School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (SELECT)

Bachelor of Technology

in
Electrical and Electronics.

BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited)

Internship Training
Trainee, Mr.P.Ganapathiraman
by
Basil Angel (16BEE0385)
Sivapriya S (16BEE0289)

Internship Report JUNE-2019

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The internship opportunity we had with BHEL was a great chance for learning and
development of our professional knowledge. Therefore, we consider ourselves as a very
grateful to be a part of it. We are also thankful for having a chance to meet so many
wonderful people and professionals who led us through this internship period.

We sincerely express our thanks to Mr.P.Ganapathiraman (Deputy Manager

Office), who took time out to hear, guide and keep us on correct path during our intern
period, despite being extraordinarily busy with his duties. We also thank
Mr.Nageshwaran, Mr.Ramachandran and the apprentices and all the technician in the
bays who guided us and explained the detailed working of the machinery and its
applications. And expressing our thanks to HRDC department for giving the opportunity
to do the internship in BHEL BAP, Ranipet.

We perceive this opportunity as a big milestone in our career development. We will

strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way, and we will continue to
work on their improvement, to attain desired career objectives. Hope to continue
cooperation with all of you in the future.

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... 2

TABLE OF LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. 6

1. INTRODUCTION TO BHEL ............................................................................................................. 7

1.1. About the Company ..................................................................................................................... 8

1.2. Manufacturing Units .................................................................................................................... 9
1.3. Boiler Auxiliaries Plant-BHEL-Ranipet ..................................................................................... 10
1.4. Products of BHEL-BAP-Ranipet................................................................................................ 10
2. OVERVIEW OF BOILER ................................................................................................................ 11

2.1. Introduction to Thermal Power Plant........................................................................................... 12

2.2 Fans ...............................................................................................................................13
2.1.1. Components of Fans ............................................................................................................ 13
2.1.2. Types of Fan ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.2. Air Pre-Heater ........................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.1. Types of Air Pre-Heaters ..................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2. Parts of Air Pre-Heaters ...................................................................................................... 18
2.3. Electrostatic Precipitator ............................................................................................................ 19
2.3.1. Dust Collection Efficiency .................................................................................................. 20
2.3.2. Manufacturing Process ........................................................................................................ 21
3. POWER GENERATION................................................................................................................... 22

Solar Power Generation ..................................................................................................................... 22

3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.2. Solar Panels ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.3. Efficiency .................................................................................................................................. 22
3.4. Smart Solar Modules ................................................................................................................. 23
3.5. Maintenance .............................................................................................................................. 23
3.6. Grid Connection ........................................................................................................................ 24
3.7. Solar Plant at Ranipet ................................................................................................................ 24

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4. DISTRIBUTION .............................................................................................................................. 26

4.1. Electrical Substation .................................................................................................................. 26

4.2. Distribution Substation .............................................................................................................. 26
4.3. Elements of Substation............................................................................................................... 27
4.3.1. Common Circuit Breakers ................................................................................................... 27
4.3.2. Protection Circuit for Transformer ....................................................................................... 27
5. CONTROL SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................... 29
5.1. V/F Control of Three Phase Induction Motor............................................................................... 29
5.2. Computer Numerical Control ...................................................................................................... 31
5.2.1. What is a CNC Machine? ..................................................................................................... 31
5.2.2. Why is CNC Machining necessary? ...................................................................................... 31
5.2.3. Major Components Related to CNC Machine ....................................................................... 31
5.2.4. Motors used for CNC Systems.............................................................................................. 33
5.2.5. Part Programming ................................................................................................................ 37
5.2.6. Example Codes .................................................................................................................... 41
5.3. Programming Logic Control........................................................................................................ 43
5.3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 43
5.3.2 Hardware ............................................................................................................. …………44
5.3.2. Input Devices and Sensors .................................................................................................... 45
5.3.3. Output Devices .................................................................................................................... 49
5.3.4. PLC Programming ............................................................................................................... 50
6. PRODUCTION PROCESSES .......................................................................................................... 51

6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 51

6.2. Welding Quality Checking ......................................................................................................... 51
6.3. Stress Relieving ......................................................................................................................... 53
6.3.1Annealing ............................................................................................................. 53
6.4. Balancing Machine .................................................................................................................... 55
6.4.1. Static Balancing .................................................................................................................. 55
6.4.2. Dynamic Balancing ............................................................................................................. 55
6.4.3. Difference between Static and Dynamic Balancing .............................................................. 55
6.4.4. Working ............................................................................................................ ……..57

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7. MACHINES..................................................................................................................................... 58

7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 58

7.2. NC and CNC Machines.............................................................................................................. 58
7.3. Types of Machine ...................................................................................................................... 62
7.3.1. Grinding Machine ............................................................................................................... 61
7.3.2. Drilling Machine ................................................................................................................. 62
7.3.3. Horizontal Milling Machine ................................................................................................ 63
7.3.4. Horizontal Boring ............................................................................................................... 64
7.3.5. Lathe Machine .................................................................................................................... 65
7.3.6. Vertical Milling Machine .................................................................................................... 66
7.4 Cranes……………………………………………………………………………….….……..67
7.3.7. EOT Cranes ........................................................................................................................ 67
7.3.8. Semi-Gantry Crane ............................................................................................................. 69
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................... 70

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 70

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TABLE OF LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Block diagram of a Thermal Power Plant .................................................................................. 12
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of Thermal Power Plant............................................................................... 13
Figure 3 Overview of Thermal Power Plant ............................................................................................ 13
Figure 4 Components of Fan .................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 5 Axial Fan ................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 6 Radial Fan ................................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 7 Air Pre-Heaters ........................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 8 Air Pre-Heater Structure........................................................................................................... 19
Figure 9 Electrostatic Precipitation......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 10 (a) Speed Torque Characteristics of Induction Motor with frequency variation
(b) Voltage and frequency variation in VSI fed Induction motor .............................................. 28
Figure 11 (a) Block Diagram Schematic of V/f control of VSI fed 3-phase Induction Motor drive
(b) Modes of operation and variation of is, ωsl,, T and Pm with per unit frequency K ............. 29
Figure 12 (a) Permanent Magnet Stepper (b) Variable reluctance stepper motor (c) Hybrid stepper.......... 33
Figure 13 Servo system block ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 14 Sequence and formats of words .............................................................................................. 38
Figure 15 List of G codes ....................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 16 List of M codes ...................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 17 G Code Example CNC Lathe .................................................................................................. 40
Figure 18 G Code Example CNC MILLING .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 19 A programmable logic ............................................................................................................ 43
Figure 20 the PLC System .................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 21 Limit switches actuated by: (a) lever, (b) roller, (c) cam ......................................................... 45
Figure 22 Proximity switches: (a) eddy current, (b) reed switch, (c) capacitive ....................................... 46
Figure 23 Incremental Encoder and Absolute Encoder ........................................................................... 47
Figure 24 Relay Diagram ....................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 25 The cyclic execution of PLC .................................................................................................. 49
Figure 26 Temperature Graph ................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 27 Balancing Machine ................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 28 Block Diagram of CNC .......................................................................................................... 58
Figure 29 Grinding Machine .................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 30 Drilling Machine .................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 31 Horizontal Milling Machine.................................................................................................... 62
Figure 32 Horizontal Boring Machine..................................................................................................... 63
Figure 33 Lathe Machine ........................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 34 Vertical Milling Machine........................................................................................................ 65
Figure 35 EOT Crane ............................................................................................................................. 67

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 1. INTRODUCTION TO BHEL

1.1. About the Company

Forging ahead on a sturdy foundation of over five decades of engineering excellence and
embracing the glorious next phase of its growth, BHEL is an integrated power plant
equipment manufacturer and one of the largest engineering and manufacturing company of
its kind in India engaged in the design, engineering, manufacture, construction, testing,
commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and services for core sectors of
the economy, viz. Power, Transmission, Industry, Transportation (Railways), Renewable
Energy, Oil & Gas, Water and Defense with over 180 products offerings to meet the needs
of these sectors. BHEL has been the bedrock of India's Heavy Electrical Equipment
industry since its incorporation in 1964.
BHEL's growth has been synchronous with achieving self-sufficiency in the indigenous
manufacturing of heavy electrical equipment. Out of the available 35,000 MW per annum
capacity for power plant equipment manufacturing in the country, BHEL alone constitutes
a mammoth 20,000 MW per annum capacity. A widespread network of 17 Manufacturing
Divisions, 2 Repair Units, 4 Regional Offices, 8 Service Centres, 6 Overseas Offices, 6
Joint Ventures, 15 Regional Marketing Centres and current project execution at more than
150 project sites across India and abroad corroborates the humungous scale and size of its
operations.
Adding to its achievements, BHEL has joined the elite club of select global giants having
an installed base of over 170 GW of power generating equipment globally. In FY 2015-16
the company has recorded the highest-ever commissioning of projects in its history.
Enhanced focus on project execution has resulted in BHEL creating history by way of
commissioning/synchronizing an all-time high 15,059 MW of power generating equipment
during the year. This includes the highest-ever power generation capacity addition of
13,061 MW to the Indian utility segment; a quantum jumps of 59% over the previous year.
With this, BHEL has already achieved 94% of the capacity addition target for the XII Plan
in first 4 years itself. 55% of the supercritical sets commissioned in the country are
contributed by BHEL, a testimony to its valuable contribution towards nation building.
BHEL also has a widespread overseas footprint in 80 countries with cumulative overseas
installed capacity of BHEL manufactured power plants nearing 10,000 MW including
Belarus, Bhutan, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Oman,
Rwanda, Sudan, Tajikistan and UAE.
The high level of quality & reliability of BHEL products is due to adherence to international
standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies
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in the world including General Electric Company, Alstom SA, Siemens AG and Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries Ltd., together with technologies developed in its own R&D centres.
Most of its manufacturing units and other entities have been accredited to Quality
Management Systems (ISO 9001:2008), Environmental Management Systems (ISO
14001:2004) and Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems (OHSAS
18001:2007).
BHEL's greatest strength is its highly skilled and committed workforce of around 42,200
employees that have been the cornerstone of BHEL's journey ensuring success. Further,
the concept of sustainable development is inculcated in the DNA of BHEL which is evident
from its mission statement-"providing sustainable business solutions in the fields of energy,
industry and infrastructure". BHEL is also engaging with the society with its social
initiatives aimed at Community Development, Health & Hygiene, Education, Environment
Protection, Disaster Management, and Talent up gradation/Skill development.
The future is filled with both exciting opportunities & gruelling challenges. BHEL has
embraced new business opportunities by expanding its offerings and enhancing
competitiveness seeking to realize its long-term vision. Creating new business avenues and
maximizing the utilization of available infrastructure will be the key to future growth and
stakeholders' wealth enhancement.
BHEL has acquired to Quality Management System (ISO 9001), Environmental
Management system (ISO 14001) and occupational health & Safety Management Systems
(OHSAS 18001) and is also well in its journey towards Total Quality Management. BHEL
has
1. Installed equipment for over 90,000MW of power generation for utilizes
captivity and industrial uses.
2. Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacities and other equipment
operating in transmission and distribution network up to 400 KV (AC&DC).
3. Supplied over 25,000 motors with drive control system to power projects,
Petro chemical, refiners, steel aluminium fertilizers, cement plants, etc.,
4. Supply traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000KM railway
network.
5. Supplied over 1 million valves to power plants and other industries.
BHEL’s operations are organized around three business sectors namely power, industries-
including transmission transportation and telecommunication & renewable energy and
overseas business. This enables BHEL to have a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive
to his needs and quickly to the changes in the market.

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BHEL’s vision is to become a world class engineering enterprises, committed to enhancing
stake holder value. The company is striving to give to its aspiration and fulfil the
expectations of the country to become a global player.
The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed 42,600 employees. Every
employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and grow in his career.
Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participate
style of management have engendered development of a committed and motivated work
force setting new bench marks in terms of productivity, quality and responsiveness.

1.2. Manufacturing Units

2. Bangalore : Energy Systems Division
3. Bangalore : Electronics Division, Electro Porcelain Division
4. Bhopal : Heavy Electrical Plant
5. Govindwal : Industrial Valve Plant
6. Haridwar : Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant
7. Haridwar : Central Foundry and Forge Plant
8. Hyderabad : Heavy Electrical Power Equipment Plant
9. Jagdish : Insulator Plant
10. Jhansi : Transformer and Locomotive Plant
11. Ranipet : Boiler Auxiliaries Plant
12. Rudrapur : Component and Fabrication Plant
13. Trichy : High Pressure Boiler Plant
14. Trichy : Seamless Steel Tube Plant

BHEL is growing concern to meet the changing needs of the nation has taken it
beyond power into the total gamut of energy, industry and transportation BHEL is able to
offer a service in each of this fields. Its manufacturing capability is supported by a corporate
R&D division at Hyderabad works closely with the research and development cells at
various units and Welding Research Institute at Tiruchirappalli.

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1.3. Boiler Auxiliaries Plant-BHEL-Ranipet

Boiler Auxiliaries Plant (BAP), the 13th manufacturing unit of BHEL was set up at
Ranipet in 1980 as a part of the 4000 MW expansion of the High-Pressure Boiler Plant,
Trichy. BAP at Ranipet was set up as a spin-off plant for the manufacture of boiler.
The Company has been a fore runner in creating history with its State-of the-art Design
facilities, Research and development capabilities, modernized manufacturing facilities
with sophisticated Metrology laboratory and NDT facilities to meet the growing demand
for Quality power.
The Company has an extensive outsourcing facility which makes it possible to grow
consistently over the years. The Company nourishes 400 ancillary small-scale units by
offloading structural fabrication and machining jobs through annual rate contracts.

The Company is also an ISO 9001, ISO 14001, ISO 27001 and OHSAS 18001 company,
and has the unique distinction of becoming the first unit of its whole corporation to upgrade
to ISO 9001:2015 Quality Management System.
1.4. Products of BHEL-BAP-Ranipet
 Air Pre-Heater
 ESP
 Fan
 Gates and Dampers
 Satellite fuel tank
Power generation using solar plant

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 OVERVIEW OF BOILER

2.1. Introduction to Thermal Power Plant

The block diagram of a thermal power plant is shown in following the figure 1.

Figure 1 Block diagram of a Thermal Power Plant

The following process taken place in the plant:

1. First the pulverized coal is burnt into the furnace of steam boiler.
2. High pressure steam is produced in the boiler.
3. This steam is then passed through the super heater, where it further heated up.
4. This supper heated steam is then entered a turbine at high speed.
5. In turbine, this steam force rotates the turbine blades that means here in the turbine
the stored potential energy of the high-pressured steam is converted into mechanical
energy.
6. After rotating the turbine blades, the steam has lost its high pressure, passes out of
turbine blades and enters a condenser.
7. In the condenser, the cold water is circulated with help of pump which condenses
the low pressure wet steam.

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 Figure 2 Schematic diagram of Thermal Power Plant

8. This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water heater where
the low-pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water, it is then again
heated in a high-pressure heater where the high pressure of steam is used for heating.
9. The turbine in thermal power station acts as a prime mover of the alternator.

A typical Thermal Power Station Operates on a Cycle which is shown in the below
figure 3.
Figure 3 Overview of Thermal Power Plant

The working fluid is water and steam. This is called feed water and steam cycle. The ideal
Thermodynamic Cycle to which the operation of a Thermal Power Station closely
resembles is the Rankine cycle. In steam boiler, the water is heated up by burning the fuel
in air in the furnace & the function of the boiler is to give dry super-heated steam at required
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temperature. The steam so produced is used in driving the steam Turbines. This turbine is

coupled to synchronous generator (usually three phase synchronous alternator), which

generates electrical energy.
The exhaust steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into water in steam condenser
of turbine, which creates suction at very low pressure and allows the expansion of the steam
in the turbine to a very low pressure. The principle advantages of condensing operation are
the increased amount of energy extracted per kg of steam and thereby increasing efficiency
and the condensate which is fed into the boiler again reduces the amount of fresh feed
water.
2.2. Fans
A fan can be considered a mechanical device that moves a volume of fluid such as
air, gas or vapour though a pressure driven flow. Large capacity fan units typically consist
of a bladed rotating impeller enclosed in a stationary casing. The rotor system causes the
motion of the air/gas and the casing directs the output flow. The rotor can be powered
through a driver such as motor, a turbine, driver, or a fluid-driver.
2.2.1. Components of Fans
The following figure 4 shows the components of a fan used in the thermal power
plant.

Figure 4 Components of Fan

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Major components are,

 Driving Motor
 Shaft
 Radial Impeller
 Guide vanes or Inlet vanes
 Housing
 Bush
2.2.2. Types of Fan
Depending on the direction of flow of air fans are divided as,
1. Axial Fans
2. Radial Fans
2.2.2.1. Axial Fans
Single-stage (one rotor and one set of blades) axial fans are typically used in a forced
draft situation on a balanced draft steam generator. When axial fans are designed for
induced draft service, the higher-pressure requirements normally dictate use of a two-stage
fan such as in Fig. Axial fans are driven by single speed or two-speed motors, with flow
and output pressure controlled by varying blade pitch with a hydraulically actuated
mechanism. Axial fans can maintain higher efficiencies at various steam generator loads
than can constant-speed centrifugal fans controlled with inlet dampers. Use of lightweight
fan blade materials such as aluminium or magnesium reduces the strength requirements of
the fan hub and the fan blade thrust bearing loads. This reduces equipment costs but in
erosive situations blade protection might be needed, such as a hardened steel strip on the
leading edge.
Figure 5 Axial Fan

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2.2.2.2. Radial Fans

Based on the configuration of blades with respect to direction of rotation of impeller

is called backward curved, forward curved and Radial bladed impeller. It can be mentioned
that the blade angle at exit is less than 900, equal to 900 and greater than 900 in B. C.
bladed, Radial bladed and F. C. Bladed impellers respectively. Backward curved blades are
the best efficient among the three and hence mostly used. Forward curved impellers have
the overloading characteristic and are more power consuming. Based on the configuration
of the bladed with respect to the direction of rotation of the impeller, radial fans are
classified in to three categories namely, backward curved, forward curved and radial bladed
impeller.

Figure 6 Radial Fan

Based on its function,

1. PA- Primary Air Fan
2. FD- Forced Draft Fan
3. ID - Induced Draft Fan
2.2.2.3. Forced Draft Fan

Forced draft fans (FD) supply the air necessary for fuel combustion by pushing the
air through the combustion air supply system and into the furnace. These fans are typically
the most efficient fans in the power plant because they have the cleanest operating
environment. Typically, these fans are centrifugal fans utilizing radial air foil blading or
variable pitch axial fans.

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2.2.2.4. Primary Air Fan

Primary air fans are high pressure fans used to supply the air for the transportation
of coal directly from the pulveriser to the furnace. These fans provide a positive pressure
upstream of the coal pulveriser and handle relatively clean air. A PA fan upstream from the
pulveriser, or a “cold” PA pulveriser and is most commonly used. Cold PA fans typically
are air foil centrifugal fans or multi-stage axial fans like FD fans.
2.2.2.5. Induced Draft Fan
ID fan is basically mentioned here for Induced draft fan and ID fan is always located
between dust collector and chimney. ID fan will take the hot flue gases from furnace via
dust collector (dust separation system or Fume Extraction system) and will deliver to
chimney. ID fan will handle the flue gases i.e. hot air.
ID fan will produce the pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure in the system or we
may say that ID fan will produce the negative pressure in the furnace to remove the flue
gases from furnace via electrostatic precipitators and to push the flue gases to chimney.
Induced draft fans (ID) are placed at the outlet of the boiler system and exhaust all gaseous
combustion products, or flue gas, from the boiler by creating a negative pressure or suction
within the furnace. These fans handle hot flue gas; they are generally more susceptible to
erosion and corrosion even with particulate removal equipment (ESP). If the greater wear
resistance is necessary, modified radial, forward-curved, or backward-inclined blading can
be used at the expense of efficiency loss.
2.3. Air Pre-Heater
An Air Pre-Heater (APH) is a general term used to describe any device designed to
heat air before another process with the primary objective of increasing the thermal
efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system
or to replace a steam coil.
This explains the combustion air pre-heaters used in large boilers found in thermal power
stations producing electric power. The purpose of the air pre-heater is to recover the heat
from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing
the useful heat lost in the flue gas. Therefore, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue
gas stack (or chimney) at a lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the
conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the temperature of
gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations.) Air Pre-Heaters also called as Heat
exchangers.

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 Figure 7 Air Pre-Heaters

2.3.1. Types of Air Pre-Heaters

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There are two major parts of Air Pre-Heaters. They are,
 Recuperative- Separate
1. Tubular
2. steam coil

 Regenerative

1. Ljung storm
i. Bisector
ii. Trisector

2. Rothemuhle (air rotor will not rotate)

 Secondary air- it feeds the combustion

 Primary air- removes moisture from the coal

2.3.2. Parts of Air Pre-Heaters

 Guide bearing
 Support bearing
 Rotor Post
 Rotor assembly
 Cold end connecting plate
 Hot end connecting plate
 Rotor housing
 Baskets
 Elements

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 Figure 8 Air Pre-Heater Structure

If the temperature of the elements is above certain limit the rotor stoppage alarm will buzz.
Leakage control seals are also provided to avoid leakage.
2.4. Electrostatic Precipitator

Electrostatic precipitation is a method of dust collection that uses electrostatic

forces, and consists of discharge wires and collecting plates. A high voltage is applied to
the discharge wires to form an electrical field between the wires and the collecting plates,
and ionizes the gas around the discharge wires to supply ions. When gas that contains an
aerosol (dust, mist) flows between the collecting plates and the discharge wires, the aerosol
particles in the gas are charged by the ions. The Coulomb force caused by the electric field
causes the charged particles to be collected on the collecting plates, and the gas is purified.
This is the principle of electrostatic precipitation, and Electrostatic precipitator apply this
principle on an industrial scale. The particles collected on the collecting plates are removed
by methods such as dislodging by rapping the collecting plates, scraping off with a brush,
or washing off with water, and removing from a hopper.

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 Figure 9 Electrostatic Precipitation

2.4.1. Dust Collection Efficiency

2.4.1.1. Electricity Resistivity of Dust

The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the

electrical resistivity of the dust collected.
In the normal resistivity area, the dust collection efficiency is high, so dust collection is
stable. Most of the aerosols handled by Electrostatic precipitator are in this electrical
resistivity area. Particles in the low-resistivity area lose their charge as soon as they arrive
at the collecting plate, so they are re-entrained in the dust collection area, and the dust
collection efficiency is greatly reduced. (Re-entrainment)
The dust collection efficiency in the high-resistivity area reduces as the electrical resistivity
of the dust increases. Also, partial discharge occurs within the dust layer collected on the
collecting plates, and as a result flashovers frequently occur, the applied voltage is reduced,
and the discharge current is reduced. If the electrical resistivity of the dust is further
increased, the discharge current increases abnormally, and the applied voltage is reduced
(back corona phenomenon). The moving-electrode type electrostatic precipitator we
developed is suitable for high-performance collection of high-resistivity dust. Therefore,
an important factor when planning Electrostatic precipitator is the electrical resistivity of
the dust to be collected.

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2.4.1.2. Particle Size Distribution

The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the particle

size of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected. The theoretical migration velocity at which
a particle diameter of several µm moves towards the collecting plate is almost directly
proportional to the particle diameter. When dust collection is performed on an aerosol with
different size particles using an electrostatic precipitator, the collection efficiency is high
for the large particles, and low for the small particles.
To obtain the same dust collection efficiency for an aerosol with small particle size, the
electrostatic precipitator must be larger (to increase the treating time it takes for the process
gas to pass through) than that of large-size particles. Therefore, the particle size distribution
of the aerosol to be collected is an important factor when planning an electrostatic
precipitator.
2.4.1.3. Aerosol Concentration

The dust collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is greatly affected by

the concentration in the gas of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected. For the same required
value of aerosol concentration at the outlet of the electrostatic precipitator, the higher the
aerosol concentration at the inlet, the longer the treatment time of the gas in the electrostatic
precipitator, and the larger the device.
Also, if the inlet aerosol concentration is high and the content of fine particles smaller than
several µm is high, to create a charge cloud of charged fine particles between the discharge
wires and the collecting plates, the corona discharge from the discharge wires is reduced,
also reducing the dust collection efficiency (space charging effect).
The aerosol concentration at the electrostatic precipitator inlet and the required outlet
concentration are important factors when planning an electrostatic precipitator.
2.4.2. Manufacturing Process

The collecting electrodes of ESP is manufactured using a fully automated machine.

The machine is controlled using a set of PLCs. A coiled metal sheet is given as the input to
the machine a decoiler is used to unwound the coil then a slack is given to compensate the
tension in the sheet which develops during the straightening and cutting process. The slack
is monitored using an IR sensor. Then the sheet is passed through straightener and punching
unit in which the sheet is punched with holes for every 15m (length of a sheet kept in
collecting electrode). The encoders are used to keep track of length of the sheet passed
through the punching unit. The sheet is then passed through the conveyor belt and is passed
in-between 18 set of rollers for profile forming. The depth of impression can be varied
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automatically. The profiled sheets are then cut into pieces to be stacked. The separation of
sheets is done using flying sheer, the flying sheer is operated using a single servo motor
and screw rod controlling both forward and reverse motion of the sheer. The sheering takes
place only if the speed of the sheer matches with the speed of the plate.
Stapling is done using a separate unit, this is done after the plate is carried by the robotic
arm. Then it is piled and packed using a magnetic gripper gantry system.
The speed of collecting electrode manufacturing is 2 sheets (30meters)/min.

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3. POWER GENERATION

Solar Power Generation

3.1. Introduction
Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer based crystalline silicon cells or
thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top
layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. The
cells must be connected electrically in series, one to another. Externally, most of
photovoltaic modules use MC4 connector type to facilitate easy weatherproof connections
to the rest of the system.
Modules electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or
in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current
off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition
metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module
shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.
Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses
or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area
(such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
3.2. Solar Panels
Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or heat.
A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6x10
photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a
photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a
module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230
W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few
commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 22% and reportedly also
exceeding 24%. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array
of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring,
and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.
3.3. Efficiency
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of
frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically,
ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy
is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with
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monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different
wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This
has been projected to can raise efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectro lab, a subsidiary
of Boeing, have reported development of multi-junction solar cells with an efficiency of
more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectro lab scientists
also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or
even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more
than three junctions.
• Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP (maximum power point)
value of solar panels
• Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT
process: solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and
applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.
• MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V
mpp) and MPP current (I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher
value can make higher MPP.
Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output than normal
panels which are wired in series with the output of the series determined by the lowest
performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas light effect"). Micro-inverters work
independently so each panel contributes its maximum possible output given the available
sunlight.
3.4. Smart Solar Modules
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This
enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually,
and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module
level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter
technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As
of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow
falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of
cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to
zero.
3.5. Maintenance
Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by dust,
grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar panel
can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says
Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of
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the Institute for Nano Energy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly
of nanostructures.
Paying to have solar panels cleaned is often not a good investment; researchers
found panels that hadn’t been cleaned, or rained on, for 145 days during a summer
drought in California, lost only 7.4% of their efficiency. Overall, for a typical residential
solar system of 5 kW, washing panels halfway through the summer would translate into a
mere $20 gain in electricity production until the summer drought ends in about 2 ½
months. For larger commercial rooftop systems, the financial l lost a little less than 0.05%
of their overall efficiency per day.
3.6. Grid Connection
The availability, locality and capacity of the connection to the grid is a major
consideration in planning a new solar park, and can be a significant contributor to the cost.
Most stations are sited within a few kilometres of a suitable grid connection point. This
network needs to be capa osses are bigger but still rarely enough to warrant the cost of
washing the panels. On average, panels able of absorbing the output of the solar park when
operating at its maximum capacity. The project developer will normally have to absorb the
cost of providing power lines to this point and making the connection; in addition, often to
any costs associated with upgrading the grid, so it can accommodate the output from the
plant.

3.7. Solar Plant at Ranipet

 The plant has a generating capacity of 5 MW
 There are three types of solar panel arrangements used in the plant
 Permanently Fixed Panels
 Seasonal direction panels
 MPPT panels (Auto angle adjustment)
 Each panel has a maximum power output of 220W
 Each panel used has voltage output of 29 V
 24 panels are joined is series to form a string, a string monitoring box is used to
monitor the strings
 The SMBs are connected to the PCU (Power control unit), the plant has 5 PCUs,
this is the place where inversion of DC to AC takes place.
 The PCU has a display through which the panel voltages, powers and energy
generated by the panels and the PCU can be monitored.
 The PCU is protected against faults with the help of a Vacuum Circuit Breaker
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 The Output is then fed to a step-up transformer and then to the Indian National Grid
via a four-pole structure.

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 4. DISTRIBUTION

4.1. Electrical Substation

A Substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several
other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power
may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include
transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower
distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large
industrial or commercial customer. Generally, substations are unattended, relying on
SCADA for remote supervision and control.
The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. As
central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to
distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their
own generators. The first substations were connected to only one power station, where the
generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.
4.2. Distribution Substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the
distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers
to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the
distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or
subtransmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common
in the area. The output is many feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage,
between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area served and the practices of
the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or underground, in some cases)
and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.
In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the
transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically the points of
voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometres),
voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with
highvoltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More
typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on
the lowvoltage side.

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4.3. Elements of Substation
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and
transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits
or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use
recloser circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations
themselves do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation
nearby. Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a
substation.
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in
specialpurpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor
substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for
reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution
conditions.
A grounding (Earth) system must be designed. The total ground potential rise, and the
gradients in potential during a fault (called touch and step potentials), must be calculated
to protect passers-by during a short-circuit in the transmission system. Earth faults at a
substation can cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during
a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground
under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a hazard of electrocution. Where a
substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from this
hazard.
The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A good design attempts
to strike a balance between these two, to achieve reliability without excessive cost. The
design should also allow expansion of the station, when required.
4.3.1. Common Circuit Breakers
 VCB (vacuum circuit Breaker)
 ACB (Air circuit Breaker)
 SF6 circuit Breaker
 OCB
 ABCB
4.3.2. Protection Circuit for Transformer
 Differential Protection
 Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz Relay is used in the field of electric power distribution and
transmission, a Buchholz relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled power
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transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a
"conservator". The Buchholz relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of
dielectric failure inside the equipment. A generic designation for this type of device is "gas
detector relay".
Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing transformer. On
a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas produced by decomposition
of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and forces the oil level down. A float
switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float
may also serve to detect slow oil leaks.
If an electrical arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the
conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the
moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the apparatus
before the fault causes additional damage. Buchholz relays have a test port to allow the
accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates
some internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only
indicate low oil level or a leak.

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 5. CONTROL SYSTEMS

5.1. V/F Control of Three – Phase Induction Motor

Induction Machines, the most widely used motor in industry, have been traditionally
used in open-loop control applications, for reasons of cost, size, reliability, ruggedness,
simplicity, efficiency, less maintenance, ease of manufacture and its ability to operate in
dirty or explosive conditions. However, because the induction machine requires more
complex control methods, the dc machine has predominated in high performance
applications. With developments in Micro-processors/DSPs, power electronics and control
theory, the induction machine can now be used in high performance variable-speed
applications.
Applications:
heating, ventilation, air conditioning systems, waste water treatment plants, blowers, fans,
textile mills, Rolling mills, etc.

The induction motor speed variation can be easily achieved for a short range by
either stator voltage control or rotor resistance control. But both of these schemes result in
very low efficiencies at lower speeds. The most efficient scheme for speed control of
induction motor is by varying supply frequency. This not only results in scheme with wide
speed range but also improves the starting performance.
If the machine is operating at speed below base speed, then v/f ratio is to be kept
constant so that flux remains constant. This retains the torque capability of the machine at
the same value. But at lower frequencies, the torque capability decrease and this drop in
torque has to be compensated for increasing the applied voltage.

Figure 10(a) Speed Torque Characteristics of Induction Motor with frequency variation

(b) Voltage and frequency variation in VSI fed Induction motor

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 The above curve suggests that the speed control and braking operation are available
from nearly zero speed to above synchronous speed.
In Fig. 8 (b) it is noted that V is kept constant above base speed and freq. is
increasing. The variable frequency control provides good running and transient
performance because of the following features:

(a) Speed control and braking operation are possible from zero to above base speed.
(b) During transients (starting, braking and speed reversal), the operation can be carried
out at the maximum torque with reduced current giving good dynamic response.
(c) Copper losses are reduced, efficiency and power factor are high as the operation is in
between synch. Speed and max. Torque point at all frequencies.
(d) Drop in speed from no load to full load is small.

Figure 11(a) Block Diagram Schematic of V/f control of VSI fed 3-phase Induction Motor drive (b) Modes of
operation and variation of is, ωsl,, T and Pm with per unit frequency K .

The above Fig shows the block diagram of a V/f control of VSI fed three phase
induction motor drive. In this according to the reference speed input command (Nr*) the
reference frequency (f*) and reference voltage (V*) commands are calculated such that V/f
ratio maintained to be constant. The reference commands V* and f* are given to the SPWM
generator to generate 6-PWM pulses to the three-phase voltage source inverter which
drives the three-phase induction motor.
Sinusoidal-Pulse-Width-Modulation (SPWM)
In sinusoidal pulse width modulation there are multiple pulses per half-cycle and
the width of the each pulse is varied with respect to the sine wave magnitude corresponding
to that duration. Fig 4(c) shows the gating signals and output voltage of SPWM with
unipolar switching. In this scheme, the switches in the two legs of the full-bridge inverter
are not switched simultaneously, as in the bi-polar scheme. In this unipolar scheme the legs
R, Y and B of the full-bridge inverter are controlled separately by comparing carrier
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triangular wave vcar with the three control sinusoidal signals vc_R, vc_Y and vc_B respectively
which are displaced by 120o. This SPWM is generally used in industrial applications. The
number of pulses per half-cycle depends upon the ratio of the frequency of carrier signal
(fc) to the modulating sinusoidal signal. The frequency of control signal or the modulating
signal sets the inverter output frequency fo and the peak magnitude of control signal
controls the modulation index ma which in turn controls the rms output voltage.
The amplitude modulation index is defined as

ma=Vc/Vcar
where, Vc = peak magnitude of control signal (modulating sine wave).
Vcar = peak magnitude of carrier signal (triangular signal).
The frequency modulation ratio is defined as

mf=fcar/fc
where, fc = frequency of control signal (sine signal).
fcar = frequency of carrier signal (triangular signal).

5.2. Computer Numerical Control

5.2.1. What is CNC Machine

 CNC: Computerized Numerical Control (Computer + Numerical Control)
 Numerical control is a programmable automation in which process is controlled
by Numbers, Letters, and symbols. CNC Machining is a process used in the
manufacturing sector that involves the use of computers to control machine tools
like lathes, mills and grinders.
5.2.2. Why CNC Machining necessary?
To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely
expensive by mechanical means (which usually would require complex jigs to
control the cutter motions), Machining components with high Repeatability and
Precision, Unmanned machining operations, To improve production planning and
to increase productivity, To survive in global market CNC machines are must to
achieve close tolerances.
5.2.3. Major Components Related to CNC Machine
Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:
 Part program:
• A series of coded instructions required to produce a part.

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• Controls the movement of the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary
functions such as spindle rotation and coolant.
• The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.
 Program input device
• The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into the
CNC control.
• Three commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic tape
reader, and computer via RS-232-C communication.
 Machine Control Unit
The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the
following functions:
• To read the coded instructions.
• To decode the coded instructions.
• To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion
commands.
• To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
• To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
• To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and
tool change.
 Machine Tool
• CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools.
• Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it always has a slide table
and a spindle to control position and speed.
• The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along
the Z axis.
 Feed Back System
• The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system.
• It uses position and speed transducers to continuously monitor the position at
which the cutting tool is located at any particular instant.
• The MCU uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals to
generate the control signals for correcting position and speed errors.
 Drive System
• Drives are used to provide controlled motion to CNC elements
• A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball lead-screws.
• The MCU feeds the control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the
amplifier circuits.

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 • The control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the
ball lead-screws to position the machine table
 Power Drives
• In machine tools, power is generally required for driving the main spindle, saddles
and carriages and to some auxiliary units.
• The motors used for CNC system are of two kinds
 Electrical - AC , DC or Stepper motors
 Fluid - Hydraulic or Pneumatic
 In CNC, usually stepper and servo electrical drives are used
They exhibit favorable torque-speed characteristics and are relatively inexpensive.
5.2.4. Motors Used for CNC systems

STEPPER MOTOR:
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in
steps.
Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop position
control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
o Permanent Magnet
Employ permanent magnet
Low speed, relatively high torque
o Variable Reluctance
Does not have permanent magnet Low torque

Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor:

• Rotor is a permanent magnet.
• PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to
its axis.
• Figure shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D).
• Applying current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by
adjusting to the changing magnetic fields.
• These are low cost motors with typicalstep angle ranging
between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰

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 Figure 12(a) Permanent Magnet Stepper (b) Variable reluctance stepper motor (c) Hybrid stepper

Variable Reluctance Motor:

• The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has four poles
• It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart.
• Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence.
• It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a reoccurring
sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle.
• In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the
stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no
detent torque.
Hybrid stepper motor:
• Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth
to provide features of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors
together.
• The number of rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of the rotor’s
parts. The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating more poles than the main poles
winding.
• Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a
permanent magnet stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive
or negative direction.
• When a winding is energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the
polarity of the current flowing.
• These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also the finer
metal teeth present on rotor.
• Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with permanent magnets, but they
use smaller steps, have greater torque and maximum speed.
• Step angle of a stepper motor is given by,
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Advantages of stepper motors
• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise
occur when running at high speed.
 SERVO MOTORS
• Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of
rotation.
• A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a position
sensing device.
• Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a
mechanical system.
• The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in Figure A
reference input is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the
servomotor.

Figure 13 Servo system block

• A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is either an encoder or

resolver.
• This device changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a
feedback.

36 | P a g e
 • This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the actual operation
with that of the reference input.
• If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which will be used to
make necessary corrections in control action.
• In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored.
• Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability of direction control.
DC servomotors
DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and
accelerate the load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four
separate components, namely: DC motor, gear assembly, position-sensing device, and
control circuit
AC servo motor
• Magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current which further
produce the torque.
• It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This motor provides high
precision control with the help of high resolution encoder.
• The stator is composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft,
rotor core and a permanent magnet.
• Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital signals, which
are in proportion of rotation of the shaft.
Advantages of servo motors
• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds
Disadvantages of servo motors
• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
LINEAR MOTION DRIVES
• Linear motion drives are mechanical transmission systems which are used to
convert rotary motion into linear motion.
• The conventional thread forms like vee or square are not suitable in CNC because
of their high wear and less efficiency.

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 • Therefore CNC machines generally employ ball screw for driving their workpiece
carriages.
• These drives provide backlash free operation with low friction- wear
characteristics.
These are efficient and accurate in comparison with that of nut- and-screw drives. Most
widely used linear motion drives are ball screws.
5.2.5. Part Programming

A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the machine is called the program.
It consists of:
• Information about part geometry
• Motion statements to move the cutting tool
• Cutting speed
• Feed
• Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction

 CNC program structure

There are four basic terms used in CNC programming Character -> Word -> Block
-> Program
• Character is the smallest unit of CNC program. It can have Digit / Letter / Symbol.
• Word is a combination of alpha-numerical characters. This creates a single
instruction to the CNC machine. Each word begins with a capital letter, followed
by a numeral. These are used to represent axes positions, federate, speed,
preparatory commands, and miscellaneous functions.
• A program block may contain multiple words, sequenced in a logical order of
processing.
• The program comprises of multiple lines of instructions, „blocks‟ which will be
executed by the machine control unit (MCU).
Fixed Zero v/s Floating Zero
Fixed zero:
• Origin is always located at some position on M/C table (usually at south west
corner/Lower left-hand) of the tables & all tool location are defined W.R.T. this
zero
Floating Zero:
• Very common with CNC M/C used now a days.
• Operator sets zero point at any convenient position on M/C table.
• The Coordinate system is knows as work coordinate system (WCS)
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 Modal and Non modal commands

Commands issued in the NC program may stay in effect indefinitely (until they explicitly
cancelled or changed by some other command), or they may be effective for only the one time
that they are issued.
• The former are referred as Modal commands. Examples include feed rate
selection and coolant selection.
• Commands that are effective only when issued and whose effects are lost for
subsequent commands are referred to as non-modal commands.
• A dwell command, which instructs the tool to remain in a given configuration for
a given amount of time, is an example of a non-modal command.
Structure of an NC part program
• An NC part program is made up of a series of commands that are input into the
MCU in a serial manner.
• The MCU interprets these commands and generates the necessary signals to each
of the drive units of the machine to accomplish the required action.
• The NC program is required to have a particular structure that the controller can
understand and it must follow a specific syntax.
• Commands are inputs into the controller in units called blocks or statements.
• Each block is made up of one or more machine commands.
• In general, several commands are grouped together to accomplish a specific
machining operation, hence the use of a block of information for each operation.
• Each command gives a specific element of control data, such as dimension or a
feed rate. Each command within a block is also called a word.
• The way in which words are arranged within the block is called block format.
• Three different blocks formats are commonly used, (Fixed sequential format, Tab
sequential format and Word address format)
Word Sequential Format: Used on virtually all modern controllers.
N50 G00 X50 Y25 Z0 F0 N60 G01 Z-1 F50 M08 N70 Z0 M09
• With this type of format, each type of word is assigned as address that is identified
by a letter code within the part program.
• Thus the letter code specifies the type of word that follows and then its associated
numeric data is given.
• For example, the code T represents a tool number. Thus a word of the form T01
would represent tool number 1.
• Theoretically, with this approach, the words in a given block can be entered in any
sequence and the controller should be able to interpret them correctly.
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• With the word address format only the needed words for a given operation
have to be included within the block.
• The command to which the particular numeric data applies is identified by the
preceding address code.
• Word format has the advantage of having more than one particular command in
one block something that would be impossible in the other two formats.
COMMONLY USED WORD ADDRESSES
• N-CODE: Sequence number, used to identify each block with in an NC program
and provides a means by which NC commands may be rapidly located. It is
program line number. It is a good practice to increment each block number by 5 to
10 to allow additional blocks to be inserted if future changes are required.
• G-CODE: Preparatory Word, used as a communication device to prepare the
MCU. The G-code indicates that a given control function such as G01, linear
interpolation, is to be requested.
• X, Y & Z-CODES: Coordinates. These give the coordinate positions of the
tool.
• F-CODE: Feed rate. The F code specifies the feed in the machining operation.
• S-CODE: Spindle speed. The S code specifies the cutting speed of the machining
process.
• T-CODE: Tool selection. The T code specifies which tool is to be used in a
specific operation.
• M-CODE: Miscellaneous function. The M code is used to designate a particular
mode of operation for an NC machine tool.
• I, J & K-CODES: They specify the center of arc coordinates from starting.

Figure 14 Sequence and formats of words

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 Figure 15 List of G codes

List of M codes
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M codes vary from machine to machine depending on the functions available on it. They
are decided by the manufacturer of the machine. The M codes listed below are the common
ones.

Figure 16 List of M codes

5.2.6. Example Programs

Simple G Code Example CNC Lathe

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 Figure 17 G Code Example CNC Lathe

Program
N5 M12 N10 T0101
N15 G0 X100 Z50 N20 M3 S600 N25
M8 N30 G1 X50 Z0 F600 N40 Y-30 200
N50 X80 Y-20 F150 N60 G0 X100 Z50 N70 T0100
N80 M5 N90 M9 N100 M13 N110 M30
Code Explanation
N5 Clamping workpiece
N10 Changing No.1 tool and executing its offset N15 Rapidly positioning to A point
N20 Starting the spindle with 600 r/min N25 Cooling ON
N30 Approaching B point with 600mm/min
N40 Cutting from B point to C point N50 Cutting from C point to D point N60 Rapidly
retracting to A point N70 Cancelling the tool offset
N80 Stopping the spindle N90 Cooling OFF
N100 Releasing workpiece
N110 End of program, spindle stopping and Cooling OFF

CNC MILLING EXAMPLE

Figure 18: G Code Example CNC MILLING

Part Program
N5 G90 G71
N10 T1 M6
N15 G92 X-100 Y86 Z95
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N20 G0 X0 Y0 S2500 M3
N25 Z12.5
N30 G1 Z-12.5 F150
N35 X-20 Y30
N40 G2 X10 Y100 R80
N45 G1 X140 Y60
N50 G2 X150 Y0 R50
N55 G1 X0 Y0
N60 G0 Z12.5
N65 G91 G28 Z0 M5
N70 G91 G28 X0 Y0
N75 M30

Code Explanation
N5 absolute positioning, metric unit
N10 tool change to T1
N15 define work zero point at A
N20 rapid traverse to A, spindle on (2500 RPM, CW)
N25 rapid plunge to 12.5 mm above Z0 N30 feed to Z-12.5, feed rate 150 MMPM N35
cut line AB to B
N40 cut arc BC to C N45 cut line CD to D N50 cut arc DE to E N55 cut line EA to A
N60 rapid retract to Z12.5
N65 reference point return in Z direction, spindle off N70 reference point return in X and
Y directions N75 end of program

5.3. Programming Logic Control

5.3.1. Introduction
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of microprocessor- based
controller that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control
machines and processes and are designed to be operated by engineers with perhaps a
limited knowledge of computers and computing languages. They are not designed so that
only computer programmers can set up or change the programs. The term logic is used
because programming is primarily concerned with implementing logic and switching
operations, e.g. if A or B occurs switch on C, if A and B occurs switch on D. Input devices,
e.g. sensors such as switches, and output devices in the system being controlled, e.g.
motors, valves, etc., are connected to the PLC. The operator then enters a sequence of
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instructions, i.e. a program, into the memory of the PLC. The controller then monitors the
inputs and outputs according to this program and carries out the control rules for which it
has been programmed.

Figure 19: A programmable logic

PLCs have the great advantage that the same basic controller can be used with a wide range
of control systems. To modify a control system and the rules that are to be used, all that is
necessary is for an operator to key in a different set of instructions. There is no need to
rewire. The result is a flexible, cost effective, system which can be used with control
systems which vary quite widely in their nature and complexity.
PLCs are similar to computers but whereas computers are optimized for calculation and
display tasks, PLCs are optimized for control tasks and the industrial environment. Thus
PLCs are:
1. Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity and noise.
2. Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller. Are easily
programmed and have an easily understood programming language which is
primarily concerned with logic and switching operations.

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5.3.2. Hardware

Typically a PLC system has the basic functional components of processor unit,
memory, power supply unit, input/output interface section, communications interface and
the programming device. Figure shows the basic arrangement.

Figure 20: The PLC system

1. The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the
microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and carries out the control
actions, according to the program stored in its memory, communicating the
decisions as action signals to the outputs.
2. The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to the low d.c.
voltage (5 V) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and output
interface modules.
3. The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of
the processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred to the
memory unit of the PLC.
4. The memory unit is where the program is stored that is to be used for the control
actions to be exercised by the microprocessor and data stored from the input for
processing and for the output for outputting.
5. The input and output sections are where the processor receives information from
external devices and communicates information to external devices.
6. The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on
communication networks from or to other remote PLCs. It is concerned with such
actions as device verification, data acquisition, synchronization between user
applications and connection management.

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5.3.3. Input Devices/ Sensors

Mechanical switches
A mechanical switch generates an on−off signal or signals as a result of some mechanical
input causing the switch to open or close. Such a switch might be used to indicate the
presence of a workpiece on a machining table, the workpiece pressing against the switch
and so closing it. The absence of the workpiece is indicated by the switch being open and
its presence by it being closed. Switches are available with normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) contacts or can be configured as either by choice of the relevant
contacts.
The term limit switch is used for a switch which is used to detect the presence or passage
of a moving part. It can be actuated by a cam, roller or lever. Figure shows some examples.
The cam can be rotated at a constant rate and so switch the switch on and off for particular
time intervals.

Proximity switches
Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making
contact with it. There are a number of forms of such switches, some being only suitable
for metallic objects.
The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil which is energized by a constant
alternating current and produces a constant alternating magnetic field. When a metallic
object is close to it, eddy currents are induced in it. The magnetic field due to these eddy
currents induces an e.m.f. back in the coil with the result that the voltage amplitude needed
to maintain the constant coil current changes. The voltage amplitude is thus a measure of
the proximity of metallic objects. The voltage can be used to activate an electronic switch
circuit, basically a transistor which has its output switched from low to high by the voltage
change, and so give an on−off device. The range over which such objects can be detected
is typically about 0.5 to 20 mm.

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 Another type is the reed switch. This consists of two overlapping, but not touching,
strips of a springy ferromagnetic material sealed in a glass or plastic envelope. When a
magnet or current-carrying coil is brought close to the switch, the strips become
magnetized and attract each other. The contacts then close. The magnet closes the contacts
when it is typically about 1 mm from the switch.
Another type, the inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound round a ferrous
metallic core. When one end of this core is placed near to a ferrous metal object there is
effectively a change in the amount of metallic core associated with the coil and so a change
in its inductance.
This change in inductance can be monitored using a resonant circuit, the presence of the
ferrous metal object thus changing the current in that circuit.

Figure 22: Proximity switches: (a) eddy current, (b) reed switch, (c) capacitive

Photoelectric sensors and switches:

Photoelectric switch devices can either operate as transmissive types where the
object being detected breaks a beam of light, usually infrared radiation, and stops it
reaching the detector or reflective types where the object being detected reflects a beam of
light onto the detector. In both types the radiation emitter is generally a light-emitting diode
(LED). The radiation detector might be a phototransistor, often a pair of transistors, known
as a Darlington pair. The Darlington pair increases the sensitivity. Depending on the circuit
used, the output can be made to switch to either high or low when light strikes the transistor.
Such sensors are supplied as packages for sensing the presence of objects at close range,
typically at less than about 5 mm. Figure shows a U-shaped form where the object breaks
the light beam.

Encoders:

The term encoder is used for a device that provides a digital output as a result of
angular or linear displacement. An increment encoder detects changes in angular or linear
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displacement from some datum position, while an absolute encoder gives the actual
angular or linear position.
Figure shows the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of
angular displacement. A beam of light, from perhaps a light-emitting diode (LED), passes
through slots in a disc and is detected by a light sensor, e.g. a photodiode or phototransistor.
When the disc rotates, the light beam is alternately transmitted and stopped and so a pulsed
output is produced from the light sensor. The number of pulses is proportional to the angle
through which the disc has rotated, the resolution being proportional to the number of slots
on a disc. With 60 slots then, since one revolution is a rotation of 360o, a movement from

one slot to the next is a rotation of 6o. By using offset slots it is possible to have over a thousand
slots for one revolution and so much higher resolution.

Figure 23: Incremental Encoder and Absolute Encoder

The absolute encoder differs from the incremental encoder in having a pattern of
slots which uniquely defines each angular position. With the form shown in Figure 2.9, the
rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots and four sensors to detect the light pulses.
The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors is a number
in the binary code, each such number corresponding to a particular angular position. With
4 tracks there will be 4 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 24 = 16,
i.e. a resolution of 360/16 = 22.5o. Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks.
The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of tracks. Thus with
10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 210,
i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360/1024 = 0.35 o.

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5.3.4. Output Devices
Relay:
Solenoids form the basis of a number of output control actuators. When a current
passes through a solenoid a magnetic field is produced and this can then attract ferrous
metal components in its vicinity. One example of such an actuator is the relay, the term
contactor being used when large currents are involved. When the output from the PLC is
switched on, the
30 Programmable Logic Controllers solenoid magnetic field is produced and pulls on the
contacts and so closes a switch or switches. The result is that much larger currents can be
switched on. Thus the relay might be used to switch on the current to a motor.

Directional control valves:

Another example of the use of a solenoid as an actuator is a solenoid operated valve. The
valve may be used to control the directions of flow of pressurised air or oil and so used to
operate other devices such as a piston moving in a cylinder.

Motors:
A d.c. motor has coils of wire mounted in slots on a cylinder of ferromagnetic material,
this being termed the armature. The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to rotate.
It is mounted in the magnetic field produced by permanent magnets or current passing
through coils of wire, these being termed the field coils. When a current passes through the
armature coil, forces act on the coil and result in rotation. Brushes and a commutator are
used to reverse the current through the coil every half rotation and so keep the coil rotating.
The speed of rotation can be changed by changing the size of the current to the armature
coil. However, because fixed voltage supplies are generally used as the input to the coils,
the required variable current is often obtained by an electronic circuit. This can control the
average value of the voltage, and hence current, by varying the time for which the constant
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d.c. voltage is switched on. The term pulse width modulation (PWM) is used since the
width of 34 Programmable Logic Controllers the voltage pulses is used to control the
average d.c. voltage applied to the armature. A PLC might thus control the speed of rotation
of a motor by controlling the electronic circuit used to control the width of the voltage
5.3.5. PLC Programming

Structure of a PLC program:

There are several options in programming a PLC, as discussed earlier. In all the
options the common control of them is that PLC programs are structured in their
composition. i.e. they consist of individual, separately defined programs sections which are
executed in sequence. These programs sections are called ‘blocks”. Each program section
contains statements. The blocks are supposed to be functionally independent. Assigning a

particular (technical) function to a specific block, which has clearly defined and simple
interfaces with other blocks, yields a clear program structure. The testing of such programs
in sections is substantially simplified.
Various types of blocks are available according to the function of the program section.
In general the major part of the program is contained in blocks that contain the program
logic graphically represented. For improved modularity, these blocks can be called in a
sequence or in nested configurations.
Special Function Blocks, which are similar to application library modules, are used to
realize either frequently reoccurring or extremely complex functions. The function block
can be “parameterized”.
The interface to the operating system of the PLC, which are similar to the system calls in
application programming for Personal Computers, are defined in special blocks. They are
only called upon by the system program for particular modes of execution and in the case
of the faults.

Program Execution:

Figure 25: The cyclic execution of PLC

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 6. PRODUCTION PROCESSES
6.1. Introduction
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and
adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong
joint, but sometimes pressure is used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the
weld.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric
arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, underwater and
in space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions
must be taken to avoid burns, electric shock, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to
ultraviolet light.
6.2. Welding Quality Checking
 Destructive
 Non-destructive
Non-destructive testing or non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis
techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material,
component or system without causing damage. Mostly Non-destructive quality testing is
used. In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts. Because
these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, there is a
chance that they may fail if not created to proper specification. For example, the base metal
must reach a certain temperature during the welding process, must cool at a specific rate,
and must be welded with compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to
hold the parts together, or cracks may form in the weld causing it to fail. The typical
welding defects (lack of fusion of the weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the
weld, and variations in weld density) could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to
rupture.
Types of Non-destructive quality checking includes

 Magnetic Particle Interaction(MPI)

 Liquid Penetrate Inspection (LPI)
 X-Ray
 Ultrasonic(UT)
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
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surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron,
nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The

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piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs
when the electric current is passed through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in
the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the
test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of
force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be either
alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic
flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as metals.
To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to a part.
These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an indication,
which is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if any.
Liquid penetrate inspection (LPI) or penetrate testing (PT), is a widely applied and lowcost
inspection method used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials
(metals, plastics, or ceramics). Then penetrate may be applied to all non-ferrous materials
and ferrous materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is
often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting,
forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.
Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of
manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of
the specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays or gamma
rays. Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation. The difference between various forms
of electromagnetic energy is related to the wavelength. X and gamma rays have the shortest
wavelength and this property leads to the ability to penetrate, travel through, and exit
various materials such as carbon steel and other metals. The beam of radiation must be
directed to the middle of the section under examination and must be normal the material
surface at that point, except in special techniques where known defects are best revealed
by a different alignment of the beam. The length of weld under examination for each
exposure shall be such that the thickness of the material at the diagnostic extremities,
measured in the direction of the incident beam, does not exceed the actual thickness at that
point by more than 6%.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT
applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with centre frequencies ranging from 0.115
MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws
or to characterize materials. Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals
and alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less

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resolution. It is used in many industries including steel and aluminium construction,
metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.
Advantages of using Ultrasonic Testing:
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other non-destructive methods in determining the
depth of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of
defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with
different acoustic properties
7. Non-hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.

8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.
6.3. Stress Relieving
Is applied to both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys and is intended to remove internal
residual stresses generated by prior manufacturing processes such as machining, cold
rolling and welding. Stress relieving is necessary to avoid breakage of material. Different
methods for stress relieving are,
6.3.1. Annealing
Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters the physical
and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce its
hardness, making it more workable. It involves heating a material to above its
recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling.
In annealing, atoms migrate in the crystal lattice and the number of dislocations decreases,
leading to the change in ductility and hardness.
In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by heating the
material (generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly letting it cool to room
temperature in still air. Copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or quickly by
quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which must be cooled slowly to
anneal. In this fashion, the metal is softened and prepared for further work such as shaping,
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stamping, or forming. There are two temperature levels followed depending on the type of
job.
i. Static cycle (600◦C -650◦C)

ii. Rotating cycle (530◦C -580◦C)

There are three stages in the process of annealing that proceed as the temperature of
the material is increased are: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The first stage
is recovery, and it results in softening of the metal through removal of primarily linear
defects called dislocations and the internal stresses they cause. Recovery occurs at the
lower temperature stage of all annealing processes and before the appearance of new
strainfree grains. The grain size and shape do not change. The second stage is
recrystallization, where new strain-free grains nucleate and grow to replace those deformed
by internal stresses. If annealing can continue once recrystallization has completed, then
grain growth (the third stage) occurs. In grain growth, the microstructure starts to coarsen
and may cause the metal to lose a substantial part of its original strength. This can however
be regained with hardening.
The high temperature of annealing may result in oxidation of the metal’s surface, resulting
in scale. If scale must be avoided, annealing is carried out in a special atmosphere, such as
with endothermic gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen gas, and nitrogen gas).
Annealing is also done in forming gas, a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen.

Figure 26 Temperature Graph

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Annealing is done below upper critical temperature (the temperature above which metallic
structure starts to deform). The upper critical temperature depends on carbon content of
the job. The furnace here is divided into four zones each containing a burner and a
thermocouple. ID fan is used to cool the furnace during the process. The furnace is
thermally isolated using glass wool, refractory lining and bricks. The jobs are placed in
such a way that the heat is distributed on them evenly. The fuel (LPG) is passed through
gas train and flow meters are used to log the amount of LPG used. Strainer prevents rust
formation in gas train. Solenoid valve control the flow of LPG, this valve is used only in
heating process. Pilot sensor checks whether ignition has taken place inside the furnace
chamber, and its output cuts the input gas supply if the gas inside the chamber has not been
ignited. If the pilot sensor has not been present the pressure of the fuel inside the camber
will build up and when a spark occurs after the pressure has built up the furnace will burst.
The pilot sensor protects the furnace from such hazardous situations.
6.4. Balancing Machine
The balancing of rotating bodies is important to avoid vibration. Heavy Industrial
machinery such as generators and motors can cause catastrophic failure, as well as noise
and discomfort. To help with balancing, it involves simply moving the centre of gravity to
the centre of rotation. For systems to be completely balanced both the force and couple
polygons should be closed.
There are two types of balancing
i. Static balancing
ii. Dynamic balancing
6.4.1. Static Balancing
Static balance occurs when the centre of gravity of an object is on the axis of
rotation. This allows the object to remain stationary, with the axis horizontal, without the
application of any braking force. Static balance has no tendency to rotate due to the force
of gravity.
6.4.2. Dynamic Balancing
Dynamic balancing is when the rotation does not produce any resultant centrifugal
force or couple. The system will rotate without needing the application of any external
force or couple, other than that required to support its weight. When a system or machine
is unbalanced, to avoid stress being put upon the bearings, a counterbalancing weight is
added. Dynamic balancing is a way to balance out machines by rotating parts quickly and
then measuring the imbalance using electronic equipment. The imbalance calculated can
then be added or subtracted from the weight until the vibration of the parts is reduced.
6.4.3. Difference between Static and Dynamic Balancing
Static balance refers to the ability of a stationary on object to its balance. This
happens when the objects centre of gravity is on the axis of rotation. Whereas dynamic
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balance is the ability of an object to balance whilst in motion or when switching between
positions. For any form of balance to happen, the centre of gravity must be aligned over
the objects support base. The centre of gravity refers to the part which is the centre of an
object weight. Balancing plays a very important part in machines. Balancing in machines
helps to rotating bodies to avoid vibrations; vibration in machines can lead to failure.
Common failure occurs in generators and heavy machinery, so undertaking in balancing
can help to avoid machines from breaking down.
Balancing can also involves shifting the centre of gravity towards the centre of rotation.
Dynamic balancing is when the rotating system doesn’t yield any other force or couple.
Other than the force that is needed the system will rotate without the need for any additional
external force or pressure to be applied. Static balancing definition refers to the ability of
a stationary object to its balance. The occurs when a parts centre of gravity is on the axis
of rotation. However, the dynamic balance definition is the ability of an object to balance
whilst in motion or when switching between positions. Undertaking in balancing whether
it be static or dynamic can help to extend the service life, quality and accuracy of your
machinery. Unbalanced parts can lead to your machine breaking down or worst of all
catastrophic failure.
A Balancing machine is a measuring tool used for balancing rotating machine parts such
as rotors for electric motors, fans, turbines, disc brakes, disc drives, propellers and pumps.
The machine usually consists of two rigid pedestals, with suspension and bearings on top
supporting a mounting platform. The unit under test is bolted to the platform and is rotated
either with a belt-, air-, or end-drive. As the part is rotated, the vibration in the suspension
is detected with sensors and that information is used to determine the amount of unbalance
in the part. Along with phase information, the machine can determine how much and where
to add or remove weights to balance the part.
There are two main types of balancing machines, hard-bearing and soft bearing. The
difference between them, however, is in the suspension and not the bearings.
In a hard-bearing machine, balancing is done at a frequency lower than the resonance
frequency of the suspension. In a soft-bearing machine, balancing is done at a frequency
higher than the resonance frequency of the suspension. Both types of machines have
various advantages and disadvantages. A hard bearing machine is generally more versatile
and can handle pieces with greatly varying weights, because hard-bearing machines are
measuring centrifugal effects and require only a one-time calibration. Only five geometric
dimensions need to be fed into the measuring unit and the machine is ready for use.
Therefore, it works very well for low- and middle-size volume production and in repair
workshops.
A soft-bearing machine is not so versatile with respect to amount of rotor weight to be
balanced. The preparation of a soft-bearing machine for individual rotor types is more time

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consuming, because it needs to be calibrated for different part types. It is very suitable for
high-production volume and high precision balancing tasks. Hard- and soft-bearing
machines can be automated to remove weight automatically, such as by drilling or milling,
but hard-bearing machines are more robust and reliable. Both machine principles can be
integrated into a production line and loaded by a robot arm or gantry, requiring very little
human control.
6.4.4. Working
With the rotating part resting on the bearings, a vibration sensor is attached to the
suspension. In most soft-bearing machines, a velocity sensor is used. This sensor works by
moving a magnet in relation to a fixed coil that generates voltage proportional to the
velocity of the vibration. Accelerometers, which measure acceleration of the vibration, can
also be used.

Figure 27 Balancing Machine

A photocell (sometimes called a phaser), proximity sensor, or encoder is used to determine

the rotational speed, as well as the relative phase of the rotating part. This phase
information is then used to filter the vibration information to determine the amount of
movement, or force, in one rotation of the part. Also, the time difference between the phase
and the vibration peak gives the angle at which the unbalance exists. Amount of unbalance
and angle of unbalance give an unbalance vector.
Calibration is performed by adding a known weight at a known angle. In a soft-bearing
machine, trial weights must be added in correction planes for each part. This is because the
location of the correction planes along the rotational axis is unknown, and therefore it is
unknown how much a given amount of weight will affect the balance. By using trial
weights, a known weight at a known angle is added, and getting the unbalance vector
caused by it.

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 7. MACHINES
7.1. Introduction
Operating Methods are,
i. Conventional Machines
ii. Numerical Control Machines
iii. Computerized Numerical Control Machines
Numerical Control (NC) and Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) machines provide
automatic or semi-automatic operation of machine tools which cut metal and other
materials – the degree of automation varying to suit specific requirements. In conventional
machine, tools and the slides are moved along their slide ways by the operator-manually
or by engaging the automatic feed mechanism – or, as in the case of automatic lathes, by
means of special cams. The operator also performs the other actions necessary for
machining a component (e.g. starting/stopping rotation of the spindle, changing speed of
feed rates, turning on cutting fluid). Each of these actions requires the operator to exercise
judgment and make a decision. These decisions must be repeated each time a component
is produced, when even the parts are identical to one another. In contrast, the use of
numerical control for machine tools means that the decisions which govern the operation
of the machine are made only once-at the planning and programming stage in the
preparation of machine control tape. With numerically controlled machine tools all the
necessary movements required to machine a component are performed automatically by
the machine itself in response to numerical information fed to it in coded form from a tape
or control system.
7.2. NC and CNC Machines
Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the
mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data. The alphanumerical data represent relative positions
between a work head and a work part as well as other instructions needed to operate the
machine. The work head is a cutting tool or other processing apparatus, and the work part
is the object being processed. When the current job is completed, the program of
instructions can be changed to process a new job. The capability to change the program
makes NC suitable for low and medium production. It is much easier to write new programs
than to make major alterations of the processing equipment.
The control system of a numerically controlled machine tool can handle many tasks
commonly done by the operator of a conventional machine. For this, the numerical control
system must "know" when and in what sequence it should issue commands to change tools,
at what speeds and feeds the machine tool should operate, and how to work a part to the
required size. The system gains the ability to perform the control functions through the

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numerical input information that is the control program, also called the part program. The
part programmer should study the part drawing and the process chart and then prepare the
control program on a standard form in the specified format. It contains all the necessary
control information. A computer-assisted NC part program for NC machining method is
also available, in which the computer considerably facilitates the work of the programmer
and generate a set of NC instructions. Next the part program is transferred into the control
computer the wide accepted method is that the worker types the part program into the
computer from the keyboard of the computer numerical control front panel. The computer
converts each command into the signal that the servo-drive unit needs. The servo-drive unit
drives the machine tool to manufacture the finished part.
In 1970s, computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools were developed with
minicomputers used as control units. With the advances in electronics and computer
technology, current CNC systems employed several high-performance microprocessors
and programmable logical controllers that work in a parallel and coordinated fashion.
Current CNC systems allow simultaneous servo position and velocity control of the axis,
monitoring of controller and machine tool performance, online part programming with
graphical assistance, in-process cutting process monitoring, and in-process part gauging
for completely unmanned machining operations. Manufacturers offer most of these
features as options.

Figure 28 Block Diagram of CNC

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A typical NC machine tool has five fundamental units.
1. The input media,
2. The machine control unit
3. The servo-drive unit
4. The feedback transducer
5. The mechanical machine tool unit.
The input media contains the program of instructions, it is the detailed step-by-step
commands that direct the actions of the machine tool; the program of instructions is called
a part program. The individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool relative to the
worktable on which the work part is fixture. Additional instructions are usually included,
such us spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection, and other functions. The program is
coded on a suitable medium for submission to the machine control unit. For many years,
the common medium was 1-inch wide punched tape, using a standard format that could be
interpreted by the machine control unit. Today, punched tape has largely been replaced by
newer storage technologies in modern machine shops. These technologies include
magnetic tape, diskette, and electronic transfer of part programs from a computer.
In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) consists of a microcomputer
and related control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by
converting each command into mechanical actions of machine tool, one command at a
time. The MCU includes system software, calculation algorithm, and transition software to
covert the NC parts program into a usable format for the MCU.
The third basic component of an NC system is the servo-drive unit; the drives in machine
tools are classified as spindle and feed drive mechanisms. Spindle and feed drive motors
and their servo-amplifiers are the components of the servo-drive unit. The MCU processes
the data and generates discrete numerical position commands for each feed drive and
velocity command for the spindle drive. The numerical commands are converted into signal
voltage by the MUC unit and sent to servo-amplifiers, which process and amplify them to
the high voltage levels required by the drive motors.
The forth basic component of an NC system is the feedback transducer. As the drives move,
sensors measure their actual position. The difference between the required position and the
actual position is detected by comparison circuit and the action is taken, within the servo,
to minimize this difference.
The fifth basic component of an NC system is the machine tool that performs useful work.
It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting workpiece into a completed
part. Its operations are directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instructions
contained in the part program. In the most common example of NC, machine tool consists
of the worktable and spindle.

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7.3. Types of Machine
 Vertical Boring
 Horizontal Boring
 Vertical Milling
 Horizontal Milling
 Vertical Lathe
 Horizontal Lathe
 Drilling
 Grinding
7.3.1. Grinding Machine

Figure 29 Grinding Machine

Specifications:
Table Diameter = 250mm
Max. Job Diameter = 1400mm
Max. Height of Job = 1400mm

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7.3.2. Drilling Machine

Figure 30 Drilling Machine

Specifications:
Table Size = 1200x1200 mm
Max. Drilling = 100mm
Simultaneous Control = 3 axes
No of Spindle = 1
Spindle Nose = 50
No of Tools = 12
CNC = Sinumeric 870D

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7.3.3. Horizontal Milling Machine

Figure 31 Horizontal Milling Machine

Specifications:
Height of Centre = 725mm
Swing Over Bed = 1320mm
Distance between centre = 800mm
CNC = Sinumeric 870D

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7.3.4. Horizontal Boring

Figure 32 Horizontal Boring Machine

Specifications:
Spindle Diameter = 200mm
Table Size = 6400x5600mm
Max. Boring Depth = 2000mm
Max. Travel Rams = 1600mm
PLC = Sinumeric S7300

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7.3.5. Lathe Machine

Figure 33 Lathe Machine

Specifications:
Swing Over Carriage = 1600mm
Swing Over Bed = 2000mm
Admit between Centers = 10000mm
Load Carrying Capacity = 25000kg
CNC = Siemens 840D

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7.3.6. Vertical Milling Machine

Figure 34 Vertical Milling Machine

Specifications:
Height of Centre = 725mm
Swing Over Bed = 1320mm
Distance Between Centre = 800mm
CNC = Sinumeric 840C

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7.4. Cranes
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or
chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them
horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places.
The device uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus
move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in
the transport industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry
for the movement of materials, and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling of
heavy equipment. Overhead cranes are used in BHEL, Ranipet for the movement of jobs.
Two major types of overhead cranes are used namely,
i. Electric overhead travelling cranes (EOT)
ii. Semi gantry cranes
7.4.1. EOT Cranes
The most adaptable and the most widely used type of power driven crane for indoor
service is undoubtedly the three motion EOT crane. The working Principle system consists
of three working movements: crane hook up and down lifting, trolley lateral movement and
crane long traveling longitudinal motion. It serves a larger area of floor space within its
own travelling restrictions than any other permanent type hoisting arrangement.
As the name implies, this type of crane is provided with movement above the floor level.
Hence it occupies no floor space and this can never interface with any movement of the
work being carried out at the floor of the building.
The three motions of such crane are the hoisting motion and the cross-travel motion. Each
of the motions is provided by electric motors.
The above characteristics have made this type of crane suitable for medium and heavy
workshop and warehouses. No engineering erection shop, machine shop, foundry, heavy
stores is complete without an EOT crane.
In a steel plant, rolling mill, thermal power plant, hydraulic power plant, nuclear power
plant, this type of crane is considered indispensable. In short in all industries, wherein
heavy loads are to be handled, EOT crane find its application.

7.4.1.1. Parts of EOT’s

EOT crane consists of two distinct parts
i. Bridge ii.
Crab

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 Figure 35 EOT Crane

1. Bridge
2. End carriage
3. Wheel of the bridge
4. Crab (without auxiliary hoist)
5. Hoisting machinery set
6. Wheels of crab
7. Bottom Block (without auxiliary hoist)
8. Lifting hook
9. Rail on the gantry girder for crane movement
10. Rail on the bridge for crab movement
11. Operators cabin

7.4.1.1.1. Bridge
The Bridge consists of two main girders fixed at their ends and connected to another
structural component called the end carriages. In the two end carriages are mounted the
main runners or wheels (four or more) which provide the longitudinal motion to the main

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bridge along the length of the workshop. The motion of the bridge is derived from an
electric motor which is geared to a shaft running across the full span of the bridge and
further geared to a wheel at each end. In some design, separate motors may be fitted at each
corner of the main bridge. The wheels run on two heavy rails fixed above the floor level
along the length of the shop on two girders, called gantry girder.
7.4.1.1.2. Crab
The Crab consists of the hoisting machinery mounted on a frame, which is in turn
mounted on at least four wheels and fitted with suitable machinery for traversing the crab
to and from across the main girders of the crane bridge.
Needless to mention that the crab wheels run on two rail sections fixed on the top flange of
the main bridge. Thus, the load hook has three separate motions, these being the hoisting,
cross traverse of the crab, and longitudinal travel of the whole crane. Each motion is
controlled independently of the other motions by separate controllers situated in a control
cage or in a suitable position for controlling from the floor by pendent chains.
7.4.2. Semi-Gantry Crane
Semi-Gantry Crane is A-type double girder or single girder gantry crane which only
have one unilateral leg, one side of it is the leg traveling on the ground track, the other side
is the end of the bridge girder institution traveling on the bracket track, it saves cost and
space of operation plant and open area. Semi-Gantry Crane form three-dimensional work
space by hook moving up and down, trolley traveling left and right and crane traveling
back and forth, to achieve moving, overturning and other operations for lifting goods.
Semi-Gantry Crane mechanical structure is mainly composed of: bridge frame, crane
traveling mechanism, trolley part and electrical part.
Bridge frame is mainly composed of: main beam, upper cross beam, lower cross beam,
unilateral leg, ladder platform and other components. Between the main beam and the
transverse end beam using of high strength bolts, simple structure, easy to install, transport
and storage. Between the main beam and the two legs which symmetrically arranged on
either side of the main beam fastened two flanges by bolts, and make the width between
two legs with narrow upper while wide lower, it forms "A"-shaped structure, improving
the crane stability. Legs and lower cross beam use bolt connection.
Crane traveling mechanism traveling by motor driving the wheel set through reducer.
Trolley traveling and lifting mechanism structure are same with A-type gantry crane.
Electrical protection system including short-circuit protection, no voltage protection,
emergency power off switch protection, overload limiter protection, travel limit protection,
phase failure, phase error, overvoltage, under voltage protection, grounding protection.

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CONCLUSION

Here we conclude that we had gained an overall knowledge about BHEL, its
working structure and its product manufacturing processes and maintenance (electrical).
We had an insight about the functioning of solar power plant. We were also exposed to
PLC, SCADA and CNC machines. We also got the opportunity to visit the substation of
BHEL and got to know about the working of present day technologies. We acquired
knowledge about various process in BHEL from engineering to implementation.

REFERENCES
1. http://www.bhel.com/home.php
2. http://www.explainthatstuff.com/electrostaticsmokeprecipitators.html
3. http://www.hitachiinfra.com.sg/services/energy/dustcollection/principle/d
ustcollection.html
4. http://indianpowersector.com/home/power-station/thermal-power-plant/

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