Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

6.685 Electric Machinery

Class Notes 8: Analytic Design Evaluation of Induction Machines January 12, 2006
c
2005 James L. Kirtley Jr.

1 Introduction
Induction machines are perhaps the most widely used of all electric motors. They are generally
simple to build and rugged, offer reasonable asynchronous performance: a manageable torque-speed
curve, stable operation under load, and generally satisfactory efficiency. Because they are so widely
used, they are worth understanding.
In addition to their current economic importance, induction motors and generators may find
application in some new applications with designs that are not similar to motors currently in
commerce. An example is very high speed motors for gas compressors, perhaps with squirrel cage
rotors, perhaps with solid iron (or perhaps with both).
Because it is possible that future, high performance induction machines will be required to
have characteristics different from those of existing machines, it is necessary to understand them
from first principles, and that is the objective of this document. It starts with a circuit theoretical
view of the induction machine. This analysis is strictly appropriate only for wound-rotor machines,
but leads to an understanding of more complex machines. This model will be used to explain the
basic operation of induction machines. Then we will derive a model for squirrel-cage machines.
Finally, we will show how models for solid rotor and mixed solid rotor/squirrel cage machines can
be constructed.
The view that we will take in this document is relentlessly classical. All of the elements that
we will use are calculated from first principles, and we do not resort to numerical analysis or
empirical methods unless we have no choice. While this may seem to be seriously limiting, it serves
our basic objective here, which is to achieve an understanding of how these machines work. It is
our feeling that once that understanding exists, it will be possible to employ more sophisticated
methods of analysis to get more accurate results for those elements of the machines which do not
lend themselves to simple analysis.
An elementary picture of the induction machine is shown in Figure 1. The rotor and stator are
coaxial. The stator has a polyphase winding in slots. The rotor has either a winding or a cage, also
in slots. This picture will be modified slightly when we get to talking of “solid rotor” machines,
anon. Generally, this analysis is carried out assuming three phases. As with many systems, this
generalizes to different numbers of phases with little difficulty.

2 Induction Motor Transformer Model

The induction machine has two electrically active elements: a rotor and a stator. In normal
operation, the stator is excited by alternating voltage. (We consider here only polyphase machines).
The stator excitation creates a magnetic field in the form of a rotating, or traveling wave, which
induces currents in the circuits of the rotor. Those currents, in turn, interact with the traveling

1
 Stator Core Stator Winding
in Slots

Rotor Rotor Winding

or Cage in
Slots
Air−Gap

Figure 1: Axial View of an Induction Machine

wave to produce torque. To start the analysis of this machine, assume that both the rotor and the
stator can be described by balanced, three – phase windings. The two sets are, of course, coupled
by mutual inductances which are dependent on rotor position. Stator fluxes are (λa , λb , λc ) and
rotor fluxes are (λA , λB , λC ). The flux vs. current relationship is given by:

λa ia
   
 
 λb 
 L
 ib 
 
 S M SR   
 λc   ic 
= (1)
    
λA iA
   
 M TSR LR
    
   
 λB   iB 
λC iC

where the component matrices are:

 
La Lab Lab
LS =  Lab La Lab  (2)
 
Lab Lab La
 
LA LAB LAB
LR =  LAB LA LAB  (3)
 
LAB LAB LA
The mutual inductance part of (1) is a circulant matrix:
2π 2π
 
M cos(pθ) M cos(pθ + 3 ) M cos(pθ − 3 )
2π 2π
M SR =  M cos(pθ − ) M cos(pθ) M cos(pθ + 3 ) (4)
 
3 
2π 2π
M cos(pθ + 3 ) M cos(pθ − 3 ) M cos(pθ)

2
 To carry the analysis further, it is necessary to make some assumptions regarding operation.
To start, assume balanced currents in both the stator and rotor:
ia = IS cos(ωt)
2π
ib = IS cos(ωt − 3 ) (5)
2π
ic = IS cos(ωt + 3 )

iA = IR cos(ωR t + ξR )
2π
iB = IR cos(ωR t + ξR − 3 ) (6)
2π
iC = IR cos(ωR t + ξR + 3 )
The rotor position θ can be described by

θ = ωm t + θ0 (7)

Under these assumptions, we may calculate the form of stator fluxes. As it turns out, we need
only write out the expressions for λa and λA to see what is going on:

λa = (La − Lab )Is cos(ωt) + M IR (cos(ωR t + ξR ) cos p(ωm + θ0 ) (8)

2π 2π 2π 2π
+ cos(ωR t + ξR + ) cos(p(ωm t + θ0 ) − ) + cos(ωR t + ξR − ) cos(p(ωm t + θ0 ) + )
3 3 3 3
which, after reducing some of the trig expressions, becomes:
3
λa = (La − Lab )Is cos(ωt) + M IR cos((pωm + ωR )t + ξR + pθ0 ) (9)
2
Doing the same thing for the rotor phase A yields:
2π 2π
λA = M Is (cos p(ωm t + θ0 ) cos(ωt)) + cos(p(ωm t + θ0 ) − ) cos(ωt − ) (10)
3 3
2π 2π
+ cos(p(ωm t + θ0 ) + ) cos(ωt + ) + (LA − LAB )IR cos(ωR t + ξR )
3 3
This last expression is, after manipulating:
3
λA = M Is cos((ω − pωm )t − pθ0 ) + (LA − LAB )IR cos(ωR t + ξR ) (11)
2
These two expressions, 9 and 11 give expressions for fluxes in the armature and rotor windings
in terms of currents in the same two windings, assuming that both current distributions are sinu-
soidal in time and space and represent balanced distributions. The next step is to make another
assumption, that the stator and rotor frequencies match through rotor rotation. That is:

ω − pωm = ωR (12)
It is important to keep straight the different frequencies here:
ω is stator electrical frequency
ωR is rotor electrical frequency
ωm is mechanical rotation speed

3
so that pωm is electrical rotation speed.
To refer rotor quantities to the stator frame (i.e. non- rotating), and to work in complex
amplitudes, the following definitions are made:

λa = Re(Λa ejωt ) (13)

λA = Re(ΛA ejωR t ) (14)

ia = Re(I a ejωt ) (15)
iA = Re(I A ejωR t ) (16)
With these definitions, the complex amplitudes embodied in 56 and 64 become:
3
Λa = LS I a + M I A ej(ξR +pθ0 ) (17)
2
3
ΛA = M I a e−jpθ0 + LR I A ejξR (18)
2
There are two phase angles embedded in these expressions: θ0 which describes the rotor physical
phase angle with respect to stator current and ξR which describes phase angle of rotor currents
with respect to stator currents. We hereby invent two new rotor variables:

ΛAR = ΛA ejpθ) (19)

I AR = I A ej(pθ0 +ξR ) (20)

These are rotor flux and current referred to armature phase angle. Note that ΛAR and I AR
have the same phase relationship to each other as do ΛA and I A . Using 19 and 20 in 17 and 18,
the basic flux/current relationship for the induction machine becomes:
" # " #" #
3
Λa LS 2M Ia
= 3 (21)
ΛAR 2M LR I AR
This is an equivalent single- phase statement, describing the flux/current relationship in phase
a, assuming balanced operation. The same expression will describe phases b and c.
Voltage at the terminals of the stator and rotor (possibly equivalent) windings is, then:

V a = jωΛa + Ra I a (22)

V AR = jωR ΛAR + RA I AR (23)

or:
3
V a = jωLS I a + jω M I AR + Ra I a (24)
2
3
V AR = jωR M I a + jωR LR I AR + RA I AR (25)
2
To carry this further, it is necessary to go a little deeper into the machine’s parameters. Note
that LS and LR are synchronous inductances for the stator and rotor. These may be separated
into space fundamental and “leakage” components as follows:

4
 3 4 µ0 RlNS2 kS2
LS = La − Lab = + LSl (26)
2π p2 g

3 4 µ0 RlNR2 kR
2
LR = LA − LAB = + LRl (27)
2π p2 g
Where the normal set of machine parameters holds:

R is rotor radius
l is active length
g is the effective air- gap
p is the number of pole- pairs
N represents number of turns
k represents the winding factor
S as a subscript refers to the stator
R as a subscript refers to the rotor
Ll is “leakage” inductance

The two leakage terms LSl and LRl contain higher order harmonic stator and rotor inductances,
slot inducances, end- winding inductances and, if necessary, a provision for rotor skew. Essentially,
they are used to represent all flux in the rotor and stator that is not mutually coupled.
In the same terms, the stator- to- rotor mutual inductance, which is taken to comprise only a
space fundamental term, is:

4 µ0 RlNS NR kS kR
M= (28)
π p2 g
Note that there are, of course, space harmonic mutual flux linkages. If they were to be included,
they would hair up the analysis substantially. We ignore them here and note that they do have an
effect on machine behavior, but that effect is second- order.
Air- gap permeance is defined as:

4 µ0 Rl
℘ag = (29)
π p2 g
so that the inductances are:
3
LS = ℘ag kS2 NS2 + LSl (30)
2
3 2
LR = ℘ag kR NR2 + LRl (31)
2

M = ℘ag NS NR kS kR (32)
Here we define “slip” s by:

ωR = sω (33)

5
 so that
pωm
s=1− (34)
ω
Then the voltage balance equations become:

3 3
 
V a = jω ℘ag kS2 NS2 + LSl I a + jω ℘ag NS NR kS kR I AR + Ra I a (35)
2 2
3 3
 
2
V AR = jsω ℘ag NS NR kS kR I a + jsω ℘ag kR NR2 + LRl I AR + RA I AR (36)
2 2
At this point, we are ready to define rotor current referred to the stator. This is done by
assuming an effective turns ratio which, in turn, defines an equivalent stator current to produce
the same fundamental MMF as a given rotor current:

NR kR
I2 = I (37)
NS kS AR
Now, if we assume that the rotor of the machine is shorted so that V AR = 0 and do some
manipulation we obtain:

V a = j(XM + X1 )I a + jXM I 2 + Ra I a (38)

R2
0 = jXM I a + j(XM + X2 )I 2 + I (39)
s 2
where the following definitions have been made:
3
XM = ω℘ag NS2 kS2 (40)
2

X1 = ωLSl (41)

2
NS kS

X2 = ωLRl (42)
NR kR
2
NS kS

R2 = RA (43)
NR kR
These expressions describe a simple equivalent circuit for the induction motor shown in Figure 2.
We will amplify on this equivalent circuit anon.

6
 a Ra
I- X1 X2 I2
∧∧∧
∨∨
∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ 
⊃ <
⊃ Xm <> R2
⊃ >
< s
⊃

Figure 2: Equivalent Circuit

3 Operation: Energy Balance

Now we are ready to see how the induction machine actually works. Assume for the moment
that Figure 2 represents one phase of a polyphase system and that the machine is operated under
balanced conditions and that speed is constant or varying only slowly. “Balanced conditions” means
that each phase has the same terminal voltage magnitude and that the phase difference between
phases is a uniform. Under those conditions, we may analyze each phase separately (as if it were
a single phase system). Assume an RMS voltage magnitude of Vt across each phase.
The “gap impedance”, or the impedance looking to the right from the right-most terminal of
X1 is:
R2
Zg = jXm ||(jX2 + ) (44)
s
A total, or terminal impedance is then
Zt = jX1 + Ra + Zg (45)
and terminal current is
Vt
It = (46)
Zt
Rotor current is found by using a current divider:
jXm
I2 = It (47)
jX2 + Rs2 + jXm
“Air-gap” power is then calculated (assuming a three-phase machine):
R2
Pag = 3|I2 |2 (48)
s
This is real (time-average) power crossing the air-gap of the machine. Positive slip implies rotor
speed less than synchronous and positive air-gap power (motor operation). Negative slip means
rotor speed is higher than synchronous, negative air-gap power (from the rotor to the stator) and
generator operation.
Now, note that this equivalent circuit represents a real physical structure, so it should be possible
to calculate power dissipated in the physical rotor resistance, and that is:
Ps = Pag s (49)

7
(Note that, since both Pag and s will always have the same sign, dissipated power is positive.)
The rest of this discussion is framed in terms of motor operation, but the conversion to generator
operation is simple. The difference between power crossing the air-gap and power dissipated in the
rotor resistance must be converted from mechanical form:

Pm = Pag − Ps (50)

and electrical input power is:

Pin = Pag + Pa (51)
where armature dissipation is:
Pa = 3|It |2 Ra (52)
Output (mechanical) power is
Pout = Pag − Pw (53)
Where Pw describes friction, windage and certain stray losses which we will discuss later.
And, finally, efficiency and power factor are:
Pout
η= (54)
Pin
Pin
cos ψ = (55)
3Vt It

3.1 Example of Operation

The following MATLAB script generates a torque-speed and power-speed curve for the simple
induction motor model described above. Note that, while the analysis does not require that any
of the parameters, such as rotor resistance, be independent of rotor speed, this simple script does
assume that all parameters are constant.

3.2 Example
That MATLAB script has been run for a standard motor with parameters given in Table 1.
Torque vs. speed and power vs. speed are plotted for this motor in Figure 3. These curves were
generated by the MATLAB script shown above.

4 Squirrel Cage Machine Model

Now we derive a circuit model for the squirrel-cage motor using field analytical techniques. The
model consists of two major parts. The first of these is a description of stator flux in terms of stator
and rotor currents. The second is a description of rotor current in terms of air- gap flux. The result
of all of this is a set of expressions for the elements of the circuit model for the induction machine.
To start, assume that the rotor is symmetrical enough to carry a surface current, the funda-
mental of which is:
 ′

K r = ız Re K r ej(sωt−pφ )
 
= ız Re K r ej(ωt−pφ) (56)

8
% ------------------------------------------------------
% Torque-Speed Curve for an Induction Motor
% Assumes the classical model
% This is a single-circuit model
% Required parameters are R1, X1, X2, R2, Xm, Vt, Ns
% Assumed is a three-phase motor
% This thing does a motoring, full speed range curve
% Copyright 1994 James L. Kirtley Jr.
% -------------------------------------------------------
s = .002:.002:1; % vector of slip
N = Ns .* (1 - s); % Speed, in RPM
oms = 2*pi*Ns/60; % Synchronous speed
Rr = R2 ./ s; % Rotor resistance
Zr = j*X2 + Rr; % Total rotor impedance
Za = par(j*Xm, Zr); % Air-gap impedance
Zt = R1 + j*X1 +Za; % Terminal impedance
Ia = Vt ./ Zt; % Terminal Current
I2 = Ia .* cdiv (Zr, j*Xm); % Rotor Current
Pag = 3 .* abs(I2) .^2 .* Rr; % Air-Gap Power
Pm = Pag .* (1 - s); % Converted Power
Trq = Pag ./ oms; % Developed Torque
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(N, Trq)
title(’Induction Motor’);
ylabel(’N-m’);
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(N, Pm);
ylabel(’Watts’);
xlabel(’RPM’);

Table 1: Example, Standard Motor

Rating 300 kw
Voltage 440 VRMS, l-l
254 VRMS, l-n
Stator Resistance R1 .73 Ω
Rotor Resistance R2 .64 Ω
Stator Reactance X1 .06 Ω
Rotor Reactance X2 .06 Ω
Magnetizing Reactance Xm 2.5 Ω
Synchronous Speed Ns 1200 RPM

9
 Induction Motor
300

250

200
N−m
150

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

4
x 10
3

2.5

2
Watts

1.5

0.5

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
RPM

Figure 3: Torque and Power vs. Speed for Example Motor

Note that in 56 we have made use of the simple transformation between rotor and stator
coordinates:
φ′ = φ − ωm t (57)
and that
pωm = ω − ωr = ω(1 − s) (58)
Here, we have used the following symbols:

Kr is complex amplitude of rotor surface current

s is per- unit “slip”
ω is stator electrical frequency
ωr is rotor electrical frequency
ωm is rotational speed

The rotor current will produce an air- gap flux density of the form:
 
Br = Re B r ej(ωt−pφ) (59)

where
R
B r = −jµ0 K (60)
pg r

10
 Note that this describes only radial magnetic flux density produced by the space fundamental
of rotor current. Flux linked by the armature winding due to this flux density is:
Z 0
λAR = lNS kS Br (φ)Rdφ (61)
−π
p

This yields a complex amplitude for λAR :

 
λAR = Re ΛAR ejωt (62)

where
2lµ0 R2 NS kS
ΛAR = Kr (63)
p2 g
Adding this to flux produced by the stator currents, we have an expression for total stator flux:
!
3 4 µ0 NS2 RlkS2 2lµ0 R2 NS kS
Λa = + L Sl I a + Kr (64)
2π p2 g p2 g
Expression 64 motivates a definiton of an equivalent rotor current I2 in terms of the space
fundamental of rotor surface current density:

π R
I2 = K (65)
3 NS kS z
Then we have the simple expression for stator flux:

Λa = (Lad + LSl )I a + Lad I 2 (66)

where Lad is the fundamental space harmonic component of stator inductance:

3 4 µ0 NS2 kS2 Rl
Lad = (67)
2π p2 g

4.1 Effective Air-Gap: Carter’s Coefficient

In induction motors, where the air-gap is usually quite small, it is necessary to correct the air-gap
permeance for the effect of slot openings. These make the permeance of the air-gap slightly smaller
than calculated from the physical gap, effectively making the gap a bit bigger. The ratio of effective
to physical gap is:
t+s
geff = g (68)
t + s − gf (α)
where
s
 
f (α) = f = α tan(α) − log sec α (69)
2g

11
4.2 Squirrel Cage Currents
The second part of this derivation is the equivalent of finding a relationship between rotor flux and
I2 . However, since this machine has no discrete windings, we must focus on the individual rotor
bars.
Assume that there are NR slots in the rotor. Each of these slots is carrying some current. If
the machine is symmetrical and operating with balanced currents, we may write an expression for
current in the kth slot as:
 
ik = Re I k ejsωt (70)
where

−j 2πp
I k = Ie NR (71)
and I is the complex amplitude of current in slot number zero. Expression 71 shows a uniform
progression of rotor current phase about the rotor. All rotor slots carry the same current, but that
current is phase retarded (delayed) from slot to slot because of relative rotation of the current wave
at slip frequency.
The rotor current density can then be expressed as a sum of impulses:
 
NX
R −1
1 j(ωr t−k 2πp ) 2πk 
Kz = Re  Ie NR
δ(φ′ − ) (72)
k=0
R NR

The unit impulse function δ() is our way of approximating the rotor current as a series of
impulsive currents around the rotor.
This rotor surface current may be expressed as a fourier series of traveling waves:
∞
!
j(ωr t−npφ′ )
X
Kz = Re K ne (73)
n=−∞

Note that in 73, we are allowing for negative values of the space harmonic index n to allow for
reverse- rotating waves. This is really part of an expansion in both time and space, although we are
considering only the time fundamental part. We may recover the nth space harmonic component
of 73 by employing the following formula:

1
Z 2π
K n =< Kr (φ, t)e−j(ωr t−npφ) dφ > (74)
π 0

Here the brackets <> denote time average and are here beause of the two- dimensional nature
of the expansion. To carry out 74 on 72, first expand 72 into its complex conjugate parts:
NR −1 
1 X I j(ωr t−k 2πp I ∗ −j(ωr t−k 2πp 2πk

) )
Kr = e NR
+ e NR
δ(φ′ − ) (75)
2 k=0 R R NR

If 75 is used in 74, the second half of 75 results in a sum of terms which time average to zero.
The first half of the expression results in:

12
 I 2π NX
R −1
2πk
−j 2πpk
Z
jnpφ
Kn = e NR
e δ(φ − )dφ (76)
2πR 0 k=0
NR
The impulse function turns the integral into an evaluation of the rest of the integrand at the
impulse. What remains is the sum:
NR −1
I X j(n−1) 2πkp
Kn = e NR
(77)
2πR k=0
The sum in 77 is easily evaluated. It is:
NX
R −1
(
j
2πkp(n−1)
NR if (n − 1) NPR = integer
e NR
= (78)
k=0
0 otherwise

The integer in 78 may be positive, negative or zero. As it turns out, only the first three of these
(zero, plus and minus one) are important, because these produce the largest magnetic fields and
therefore fluxes. These are:

p
(n − 1) = −1 or n = − NRp−p
NR
=0 or n = 1
NR +p
=1 or n = p (79)

Note that 79 appears to produce space harmonic orders that may be of non- integer order. This
is not really true: is is necessary that np be an integer, and 79 will always satisfy that condition.
So, the harmonic orders of interest to us are one and
NR
n+ = +1 (80)
p
NR
 
n− = − −1 (81)
p
Each of the space harmonics of the squirrel- cage current will produce radial flux density. A
surface current of the form:

NR I j(ωr t−npφ′ )
 
Kn = Re e (82)
2πR
produces radial magnetic flux density:
 ′

Brn = Re B rn ej(ωr t−npφ ) (83)
where

µ 0 NR I
B rn = −j (84)
2πnpg
In turn, each of the components of radial flux density will produce a component of induced
voltage. To calculate that, we must invoke Faraday’s law:

13
 ∂B
∇×E =− (85)
∂t
The radial component of 85, assuming that the fields do not vary with z, is:

1 ∂ ∂Br
Ez = − (86)
R ∂φ ∂t
Or, assuming an electric field component of the form:
 
Ezn = Re E n ej(ωr t−npφ) (87)
Using 84 and 87 in 86, we obtain an expression for electric field induced by components of air-
gap flux:
ωr R
En = B (88)
np n
µ 0 NR ω r R
E n = −j I (89)
2πg(np)2
Now, the total voltage induced in a slot pushes current through the conductors in that slot. We
may express this by:

E 1 + E n− + E n+ = Z slot I (90)
Now: in 90, there are three components of air- gap field. E1 is the space fundamental field,
produced by the space fundamental of rotor current as well as by the space fundamental of stator
current. The other two components on the left of 90 are produced only by rotor currents and
actually represent additional reactive impedance to the rotor. This is often called zigzag leakage
inductance. The parameter Zslot represents impedance of the slot itself: resistance and reactance
associated with cross- slot magnetic fields. Then 90 can be re-written as:

µ 0 NR ω r R 1 1
 
E 1 = Z slot I + j 2
+ I (91)
2πg (n+ p) (n− p)2
To finish this model, it is necessary to translate 91 back to the stator. See that 65 and 77 make
the link between I and I 2 :

NR
I2 = I (92)
6NS kS
Then the electric field at the surface of the rotor is:

6NS kS 3 µ0 NS kS R 1 1
  
E1 = Z slot + jωr 2
+ I2 (93)
NR π g (n+ p) (n− p)2
This must be translated into an equivalent stator voltage. To do so, we use 88 to translate 93
into a statement of radial magnetic field, then find the flux liked and hence stator voltage from
that. Magnetic flux density is:

14
 pE 1
Br =
ω R
r
6NS kS p Rslot 3 µ0 NS kS p 1 1
   
= + jLslot + j + I2 (94)
NR R ωr π g (n+ p)2 (n− p)2
where the slot impedance has been expressed by its real and imaginary parts:

Z slot = Rslot + jωr Lslot (95)

Flux linking the armature winding is:
Z 0  
λag = NS kS lR Re B r ej(ωt−pφ) dφ (96)
π
− 2p

Which becomes:  
λag = Re Λag ejωt (97)
where:

2NS kS lR
Λag = j Br (98)
p
Then “air- gap” voltage is:
2ωNS kS lR
V ag = jωΛag = − Br
p
" #
12lNS2 kS2 R2 6 µ0 RlNS2 kS2 1 1
  
= −I 2 jωLslot + + jω + (99)
NR s π g (n+ p)2 (n− p)2
Expression 99 describes the relationship between the space fundamental air- gap voltage V ag
and rotor current I 2 . This expression fits the equivalent circuit of Figure 4 if the definitions made
below hold:

X2 I2
∩∩∩∩ 
<>
<> R2
< s

Figure 4: Rotor Equivalent Circuit

12lNS2 kS2 6 µ0 RlNS2 kS2 1 1

 
X2 = ω Lslot + ω 2
+ (100)
NR π g (NR + p) (NR − p)2
12lNS2 kS2
R2 = Rslot (101)
NR

15
 The first term in 100 expresses slot leakage inductance for the rotor. Similarly, 101 expresses
rotor resistance in terms of slot resistance. Note that Lslot and Rslot are both expressed per unit
length. The second term in 100 expresses the “zigzag” leakage inductance resulting from harmonics
on the order of rotor slot pitch.
Next, see that armature flux is just equal to air- gap flux plus armature leakage inductance.
That is, 66 could be written as:

Λa = Λag + Lal I a (102)

4.3 Stator Leakage

There are a number of components of stator leakage Lal , each representing flux paths that do not
directly involve the rotor. Each of the components adds to the leakage inductance. The most
prominent components of stator leakage are referred to as slot, belt, zigzag, end winding, and skew.
Each of these will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

4.3.1 Belt Leakage

Belt and zigzag leakage components are due to air- gap space harmonics. As it turns out, these
are relatively complicated to estimate, but we may get some notion from our first- order view of
the machine. The trouble with estimating these leakage components is that they are not really
independent of the rotor, even though we call them “leakage”. Belt harmonics are of order n = 5
and n = 7. If there were no rotor coupling, the belt harmonic leakage terms would be:

3 4 µ0 NS2 k52 Rl
Xag5 = ω (103)
2π 52 p2 g
3 4 µ0 NS2 k72 Rl
Xag7 = ω (104)
2π 72 p2 g
The belt harmonics link to the rotor, however, and actually appear to be in parallel with
components of rotor impedance appropriate to 5p and 7p pole- pair machines. At these harmonic
orders we can usually ignore rotor resistance so that rotor impedance is purely inductive. Those
components are:

12lNS2 k52 6 µ0 RlNS2 k52 1 1

 
X2,5 =ω Lslot + ω 2
+ (105)
NR π g (NR + 5p) (NR − 5p)2
12lNS2 k72 6 µ0 RlNS2 k72 1 1
 
X2,7 =ω Lslot + ω 2
+ (106)
NR π g (NR + 7p) (NR − 7p)2
In the simple model of the squirrel cage machine, because the rotor resistances are relatively
small and slip high, the effect of rotor resistance is usually ignored. Then the fifth and seventh
harmonic components of belt leakage are:

X5 = Xag5 kX2,5 (107)

X7 = Xag7 kX2,7 (108)

16
4.3.2 Zigzag Leakage
Stator zigzag leakage is from those harmonics of the orders pns = Nslots ± p where Nslots .

3 4 µ0 NS2 Rl kns + kns −

 
Xz = ω 2
+ (109)
2π g (Nslots + p) (Nslots − p)2
Note that these harmonic orders do not tend to be shorted out by the rotor cage and so no
direct interaction with the cage is ordinarily accounted for.

4.3.3 Skew Leakage

In order to reduce saliency effects that occur because the rotor teeth will tend to try to align with
the stator teeth, induction motor designers always use a different number of slots in the rotor and
stator. There still may be some tendency to align, and this produces “cogging” torques which in
turn produce vibration and noise and, in severe cases, can retard or even prevent starting. To
reduce this tendency to “cog”, rotors are often built with a little “skew”, or twist of the slots from
one end to the other. Thus, when one tooth is aligned at one end of the machine, it is un-aligned
at the other end. A side effect of this is to reduce the stator and rotor coupling by just a little,
and this produces leakage reactance. This is fairly easy to estimate. Consider, for example, a
space-fundamental flux density Br = B1 cos pθ, linking a (possibly) skewed full-pitch current path:
l π
Z
2
Z
2p
+ pς xl
λ= B1 cos pθRdθdx
− 2l π
− 2p + pς x
l

Here, the skew in the rotor is ς electrical radians from one end of the machine to the other.
Evaluation of this yields:
2B1 Rl sin 2ς
λ= ς
p 2
Now, the difference between what would have been linked by a non-skewed rotor and what is
linked by the skewed rotor is the skew leakage flux, now expressible as:
 !2 
sin 2ς
Xk = Xag 1 − ς

2

4.3.4 Stator Slot Leakage

Currents in the stator slots produce fluxes that link the stator conductors but not the rotor.
To estimate these fluxes, refer to the slot geometry shown in Figure 4.3.4. This shows a possibly
unrealistic straight-sided stator slot. Typical in induction machines is for such slots to be trapezoidal
in shape. A more careful field analysis than we will do here shows that this analysis will be no
more than a few percent in error if the slot width used in the calculation is the slot top (the end of
the slot closest to the air-gap).
There are five important dimensions here: the slot height h, width w and the slot depression
height d and width u, and (not shown) length ℓ. To estimate slot leakage inductance we assume
some current in the slot, calculate the magnetic energy that results and then use the expression:

17
 1
wm = Lℓ I 2
2
If there are N conductors in the slot, each carrying current I, the current density in the slot is:
NI
J=
hw
Using Ampere’s Law around a loop (shown dotted in the figure), magnetic field in the x direction
at height y from the bottom of the slot is:
NI y
Hx = −
w h
In the slot depression that field is:
NI
Hxd = −
u
Magnetic energy stored in the slot and slot depression are then conveniently calculated as:
1
Z h 1 1 2 1h d
 
wm = Lℓ I 2 = wℓ µ0 Hx2 dy + udℓ Hxd = ℓµ0 + N 2I 2
2 0 2 2 3w u
Noting the slot permeance as:
1h d
 
+P = ℓµ0
3w u
We have the total inductance of the slot to be:

Lℓ = PN 2

For the purpose of this estimate we will assume an ordinary winding consisting of coils of Nc
turns each. For such a winding if there are m slots per pole per phase and p pole pairs and if the
winding is short-pitched by Nsp slots, there will be 2p(m − Nsp ) slots per phase with two coils from
the same phase and 2pNsp slots per phase sharing another phase. (We assume here a three phase
machine). Then the ’self’ slot leakage inductance must be:
 
Lsℓ = P 4Nc2 2p(m − Nsp ) + Nc2 2pNsp

Since there are a total of pNsp ’mutual’ slots between each pair of phases, and the sense of the
windings is opposite, the mutual component of slot leakage is:

Lmℓ = −PpNsp Nc2

Total slot leakage is then:

Lℓ = Lsℓ − Lmℓ = PpNc2 (8m − 5Nsp )

Expressed in terms of the total number of stator turns, Na = 2pmNc ,

N2 2 5 Nsp
 
Lℓ = P a −
p m 4 m2

18
 u
d
1111
0000
000
111
0
1 011111
100000
0
1
000
111
0000
1111
000
111
0
1 011111
10
1
00000
0
1
000
111
0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1 J 0
1
0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1 0
1 y

0
1 0
1
0
1
w 000000
111111
0
1
000000
1111110
1 x

Figure 5: Stator Slot Geometry for Leakage Calculation

4.3.5 End Winding Leakage

The final component of leakage reactance is due to the end windings. This is perhaps the most
difficult of the machine parameters to estimate, being essentially three-dimensional in nature. There
are a number of ways of estimating this parameter, but for our purposes we will use a simplified
parameter from Alger[1]:

14 q µ0 RNa2
Xe = (p − 0.3)
4π 2 2 p2
As with all such formulae, extreme care is required here, since we can give little guidance as to
when this expression is correct or even close. And we will admit that a more complete treatment
of this element of machine parameter construction would be an improvement.

4.4 Stator Winding Resistance

Estimating stator winding resistance is fairly straightforward once end winding geometry is known.
Total length of the armature winding is, per phase:

ℓw = Na 2 (ℓ + ℓe )

Estimating ℓe , the length of one end winding, requires knowing how the winding is laid out and
is beyond our scope here. (But once you see it you will know that length.)
The area of the winding may be estimated by knowing wire diameter and how many strands
are in parallel:
π 2
Aw = d Ninh
4 w
The area of the winding is related to slot area by a winding factor:
2Nc Aw
λa =
Aslot

19
 Winding resistance, per phase, is simply
ℓw
Ra =
σAw
where σ is wire conductivity. Note that conductivity of the materials used in induction machines
is a function of temperature and so will be winding resistance (and rotor resistance for that matter).
The Fitzgerald, Kingsley and Umans textbook[2] gives the following correction for resistance of
copper:
T0 + T
RT = R t
T0 + t
where RT and Rt are resistances at temperatures T and t. T0 = 234.5 for copper with basic
conductivity of IACS (5.8 × 107 S/m)[3]. For aluminum with conductivity of 63% of IACS, T0 ≈
212.9 Temperatures are given in Celcius.

4.5 Harmonic Order Rotor Resistance and Stray Load Losses

It is important to recognize that the machine rotor “sees” each of the stator harmonics in essentially
the same way, and it is quite straightforward to estimate rotor parameters for the harmonic orders,
as we have done just above. Now, particularly for the “belt” harmonic orders, there are rotor
currents flowing in response to stator mmf’s at fifth and seventh space harmonic order. The
resistances attributable to these harmonic orders are:
12lNs2 k52
R2,5 = Rslot,5 (110)
NR

12lNs2 k72
R2,7 = Rslot,7 (111)
NR
The higher-order slot harmonics will have relative frequencies (slips) that are:
( )
n = 6k + 1
sn = 1 ∓ (1 − s)n k an integer (112)
n = 6k − 1

The induction motor electromagnetic interaction can now be described by an augmented mag-
netic circuit as shown in Figure 20. Note that the terminal flux of the machine is the sum of all
of the harmonic fluxes, and each space harmonic is excited by the same current so the individual
harmonic components are in series.
Each of the space harmonics will have an electromagnetic interaction similar to the fundamental:
power transferred across the air-gap is:

2 R2,n
Pem,n = 3I2,n
sn
Of course dissipation in each circuit is:
2
Pd,n = 3I2,n R2,n

20
leaving
2 R2,n
Pm,n = 3I2,n (1 − sn )
sn
Note that this equivalent circuit has provision for two sets of circuits which look like “cages”.
In fact one of these sets is for the solid rotor body if that exists. We will discuss that anon. There
is also a provision (rc ) for loss in the stator core iron.
Power deposited in the rotor harmonic resistance elements is characterized as “stray load” loss
because it is not easily computed from the simple machine equivalent circuit.

4.6 Slot Models

Some of the more interesting things that can be done with induction motors have to do with the
shaping of rotor slots to achieve particular frequency-dependent effects. We will consider here three
cases, but there are many other possibilities.
First, suppose the rotor slots are representable as being rectangular, as shown in Figure 6, and
assume that the slot dimensions are such that diffusion effects are not important so that current in
the slot conductor is approximately uniform. In that case, the slot resistance and inductance per
unit length are:

1
Rslot = (113)
ws hs σ
hs
Lslot = µ0 (114)
3ws
The slot resistance is obvious, the slot inductance may be estimated by recognizing that if the
current in the slot is uniform, magnetic field crossing the slot must be:
I x
Hy =
ws hs
Then energy stored in the field in the slot is simply:
hs 2
1 µ0 Ix 1 µ0 hs 2
Z 
L I 2 = ws dx = I
2 slot 0 2 ws hs 6 ws

4.7 Deep Slots

Now, suppose the slot is not small enough that diffusion effects can be ignored. The slot becomes
“deep” to the extent that its depth is less than (or even comparable to) the skin depth for conduction
at slip frequency. Conduction in this case may be represented by using the Diffusion Equation:
∂H
∇ 2 H = µ0 σ
∂t
In the steady state, and assuming that only cross-slot flux (in the y direction) is important, and
the only variation that is important is in the radial (x) direction:
∂ 2 Hy
= jωs µ0 σHy
∂x2

21
 wd

hd x
hs

ws

Figure 6: Single Slot

This is solved by solutions of the form:

x
Hy = H± e±(1+j) δ

where the skin depth is s

2
δ=
ω s µ0 σ
Since Hy must vanish at the bottom of the slot, it must take the form:

sinh(1 + j) xδ
Hy = Htop
sinh(1 + j) hδs

Since current is the curl of magnetic field,

∂Hy 1 + j cosh(1 + j) hδs

Jz = σEz = = Htop
∂x δ sinh(1 + j) hδs

Then slot impedance, per unit length, is:

1 1+j hs
Zslot = coth(1 + j)
ws σδ δ

Of course the impedance (purely reactive) due to the slot depression must be added to this. It
is possible to extract the real and imaginary parts of this impedance (the process is algebraically a
bit messy) to yield:

1 sinh 2 hδs + sin 2 hδs

Rslot =
ws σδ cosh 2 hδs − cos 2 hδs
hd 1 1 sinh 2 hδs − sin 2 hδs
Lslot = µ0 +
wd ωs ws σδ cosh 2 hδs − cos 2 hδs

22
4.8 Arbitrary Slot Shape Model
It is possible to obtain a better model of the behavior of rotor conductor slots by using simple
numerical methods. In many cases rotor slots are shaped with the following objectives in mind:

1. A substantial part of the periphery of the rotor should be devoted to active conductor, for
good running performance.

2. The magnetic iron of the rotor must occupy a certain fraction of the periphery, to avoid
saturation.

3. For good starting performance, some means of forcing current to flow only in the top part of
the rotor bar should be devised.

Generally the rotor teeth, which make up part of the machine’s magnetic circuit, are of roughly
constant width to avoid flux concentration. The rotor conductor bars are therefore tapered, with
their narrow ends towards the center of the rotor. To provide for current concentration on starting
they often have a ’starting bar’ at the outer periphery of the rotor with a much narrower region
which has high inductance just below. The bulk of the rotor bar occupies the tapered region allowed
between the teeth.
This geometry is quite a bit more complicated than that described in the previous section. Note
that, if we can describe the slot impedance per unit length as a function of frequency: Zs (ω) =
Rs (ω) + jXs (ω), we can carry out the analysis of the machine as described previously. Thus our
analysis is directed toward frequency response modeling of the rotor slot. Focusing then on a single
slot, use the notation as described in Figure 7.

Ez [n] w[n]

x = n∆x
Ez [n−1]
∆x

y z

Figure 7: Slot Geometry Notation

The impedance per unit length is the ratio between slot current and axial electric field:
Ez
Zs =
I
For the purpose of this analysis we will use the symbol x as the radial distance from the bottom
of the slot. Assume the slot can be divided radially into a number of regions or ’slices’, each with

23
radial height ∆x. We further assume that currents are axially (z) directed and that magnetic field
crosses the slot in the y direction. Under these assumptions the electric field at the top of one of
the slices is related to the electric field at the bottom of the slice by magnetic field crossing through
the slice. Using the trapezoidal rule for integration:
∆x  
E z (x) − E z (x − ∆x) = jωµ0 H y (x) + H y (x − ∆x)
2
The magnetic field is simply:
1
Z x 1 X
H y (x) = σw(x)Ez (x)dx = nI
w(x) 0 wn i=1 n

where In is the total current flowing in one slice. Note that this can be reformulated into a ladder
network by again using the trapezoidal rule for integration: current flowing in slice number n would
be:
∆x
In = σ (wn E n + wn−1 E n−1 )
2
Now the slot may be described as is shown in the ladder network of Figure 8. The incremental
reactance of one slice is:
2
Xn = ωµ0 ∆x
(wn + wn−1 )
and the resistance of a slice is:
1 2
Rn =
σ∆x wn + wn−1

L[n] L[n] L[n−1] L[n−1]

2 2 2 2

R[n] R[n−1]

Figure 8: Slot Impedance Ladder Network

The procedure is to start at the bottom of the slot, corresponding to the right-hand end of the
ladder (the inductance at the bottom of the slot is infinite so the first slice has only the resistance),
and building toward the top of the slot.

4.9 Multiple Cages

In some larger induction motors the rotor cage is built in such a way as to separate the functions
of ’starting’ and ’running’. The purpose of a “deep” slot is to improve starting performance of
a motor. When the rotor is stationary, the frequency seen by rotor conductors is relatively high,
and current crowding due to the skin effect makes rotor resistance appear to be high. As the rotor
accelerates the frequency seen from the rotor drops, lessening the skin effect and making more
use of the rotor conductor. This, then, gives the machine higher starting torque (requiring high
resistance) without compromising running efficiency.

24
 This effect can be carried even further by making use of multiple cages, such as is shown in
Figure 9. Here there are two conductors in a fairly complex slot. Estimating the impedance of this
slot is done in stages to build up an equivalent circuit.
wd
hd
h2
hs

w2
ws

h1

w1

Figure 9: Double Slot

Assume for the purposes of this derivation that each section of the multiple cage is small enough
that currents can be considered to be uniform in each conductor. Then the bottom section may be
represented as a resistance in series with an inductance:
1
Ra =
σw1 h1
µ0 h1
La =
3 w1
The narrow slot section with no conductor between the top and bottom conductors will contribute
an inductive impedance:
hs
Ls = µ 0
ws
The top conductor will have a resistance:
1
Rb =
σw2 h2
Now, in the equivalent circuit, current flowing in the lower conductor will produce a magnetic field
across this section, yielding a series inductance of
h2
Lb = µ 0
w2
By analogy with the bottom conductor, current in the top conductor flows through only one third of
the inductance of the top section, leading to the equivalent circuit of Figure 10, once the inductance
of the slot depression is added on:
hd
Lt = µ 0
wd
Now, this rotor bar circuit fits right into the framework of the induction motor equivalent circuit,
shown for the double cage case in Figure 11, with

12lNS2 kS2
R2a = Ra
NR

25
 1 2
Lt 3 Lb 3 Lb Ls La
∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩
< <
<> Rb <> Ra
<> <>

Figure 10: Equivalent Circuit: Double Bar

12lNS2 kS2
R2b = Rb
NR
12lNS2 kS2 2
X2a = ω ( Lb + Ls + La )
NR 3
12lNS2 kS2 1
X2a = ω (Lt + Lb )
NR 3

a Ra
I- X1 X2b I2 X2a
∧∧∧
∨∨
∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩  ∩∩∩∩
⊃ < <
⊃ Xm <> R2b <> R2a
⊃ > s > s
⊃ < <

Figure 11: Equivalent Circuit: Double Cage Rotor

4.10 Rotor End Ring Effects

It is necessary to correct for “end ring” resistance in the rotor. To do this, we note that the
magnitude of surface current density in the rotor is related to the magnitude of individual bar
current by:
2πR
Iz = Kz (115)
NR
Current in the end ring is:
R
IR = Kz (116)
p
Then it is straightforward to calculate the ratio between power dissipated in the end rings to power
dissipated in the conductor bars themselves, considering the ratio of current densities and volumes.
Assuming that the bars and end rings have the same radial extent, the ratio of current densities is:
JR NR wr
= (117)
Jz 2πp lr

26
where wr is the average width of a conductor bar and lr is the axial end ring length.
Now, the ratio of losses (and hence the ratio of resistances) is found by multiplying the square
of current density ratio by the ratio of volumes. This is approximately:
2
Rend NR wr 2πR lr NR Rwr

= 2 = (118)
Rslot 2πp lr NR l wr πllr p2

4.11 Windage
Bearing friction, windage loss and fan input power are often regarded as elements of a “black art”.
We approach them with some level of trepidation, for motor manufacturers seem to take a highly
empirical view of these elements. What follows is an attempt to build reasonable but simple models
for two effects: loss in the air gap due to windage and input power to the fan for cooling. Some
caution is required here, for these elements of calculation have not been properly tested, although
they seem to give reasonable numbers
The first element is gap windage loss. This is produced by shearing of the air in the relative
rotation gap. It is likely to be a signifigant element only in machines with very narrow air gaps or
very high surface speeds. But these include, of course, the high performance machines with which
we are most interested. We approach this with a simple “couette flow” model. Air-gap shear loss
is approximately:
Pw = 2πR4 Ω3 lρa f (119)
where ρa is the density of the air-gap medium (possibly air) and f is the friction factor, estimated
by:
.0076
f= 1 (120)
Rn4
and the Reynold’s Number Rn is
ΩRg
Rn = (121)
νair
and νair is the kinematic viscosity of the air-gap medium.
The second element is fan input power. We base an estimate of this on two hypotheses. The
first of these is that the mass flow of air circulated by the fan can be calculated by the loss in the
motor and an average temperature rise in the cooling air. The second hypothesis is the the pressure
rise of the fan is established by the centrifugal pressure rise associated with the surface speed at
the outside of the rotor. Taking these one at a time: If there is to be a temperature rise ∆T in the
cooling air, then the mass flow volume is:
Pd
ṁ =
Cp ∆T

and then volume flow is just

ṁ
v̇ =
ρair
Pressure rise is estimated by centrifugal force:
2
ω

∆P = ρair r
p fan

27
then power is given by:
Pfan = ∆P v̇
For reference, the properties of air are:

Density ρair 1.18 kg/m2

Kinematic Viscosity νair 1.56 × 10−5 m2 /sec
Heat Capacity Cp 1005.7 J/kg

4.12 Magnetic Circuit Loss and Excitation

There will be some loss in the stator magnetic circuit due to eddy current and hysteresis effects
in the core iron. In addition, particularly if the rotor and stator teeth are saturated there will be
MMF expended to push flux through those regions. These effects are very difficult to estimate from
first principles, so we resort to a simple model.
Assume that the loss in saturated steel follows a law such as:
ǫf  ǫb
ωe B

Pd = PB (122)
ωB BB
This is not too bad an estimate for the behavior of core iron. Typically, ǫf is a bit less than
two (between about 1.3 and 1.6) and ǫb is a bit more than two (between about 2.1 and 2.4). Of
course this model is good only for a fairly restricted range of flux density. Base dissipation is
usually expressed in “watts per kilogram”, so we first compute flux density and then mass of the
two principal components of the stator iron, the teeth and the back iron.
In a similar way we can model the exciting volt-amperes consumed by core iron by something
like:
ǫv1 ǫv2 
B B ω
  
Qc = V a1 + V a2 (123)
BB BB ωB
This, too, is a form that appears to be valid for some steels. Quite obviously it may be necessary
to develop different forms of curve ’fits’ for different materials.
Flux density (RMS) in the air-gap is:

pVa
Br = (124)
2RlNa k1 ωs
Then flux density in the stator teeth is:
wt + w1
Bt = B r (125)
wt
where wt is tooth width and w1 is slot top width. Flux in the back-iron of the core is
R
Bc = B r (126)
pdc
where dc is the radial depth of the core.

28
 One way of handling this loss is to assume that the core handles flux corresponding to terminal
voltage, add up the losses and then compute an equivalent resistance and reactance:

3|Va |2
rc =
Pcore

3|Va |2
xc =
Qcore
then put this equivalent resistance in parallel with the air-gap reactance element in the equivalent
circuit.

5 Solid Iron Rotor Bodies

Solid steel rotor electric machines (SSRM) can be made to operate with very high surface speeds and
are thus suitable for use in high RPM situations. They resemble, in form and function, hysteresis
machines. However, asynchronous operation will produce higher power output because it takes
advantage of higher flux density. We consider here the interactions to be expected from solid iron
rotor bodies. The equivalent circuits can be placed in parallel (harmonic-by-harmonic) with the
equivalent circuits for the squirrel cage, if there is also a cage in the machine.
To estimate the rotor parameters R2s and X2s , we assume that important field quantities in
the machine are sinusoidally distributed in time and space, so that radial flux density is:
 
Br = Re B r ej(ωt−pφ) (127)

and, similarly, axially directed rotor surface current is:

 
Kz = Re K z ej(ωt−pφ) (128)

Now, since by Faraday’s law:

∂B
∇×E =− (129)
∂t
we have, in this machine geometry:
1 ∂ ∂Br
Ez = − (130)
R ∂φ ∂t
The transformation between rotor and stator coordinates is:

φ′ = φ − ωm t (131)

where ωm is rotor speed. Then:

pωm = ω − ωr = ω(1 − s) (132)
and
Now, axial electric field is, in the frame of the rotor, just:
 
Ez = Re E z ej(ωt−pφ) (133)
 
t−pφ′ )
= Re E z ej(ωr (134)

29
and
ωr R
Ez = Br (135)
p
Of course electric field in the rotor frame is related to rotor surface current by:

Ez = Z sK z (136)

Now these quantities can be related to the stator by noting that air-gap voltage is related to
radial flux density by:
p
Br = V (137)
2lNa k1 Rω ag
The stator-equivalent rotor current is:
π R
I2 = K (138)
3 Na ka z
Then we can find stator referred, rotor equivalent impedance to be:
V ag 3 4 l 2 2 ω Ez
Z2 = = N k (139)
I2 2 π R a a ωr K z
Now, if rotor surface impedance can be expressed as:

Z s = Rs + jωr Ls (140)

then
R2
Z2 = + jX2 (141)
s
where
34 l 2 2
R2 = N k Rs (142)
2πR a 1
34 l 2 2
X2 = N k Xs (143)
2πR a 1
Now, to find the rotor surface impedance, we make use of a nonlinear eddy-current model proposed
by Agarwal. First we define an equivalent penetration depth (similar to a skin depth):
s
2Hm
δ= (144)
ωr σB0

where σ is rotor surface material volume conductivity, B0 , ”saturation flux density” is taken to be
75 % of actual saturation flux density and
3 Na ka
Hm = |K z | = |I 2 | (145)
π R
Then rotor surface resistivity and surface reactance are:
16 1
Rs = (146)
3π σδ
Xs = .5Rs (147)

30
 Note that the rotor elements X2 and R2 depend on rotor current I2 , so the problem is nonlinear.
We find, however, that a simple iterative solution can be used. First we make a guess for R2 and find
currents. Then we use those currents to calculate R2 and solve again for current. This procedure
is repeated until convergence, and the problem seems to converge within just a few steps.
Aside from the necessity to iterate to find rotor elements, standard network techniques can be
used to find currents, power input to the motor and power output from the motor, torque, etc.

5.1 Solution
Not all of the equivalent circuit elements are known as we start the solution. To start, we assume
a value for R2 , possibly some fraction of Xm , but the value chosen doesn not seem to matter
much. The rotor reactance X2 is just a fraction of R2 . Then, we proceed to compute an “air-gap”
impedance, just the impedance looking into the parallel combination of magnetizing and rotor
branches:
R2
Zg = jXm ||(jX2 + ) (148)
s
(Note that, for a generator, slip s is negative).
A total impedance is then
Zt = jX1 + R1 + Zg (149)
and terminal current is
Vt
It = (150)
Zt
Rotor current is just:
jXm
I2 = It (151)
jX2 + Rs2
Now it is necessary to iteratively correct rotor impedance. This is done by estimating flux
density at the surface of the rotor using (145), then getting a rotor surface impedance using (146)
and using that and (143 to estimate a new value for R2 . Then we start again with (148). The
process “drops through” this point when the new and old estimates for R2 agree to some criterion.

5.2 Harmonic Losses in Solid Steel

If the rotor of the machine is constructed of solid steel, there will be eddy currents induced on the
rotor surface by the higher-order space harmonics of stator current. These will produce magnetic
fields and losses. This calculation assumes the rotor surface is linear and smooth and can be
characterized by a conductivity and relative permeability. In this discussion we include two space
harmonics (positive and negative going). In practice it may be necessary to carry four (or even
more) harmonics, including both ‘belt’ and ‘zigzag’ order harmonics.
Terminal current produces magnetic field in the air-gap for each of the space harmonic orders,
and each of these magnetic fields induces rotor currents of the same harmonic order.
The “magnetizing” reactances for the two harmonic orders, really the two components of the
zigzag leakage, are:

kp2
Xzp = Xm (152)
Np2 k12

31
 kn2
Xzn = Xm (153)
Nn2 k12
where Np and Nn are the positive and negative going harmonic orders: For ‘belt’ harmonics
these orders are 7 and 5. For ‘zigzag’ they are:
Ns + p
Np = (154)
p
Ns − p
Nn = (155)
p
Now, there will be a current on the surface of the rotor at each harmonic order, and following 65,
the equivalent rotor element current is:

π R
I 2p = K (156)
3 Na kp p
π R
I 2n = K (157)
3 Na kn n
These currents flow in response to the magnetic field in the air-gap which in turn produces an
axial electric field. Viewed from the rotor this electric field is:

E p = sp ωRB p (158)
E n = sn ωRB n (159)
where the slip for each of the harmonic orders is:

sp = 1 − Np (1 − s) (160)

sn = 1 + Np (1 − s) (161)
and then the surface currents that flow in the surface of the rotor are:
Ep
Kp = (162)
Zsp

En
Kn = (163)
Zsn
where Zsp and Zsn are the surface impedances at positive and negative harmonic slip frequencies,
respectively. Assuming a linear surface, these are, approximately:
1+j
Zs = (164)
σδ
where σ is material restivity and the skin depth is
s
2
δ= (165)
ωs µσ

32
and ωs is the frequency of the given harmonic from the rotor surface. We can postulate that the
appropriate value of µ to use is the same as that estimated in the nonlinear calculation of the space
fundamental, but this requires empirical confirmation.
The voltage induced in the stator by each of these space harmonic magnetic fluxes is:
2Na kp lRω
Vp = Bp (166)
Np p

2Na kn lRω
Vn = Bn (167)
Nn p
Then the equivalent circuit impedance of the rotor is just:

Vp 3 4 Na2 kp2 l Zsp

Z2p = = (168)
Ip 2 π Np R s p

Vn 3 4 Na2 kn2 l Zsn

Z2n = = (169)
In 2 π Nn R s n
The equivalent rotor circuit elements are now:

3 4 Na2 kp2 l 1
R2p = (170)
2 π Np R σδp
3 4 Na2 kn2 l 1
R2n = (171)
2 π Nn R σδn
1
X2p = R2p (172)
2
1
X2n = R2n (173)
2

5.3 Stray Losses

So far in this document, we have outlined the major elements of torque production and consequently
of machine performance. We have also discussed, in some cases, briefly, the major sources of loss
in induction machines. Using what has been outlined in this document will give a reasonable
impression of how an induction machine works. We have also discussed some of the stray load
losses: those which can be (relatively) easily accounted for in an equivalent circuit description of
the machine. But there are other losses which will occur and which are harder to estimate. We do
not claim to do a particularly accurate job of estimating these losses, and fortunately they do not
normally turn out to be very large. To be accounted for here are:

1. No-load losses in rotor teeth because of stator slot opening modulation of fundamental flux
density,

2. Load losses in the rotor teeth because of stator zigzag mmf, and

3. No-load losses in the solid rotor body (if it exists) due to stator slot opening modulation of
fundamental flux density.

33
Note that these losses have a somewhat different character from the other miscellaneous losses we
compute. They show up as drag on the rotor, so we subtract their power from the mechanical
output of the machine. The first and third of these are, of course, very closely related so we take
them first.
The stator slot openings ‘modulate’ the space fundamental magnetic flux density. We may
estimate a slot opening angle (relative to the slot pitch):
2πwd Ns wd Ns
θD = =
2πr r
Then the amplitude of the magnetic field disturbance is:
2 θD
BH = Br1 sin
π 2
In fact, this flux disturbance is really in the form of two traveling waves, one going forward and one
backward with respect to the stator at a velocity of ω/Ns . Since operating slip is relatively small,
the two variations will have just about the same frequency as viewed from the rotor, so it seems
reasonable to lump them together. The frequency is:
Ns
ωH = ω
p
Now, for laminated rotors this magnetic field modulation will affect the tips of rotor teeth. We
assume (perhaps arbitrarily) that the loss due to this magnetic field modulation can be estimated
from ordinary steel data (as we estimated core loss above) and that only the rotor teeth, not any of
the rotor body, are affected. The method to be used is straightforward and follows almost exactly
what was done for core loss, with modification only of the frequency and field amplitude.
For solid steel rotors the story is only a little different. The magnetic field will produce an axial
electric field:
ω
E z = R BH
p
and that, in turn, will drive a surface current
Ez
Kz =
Zs
√
Now, what is important is the magnitude of the surface current, and since |Z s | = 1 + .52 Rs ≈
1.118Rs , we can simply use rotor resistance. The nonlinear surface penetration depth is:
s
2B0
δ=
ωH σ|K z |

A brief iterative substitution, re-calculating δ and then |K z | quickly yields consistent values for δ
and Rs . Then the full-voltage dissipation is:
|K z |2
Prs = 2πRl
σδ
and an equivalent resistance is:
3|Va |2
Rrs =
Prs

34
 Finally, the zigzag order current harmonics in the stator will produce magnetic fields in the
air gap which will drive magnetic losses in the teeth of the rotor. Note that this is a bit different
from the modulation of the space fundamental produced by the stator slot openings (although the
harmonic order will be the same, the spatial orientation will be different and will vary with load
current). The magnetic flux in the air-gap is most easily related to the equivalent circuit voltage
on the nth harmonic:
npvn
Bn =
2lRNa kn ω
This magnetic field variation will be substantial only for the zigzag order harmonics: the belt
harmonics will be essentially shorted out by the rotor cage and those losses calculated within
the equivalent circuit. The frequency seen by the rotor is that of the space harmonics, already
calculated, and the loss can be estimated in the same way as core loss, although as we have pointed
out it appears as a ‘drag’ on the rotor.

6 Induction Motor Speed Control

6.1 Introduction
The inherent attributes of induction machines make them very attractive for drive applications.
They are rugged, economical to build and have no sliding contacts to wear. The difficulty with
using induction machines in servomechanisms and variable speed drives is that they are “hard to
control”, since their torque-speed relationship is complex and nonlinear. With, however, modern
power electronics to serve as frequency changers and digital electronics to do the required arithmetic,
induction machines are seeing increasing use in drive applications.
In this chapter we develop models for control of induction motors. The derivation is quite brief
for it relies on what we have already done for synchronous machines. In this chapter, however, we
will stay in “ordinary” variables, skipping the per-unit normalization.

6.2 Volts/Hz Control

Remembering that induction machines generally tend to operate at relatively low per unit slip, we
might conclude that one way of building an adjustable speed drive would be to supply an induction
motor with adjustable stator frequency. And this is, indeed, possible. One thing to remember is
that flux is inversely proportional to frequency, so that to maintain constant flux one must make
stator voltage proportional to frequency (hence the name “constant volts/Hz”). However, voltage
supplies are always limited, so that at some frequency it is necessary to switch to constant voltage
control. The analogy to DC machines is fairly direct here: below some “base” speed, the machine
is controlled in constant flux (“volts/Hz”) mode, while above the base speed, flux is inversely
proportional to speed. It is easy to see that the maximum torque is then inversely to the square of
flux, or therefore to the square of frequency.
To get a first-order picture of how an induction machine works at adjustable speed, start with
the simplified equivalent network that describes the machine, as shown in Figure 12
Earlier in this chapter, it was shown that torque can be calculated by finding the power dissi-
pated in the virtual resistance R2 /s and dividing by electrical speed. For a three phase machine,
and assuming we are dealing with RMS magnitudes:

35
 a Ra
I- X1 X2 I2
∧∧∧
∨∨
∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ 
⊃ <
⊃ Xm <> R2
⊃ >
< s
⊃

Figure 12: Equivalent Circuit

p R2
Te = 3 |I2 |2
ω s
where ω is the electrical frequency and p is the number of pole pairs. It is straightforward to find
I2 using network techniques. As an example, Figure 13 shows a series of torque/speed curves for
an induction machine operated with a wide range of input frequencies, both below and above its
“base” frequency. The parameters of this machine are:
Number of Phases 3
Number of Pole Pairs 3
RMS Terminal Voltage (line-line) 230
Frequency (Hz) 60
Stator Resistance R1 .06 Ω
Rotor Resistance R2 .055 Ω
Stator Leakage X1 .34 Ω
Rotor Leakage X2 .33 Ω
Magnetizing Reactance Xm 10.6 Ω
Strategy for operating the machine is to make terminal voltage magnitude proportional to frequency
for input frequencies less than the “Base Frequency”, in this case 60 Hz, and to hold voltage constant
for frequencies above the “Base Frequency”.
For high frequencies the torque production falls fairly rapidly with frequency (as it turns out,
it is roughly proportional to the inverse of the square of frequency). It also falls with very low
frequency because of the effects of terminal resistance. We will look at this next.

6.3 Idealized Model: No Stator Resistance

Ignore, for the moment, R1 . An equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 14. It is fairly easy to show
that, from the rotor, the combination of source, armature leakage and magnetizing branch can be
replaced by its equivalent circuit, as shown in in Figure 15.
In the circuit of Figure 15, the parameters are:
Xm
V′ = V
Xm + X1
X′ = Xm ||X1

36
 Induction Motor Torque

250

200

150

N−m
100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed, RPM

Figure 13: Induction Machine Torque-Speed Curves

a X1
I- X2 I2
∩∩∩∩
∩∩∩∩ 

+ ⊃ <
⊃ Xm <> R2
− V ⊃
 ⊃ <> s

Figure 14: Idealized Circuit: Ignore Armature Resistance

If the machine is operated at variable frequency ω, but the reactance is established at frequency
ωB , current is:

V′
I= R2
j(X1′ + X2 ) ωωB + s

and then torque is

R2 3p |V ′ |2 Rs2
Te = 3|I2 |2 =
s ω (X1′ + X2 )2 + ( Rs2 )2
Now, if we note that what counts is the absolute slip of the rotor, we might define a slip with
respect to base frequency:
ωr ωr ωB ωB
s= = = sB
ω ωB ω ω

37
 I-
a
X1′ X2 I2
∩∩∩∩ ∩∩∩∩ 

+ <>
V′ <> R2
 < s
−

Figure 15: Idealized Equivalent

Then, if we assume that voltage is applied proportional to frequency:

ω
V ′ = V0′
ωB
and with a little manipulation, we get:

3p |V0′ |2 R2
sB
Te =
ωB (X1′ + X2 )2 + ( R2 2
s ) B

This would imply that torque is, if voltage is proportional to frequency, meaning constant applied
flux, dependent only on absolute slip. The torque-speed curve is a constant, dependent only on the
difference between synchronous and actual rotor speed.
This is fine, but eventually, the notion of “volts per Hz” runs out because at some number of
Hz, there are no more volts to be had. This is generally taken to be the “base” speed for the drive.
Above that speed, voltage is held constant, and torque is given by:

3p |V ′ |2 R2
sB
Te =
ωB (X1′ + X2 )2 + ( R2 2
sB )

The peak of this torque has a square-inverse dependence on frequency, as can be seen from Figure 16.

6.4 Peak Torque Capability

Assuming we have a smart controller, we are interested in the actual capability of the machine. At
some voltage and frequency, torque is given by:

R2 3 ωp |V ′ |2 Rs2
Te = 3|I2 |2 = R2 2
s ((X1′ + X2 )( ωωB ))2 + (R1′ + s )

Now, we are interested in finding the peak value of that, which is given by the value of R2 s which
maximizes power transfer to the virtual resistance. This is given by the matching condition:
R2 ω 2
r
= R1′2 + ((X1′ + X2 )( ))
s ωB

38
 Induction Motor Torque

250

200

N−m
150

100

50

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Speed, RPM

Figure 16: Idealized Torque-Speed Curves: Zero Stator Resistance

Then maximum (breakdown) torque is given by:

q
3p ′ 2
ω |V | R1′2 + ((X1′ + X2 )( ωωB ))2
Tmax = q
((X1′ + X2 )( ωωB ))2 + (R1′ + R1′2 + ((X1′ + X2 )( ωωB ))2 )2
This is plotted in Figure 17. Just as a check, this was calculated assuming R1 = 0, and the
results are plotted in figure 18. This plot shows, as one would expect, a constant torque limit region
to zero speed.

6.5 Field Oriented Control

One of the more useful impacts of modern power electronics and control technology has enabled
us to turn induction machines into high performance servomotors. In this note we will develop a
picture of how this is done. Quite obviously there are many details which we will not touch here.
The objective is to emulate the performance of a DC machine, in which (as you will recall), torque
is a simple function of applied current. For a machine with one field winding, this is simply:
T = GIf Ia
This makes control of such a machine quite easy, for once the desired torque is known it is easy to
translate that torque command into a current and the motor does the rest.
Of course DC (commutator) machines are, at least in large sizes, expensive, not particularly
efficient, have relatively high maintenance requirements because of the sliding brush/commutator
interface, provide environmental problems because of sparking and carbon dust and are environ-
mentally sensitive. The induction motor is simpler and more rugged. Until fairly recently the
induction motor has not been widely used in servo applications because it was thought to be ”hard
to control”. As we will show, it does take a little effort and even some computation to do the
controls right, but this is becoming increasingly affordable.

39
 Breakdown Torque
300

250

200

Newton−Meters
150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Drive Frequency, Hz

Figure 17: Torque-Capability Curve For An Induction Motor

6.6 Elementary Model:

We return to the elementary model of the induction motor. In ordinary variables, referred to the
stator, the machine is described by flux-current relationships (in the d-q reference frame):
" # " #" #
λdS LS M idS
=
λdR M LR idR
" # " #" #
λqS LS M iqS
=
λqR M LR iqR

Note the machine is symmetric (there is no saliency), and since we are referred to the stator,
the stator and rotor self-inductances include leakage terms:

LS = M + LSℓ
LR = M + LRℓ

The voltage equations are:

dλdS
vdS = − ωλqS + rS idS
dt
dλqS
vqS = + ωλdS + rS iqS
dt
dλdR
0 = − ωs λqR + rR idR
dt
dλqR
0 = + ωs λdR + rR iqR
dt

40
 Breakdown Torque
300

250

Newton−Meters
200

150

100

50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Drive Frequency, Hz

Figure 18: Idealized Torque Capability Curve: Zero Stator Resistance

Note that both rotor and stator have “speed” voltage terms since they are both rotating with
respect to the rotating coordinate system. The speed of the rotating coordinate system is w with
respect to the stator. With respect to the rotor that speed is , where wm is the rotor mechanical
speed. Note that this analysis does not require that the reference frame coordinate system speed
w be constant.
Torque is given by:
3
T e = p (λdS iqS − λqS idS )
2

6.7 Simulation Model

As a first step in developing a simulation model, see that the inversion of the flux-current relation-
ship is (we use the d- axis since the q- axis is identical):

LR M
idS = λdS − λdR
LS LR − M 2 LS LR − M 2
M LS
idR = λdS − λdR
LS LR − M 2 LS LR − M 2

Now, if we make the following definitions (the motivation for this should by now be obvious):

Xd = ω0 LS
Xkd = ω0 LR
Xad = ω0 M
!
M2
Xd′ = ω0 LS −
LR

41
the currents become:
ω0 Xad ω0
idS = ′ λdS − λdR
Xd Xkd Xd′
Xad ω0 Xd ω0
idR = λdS − ′ λdR
Xkd Xd′ Xd Xkd
The q- axis is the same.
Torque may be, with these calculations for current, written as:
3 3 ω0 Xad
Te = p (λdS iqS − λqS idS ) = − p (λdS λqR − λqS λdR )
2 2 Xkd Xd′
Note that the usual problems with ordinary variables hold here: the foregoing expression was
written assuming the variables are expressed as peak quantities. If RMS is used we must replace
3/2 by 3!
With these, the simulation model is quite straightforward. The state equations are:
dλdS
= VdS + ωλqS − RS idS
dt
dλqS
= VqS − ωλdS − RS iqS
dt
dλdR
= ωs λqR − RR idR
dt
dλqR
= −ωs λdR − RS iqR
dt
dΩm 1
= (Te + Tm )
dt J
where the rotor frequency (slip frequency) is:
ωs = ω − pΩm
For simple simulations and constant excitaion frequency, the choice of coordinate systems is
arbitrary, so we can choose something convenient. For example, we might choose to fix the coordi-
nate system to a synchronously rotating frame, so that stator frequency ω = ω0 . In this case, we
could pick the stator voltage to lie on one axis or another. A common choice is Vd = 0 and Vq = V .

6.8 Control Model

If we are going to turn the machine into a servomotor, we will want to be a bit more sophisticated
about our coordinate system. In general, the principle of field-oriented control is much like emu-
lating the function of a DC (commutator) machine. We figure out where the flux is, then inject
current to interact most directly with the flux.
As a first step, note that because the two stator flux linkages are the sum of air-gap and leakage
flux,
λdS = λagd + LSℓ idS
λqS = λagq + LSℓ iqS

42
 This means that we can re-write torque as:
3
T e = p (λagd iqS − λagq idS )
2
Next, note that the rotor flux is, similarly, related to air-gap flux:

λagd = λdR − LRℓ idR

λagq = λqR − LRℓ iqR

Torque now becomes:

3 3
T e = p (λdR iqS − λqR idS ) − pLRℓ (idR iqS − iqR idS )
2 2
Now, since the rotor currents could be written as:
λdR M
idR = − idS
LR LR
λqR M
iqR = − iqS
LR LR
That second term can be written as:
1
idR iqS − iqR idS = (λdR iqS − λqR idS )
LR
So that torque is now:
3 LRℓ 3 M
 
e
T = p 1− (λdR iqS − λqR idS ) = p (λdR iqS − λqR idS )
2 LR 2 LR

6.9 Field-Oriented Strategy:

What is done in field-oriented control is to establish a rotor flux in a known position (usually this
position is the d- axis of the transformation) and then put a current on the orthogonal axis (where
it will be most effective in producing torque). That is, we will attempt to set

λdR = Λ0
λqR = 0

Then torque is produced by applying quadrature-axis current:

3 M
Te = p Λ0 iqS
2 LR
The process is almost that simple. There are a few details involved in figuring out where the
quadrature axis is and how hard to drive the direct axis (magnetizing) current.

43
 Now, suppose we can succeed in putting flux on the right axis, so that λqR = 0, then the two
rotor voltage equations are:
dλdR
0 = − ωs λqR + rR IdR
dt
dλqR
0 = + ωs λdR + rR IqR
dt
Now, since the rotor currents are:
λdR M
idR = − idS
LR LR
λqR M
iqR = − iqS
LR LR
The voltage expressions become, accounting for the fact that there is no rotor quadrature axis
flux:
dλdR λdR M
 
0 = + rR − idS
dt LR LR
M
0 = ωs λdR − rR iqS
LR
Noting that the rotor time constant is
LR
TR =
rR
we find:
dλdR
TR + λdR = M idS
dt
M iqS
ωs =
TR λdR
The first of these two expressions describes the behavior of the direct-axis flux: as one would
think, it has a simple first-order relationship with direct-axis stator current. The second expression,
which describes slip as a function of quadrature axis current and direct axis flux, actually describes
how fast to turn the rotating coordinate system to hold flux on the direct axis.
Now, a real machine application involves phase currents ia , ib and ic , and these must be derived
from the model currents idS and iqs . This is done with, of course, a mathematical operation which
uses a transformation angle θ. And that angle is derived from the rotor mechanical speed and
computed slip: Z
θ= (pωm + ωs ) dt

A generally good strategy to make this sort of system work is to measure the three phase currents
and derive the direct- and quadrature-axis currents from them. A good estimate of direct-axis flux is
made by running direct-axis flux through a first-order filter. The tricky operation involves dividing
quadrature axis current by direct axis flux to get slip, but this is now easily done numerically (as

44
 θ

λdR
D M
ωS 1 + STa
÷D
N÷ T
M
N TR
i a* ia
i * o
d
-1 ib* ib Motor
T Amp o
Load
i q* ic
* o
i
ωm
c

θ
∫ Σ

Figure 19: Field Oriented Controller

are the trigonometric operations required for the rotating coordinate system transformation). An
elmentary block diagram of a (possbly) plausible scheme for this is shown in Figure 19.
In this picture we start with commanded values of direct- and quadrature- axis currents, corre-
sponding to flux and torque, respectively. These are translated by a rotating coordinate transfor-
mation into commanded phase currents. That transformation (simply the inverse Park’s transform)
uses the angle q derived as part of the scheme. In some (cheap) implementations of this scheme
the commanded currents are used rather than the measured currents to establish the flux and slip.
We have shown the commanded currents i∗a , etc. as inputs to an “Amplifier”. This might be
implemented as a PWM current-source, for example, and a tight loop here results in a rather high
performance servo system.

References
[1] P.L. Alger, “Induction Machines”, Gordon and Breach, 1969

[2] A.E. Fitzgerals, C. Kingsley Jr., S.D. Umans, ”Electric Machinery”, Sixth Edition, McGraw
Hill, 2003

45
[3] D. Fink, H. W. Beaty, ”Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Thirteenth Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1993

46
 r1 x1
∧∧∧
∨∨
∩∩∩∩
⊃ ⊃
⊃ jx2s ⊃ jx2c
⊃ ⊃
⊃ <> ⊃ ⊃ ⊃
⊃ jxag < rc ⊃ xc
⊃ <>
⊃
⊃ ⊃ <> r <> r
< s2s < s2c
<> <>

⊃ ⊃
⊃ jx2s5 ⊃ jx2c5
⊃ ⊃
⊃ ⊃ ⊃
⊃ jxa5
⊃
⊃ < r < r
<> s
2s5
<> s
2c5
<> 5 <> 5

⊃ ⊃
⊃ jx2s7 ⊃ jx2c7
⊃ ⊃
⊃ ⊃ ⊃
⊃ jxa7
⊃
⊃ <> r <> r
< s2s7 < s2c7
<> 7 <> 7

⊃ ⊃
⊃ jx2sm ⊃ jx2cm
⊃ ⊃
⊃ ⊃ ⊃
⊃ jxam
⊃
⊃ <> r <> r
<> s2sm <> s2cm
m m
< <

⊃ ⊃
⊃ jx2sp ⊃ jx2cp
⊃ ⊃
⊃ ⊃ ⊃
⊃ jxap
⊃
⊃ <> r2sp <> r2cp
<> s <> s
p p
< <

Figure 20: Extended Equivalent Circuit

47