls down in the form of rain, snow or ice. The
water that flow into river and streams eventually flows back in to the oceans. From the ocean it
evaporates back in to clouds and starts the whole cycle over again and becomes rain.
Exercise 5.3
Part I:- choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. The following one is NOT cyclic in nature
A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Carbon D. None
2. The organisms that play great role in all nutrient cycle is called
A. Producer B. Plant C. Decomposer D. Herbivores
3. The main driving factor in oxygen cycle is _______
A. Photosynthesis B. Chemosynthesis C. Heterotrophs D. All
4. The convert of carbon from air to earth and back to air is called__
A. Element cycle B. Nitrogen cycle C. Oxygen cycle D. Carbon cycle
5. Which types of element are more needed by plants?
A. Phosphorous C. Oxygen
B. Sulfur D. Nitrogen
Part II:- Discuss and explain briefly
6. Briefly discuss on the role of decomposers in nutrient cycle.
7. Explain how energy flows in trophic relationship in ecosystems.
8. Explain and discuss why energy said to flow but not cycle?

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5.2.Conservation of Natural Resources = 16 Periods
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Summarize the characteristics of soil
 Describe the various types of soils
 Explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being
 List down and describe the various soil conservation strategies
 Engage in the environment club of school and participate in awareness creation campaigns.
 Explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being
 List down and describe the various water conservation strategies
 Describe the various components of atmospheric air
 Identify and discuss the various human activities that cause air pollution
 Discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples
 Explain the various uses of air in nature and to human being
 Explain the cause and impacts of global warming
 list down and describe the various actions that can be taken to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide to
atmosphere
 Define forest and give examples of natural forests in Ethiopia
 Explain the various uses of forest in nature and to human being
 Identify and discuss the various human activities that cause deforestation
 Discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples
 Give examples of the various indigenous knowledge & practices that are used in the conservation of various
natural resources such as soil, forest, etc.

What is natural resource?

Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural resource Examples: Oil, coal,
natural gas, metals, stone and sand. It grouped in to two namely renewable and non-renewable.
Renewable natural resources are capable of being produced, reused and replaced examples:
 Vegetation,  Soil,
 Animal.  Plants,
 Sunlight,  Air
 Water,
Nonrenewable resources are cannot be easily made or produced if they are used once. e.g.
 Petroleum,  Iron,
 Coal.  Copper
 Natural gas,
What is conservation of natural resources?
Conservation is the care and protection of natural resources so that they can persist for future
generations.
5.2.1. Soil
Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It consists of inorganic particles and organic
matter. Soil is a mixture of broken rocks and minerals, living organisms, air, water and decaying
organic matters which called humus.
Humus:-is dark, soft, and rich in nutrients decaying organic matters of plant and
animals.
Soils are home to myriad micro-organisms that fix nitrogen and decompose organic matter, and armies
of microscopic animals as well as earthworms and termites.
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Types of soil
Soil is used in agriculture activities where it serves as the primary sources of nutrients for plants. The
different types of soil that used in agriculture are varying with respect to the species of plants which
are cultivated. It provides minerals and water to plants.
There are three common types of soil namely: loam, sandy and clay soil.
Physical and chemical property of soil
1. Soil horizon
A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by
obvious physical features, mainly color, root quantity, pH, structure, size and texture.
 Humus is the biochemical substance that makes the upper layer of the soil become dark.

2. Soil Texture
It refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles found in a representative sample of soil.
Particles are normally grouped into three main classes namely: sand, silt and clay. These all mineral
particles have different size.
Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay sized
particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil.

The soil’s ability to retain water is strongly related to particle size. So,
 Sandy soils have relatively poor ability to hold water, because larger particle size
 Soils that are high in clay content can hold relatively large amounts of water for extended
periods of time, because clay-rich soils have the largest pore space, hence the greatest total
water holding capacity.
 Clay soil has the highest water holding capacity and rich in nutrients, because of the are
very fine particles that are tightly packed together.
 Silt is intermediate in its water holding properties.
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3. Soil fertility
A loam soil contains more nutrients, moisture, and humus and has better drainage of water air, and is
easier to till. It is suitable for growing plants. So it is the most fertile soil.
The major causes to soil fertility decline are a land degradation which is caused through the different
agents such as
 Soil erosion,  Sedimentation,
 Deforestation,  Continuous farming and
 Overgrazing,  Pollution.
4. Soil conservations
Is a set of management strategy for prevention of soil being eroded from the earth‘s surface or
becoming chemically altered. Some are:
1. Afforestation:- it also called reforestation as tree grow tall, it also keep rooting deeper in to the
soil. When the root spread deep in to soil layer, they contribute to the prevention of soil erosion.

2. Terracing:- is very good methods of soil conservations and leveling section of a hilly cultivated
area. It gives the landmass a stepped appearance thus slowing washing down of the soil.

3. Contour ploughing: - it is a method of ploughing across the contour line of a slop. This method
helps in slowing the water runoff, prevents the soil from being washed away along the slop and in
percolation of water in to the soil.

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4. Crop rotation: - continuous cultivation of the same crop leads imbalance fertility demand of soil.
Crop rotation is growing of dissimilar crops. This method used to help for improvements of soil
structure and fertility.

5. Check Dams: are small dams to trap silt washed from hills.
6. Strip cropping: involves the planting of two or more crops in the same field, the crops may differ in
height, time of harvest and use of nutrients.
7. Shelter belts: are trees planted at the edge of farmlands to protect the soil from wind erosion.
5.2.2. Water
Water is the main constituent of living cell and also used as a habitat for most organisms.
 Water used as universal solvents so it used for metabolic reactions.
 It has cooling effect, temperature regulation, lubricating body, transport food, hormone, waste product etc.
 It helps for hydrolysis reaction, osmoregulation and removal of wastes.
 Animals need water for drinking, washing and living and as sources of oxygen.
 Water also used for plants to manufacturing of food and rigidity.
Water pollution
1. Increased human activity: our water resources face a host of serious threats, all of which are caused
primarily by human activity. They include sedimentation, pollution, climate change, deforestation,
landscape changes, and urban growth.
2. Industrial wastes pollute water, when they drain in to lakes, rivers, streams and seas. These wastes contain
toxic compounds, salts, solvents are industrial wastes,
3. Domestic wastes includes Sewage, garbage and pathogens are
4. Agricultural wastes also contain pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
 Pesticides:-chemicals that is used to kill insects that damage plant.
 Herbicides:-chemicals used to destroy plants or stop plant growth.
 Fungicides:-substance that kill fungi.

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Impact of water pollution
Toxic chemicals like mercury and lead, salts like phosphorous compounds etc are not broken down
inside living things.
 They build up in tissues of aquatic organisms.
 When human eat this organisms lead is stored in liver, kidney and damage nervous systems.
 Finally they cause severe birth abnormality.
 If agricultural wastes enter into water body, they are dangerous for living things. Because these
accumulate in the fats and body tissue.
Domestic wastes may contain urine, faces, viruses and bacteria. It transmitted the disease of cholera,
typhoid, and others for living organisms.
Water Conservation
Water must be conserved by the use of various methods for the continuity of life on earth. Some of
these methods are:
1. Cover vegetation:- vegetation used to absorb and hold water.
2. It reduces the rune off and decrease force of rain drops allowing the rain fall to reach the ground
gently.
3. Contour ploughing: - is ploughing the hill across the slope but not up and down. It prevents
waters from running off.
4. Terracing:- collect water in the channel and prevent erosion and increase the crop yield.
5. Building artificial mechanical barriers, check dams prevent running off.
6. Preventing water pollution by educating people and formulating water policy.
Ground water is water that found under the ground. This water must be conserved by different
methods. Some are by
 Use native plants in your landscape. They look great, and don‘t need much water or fertilizer
 Use fewer chemicals around your home and make sure to dispose of them properly - don‘t
dump them on the ground.
 Properly dispose of potentially toxic substances like unused chemicals, pharmaceuticals, paint,
motor oil, and other substances.
 Get involved in water education! Learn more about groundwater and share your knowledge with
others.
 Keeping it safe from contamination
 Using it wisely by not wasting it.

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These and others method of ground water conservation are make the water sustainably used for long
period of time.

Exercise 5.4:
1. Student guesses which type of soil more fertile reason is out.
2. Briefly explain on the functions of the three types of soil.
3. Brainstorming on loss of soil fertility and their conservations.
4. Engage and participate in environmental protection club.

5.2.3. Air
Air is made up of 78.09% nitrogen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and other gases in very
small amounts. Air comprises almost 21% oxygen. Water vapor is also a constituent of air in varying
amounts along with dust particles. The required gas for breathing and respiration are also found in the
air.
Activity 5.5:
1. List the importance of air for living things.
2. Discus in groups on impact of human to air pollution and way of preventions.
3. Discuss on impacts of air pollutions.

1. Carbon Dioxide 0.04%

Carbon dioxide is a trace gas with a concentration of just about 0.04%. Carbon dioxide is produced
through respiration and also through the decomposition of organic materials. It is also produced
through some natural sources like geysers, volcanoes, burning of fossil fuel, deforestation, and hot
springs. During the combustion of petroleum and natural gases, carbon dioxide is evolved.
Use of carbon dioxide
 CO2 is used in food industry as an additive in order to regulate acidity.
 CO2 is a great choice for use in soda products as it easily absorbs into a liquid including soft drinks
to forms tiny bubbles.
 CO2 also serves as a protective measure that keeps the soft drink fresh and
 It prevents the growth of bacteria in the liquid while stored.

2. Oxygen 21%
Oxygen is the most important chemical element of air. Oxygen is a highly reactive gas which readily
forms bonds known as oxides with other elements. It is also highly combustible (quick to catch fire).
Oxygen plays a critical role in respiration, the energy-producing chemistry that drives the metabolisms
of most living things. We humans, along with many other creatures, need oxygen in the air we breathe
to stay alive. Oxygen is generated during photosynthesis by plants and many types of microbes.

3. Nitrogen 78%
The most abundant, pure component of air is nitrogen with a concentration of around 78%. Nitrogen is
produced through a process called nitrogen fixation which is a continuous cycle between the living
organisms and the atmosphere. It is also produced in industries by fractional distillation of air in its
liquid form.
4. Water Vapor 0.01%-3%
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The water vapor concentration in the atmosphere varies from about 0.01% to 3% depending upon the
temperature. When we respire we also release some amount of water vapor. In many chemical
reactions, water vapor is evolved as a by-product. Apart from carbon dioxide and methane, water vapor
also contributes to the greenhouse effect as it absorbs and emits radiations.
Greenhouse effect:-a natural process that warms the Earth‘s surface
Water vapor is used as steam which helps in cooking and also in producing energy.
Effects of Air Pollution
The effects of air pollution on the human body vary depending on the type of pollutant and the length
and level of exposure as well as other factors, including a person‘s individual health risks and the
cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors. Air pollution can cause different forms of
effects on living and non-living things. Some are:
1. Global warming:-It is the rising of temperatures on the surface of earth as a result of accumulation
of greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide. These greenhouse gases can trap heat from sun and make
earth‘s temperature high.
2. Global dimming:- is worldwide blockage or reduction of sunlight from reaching the earth‘s surface
as a result of unborn hydrocarbon released in to the air.
3. Acid rain:-it caused by release of toxic substance in to the air like sulphuric and nitrogen oxide
from factories and vehicles.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
During rain, the falling water combines with the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. The acid rain causes
 killing leaves,
 Soil depletion,
 polluted the water body and
 damage on building materials.
It is oxidized in the atmosphere to SO2, which can then be converted to sulfate. H2S is some what
soluble in water, resulting in formation of sulfhydric acid, which is corrosive to metals, and
contributes to acidic deposition to soil and water.
Air pollution greatly affects our health by causing of
 lung cancer,
 heart disease,
 respiratory inflammations,
 brain damage,
 skin cancer etc.
How prevent air pollutions?
Any persons have responsible for the reduction of air pollution because it is worldwide problems. By
using different methods like:
 Avoid use of traditional fuels,
 using solar wind and hydroelectric powers,
 Reforestation or planting trees,
 take care for water pollutions,
 ducating society and establish law of pollution control etc must prevent pollutions

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  5.6;-
Activity
1. Plantation used to reduce carbon dioxide and global warming from the atmospheres. Briefly discuss how it reduces?
2. Brainstorming and discuss how photosynthesis is important for air pollutions?
Procedures: list way of reduction by plants - Explain in their groups about the role of photosynthesis on air pollution

5.2.4. Forests
The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that buffer the earth and support a
variety of life forms.
Harenna forest is one example of natural forests in south eastern Ethiopia. The trees help create a
special environment which, in turn, affects the kinds of animals and plants that can exist in the forest.
They clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as excellent beauty of the earth.

Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of raindrops on the soil, thereby reducing
soil erosion. The layer of leaves that fall around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water to
percolate into the soil. Roots help to hold the soil in place. Dead plants decompose to form humus,
organic matter that holds the water and provides nutrients to the soil. Birds build their nests on the
branches of trees, animals and birds live in the hollows, insects and other organisms live in various
parts of the plant. They produce large quantities of oxygen and take in carbon dioxide. Transpiration
from the forests affects the relative humidity and precipitation in a place.
Transpiration:-Process of water movements through plants parts to environments during
evaporations.

Activity 5.7:
1. Discuss on the role of forests in nature and present in the class.
2. Brainstorming on way of deforestations and discuss conservation methods.

Effects of human on forests

Human can affects the forests at different types of ways for various reasons. They cut down the trees
for different purpose like for farming activities, furniture, wood, selling, building of home, and for
others. These cut down of plant is called deforestation.

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 Figure 5.30 deforestation of forests
Reforestation is the process of planting trees in a forest where the number of trees has been
decreasing.
5.2.5. Biodiversity
Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the collection of life and habitat in ecosystems.
 They interact together between different species from ecosystem and ecological process.
 Biodiversity represents the most fundamental library in support of the life science.
 They are used as a bank of gene and species.
 Biodiversity is also the measure of the wealth of species in a given place or habitats.
 Biodiversity includes all types of living organisms ranging from smaller microorganism to largest
organisms.
Importance of biodiversity
Ecological life support biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that
 supply oxygen,
 clean air and water,
 pollination of plants,
 pest control,
 waste water treatment and
 many ecosystem services.
Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons.
Economic: - biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production.
 Provisioning services the production of food, fiber and water. Many livelihoods, such as those
of farmers, fishers and timber workers, are dependent on biodiversity.
Ecological life support:-biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean air
and water, pollination of plants, pest control, regulating services the control of climate and diseases
wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.
Recreation:-many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as bird watching, hiking,
camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends on biodiversity.
Cultural:-cultural services such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
Scientific:-biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us to understand the
natural world and its origin.

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Exercise 5.5 Explain and discuss briefly
1. List some example of organisms for each of the five kingdoms.
2. Discuss and explain types of national park and zoos and present in the class.
3. Ask and collect any indigenous practice from other persons that used to conserve natural resources.

Biodiversity conservation
The protection and efficient management of wild species and their environment is the prime objective
of conservation. This conservation is usually carried out in two ways namely in-situ and ex-situ.
What is In situ Conservation?
The conservation of biodiversity in their natural habitats itself.
It aims to enable biodiversity to maintain itself within the context of the ecosystem.
Establish a protected area network, with appropriate management practices, corridors to link
fragments restore degraded habitats within and outside.
It helps in the multiplication of the species through the process of evolution and adaptation.
It provides greater mobility to the animal species because of the large habitat area.
Example of In situ conservations
 National parks,
 Biosphere reserves,
 Parks,
 Sanctuaries.
Sanctuaries:-an area where animal habitats and their surroundings are protected from any sort of
disturbance.
Germ plasm:-living tissue from which new plants can be grown.
National park:- an area set aside by a national government for the preservation of the natural
environment.

What is Ex-situ conservation?

It means the conservation of biological diversity outside their natural areas.
Artificial conditions are created to make their habitat almost like a natural habitat.
It involves the maintenance of genetic variation (Genetic Conservation) away from its original
location.
Established botanical and zoological gardens, conservation stands; banks of germplasm, pollen,
seed, seedling, tissue culture, gene, and DNA, etc.
It identifies and rehabilitates threatened species; launched augmentation, reintroduction, or
introduction programs.
This method will enhance the probability of reproductive success for endangered species.
It provides less mobility to the organism because of the small habitat area.
Example of Ex- situ conservations
 Zoo,
 Aquarium,
 Seed banks,
 Botanical gardens, etc.

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Aquarium:- a transparent tank of water in which live fish and other water creatures and plants are
kept.

5.2.6. Indigenous knowledge and Conservation of Natural Resources

Local and indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by
societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings.
 For rural and indigenous peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental
aspects of day-to-day life.
 This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of
classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality.
 These unique ways of knowing are important facets of the world‘s cultural diversity, and
provide a foundation for locally-appropriate sustainable development.
Indigenous Conservation and Management
The recognition that local and indigenous people have their own ecological understandings,
conservation practices and resource management goals has important implications.
Hence, we can say that both In situ and Ex-situ are the method of conservation. The basic difference
between in situ and ex-situ lies in the habitat place where the process is carried out.
For example, indigenous knowledge conservation of soil are
 Terracing,
 Contour ploughing,
 Crop rotation,
 Mixed cropping and fertilization some methods.
How does indigenous knowledge help in environmental conservation?
Indigenous knowledge is one of the greatest assets of a community.. Indigenous knowledge means
local knowledge that is unique to a given society and is embedded in their cultural traditions.
Exercise 5.6:
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. The interaction between similar species is called _________
A. Inter C. Predator
B. Intra D. Prey
2. Which of the following is more important in nature cycle?
B. Fungus D. All
C. Cyanobacteria
3. One of the following is not components of food chain?
A. Producer C. Secondary consumer
B. Primary consumer D. None
4. Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A. Fossil C. Charcoal
B. Petroleum D. Food
Part II: Match descriptions in column B with the items in column A
A B
5. Renewable resources 7. Hold large water
6. Poor ability to hold water 8. Nitrogen
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9. Oxygen C/ solar energy
A/ sandy soil D/ 21 %
B/ clay soil E/ 78%
Parts III: fill blank space
10. ________ is complex ecosystems containing many trees.
11. Conservation of organism in their habitat is called __________
12. ________ is a knowledge that local person used to perform different tasks.
REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT FIVE
Part 1: For the following questions choose the best answer among the choices given.
1. The collection of living and nonliving things are called ______
A. Plant C. Ecology
B. Animal D. Ecosystems
2. All living things also called ________
A. Physical component C. Abiotic
B. Biotic D. Microorganism
3. The relation between two different species in which one or both are benefited is called __________
A. Competition C. Symbiosis
B. Decomposers D. All
5. One of the following is not biotic component
A. Disease C. Food
B. Plant D. Water
6.___is used to mainly control the growth of vegetation by its fertility.
A. Soil C. Air
B. Water D. All
7.______ is an organism that release energy from simple chemical reactions.
A. decomposers C. photoautotrophs
B. heterotrophs D. chemoautotrophs
8. All organisms can directly or indirectly depend on first trophic level.
A. producer C.decomposer
B. primary consumer D.carnivours
9._______ is the main sources of energy for all food chain.
A. plant C. temperature
B. animal D. sun
10. The food chain that contain more than one food chain is called_____
A. interaction C. food web
B. relation D. food chain
11._______ is reduction of nitrate back to inert nitrogen gas
A. ammonification C. denitrification
B. nitrification D. nitrogen fixation
12. The movement of elements in the atmosphere is called _______
A. carbon cycle C. nitrogen cycle
B. nature cycle D. water cycle
13. The wise use of natural resource is called _____
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 A. conservation C. protection
B. management D. preservation E. All
14. Conservation is only protection of nonrenewable resources
A. non renewable C. water
B. renewable D. all
Part II: - Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.
15. _____refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles found in a representative sample of soil.
16. _______ is the process of growing trees to prevent soil erosion.
17. The contaminated of water with toxic substances are called______
18. The major components of gas in the atmosphere is called______
19. ______ is a chemical that is toxic for other natural resources.
20. The collection of shrubs and large trees are called __________
Part III:- write short answers
21. List and discus briefly about the prevention of water and air pollution.
22. How can be human activity cause pollution of air?
23. List advantages of biodiversity throughout the world.
1. The mineral content and texture of a soil mainly depends on the:
A. Climate condition C. Land forms
B. Parental materials D. Temperature
1. Which of the following statement is true about clay soil?
A. It is poor in nutrients C. It is easily cultivated in any season
B. It has large particles D. Its water retention capacity is the highest
2. Which of the following events follow evaporation in the water cycle?
A. Condensation C. Cloud formation
B. Precipitation D. Flooding
3. Which of the following pairs of processes involved in water cycle are opposite to each other?
A. Evaporation and transpiration C. Condensation and precipitation
B. Evaporation and precipitation D. Condensation and transpiration
4. All of the following factors are man-made factors for soil erosion:
A. Mass slide due to gravity C. Faulty farming system
B. Housing construction and mining D. High crop intensity
5. Which of the following statements is true about clay and sandy soil?
A. Clay soil is rich in plant nutrients than sandy soil
B. Sandy soil retain moisture than clay soil
C. Sandy soil is rich in plant nutrients than clay soil
D. Clay soil has water retention capacity than sandy soil
6. Which of the following types of soil has the highest water holding capacity?
A. Clay C. Fine sand
B. Thick sand D. Silt
7. The processes in the water cycle include
A. Transpiration , condensation and respiration C. Evaporation, condensation & Precipitation
B. Humiliation , weathering and raining D. Evaporation, condensation and perspiration
8. Which of the following is a natural cause of soil erosion?
A. Overgrazing C. Rainfall
B. Deforestation D. Faulty land use

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9. What are the components of loam soil?
A. Gravel, water and humus C. Clay, silt and fine sand
B. Sand, clay and humus D. Thick sand and fine sand
10. Which of the following is NOT a method of conserving water?
A. Planting trees on hill sides C. Counter ploughing
B. Building damps D. Crop rotation
11. The negative impact of rapid population growth includes
A. The eradication of certain diseases C. Increase food production
B. Soil erosion and desertification D. Increased employment opportunities
12. Which one of the following factors is useful for our environment?
A. Cutting trees C. Soil erosion
B. High population growth D. Afforestation
13. A soil type which is more aerated than the other is -----------------------
A. Loam B. Sand C. Clay D. Humus
14. All of the following human actions are important for soil conservation except.
A. Crop rotation C. Afforestation
B. Terracing D. Deforestation
15. Which one of the following methods is important to prevent soil erosion?
A. Strip cropping C. Over grazing by livestock
B. Deforestation D. Sloughing up and down
16. Soil erosion is caused by
A. Planting trees C. Deforestation
B. Terraces D. Crop rotation
17. Which of the following is NOT the effect of overpopulation?
A. Deforestation C. Increase in life expectancy
B. Competition for resource D. pollution of the environment
18. A soil type with the smallest particle size is
A. Clay B. Loam C. Sand D. Humus
19. Which of the following is the cause of soil erosion?
A. Counter ploughing C. Terraces
B. Planting trees D. Over grazing
20. Which of the following types of soil particle have high drainage capacity?
A. Clay soil B. Sand Soil C. Loam Soil D. Silt soil
21. Which of the following parts of a soil profile is rich with humus?
A. Parent rock C. Sub soil
B. Top soil D. All of the above
22. Which of the following shows the correct order from bottom to top?
A. Clay, Sand, Silt, Humus C. Sand, Silt, Clay, Humus
B. Humus, Sand, Silt, Clay D. Silt, Clay, Humus, Sand
23. Which of the following soil particles is characterized by poor drainage capacity?
A. Sand B. Loam C. Silt D. Clay
24. The rotten remains of dead plants and animals in the soil is called
A. Clay B. Humus C. Loam D. Sand
25. Which of the following may increases the fertility of soil?
A. Overgrazing C. Erosion
B. Burning the soil D. Crop rotation
26. Which of the following soil types is the highest water retention capacity?
A. Clay soil C. Silt soil
B. Sand soil D. All of the above
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 UNIT SIX
THE SOLAR SYSTEM =24 PERIODS
Introduction
This unit deals about the families and formation of the Solar System. The solar system includes the
Sun, planets, satellites, dwarf planets, Asteroids, comets and Meteors. Then, the distance, size, position
and behavior of each planet from the sun will be discussed. Finally, the suitability (uniqueness) of
Earth for life will be discussed.
Main contents of the unit
6.1 Family of the Solar System 6.3 Earth in comparison with solar system
6.2 Formation of the Solar system. 6.4 Our planet‟s Suitability for Life.
6.1 Family of the Solar System =8Periods
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 explain family of the solar system;
 name all planets in the solar system;
 show the position of each planet in the solar system;
 develop the model of the solar system.
The Solar System
The Sun and all celestial bodies that revolve around it form the solar system. Thus, our solar system
includes the
 Sun,
 Eight planets including their moons,
 Dwarf planets,
 Smaller bodies such as
o Asteroids,
o Comets and
o Meteors.

1. The Sun
The Sun is a star closest to our Earth. It is located at the very center of our solar system. The Sun is
mostly made up of
 71% of hydrogen gas,
 27% helium gas and
 2% other gases.
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The temperature at the surface of the Sun is very high, around 5500 °C. It is about 15 million °C at its
center. The Sun is the largest and most massive object in our solar system making up 98% of the total
mass of the solar system.

2. The Planets
Planets are heavily bodies revolving around the sun. Next to the sun they are the largest objects in the
solar system. Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun in a well-defined path. This path
is known as the orbit of the planet. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared the
number planets to be eight. In addition to this, as of 2014, this union has recognized five dwarf
planets.
Based on their distance from the Sun, planets in our solar system classified into two.
1. Terrestrial (inner) planet: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
2. Jovian (outer) planet: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
1. Mercury
Mercury is the closest planet found at a distance of 57.9 million km from the Sun. It is the smallest
planet of our solar system. Mercury has no satellite of its own. Mercury has the most extreme
temperatures in the solar system, reaching 426 °C during the day and -173 °C during the night. It takes
88 days for Mercury to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
2. Venus
Venus is the nearest planet to earth. It is found at a distance of 108.2 million km from the sun. Venus
has a thick dense atmosphere mostly made up of carbon dioxide which is an effective greenhouse
gas. That is why Venus has the highest surface temperature and it is the hottest planet in the solar
system. Venus has mountains, volcanoes and dunes just like Earth. Venus has no moon. Rotation of
Venus on its axis is somewhat unusual. It rotates in the opposite direction to all other planets. It takes
243 days for Venus to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
3. The Earth
Our home planet, the Earth is found at a distance of 149.6 million km from the sun. The Earth is the
third nearest planet to the sun. Having a look from space, it appears blue green due to the reflection of
light from water and landmass on its surface. The Earth has only one moon. It takes 365.25 days for
the Earth to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
4. Mars
Mars is found at a distance of 227.9 million km from the sun. It is the fourth planet from the Sun and
the second smallest planet in the solar system. Mars is known as the Red Planet, because of its reddish
color. It has only two moons. Mars has mountains, volcanoes and valleys just like the Earth. It takes
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687 days for Mars to make one complete revolution around the Sun. Scientists are interested in visiting
Mars thinking that there may be some water in cracks and tiny holes in underground rock. For this
purpose, they send Robots to Mars,
Tip. The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on Mars and it is three
times taller than Mount Everest. Mars also has the deepest and longest valley in the solar
system, known as Valles Marineris.
5. Jupiter
Jupiter is found at a distance of 778.3 million km from the sun. It is the fifth planet from the sun, found
next to Mars. Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. Jupiter has 79 moons. It also has faint
rings around it. Jupiter appears quite bright in the sky, for this reason you can easily recognize it. It
takes 11.89 years for Jupiter to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
6. Saturn
Saturn is found at a distance of 1432 million km from the Sun. We get Saturn next to Jupiter. Saturn
has the largest number of moons, which are 82 moons. One interesting thing about Saturn is that it is
the least dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of water. Saturn is known for its
rings. These rings are not visible with the naked eye. It takes 29.37 years for Saturn to make one
complete revolution around the Sun.
7. Uranus
Uranus is found at a distance of 2871 million km from the Sun. It is the 7th planet from the sun. It is
blue-green in color. Uranus is the third-largest planet in our solar system. It has 27 moons. Uranus was
the first planet discovered using a telescope and it can be seen only with the help of large telescopes.
Like Venus, Uranus rotates from east to west. The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has
highly tilted rotational axis. It takes 84.099 years for Uranus to make one complete revolution around
the Sun.
8. Neptune
Neptune is the 8th and farthest planet of the solar system. It is found at a distance of 4498 million km
from the Sun. In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most massive
planet, and the coldest. Neptune has 14 moons. It can be seen only with the help of large telescopes. It
takes 165 years for Neptune to make one complete revolution around the Sun.
Name of Distance from the Number Temperature Period of Period of Rotation
Planet Sun (million km) of moons ( C) 0 Revolution
Mercury 57.9 0 167 88 days 59 days
Venus 108.2 0 464 243 days 243 days
Earth 149.6 1 15 365.25 days 23.9345 hours
Mars 227.9 2 -65 687 days 24 hours 37 min
Jupiter 778.3 79 -110 11.89 years 9 hour 50 min
Saturn 1432 82 -140 29.37 years 10 hours 13 min
Uranus 2871 27 -195 84.099 years 17.2 4hours
Neptune 4498 13 -200 165 years 16.1 hours
Source: Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute

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N.B. Pluto, Eris and Ceres are called as dwarf planets because; they are too small to be called as
true planets.
Planets in our Solar system size comparison. Largest to smallest are pictured left to right, top to bottom:
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury.
3. Dwarf planets
Dwarf planets are bodies that are too small to be considered full-fledged planets, but too large to fall
into smaller categories. The five dwarf planets that have got acceptance by IAU are: Pluto, Eris,
Ceres, Haumea, and Makemake.

Terrestrial (inner) and Jovian (outer) planets

According to their orbits, planets are grouped into two classes:
 The inner and
 Outer planets.
The inner planets are also called terrestrial (or rocky) planets because their surfaces are made of
rock.
 The first four planets closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), are the inner planets.
 They have the following characteristics. VEM2
• Low mass: Earth is the heaviest.
• High densities (4000 to 5500 kg/m3).
• They are made of rock and have metallic cores.
 The remaining four planets further from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are
called the outer planets/ Jovian planets. JSUN

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The outer planets are very different from the four inner planets. They have the following behaviors:
 Large diameters (4 to 11 times Earth‟s size)
 High mass (14 to 318 times Earth‟s mass)
 Low average densities (700 to 1700 kg/m3)
 They are mainly made of hydrogen and helium without a solid surface.
 The outer planets have large number of moons.
Exercise 6.1: Choose the word from the list to fill in the blank spaces.
Mercury Pluto Sun Jupiter
1. _________ is a star in the solar system.
2. _________ is a dwarf planet.
3. The planet closest to the sun is _____________.
4. The largest planet in the solar system is ___________.
5. The sun is composed of:
A. Hydrogen and helium C. Hydrogen and oxygen
B. Hydrogen and nitrogen D. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
6. The center of the solar system is
A. The Sun C. The Moon
B. The Earth D. None
7. Which of the following is not the inner planet in the solar system?
A. Saturn C. Mars
B. Venus D. Earth
8. All planets spin in the same direction except:
A. Mercury C. Venus
B. Mars D. Earth
4. Some Other Members of the Solar System/ ሌሎች የሥርዓተ ፀሐይ አካላት
There are some other bodies which revolve around the Sun. They are also members of the solar
system. They are Asteroids, comets and meteors.
Asteroids/ አስትሮይዶች
 Asteroids are large number of small objects that revolve around the Sun.
 Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars & Jupiter.
 Asteroids closest to the Sun are mainly metallic objects.
 Those further away are rocky objects.
 Asteroids can only be seen through large telescopes.
Comets/ ጅራታም ከዋክብት
 Comets are icy and dusty objects that revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
 Their period of revolution round the Sun is usually very long.
 A comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
 The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun.
 The tail of a comet is always directed away from the sun
Tip: Edmund Halley and His Comet
The most well known comet in the Solar System is known as Halley’s Comet. The comet is named after
English astronomer Edmond (or Edmund) Halley, who examined reports of a comet approaching Earth in 1531,
1607 and 1682. He concluded that these three comets were actually the same comet returning over and over

114
again. Halley predicted the comet would come again in 1758. Halley’s Comet appears after nearly every 76
years. The last time it was seen was in 1986, and the predicted next appearance of Halley in the inner Solar
System will be in 2061
5) Meteors and Meteorites/ተወርዋሪ ከዋክብት
Meteors are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars. A meteor is usually a
small object moving around the sun. When a meteor occasionally enters the Earth‘s atmosphere, it gets
heated up because of friction and evaporates in a very short period of time. Some meteors are so large
that a part of them reaches the surface of the Earth before they evaporate completely. These are called
meteorites.
Tip: Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Galileo is an Italian astronomer, mathematician, physicist, inventor and
philosopher. In 1609 Galileo built his first telescope, though he is not the first inventor of the telescope, and
began making observations. His observations of the night sky changes mankind’s view of the universe, and our
place in it. With his telescope Galileo discovered the four primary moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean
moons). He also discovered many new stars, the phases of Venus and Saturn’s rings.
Galileo was also known to discover the craters and mountains on the Moon and Sun-centered solar system,
against Earth-centered solar system. This view of Galileo brought him into serious conflict with the catholic
Church. Because of this Galileo was arrested at home at the end of his lifetime. Galileo became completely blind
by the age of 74, but NOT because he looked at the Sun through his telescope. Remember, like Galileo, you
should NEVER look directly at the Sun!

Exercise 6.2:
1. What are the differences between inner and outer planets?
2. Name all planets in the solar system.
3. Locate the position of each planet and other member of the solar system by writing their name
corresponding to the numbers labeled in the figure 6.15 below

1. _________ 4. _________ 7. _________

2. _________ 5. _________ 8. _________
3. _________ 6. _________ 9. _________
1. Which type of planet (inner or outer) tends to be denser? Explain why.
2. Which planet has more moons?
3. Which planet tends to have the shortest time taken to make one complete rotation around Sun?
Why is this?
4. Which planet has the least temperature? Why is this?
5. Which planet rotates fastest around its axis of rotation?

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6.2 Formation of the Solar System =

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 describe how satellites move around the Earth;
 explain the motion of large bodies in the solar system;
 Differentiate the motion of satellites and planets in the solar system.

Scientists believe that our solar system is formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the cloud
of dust and gas, mainly hydrogen and helium. This cloud of dust and gas was slowly rotating in
space. At that time the cloud was disturbed by the explosion of a star known as supernova. The energy
of this explosion causes the cloud to start contracting.
 As the contraction increases, the particles of the cloud were squeezed into less space.
 As a result, the cloud‘s density becomes greater and the increased attraction of gravity pulled
more gas and dust towards the center of the cloud.
 This caused the cloud to rotate faster and there it causes a solar nebula.
 A solar nebula is a large cloud of gas and dust from which the sun, planets and other solar
system (asteroids, meteors and moons) be formed by condensation.
1) The Birth of the Sun
At the heart of the nebula, the contraction proceeds. As a result, ball of hydrogen gas whose pressure
and temperature become quite huge become formed. Most of the contracting mass is collected in the
center, forming the Sun. The fact that most of the material was pulled toward the center, accounts for
99.8% of the mass of the solar system to be that of Sun. The figure below shows the formation of the
solar system with a diagram.

2) The Birth of the Planets

The planets are formed from the same cloud of gases and dust as the Sun. Not all the nearby gas and
dust were drawn into the core of the cloud. The infinitely large number of left over gas and dust
particles will also began to stick together by their mutual gravity. This forms clumps. These clumps
smashed into one another, forming larger and larger objects that led to the birth of Earth, other planets
and moons in our Solar System.

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The comets, asteroids, and meteorites are surviving remnants from the processes that formed the
solar system.
3) Motion of satellites around earth
Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around Sun, whereas a celestial body that revolves around a
planet is called a satellite. Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. There are many man-made
satellites revolving round the Earth. These are called artificial satellites. Artificial satellites are
launched from the Earth. Artificial satellites have many practical applications. They are used for
 Weather forecasting,  Telecommunication and
 Transmitting television  Remote sensing.
 Radio signals.
Our country, Ethiopia, has launched two artificial satellites.
a. The 1st Earth Observation satellite of Ethiopia (ETRSS-1) was launched on the 20th of December
2019 in collaboration with the government of China.
b. ET-SMART-RSS is the second Ethiopian satellite, launched followed by ETRSS-1.
ET-SMART-RSS has a higher resolution than ETRSS-1. The naming ET-SMART-RSS is
 ET for Ethiopia /ESSTI,
 SMART is for Beijing Smart Satellite Technology and
 RSS stands for Remote Sensing Satellite.
It is launched on December 22, 2020
The main mission of the Ethiopian space satellite is for addressing
 Urgent national challenges in the areas of natural resource management,
 Climate change and variability,
 Weather forecasting and monitoring,
 Different forms of natural disasters mitigation (like drought, landslides, and flood),
 Mapping and exploration of minerals,
 Water resource availability and supply,
 Transport infrastructure monitoring,
 Energy and tourism development,
 Agriculture modernization,
 Forestry,
 Ecosystems as well as border surveillance and national security.

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Exercise 6.3
1. Describe what motion does a satellite make around Earth?
2. Discuss the difference between the motion satellites and planets.
6.3 Earth in Comparison with Solar System
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 Compare the distance, size, position and behavior of each planet from the Sun.

The Earth is the planet we are living in. It is the third planet from the Sun and the only planet in our
Solar System that is known to support life. The Earth is about 12,750 km in diameter. The Earth is the
5th largest planet in our Solar System (after Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune).
1. Compare the distance of each planet from the sun
The distance of each planet from the Sun varies because all the planets orbit the Sun on different
elliptical paths.

Exercise 6.4: Answer the following questions using your model of activity 6.6
1. What did you notice about the distance of planets from the sun?
2. Compare the position of each planet from the sun.
3. Locate the position of Earth in the solar system?
4. Write the name of all planets, outward from the sun.
Compare the size of Earth with other planets in the solar system How big is Earth?
Earth is the fifth-largest planet in the solar system. It's smaller than the four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune, but larger than the three other rocky planets, Mercury, Mars and Venus.
Size of the Planets
Below are the estimated diameters of the eight planets in our solar system, in order of size. The
diameter sizes relative to Earth is also given to help you picture them better.
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Exercise 6.5: Answer the following questions based on the above project work.
1. What do you notice about the size of the planets?
2. Which planet is smallest in size?
3. Which planet is largest in size?
4. Write the name of planets in order of increasing their size.
5. Revising through what we have discussed up to now, write the behavior (temperature, density, etc.)
of each planet in the solar system.
6.4 Our planet’s Suitability for Life (Uniqueness)
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 explain the unique characteristics of Earth;
What Makes Earth Suitable for life?
 describe the suitability of Earth for life.
Earth is the only planet that has life. There are many factors which make Earth suitable for life. These
are:
 Earth has right amount of liquid water. About 71 percent of the Earth‘s surface is covered with
oceans and lakes. This liquid water is not too much to cover the mountains, and not so little that it‘s
a dry desert.
 Earth is found at the right distance from the Sun. The distance of the Earth from the Sun makes it
to receive enough energy to allow water to exist as a liquid on its surface. If it was too close, the
Earth would be too hot. It would lose all the oceans. If it is too far, then the oceans would freeze
over.
 Earth has the right temperature that allows liquid water to exist, and also provides a relatively
stable environment for organisms. Earth‘s temperature average is 15°C.
 Earth has the right moon. Because of our moon, Earth is titled, this results to the formation of
seasons.
Without the moon, the rotation of the Earth would result in a day that averages about 4 hours.

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 Earth has the right Sun. Our Sun is the most important source of energy for life on Earth. It‘s also a
stable and long-lasting star.
 Earth has the right core. Earth‘s solid inner core and liquid outer core play crucial roles in
protecting life from solar radiation.
 Earth has a strong magnetic field which deflects most of the solar wind (charged particles that flow
from the Sun). Without it, solar winds would strip away Earth‘s oceans and atmosphere.
 Because of its huge mass, Jupiter attracts most of the asteroids towards itself and away from Earth.
Jupiter shields Earth from constant stellar bombardment.
 The Earth‘s atmosphere is rich in oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and other compounds that are
essential for life.
 Earth has an ozone layer to block harmful rays coming from Sun.
The unique Characteristics of the Earth
 The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist.
 Some special environmental conditions are responsible for the existence and continuation of life on
the Earth.
 These include just the right distance from the Sun, so that it has the right temperature range, the
presence of water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.
 Thus, we must take special care to protect our environment so that life on Earth is not disturbed.
Exercise 6.6: Give a brief explanation for the following questions.
1. Discus what makes Earth to be suitable for life?
2. Discuss the unique characteristics of Earth.
REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT SIX
Part I: Write True for Correct and False for Incorrect statements
1. Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system.
2. Uranus is the farthest planet in the solar system.
3. Moon a natural satellite.
4. The Sun and the celestial bodies form Solar system.
5. The Earth can be said the satellite of the Sun.
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. Which of the following is NOT a member of the solar system?
A) An asteroid
B) A satellite
C) A constellation
D) A comet
2. Which of the following is NOT a planet of the sun?
A) Meteors B) Mercury C) Saturn D) Earth
3. Everything in the solar system revolves around
A) Earth B) Moon C) Stars D) Sun
4. Small heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits are called ______.
A) Comets C) Pole star
B) Asteroids D) None of the above
5. The third planet from the sun is _________________.
A) Mars B) Earth C) Venus D) Jupiter
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6. Which of the following are parts of the solar system?
A. Planets C. Satellites
B. Comets D. All of the above
7. One is not a true planet.
A. Mercury B. Jupiter C. Pluto D. Earth
8. The earth`s atmosphere composed of
A. hydrogen and Helium C. Oxygen and Hydrogen
B. Nitrogen and oxygen D. Helium and Nitrogen
9. Which one of the following planet has no moon?
A. Neptune B. Venus C. Pluto D. Earth
10. Day and night occurs due to of the earth
A. Revolution B. Rotation C. Eclipse D. None
11. Which of the following are parts of the solar system?
A. Planets B. Comets C. Satellites D. All of the above
12. One is not a true planet.
A. Mercury B. Jupiter C. Pluto D. Earth
13. The earth`s atmosphere composed of
A. hydrogen and Helium C. Oxygen and Hydrogen
B. Nitrogen and oxygen D. Helium and Nitrogen
14. Which one of the following planet has no moon?
A. Neptune C. Pluto
B. Venus D. Earth
15. Day and night occurs due to of the earth
A. Revolution C. Eclipse
B. Rotation D. None
Part III: Match items in column A with one or more items in column B:
‗‗A‘‘ ‗‗B‘‘
1. The planet we live in (a) Neptune
2. A planet with no moon (b) Moon
3. Satellite of the Earth (c) Venus
4. Dwarf planet (d) Earth
5. A planet with longest revolution time. (e) Pluto
Part IV: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word.
1. The planet which is farthest from the Sun is ____________
2. The planet which appears reddish in color is __________
3. A celestial body that revolves around a planet is known as __________.
4. Asteroids are found between the orbits of _________ and _______.
5. The second largest planet, in the solar system is ____________
Part V: Give short answer for the following questions.
1. Define a solar system.
2. Write the families of the solar system.
3. Name all planets in the solar system.
4. Compare the distance of planets from the Sun.
5. Compare the size of all planets.
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 UNIT SEVEN
PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN THE SURROUNDING= 24 PERIODS
Main contents of the unit
7.1 Phenomena of Light (Source & Properties) =3p 7.4 Heat =3p
7.2 Vision and Imaging=4p 7.5. Simple Circuit =2p
7.3 Sound=10p 7.6 Magnetism=2p
7.1 Phenomena of Light (Source & Properties) = 3 periods
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 list some sources of light;
 describe reflection and refraction;
 explain dispersion of light;
 show colors formed on the other side of the prism.

Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects surrounding us. We see object when light from
a source or from a reflecting body enters our eyes.
Sources of Light
Object which emits its own light is called a source of light. It is also known as a luminous object. The
main natural source of light is the sun. Objects which do not emit light are known as non -luminous
objects. At night, we use bulbs, lamps, candles and other artificial sources to get light because there is
no sunlight.
There are two types of sources of light: Natural sources of light and artificial (man-made). Natural
light sources produce light naturally without any human involvement. Examples of natural sources of
light: Sun, Stars, Lightning etc.
Artificial sources are man – made light sources. Examples of artificial sources of light are: candle,
electric bulb, and burning wood etc.,
Project 7.1: There are living organisms that have the ability to produce light. Using internet and by
asking your teacher bring a report to your class the name of living organisms that produces light.
Exercise 7.1:
1. What is main source of light for Earth?
2. Is the moon a source of light? Discus in pairs and present your groups opinion to your class.
3. List natural sources of light.
4. List artificial sources of light Properties of Light

Reflection of Light
Reflection is the phenomenon in which light travelling in one medium, falls on the surface of another
medium and returns back to the first medium. Depending on the nature of the reflecting surface,
reflection could be either regular or diffused.

Regular reflection also known as Specular reflection happens when light is reflected from smooth and
shiny surfaces. Diffuse reflection happens when light is reflected from a rough, unpolished surface.
Reflection from a mirror forms regular reflection and reflection from a wall, wood, paper etc. forms
diffused reflection. Mirrors are excellent reflectors of light.

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In regular reflection, all the rays are reflected in the same direction. This explains why regular
reflection forms a clear image that can be seen. In diffused reflection, the rays are reflected in many
different directions. This is why diffused reflection forms, a blurry image or no image.
We see non-luminous objects when the light from a source of light falling on the object is reflected
into our eyes.
Refraction of light

Refraction is a phenomenon in which there is a bending of light rays as it travels from one medium to
another. Figure7.4 shows a pencil placed in a beaker of water. The pencil looks as if it is broken at the
point where it enters the water. This is because the light bends when it goes from air to water.
When the cup is filled with water, the coin disappears. This happens because of refraction. When light
bounces off an object, it reaches our eyes and we see the object. As light travels through the sides of
the glass and the water, it‘s refracted and never reaches our eyes, which makes the coin seems to
disappear.
Dispersion of light
Activity 7.6: Place a prism on a sheet of paper and a few centimeters in front of a source of light (torch
battery). Rotate the prism slightly until a clear and wide combination of colors is visible. Using
coloring pencil, draw what you observe on the sheet of paper.

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Based on your observations of activity 7.6 answer the following questions.
a) What colors do you see?
b) Draw on the paper the path of the colored beams.
c) Which color is bent the most?
d) Which color is bent the least?

The splitting of white light into its constituent colors is called dispersion. Sunlight is white light. We
can split white light into its colors by passing it through the prism. The band of seven colors obtained
is called spectrum of white light. We can see these colors in a rainbow. These colors in order of
appearance are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Activity 7.7: Creating the colors of the rainbow in the class? Take water in a flat vessel and place it
under direct sunlight near a wall. Place obliquely a plane mirror in the water to reflect the sunlight on
the wall. Don‘t you see beautiful colors on the wall? What is the reason for it?
A rainbow is reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water droplets. A rainbow is evidence that
sun light is a combination of colors.
Activity 7.8: Discuss in group how white light is dispersed by a prism?
Dispersion appears because of refraction. When a beam of white light enters a prism, all the colors of
white light refract at different angles. This causes the white light to split into its component colors. Red
light bends the least and violet light bends the most. In this way, white light disperses into its
component colors.

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Exercise 7.2 Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements
1. Moon is the source of light.
2. Sun light is an example of a natural source of light.
3. Mirrors do not produce light but can be seen because they reflect light into our eyes.
4. The change in direction of light as it moves from one medium to another is called reflection.
Part II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. A source of light is ________________.
A. An object which reflects light. C. An object which refracts light.
B. An object which emits its own light. D. None of these
2. What is our main source of light energy?
A. Stars C. Sun
B. Fire D. Moon
3. The splitting of white light into its constituent colors is called
A. Refraction. C. Dispersion
B. Reflection D. Transparent.
4. Objects that can make their own light are called _________.
A. Luminous C. Non-luminous
B. Transparent D. Translucent
7.2 Vision and Imaging
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 determine the purpose of light;
 classify materials as transparent, translucent and opaque;
 demonstrate how image is formed.

Activity 7.9: What is the purpose of light? Discuss in group and present your group‘s opinion to the
class.
As discussed in the previous section in order to see our surrounding we need to have either a source of
light or a reflector that reflects light from the source to our eye. This show that light is essential for
vision.
Activity 7.10: What requirements should be fulfilled to have vision?
Even in the presence of light, if we close our eyes we cannot see our surrounding. So, to have a good
vision, not only light but also the eye is important. Thus, the main factors which are needed for vision
are the source of light and the eye.
Imaging
Imaging is the process of forming images. Images are formed either by reflection (using mirrors) or by
refraction (using lenses). X-rays, CT scans (Computed Tomography), ultrasound and MRIs (Magnetic
Resonance Imaging) are imaging tools used by doctors to diagnose injury or illness. They produce
images of internal structures of the body for the purpose of accurate diagnosis.
Image Formed by a Human Eye
The human eye is also an imaging tool. It forms a real picture of the observed object on the retina by
optical system of the eye. When the image finally reaches the retina, it is inverted, but the brain will
correct this. For the vision to be clear, the image has to be formed directly on the retina.
Image formation by Plane Mirror
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An image is a visual representation of an object which is placed some where in front of a mirror or
lens. A mirror with a plane surface is called a plane mirror. It forms an image by reflection.
Activity 7.11: Standing in front of a plane mirror, raise your left hand. Which hand of your image is
raised? Lower the left hand and raise the right hand. What change occurs to the image?
When our right side appear left and our left side appear right, such a shift of the lateral side of the
images in the opposite direction is called lateral inversion.
Real image versus virtual image
Real images can be placed on a screen, but virtual images can‘t be placed on a screen. Real images are
always inverted but virtual images are erect.
Activity 7.12: Place a mirror perpendicular to a table. Hold different objects like pen, pencil etc. in
front of the mirror. Observe their images. Is the size of the object and the image the same? Keeping a
ruler in front of the mirror, place these objects at different positions and observe. Does the distance of
the image change when the distance of the object from the mirror changes?
The characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror may be summarized as follows:
(i) the image is virtual and erect.
(ii) the image is of the same size as that of the object.
(iii) the image is laterally inverted. Right side appear to be left and left side appeared to be right.
(iv) the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Exercise 7.3:
1. What is the purpose of light?
2. Look at the picture. What is the reason for writing AMBULANCE in that way?
Transmission of Light through Objects
Different types of materials transmit light differently. Based on the way they transmit light, materials
can be divided into transparent, translucent, and opaque.
Transparent Material:
Materials that allow light to pass through them completely are known as transparent material. We can
see through these materials very clearly. Example: Glass, clean water, clear plastic and air are
transparent materials.
Translucent Material:
Objects that allow light to pass through partially (transmits some amount of light) are called
translucent materials. An object cannot be seen clearly through a translucent material. Oiled paper,
waxed paper, and frosted glass are examples of translucent materials.
Opaque Material: Materials that do not allow (completely blocks) light to pass through them are
called opaque materials. We can‘t see through these materials at all. Metal sheet, wood sheet, wall,
thick card board, stone, etc. are examples of opaque objects.
Activity 7.13: Investigating the transmission of light in different objects. Materials you need: Clean
glass, oiled paper, frosted glass, wooden sheet, metal sheet, waxed paper, a black color paper, tissue
paper, newspaper and the like.
Transparent material Translucent Material) Opaque material)

Note that not only through solids light could pass through water and air.

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Tip: On foggy conditions air is translucent. So, when there is a lot of fog, it is very difficult to travel
on roads as drivers of a car can‘t see us clearly. For such situation there is a new type of lamp in
modern vehicles known as fog light‖. Drivers should use this light when the atmosphere becomes
translucent because of the mist.
Exercise 7.4:
Part I: Choose the correct answer
1. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a plane mirror?
A. virtual, inverted and enlarged
B. real, inverted and reduced
C. virtual, upright and the same size as object
D. real, upright and the same size as object
2. Materials which doesn't allow any light to pass through them are called ---------------
A. Transparent materials C. Translucent material
B. Opaque materials D. Reflecting materials
3. A clear plastic allow light to pass through it, so it is________.
A. Transparent materials C. Translucent material
B. Opaque materials D. Reflecting materials
4. Which one of the following is an example of translucent material?
A. Wall C. Cover of book
B. Brick D. Frozen glass
Part II: Fill in the blanks with the correct word.
Light is a type of _____________. It travels in a straight line. Light does not travel through some
objects. Such objects are known as _____________. Objects through which light could pass are
called, _________________ . The other group of objects through which light passes only partially are
called ______________.
Part III: Give a short answer
1. Write the difference between transparent, translucent and opaque materials.
2. Classify the following materials as transparent, translucent and opaque. Metal, stone, book,
window glass, oiled paper, water, air and waxed paper.
7.3 Sound
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 define sound as a form of energy;  explain the cause of sound pollution;
 explain how sound is formed;  identify hearing level for different sound;
 demonstrate the formation of sound;  list strategies of sound pollution;
 identify material medium for sound propagation;  define echo and demonstrate its application.
 prioritize sound propagation in solid, liquid & gases;

Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. This energy is produced
by vibrating objects. Vibration means a kind of back and forth motion of an object. This back and forth
motion of the body causes the substances around it to vibrate.
How do Objects Produce Sound?
Any of the Ethiopian traditional musical instruments shown in the figure below have something to
vibrate: string, skin or air. When these things are made to vibrate, sound is produced. When it stops
vibrating, it does not produce any sound.

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Activity 7.14: Take a drum. Touch it when not in use. Again touch it when producing sound. What
do your hands feel when drum is beaten and produce sound? Can you feel the skin of the drum
vibrating?
If you place small pieces of papers on the drum and play it, you may observe that the pieces of paper
are moving here and there. That is because the skin of the drum is vibrates when it is beaten.
Therefore, it is clear that sound is produced by vibrating bodies. The objects that produce sound are
called sources of sound. Animals, various types of objects, musical instruments are examples for
sources of sound.
Observing sound propagation in solids
Activity 7.15: Strike one end of the table and ask your friend to listen to the sound produced keeping
his/her ear touching the table at other end. Ask him/her to listen to the sound by lifting his/her head
slightly from the table.
Ask your friend what difference he/she noticed while hearing the sounds when his/her ears were away
from the table and touching the table.
In this activity you observed that sound travels in solid medium like wood, metal, thread, etc.
Propagation of sound through liquids
Activity 7.16: Take a glass and fill it with water. Take two stones and strike them against each other
keeping your hands inside the water. (Take care not to break the glass). Ask your friend to listen to the
sound by keeping his / her ears touching walls of the glass. Ask your friend about the difference
between sounds produced by striking the stones against each other in water and striking them in air.
From the above activities we can conclude that sound propagates through matter in all the three states
solid, liquid and gas
Sound des not travel through vacuum
Activity 7.17: To show Sound needs a medium (recommended to do this activity in a laboratory) .
• Take an electric bell and airtight jar.
• The electric bell is suspended inside the airtight bell jar.
• With air still in jar ring the bell.
• Now take out air by using vacuum pump.
• Ring the bell again. What difference did you observe?

Observation: Sound of bell can be heard when air is inside the jar. When air is taken out then sound
cannot be heard. This shows that sound can‘t travel through vacuum, empty space. Medium The above
activities gave us an idea about the need of a medium for propagation of sound. The material or
substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound
travels more quickly through solids than through liquids and gases because the molecules of a solid are
closer together and, therefore, can transmit the vibrations (energy) faster. Sound travels most slowly
through gases because the molecules of a gas are farthest apart. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
Hearing
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We hear sound through our ears. The eardrums of our ears sense the vibrations produced by a vibrating
object and send them to the brain. This process is called a hearing. The structure of the ear plays an
important role in hearing the sound.
Exercise: 7.5: When we speak, does any part of our body vibrate? Mention them.
Noise and music
We hear different types of sounds around us. Some sounds are pleasant to the ear, whereas some are
not. Such unpleasant sounds are called noise. The sounds which are pleasant to hear are called music.
Sound Pollution
The presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is called sound pollution. Major
causes of sound pollution are sounds of vehicles, explosions, machines, loudspeakers etc. In the home,
Television and radio at high volumes, some kitchen appliances, all contribute to sound pollution.
Exercise 7.6: After discussing in group, write some more sources of sound pollution in your
surroundings.
Effects of sound pollution
Sound pollution is a serious problem like air or water pollution. It is harmful to human beings. We
express the loudness of the sound coming from various sources in decibels (dB). The sound produced
in our normal conversation is about 60 dB. If a person is being exposed to the sound of 80dB
continuously it may lead to hearing problems. A whisper is about 30 dB, normal conversation is
about 60 dB, and a motorcycle engine running is about 95 dB. Loud noise above 120 dB can cause
immediate harm to your ears. The table below shows decibel (dB) levels everyday sources of sound.

Noise Average decibels (dB)

Soft music, whisper 30
Average home noise 40
Normal conversation 60
Heavy traffic, noisy restaurant 80-89
A very loud radio, stereo, or television 105–110
Standing beside or near sirens 120
Gun shot, jet engine 140
Noise Average decibels (dB) Soft music, whisper 30 Average home noise 40 Normal conversation 60
Heavy traffic, noisy restaurant
Sound pollution creates some health hazards. Some of them are listed below.
Noise may cause irritation, stress, nervousness and headache.
Long term exposure to noise may disturb the sleeping pattern of a person, hearing ability and may
leads to loss of hearing.
Noise causes lack of concentration in one‘s work.
Measures to Control Sound Pollution
We cannot stop production of sound but we can reduce sound pollution by some measures. Sound
pollution can be significantly reduced by adopting the following steps.
 Strict guidelines should be set for the use of loudspeakers on social, religious and political
occasions.
 All automobiles, air craft engines, transport vehicles, industrial machines and home appliances
should have effective silencers
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 Use of automobile horns should be minimized.
 All communication systems must be operated in low volumes.
 Residential areas should be free from heavy vehicles.
 People working in noisy factories should wear ear plugs.
 Noise producing industries, and heavy vehicles should be set up away from residential areas.
 Trees must be planted along the roads and around buildings to cut down on the sounds reaching the
residents.
Project 7.2: Discuss with your friends about some other measures to limit sound pollution and tabulate
them.
Echo
A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves from a surface is known as echo. A
hard and flat surfaces (wall, mountain and buildings) are a good reflector while soft surfaces such as
clothes, papers, curtains, carpet, furniture, etc. absorb sound.
Some of the real life applications echo are:
 Hearing aid: It is a device used by the people who are hard of hearing. Here the sound waves,
which are received by the hearing aid are reflected into a narrower area leading to the ear.
 Sound boards: Curved surfaces can reflect sound waves. This reflection of sound waves is used in
auditorium to spread the waves uniformly throughout the hall.
 The working of a stethoscope: It is based on the reflection of sound. In a stethoscope, the sound
of the patient‘s heartbeat reaches the doctor‘s ear by multiple reflections of sound.
Exercise 7.6
Part I: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. Sound is produced by_______.
A. Non-Vibrating objects only C. Vibration has no relation to sound
B. Vibrating and non- vibrating objects D. Vibrating objects only
2. Sound is a kind of________.
A. work B. force
C. energy D. pressure
3. Sound cannot travel through________.
A. air B. solids
C. water D. vacuum
4. Above _____ dB the sound becomes physically painful
A. 40 B. 80 C. 120 D. 60
Part II: Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate word.
1. Sounds which are unpleasant to the ear are called __________.
2. The speed of sound is maximum in __________.
3. Plantation on the roadside can reduce __________.
4. Sound requires a _______________ to travel.
5. When we touch a source of sound, we can feel the _______.
Part III. For the following questions, give a short answer
1. When does a body produce sound?
2. What are the different mediums through which sound can travel?
3. Name any two practical applications of reflection of sound-echo.
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7.4 Heat
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 define the term heat;
 explain mechanism of heat transfer;
 classify materials as good conductors of heat and poor conductors of heat (insulators).

Activity 7.18: Take three small containers. Label them as A, B and C. Put cold water in container A
and warm water in container B. Mix some cold and warm water in container C. Now dip your left hand
in container A and the right hand in container B. After keeping the hands in the two containers for 2–3
minutes, put both the hands simultaneously in container C. Do both hands get the same feeling?
Warning! Make sure that the warm water is not too hot that it should not burns your hands. Our left
hand which was in the cold water feels hotter, while our right hand which was in the hot water now
feels colder. That is, the hotter object cools down and the colder object warm up. This means the
colder water gains energy, while the hotter water loses energy.
Based on this observation we can define heat as a form of energy that flows from a body at a higher to
a body at a lower temperature. Note that, the energy transfer will continue until both objects are at the
same temperature. When the two objects attain the same temperature, then the flow of heat stops.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
There are three ways through which heat can be transferred from a hot object to a cold object. These
are conduction, convection and radiation.
1. Conduction
Activity 7.19: Pour some water in a dish and boil it. Then insert a metal stick into the boiled water.
When you put a cold, metal stick into hot water, the metal stick handle warms up after a while. How
this warmth ―moved‖ from the hot water to the cold metal stick?

The water is hot and the metal stick is cold. When you put the metal stick into the hot water some of
the heat energy from the water is transferred to the metal particles. As a result, the particles of the
metal start to vibrate and collide with their neighboring particles. These collisions spread the energy
through the stick. In this way, energy is transferred from the end which is in contact to the source to the
other end. This process is called conduction. Conduction is the mode of transfer of heat from hotter
part of a material to its colder part with successive particle collision. In all solids, heat is transferred by
the process of conduction.
2. Convection
Activity 7.20: In the above case of a metal stick in a hot water, only the bottom of the dish touches the
source of heat, but all of the water inside the dish, becomes warmer. Discuss how does the energy
transfer throughout the water in the dish?
When heating begins, the water near the bottom becomes warm and its density decreases. Meaning it
is lighter than the cold water. This causes the heated liquid to move upwards and the colder liquid
moves downwards. When the warm liquid reaches the top it cools down again and therefore moves
back down. The warm water is rising and being replaced by cooler water. This transfer of energy is
called convection. You can observe this process by placing potassium permanganate or food dye in the
water, as shown in the Figure below. Convection is the mode of heat transfer from the hotter part of a
fluid (liquid or gas) to its colder parts by the movement of the liquid (or gas) itself.
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3. Radiation
Activity: 7.21: Discuss in group how heat from the sun reaches to Earth?
Heat transfer from a body at high temperature to a body at a lower temperature, without any material
medium between them, is called radiation. Convection and conduction, require the presence of a
material medium to transfer heat, but radiation occurs without any medium at all. Radiation takes place
through a vacuum or transparent medium which can be either solid or liquid.
Activity 7.22: Whenever we want to heat our room, we place a burning charcoal at one corner of the room.
Discuss how heat is transferred to the whole air found in the room. In the figure below, heat flows
through the hands of the dish to the person‘s hand by conduction, though the boiling water by
convection and to the environment by radiation.
Exercise 7.7: Give examples from daily life for each mechanism of heat transfer.
Conductors and Insulators
Substances that allow heat energy to be transferred through them are called conductors. Substances
that do not allow heat energy to be transferred through them are called insulators. Poor conductors are
known as insulators.
Insulation
Insulation is the way that is used to reduce heat loss or heat gain by providing a barrier between the
inside of your home or body with the outside found at different temperature.
Exercise 7.8: Part I: Choose the correct answer.
1. What is the term that describes the flow of energy from a hot body to a colder body?
A. Sound C. Conduction
B. Convection D. Heat
2. Any material that does not allow heat to pass through it easily is called
A. Conductor C. Heater
B. Insulator D. Heat
3. The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that is touching is referred to as
A. Convection C. Conduction
B. Radiation D. Insulation
4. Which of the following is the transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid?
A. Radiation C. Insulation
B. Convection D. Conduction
Part II: Give a short answer.
1. Define the term heat.
2. Explain the three different mechanisms of heat transfer.
3. Mention three examples of conductors and insulators.
7.5. Simple Circuit
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 list all material used to construct simple circuit;
 Construct simple circuit.
A circuit is the complete path, from one terminal of the electric cell through the bulb and back to the
other terminal of the electric cell. A circuit could be open or closed. If there is any gap in the path of a

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circuit, the bulb does not light up. Such a circuit is called an open circuit. The bulb lights up only
when a bulb and wire form a complete path. Such a circuit is called a closed circuit.
The following materials are used to have a functioning electric circuit.
Electric cell or battery: A cell is a source of electricity and a battery is a combination of two or more
cells.
Bulb: An electric bulb is a device which glows &emits light, when electric current is passed through it.
Conductors (wire): Materials that allow electric current to pass through them.
Resistor: is any device in the circuit that produces light or heat, when current is flowing through it.
Switch: is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or starts the flow of current.
Electrical Safety
Never play with electrical wires and sockets. Do not connect the two terminals of a cell directly
through a wire or conductor.
Making a Simple Electric Circuit
Project 7.3: Using the following steps, construct a simple circuit.
1. Take a cell having a positive terminal (+) and a negative terminal (-).
2. Connect the positive terminal of the cell to one end of the switch with a piece of copper wire and other ends of
the switch to one end of a bulb with another piece of copper wire.
3. Connect the negative terminal of the cell directly to the other end of the bulb with a wire, as shown in the
figure.

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Exercise 7.9 Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements.
1. An electric circuit is a closed loop or pathway that allows electric charges to flow.
2. A cell is a device that controls current in electric circuits.
3. For current to flow, the circuit should be closed.
Part II: Choose the correct answer.
1. When we turn the switch to the off position the circuit is __________.
A. Closed B. Open C. Negative D. Positive
2. A device for opening or closing the flow in a circuit is ____________.
A. An insulator C. A switch
B. A battery charger
3. The path that electricity flows from the battery to the light bulb and back to the battery is called the
A. Circuit C. Wires
B. Components D. Switch
4. The symbol shown below represents____________________.
A. light bulb C. battery
B. switch D. resistor

5. A conductor is___________.
A. Material that current can pass through easily
B. Material that current cannot pass through easily
C. Magnet
D. Electric current
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7.6 Magnetism
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 define magnetism;
 do simple experiment and construct magnetic lines of force;
 explain the use of magnet.

The branch of physics which deals with the property of a magnet is called magnetism. Magnets are
materials which have the property of attracting metals like iron, cobalt and nickel. Magnetism was
discovered about 4000 years back in ancient Greece. Materials such as iron and nickel that are attracted
by a magnet are called magnetic materials.
Materials that are not attracted by a magnet called non-magnetic materials.
Classification of Magnets
Magnets are classified into two types: natural magnets and artificial magnets
Natural Magnets
Magnets found in nature are called natural magnets. They are permanent magnets i.e., they will never
lose their magnetic property. Lode stone is the first discovered natural magnet
Artificial Magnets
Magnets that are made by people in the laboratory or factory are called artificial or man-made magnets.
Artificial magnets can be made in various shapes and dimensions.
 Bar magnets,
 U-shaped magnets,
 horseshoe magnets,
 cylindrical magnets,
 disc magnets, and
 ring magnets are some examples of artificial magnets.
Artificial magnets are usually made up of iron, nickel, cobalt, steel, etc.

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Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet where its influence is felt is called the magnetic field of the magnet. Any
magnetic material placed in the field will be attracted by the magnet. We cannot see the magnetic field,
but it can be represented by a set of curves around a magnet called magnet field lines. The shape of a
magnetic field can be shown using iron filings or small compasses.
Activity 7.25: Plotting magnetic field lines using iron filings. Iron filings are tiny pieces of iron
cluster together and line up to show the pattern of the field. Procedure:
 Place the magnet on the wooden table or desk.
 Put sheet of white paper over it and scatter iron filings lightly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper now and again so that the filings move into position. You can see the field
pattern beginning to show. What do you see?

Activity 7.26: Magnetic fields can also be mapped using small plotting compasses. This activity
can be carried out in group. Procedure:
 Place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of paper.
 Mark the direction the compass needle points.
 Move the plotting compass to many different positions in the magnetic field, marking the
needle direction each time.

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Properties of magnetic field lines
 The arrow shows the direction of the field.
 Magnetic field lines do not intersect one another.
 The two poles of a magnet always exist in pairs.
 Outside the magnet filed lines point from north to south pole but inside the magnet they point from
south to north pole.
 Where the filed lines are closest together is where the magnetic field is strongest
Magnetic force
Like poles of a magnet repel each other. Unlike poles of a magnet attract with each other.
Uses of Magnets
Today magnets play an important role in our lives. Some of the important uses of magnets are given
below.
 Magnets are used to hold objects (like stickers, refrigerator doors, etc.).
 Magnets are used to separate magnetic materials from non-manetic materials.
 Magnets are used for making compasses.
 Magnets are used to store data in computers.
 Magnets are used in scanning machines called MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) which doctors
use to look inside peoples body.
 Using magnets, we can do heavy lifting which is not humanly possible to do.
 Magnets are used inside TVs, loud speakers and radios, electric motors and generators.
 The debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to store data just like computers‘ hard
drives.
 Magnetically levitated trains, known as maglev trains, use magnets under the cars to float above
the magnetic tracks.
 Both magnetic attraction and repulsion are used to move the train car along the guide way. This
days such kinds of trains are being used in developed countries. Maglevs can move with a speed of
500 km/h.Magnets are used in telephones, hair driers, door belts, mixer and grinder, fans, washing
machines, television sets, tape recorders, and in headphones and loudspeakers
Exercise 7.12 Part I. Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements
1. Iron and cobalt are magnetic substances.
2. Opposite poles of two magnets attract each other.
3. An isolated magnetic pole (N or S) could exist.
4. Two magnetic field lines could cross each other.
Part II: Choose the correct answer
1. An example of a natural magnet is ___________________.
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 A. Iron B. Steel C. Lodestone
2. The space around a magnet where its influence is felt is called as ________________.
A. Electric field C. Magnetic field
B. Magnetic Field lines D. Magnetic pole
3. A freely suspended magnet always points in the –
A. Easiest direction. B. North-south direction.
C. East-south direction. D. North-west direction
REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT SEVEN
Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements
1. Water and glass are transparent materials.
2. The spectrum of light produced by a prism is due to reflection.
3. Sound is produced by vibrating bodies.
4. Sound travel faster in air, slower in iron.
5. Heat is a form of energy.
6. Aluminum, copper and silver are magnetic substances.
7. A battery is a source of electricity.
8. Magnets are used only for fun, they don‘t have practical applications.
Part II: Choose the correct answer.
1. Which of the following lists is in the order of appearance of the colors of the visible spectrum?
A. Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet
B. Red, Orange, Yellow, Violet, Green, Blue
C. Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red
D. Violet, Blue, Green, Red, Yellow, Orange.
2. The bouncing off or return of light after striking a surface is called
A. Reflection of light C. Refraction of light
B. Light emitting D. Dispersion of light
3. The speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases can be correctly compared as
A. speed in gas > speed in liquid > speed in solid
B. speed in Liquid > speed in gas > speed in Solid
C. speed in Liquid > speed in solid > speed in gas
D. speed in solid > speed in liquid > speed in gas
4. A pathway for electricity to travel is called______________.
A. Current C. Electricity
B. Circuit D. Source of electricity
5. A component which is used to close or break a circuit, is
A. Bulb C. Switch
B. Wire D. Electric cell
Part III: Fill the blank spaces with an appropriate word.
1. Objects which emit their own light _________________.
2. In a normal eye, images are formed on ______________.
3. Sound is a form of ____________________________.
4. A mechanism of heat transfer through an empty space is ____________________.
5. Electricity can flow through _________________.
6. The regions on a magnet where the attraction power of the magnet is maximum are called _____________________ of
the magnet.
Part IV: Give a short answer.
1. Define the terms reflection, refraction and dispersion of light.
2. Write the purpose of light.
3. Explain the cause of sound pollution.
4. List the material needed to construct a simple circuit.
5. What is magnetism?

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