Lb170 17j Resource Book 1
Lb170 17j Resource Book 1
Lb170 17j Resource Book 1
Handbook for
1 Business
Communication
Prepared for the module team by
Prithvi Shrestha
This publication forms part of the Open University module LB170 Communication skills for business and management.
Details of this and other Open University modules can be obtained from Student Recruitment, The Open University, PO
Box 197, Milton Keynes MK7 6BJ, United Kingdom (tel. +44 (0)300 303 5303; email [email protected]).
Alternatively, you may visit the Open University website at www.open.ac.uk where you can learn more about the wide
range of modules and packs offered at all levels by The Open University.
Glossary 116
Acknowledgements 129
Introduction
Introduction
LB170 Communication skills for business and management is designed to
develop your language as well as written and spoken communication skills,
both on university business courses and in the workplace. It is an interactive
online module accompanied by two books: Book 1: Handbook for Business
Communication and Book 2: Readings, Models and Frameworks.
Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication contains a range of useful
tips and advice taken from the module’s online material, as well as an
extensive glossary of the key business concepts and technical terminology
used in the module. The book focuses on the core communication skills of
reading, writing, speaking and listening, and also includes sections on
grammar and vocabulary for business purposes.
As well as serving as a handbook while you study LB170, it will act as a
useful reference book and guide for your future studies and workplace
communication needs.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
‘Purpose’ and ‘audience’ . being aware of the purpose of the communication, e.g. know why the
are defined in the communication is taking place and what the goals are
Glossary.
. being clear, organised and in control of the information relevant to the
topic
. being well prepared by having read and extracted the key points of any
briefs, reports or other documents
. expressing yourself succinctly and well in formal writing
. knowing what the conventions are for the kind of communication you
are making
. controlling the technology you are using for communicating
. considering who your audience are, what they know already and what
they need to know
. being inclusive
. working on your language skills so that they are ready for the world of
business
. building your communication skills and confidence.
All of this means developing and working on your language and skills,
ensuring they are ready for the world of business. It means building up a
specialist vocabulary and practising writing and speaking in a range of
business situations so that you build your communication skills and
confidence when interacting in the workplace and at university. It means
building your awareness of the purposes and conventions for
communicating in certain contexts and with certain audiences, to enable you
to respond flexibly and effectively and with confidence to the situations you
find yourself in.
8
Chapter 1: Communication skills
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
10
Chapter 2: Reading strategies for business and management
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. Write notes somewhere else, not on the text, and if possible, draw mind
maps.
. Produce a summary.
. Note down thoughts about what you have read.
. Note down the source of the text.
You can use these reading strategies to make your reading of texts effective.
You may also have your own reading strategies.
12
Chapter 3: Making notes
At work
. To prepare for a meeting.
‘Summarising’ is defined . To summarise a document for colleagues.
in the Glossary.
. To record the main ideas from a document for yourself.
. To gather information in preparation for writing a report or delivering a
presentation.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Introduction
Cafédirect warn environmental crisis threatening coffee production.
Shortages → soaring prices, declining quality.
Urgent action needed: support smallholder coffee farmers who produce
¾ of all coffee.
Impact of climate change = flooding, drought, pests and crop disease.
Some parts of world soon unsuitable for coffee production.
Paragraphs 4 and 5
Cafédirect: new report – Coffee Climate Crisis: environmental issue
affecting 6,000 smallholder farmers in Peru.
Torrential rain washing away soil, destroying crops, damaging
infrastructure.
CD set up unique sustainability programme = reforestation funding by
carbon trading.
Rest of text
Nicola Pearson, Commercial Director: details of one case study: co-
operative in Peru finding new ways to adapt to climate change.
Need for more action: coffee drinkers should only buy responsible
brands and invest in future for farmers.
14
Chapter 3: Making notes
Symbol Meaning
= equals (or means)
→ causes
+ plus (or also)
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Abbreviation Meaning
i.e. that is
e.g. for example
SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
STEEPLE social, technological, economic, environmental, political,
legal and ethical
. Be clear what you need the information for, i.e. your purpose.
. Use the title, introduction, conclusion and first sentence of each
paragraph to find out what the text is about.
. Consider what type of text you are reading and how the text is
organised. For example, business reports, academic papers, press
releases and newspaper articles all organise information in different
ways.
. Remember that most paragraphs make one main point, which tends to be
found at the beginning of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph
expands on this point and provides more details.
. Look for key words relating to the main topic.
. Ignore examples and details which are NOT main points.
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Chapter 4: Analysing business case studies
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. The high quality of products has led to a very strong customer base …
. As a result of recently updated software systems, … , customers are able
to purchase items which may not be in stock in that particular store …
. The benefit of having a low staff turnover means that operations … can
be processed quickly and efficiently as staff knowledge … is extensive.
Table 4.1 shows some possible ways of converting source text into bullet
point / noun phrases for a SWOT analysis. This example is taken from the
case study on Brompton Bicycle.
Table 4.1 An example of source text converted into noun phrases for a
SWOT analysis
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Chapter 4: Analysing business case studies
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Brompton’s strengths include the fact that the 'Brompton’s strengths include' is a
company is debt free and is seen as having the best useful way to introduce the paragraph
folding bike on the market which is viewed by customers on strengths and provides a starting
as a quality product. The refined manufacturing point for the general to specific
processes, engineering focus and attention to detail organisation.
within Brompton has allowed the company to create a
niche product. Another strength Brompton possesses This signpost ('another strength')
is the aftercare revenue it is able to generate though introduces a further different item on
spares and servicing; this ensures quality control and the list of strengths.
continues to keep a strong relationship with its
customers post sale. Because Brompton’s customers
are responsible for word of mouth marketing, the
relationship with their customers is one of their key
strengths and one which Brompton can rely on for
promoting and providing increased credibility of the
brand.
Although Brompton has many strengths, it also The use of the word 'although' is a
has weaknesses. The main weakness is that the signpost that shows the reader that the
company is not growing in line with the rest of the writer is moving on to a different theme
market. The market has grown 20 – 25% year on year (weaknesses), contrasting with the
and Brompton has been unable to match this rise. theme of the paragraph above. The
This growth has been constrained by inefficient phrase ‘The main weakness’ indicates
production methods and the inability to produce the organisation of the text will move
enough bikes to meet consumer demand. Being from most to least important.
based in London makes production more expensive
as staff costs are high here and, as Brompton is The use of the word ‘This’ in the phrase
unwilling to relocate, this will continue to be a ‘This growth’ is a signpost back to the
weakness in future. Finally, the issue of patent expiry previous sentence. It means that the
has not been addressed and there appears to be little writer is talking specifically about the
research and development into future products and ‘growing’ mentioned previously.
services taking place. Brompton relies on traditional
engineering methods and is not looking to the future The use of the word ‘Finally’ to introduce
with how it can innovate further to develop products to the last sentence of the paragraph, shows
meet the demands of customers and improvements to readers that this is the last area of
its production methods. weakness the writer will address.
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Chapter 4: Analysing business case studies
Although Brompton has weaknesses, there are The word ‘Although’ is used again to
opportunities for this company. Growth in provide contrast with the theme of the
international markets provides a real opportunity to previous paragraph.
expand Brompton’s sales overseas where already 70%
of the firm’s revenue is generated. Currently The word ‘Currently’ signals that the
Brompton’s enthusiasts provide a good source of existing situation will be described and
word of mouth advertising, however, if this were then this is contrasted with possible
channelled into a more structured approach the brand improvements with the word ‘however’.
could reach a much wider audience.
Brompton must also consider its threats. The word ‘also’ signals a new theme
Competition from many other bike manufacturers and a move away from the focus on
threatens Brompton’s existing market share and future opportunities.
growth potential. Competitors are investing heavily in
research and development and their products are
improving all the time, which means that there is the
threat that not only could another manufacturer undercut
Brompton on price, but they could also design a product
that is of equal quality. As Brompton only sells bicycle The word ‘As’ here and later in the
products, it is impacted by seasonal demand and same sentence signal a cause. It
this is a threat as revenue is not consistent throughout means the same as ‘because’.
the year.
In conclusion, Brompton needs to take advantage of the The phrase ‘In conclusion’ shows the
opportunities in front of it. There is an opportunity for reader that this paragraph will draw the
international growth, however, this needs to be managed text to a close by summarising the
correctly. With this in mind, it would be prudent to recruit situation and providing
the experience of a director for international growth to recommendations.
help focus and manage this expansion. Brompton needs
to agree a research and development budget to improve
quality and further refine manufacturing processes.
Developing an online presence through blogs and web
sites could help increase Brompton’s marketing ability
and provide a conduit for sales through ecommerce.
References:
Smith, P. (2008) 'Bike maker prepares to step up a gear:
Brompton wants to keep up with the competition without
its folding bicycles losing their uniqueness', The Daily
Telegraph, 1 April, p. 11.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
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Chapter 4: Analysing business case studies
At a simple level:
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
As a result of
Cause Linking word(s) Effect
There is a recession. Therefore, there has been a downturn
Consequently, in high-street sales.
References
Boyd, M. (2008) TMA 02, submitted to The Open University as part of
LB160 assessment.
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Chapter 5: Finding and evaluating sources
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Figure 5.2 Using Google Search tools to limit search for ‘Samsung annual report’
. Check the date of anything you read. Make sure it is still current for the
purposes of your presentation.
. Make sure you write down the reference for any material you are using.
Your references should appear at the end of your presentation or report.
You need to record: the name of the author (if available), the title of the
document, the full web address, the date the information was posted to
the internet and date you accessed it. A person reading the reference
should be able to easily find the document you accessed from the
information you give.
. Avoid assignment-writing websites, which are common. If you fall into
the trap of using and copying material from them, you are making a
serious breach of the University’s guidelines on academic honesty, the
consequences of which are severe.
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Chapter 5: Finding and evaluating sources
judging the quality and relevance of information you find on the web is to
ask: Who? Why? When?
. Who put the information there (who owns the site)? What authority or
expertise do they have in this area?
. Why did they create the site? Do the stated aims of the site match the
content? Is the person or organisation who created the site coming from
a particular viewpoint?
. When was the site last updated? If the site has not been updated for a
while, how important is this for your needs?
These questions will help you to see if there might be an issue with bias or
lack of credibility. Here is a further example to illustrate this point.
Let’s return to our search for information about Samsung Electronics. You
can find out if a source will be useful by skimming the results page and
identifying the source of the website (see Figure 5.3):
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
References
The Open University (2012) PROMPT checklist [Online], Milton Keynes,
The Open University. Available at http://www.open.ac.uk/libraryservices/
beingdigital/objects/87/index.htm (Accessed 12 October 2017).
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Chapter 6: Analysing problems and proposing solutions
Patricia: ‘I should have delivered the final version of the sales accounts
today. First Jon stopped by my desk to chat and then Marta and Ronke
were having a long discussion over the photocopier. Then William had
a very long telephone call to our clients in Hong Kong and now I need
to talk to him myself.’
The problem may be that there are distractions in the open-plan office or it
may be that Patricia’s time-management skills are the issue.
Problems are a matter of perception. One person may perceive a situation as
a problem while someone else may be quite satisfied with the same
situation. For example, whereas one person might struggle with the
increased pressures of a new job, another person in a similar situation might
thrive on the same challenges.
It is important to understand who considers these situations to be
problematic. A case study text may present a problematic situation from a
single point of view – that of the company director, perhaps, or a particular
group of employees, for example. Alternatively, it may present a number of
‘Stakeholder’ is defined problems, each perceived by a different group of stakeholders as shown in
in the Glossary. Figure 6.1.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Writing case study analyses will require you to look in from the outside and
apply a combination of insights and business and management concepts and
tools to assess the problematic aspects of a business situation.
Presto Pizza
Presto, a pizza delivery company, is expanding rapidly.
However, the pizzas are often cold by the time they are delivered and
customers complain about this.
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Chapter 6: Analysing problems and proposing solutions
Figure 6.2 shows the five basic questions you can ask about the structure of
a simple problem–solution text.
The first question asks about the initial situation. This looks promising for
Presto. The company is expanding rapidly. However, there seems to be a
problem. The pizzas are often cold by the time customers receive them. In
order to solve the problem, the company investigates it further. It decides
that the cold pizzas are caused by a shortage of delivery riders. This is the
problem that the company has identified. The company proposes a solution
– to recruit more riders. The evaluation of the solution is not presented in
the Presto Pizza case study.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
An accountant finds that the constant noise of the new open-plan office
makes it impossible for her to concentrate on her work.
A middle manager feels undervalued and demotivated after several
years in the same job with little prospect of promotion ahead.
The threat of redundancy is causing great anxiety among unskilled
workers in a distribution warehouse.
All these words and phrases suggest a negative, difficult or challenging
situation for those involved. Often these words and phrases relate to verb
phrases (the process of doing something, e.g. ‘struggling’) or noun phrases
(concrete and abstract things, e.g. ‘increased pressure’) that are describing
the situation not being satisfactory for the people involved. They help to
indicate the attitudes of the people involved and/or the attitude of the writer
to the problem but they are not always firm evidence on which to base your
analysis.
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Chapter 6: Analysing problems and proposing solutions
I would expand the product range and look into possibilities for
diversification utilising existing alliances, for example; with Provide
Commerce and also the web-based greetings card business.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
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Chapter 6: Analysing problems and proposing solutions
References
Cobos, J. G. (2012) B120 EMA, submitted to The Open University as part of
B120 assessment.
Lowe, G. (2012) B120 EMA, submitted to The Open University as part of B120
assessment.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Overall design
You can use a range of design options in your slides depending on the
audience, content and purpose. You may wish to use an organisation logo
and style for presentations. This approach, like using a letter heading or
brand, allows you to standardise presentations with the professional look
and feel of a particular organisation. Some organisations use a colour
scheme of the brand and a ‘style sheet’ to make sure that all presentations
retain the same professional and standard look and feel. You may wish to
explore your organisation to find out if there is a standard design handbook
which gives you slides, letter heads, email standards etc. which you must
use when communicating with both external and internal people.
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Chapter 7: Presentation skills
Use of images
Slides without any images quickly become boring so it is a good idea to use
them, but be sparing. Images should always be relevant to the message and
add to the impact of the narration from the speaker. Remember that any
images used to illustrate your slides should be acknowledged and
referenced.
Organisation of information
The information should be organised in a way that supports your talk. This
usually means grouping it into clear sections with headings and organising
it so that you start with general points and move on to more specific ones
later.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Further comments
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Chapter 7: Presentation skills
Pronouncing clearly
Use intonation and sentence stress. This means putting a stronger emphasis
on some words and making your voice go up in tone when expressing key
information.
Intonation is the way your voice goes up and down as you speak. Lack of
intonation leads to a monotonous sounding presentation and can be boring
for the audience.
Too much intonation can make you sound over-excited and even patronizing
– so be careful.
Sentence stress is the way you put a stronger accent on the words you want
to highlight. It works together with intonation, because a stressed word
requires a slight rise in intonation.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
Use of notes
Most presenters need to use notes. In fact, it is inadvisable to memorise a
presentation as this usually makes you speak too fast. Notes should be
unobtrusive and in a format that suits you. They should be short bullet
points and not contain the full text that you want to say as this often leads
to monotonous delivery.
Use of questions
Asking your audience questions can be engaging; they bring the audience in
and get them thinking. It is a good technique for experienced presenters, but
can be awkward to manage as the audience sometimes respond and this can
disturb the flow or the timing of the presentation.
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Chapter 7: Presentation skills
Timing
Timing dictates the amount of information you can include. It often means
that you can only make a few succinct well-chosen points.
Use of introduction
Think about whether your audience need a brief overview of your talk and
what key background information they need at the start. Think about how
you will grab their attention.
Use of conclusion
Consider the purpose of your conclusion. Will you use it to summarise the
talk or will you use it to make recommendations? What do the audience
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
need to hear at this point? If your presentation is a persuasive one, how will
you make the conclusion memorable?
Greetings
Good morning/afternoon everyone
Giving examples
For example …
To illustrate my point …
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Chapter 7: Presentation skills
Commenting on visuals
I’d like us to look at …
This is significant because …
Restating/repeating
In other words, …
Summarising
To summarise what I’ve said so far, …
Concluding
In conclusion, …
To conclude, …
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. In the introduction, explain how you are doing your analysis: for
example, ‘the report will begin by discussing …’
. Explain degrees of possibility: for example, ‘It is possible that ...’
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Chapter 8: Structuring a report
These are simple ways of helping the reader follow your arguments and
understand your reasoning.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
8.3 Referencing
As you have seen, the information in a case study can come from various
source materials, including business texts, newspaper reports, company
announcements, business analyst reports, shareholders’ comments and
people or organisations. If you are using information from a source text as
evidence, or you are using a concept from a business studies module to
explain your analysis, your tutor or manager would expect to see where the
information comes from. This proves that you are writing objectively and
that you are not plagiarising by not acknowledging your sources.
‘Referencing’ is defined Referencing is an important part of academic studies generally and is
in the Glossary. especially important in essay and report writing at university. References are
commonly used in assignments, including business reports. There are three
main reasons for listing references.
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Chapter 8: Structuring a report
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
◦ Start with some comments on the good aspects of the work. Make
these comments specific. Don’t just say ‘it’s really good’. Say
‘the way you expressed the main points of the introduction was
very clear and concise. I can see why you left out the bit about
… because it is not central to the text.’
◦ Choose one or two things that could be improved and give
specific advice, e.g. do not just say ‘it was a bit disorganised’,
explain why. For example, say: ‘when you put the point about …
after the point about … it seemed like a big jump from one piece
of information to the other, so I felt a bit lost at that point’.
◦ Respond to any requests for specific feedback on particular
aspects.
◦ Be constructive: this is not about judging but about helping
someone to improve, which means offering advice, such as ‘if
you moved the third point you made into second place, it might
flow a bit better, because the topic is very closely linked to the
first point you made’.
◦ Don’t overload someone with feedback. Consider what the other
person is capable of and be realistic with the volume of
suggestions they can take on board.
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Chapter 9: Peer and tutor feedback
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. Have a quick look at your score. You may have an emotional reaction
depending on your score, which is perfectly normal. To allow you to
view the feedback more objectively, leave your TMA for a day.
. When ready, spend about 30 minutes looking over the TMA in detail.
. Note the main points made by the tutor.
. Read the specific comments made in the assignment itself. Do you
understand them? If not, ask your tutor for clarification.
. Write down one or two key points that will help your writing in the next
TMA.
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Chapter 10: Reflection
. What happened?
. How did it go?
. What next?
. You can explain what you have learned and recognise how your skills
have developed. This is particularly useful for future situations such as
job interviews where you might have to talk about what skills you have
and the things you have done to develop them.
. You can recognise things about the way you learn and adopt strategies to
improve your future learning. For example, you may discover that when
making notes it really helped you to use some kind of visual notation as
well as text. You can put this into practice the next time you do a
similar activity, or you may discover that when a reading text is difficult
you give up very easily. However, one of the new reading strategies you
have learned may have shown you a useful thing to try when you are
tempted to give up. By noting down these things you can form your
learning into a more controlled process.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. You can notice gaps in your learning. For example, you may realise that
you have never learned about sentence structure and that this in
particular is creating a challenge in your writing. This can help you to
seek out activities and resources which will address this gap.
. You can stand back from learning experiences and see them in a more
positive light. For example, you can notice mistakes that you have made,
but instead of feeling discouraged you can think of ways to learn from
them.
. You can seek feedback and support. If you find, through reflection, that
you are really struggling with a certain aspect of learning, you can take
action and ask your tutor for advice. You can also find a range of
information and support at the Student Help Centre.
. You can become an independent learner. You can take full responsibility
for your learning and approach it in a strategic way.
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Chapter 10: Reflection
STEP 1
Is to describe the experience itself.
It Involves a brief description of
what happened.
Concrete
experience
STEP 1 STEP 2
Is to observe and reflect on the
experience while it happened or just
afterwards. It includes noting down
your feelings and judgements about
the experience.
Action and Observation
experimentation and reflection
STEP 4 STEP 2
STEP 3
Is to stand back from the experience
and look at it more objectively and
analytically. This is where you might
think of an experience at a more
abstract level and think through
Objective strategies for next time.
evaluation
STEP 3
STEP 4
Is where you decide to try out
what you have learned in a new
learning experience.
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LB170 Book 1: Handbook for Business Communication
. think
. believe
. judge
. feel
. conclude
. consider.
. Slang phrases or idioms, e.g. ‘divvy up’ or ‘pulling things out of a text’.
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Chapter 10: Reflection
. Chatty sentence structure that sounds as if you are speaking. Usually this
leads to long rambling sentences where the main point is lost. Stay
concise and use more nouns instead of verbs, e.g. it is much better to
say ‘my willingness to improve’ rather than ‘me being up for learning’;
it is also better to say ‘expert opinions’ instead of ‘people who know
quite a bit’.
. Contractions. This means that you should use the full form when words
are combined. For example, use ‘I have’ or ‘I do not’ instead of ‘I’ve’
or ‘I don’t’.
. Abbreviations. This means avoiding using the short version of a word,
such as ‘re’ instead of ‘regarding’ or signs such as ‘+’ instead of ‘in
addition to’.
. Dramatic or emotional language. This means using more restrained
adjectives when describing things. So, rather than using words like
‘great’ or ‘fantastic’, it is preferable to use words like ‘good’,
‘effective’, or ‘useful’. Avoid the word ‘really’ when describing. It is
better to use ‘very’.
It is a good idea to start a document or notebook to note down useful
formal language to use in your writing if this is an area you find
challenging. Developing a formal style is a bit like learning a new language.
Of the six topics covered in this module, I felt confident with the content
of the topic Leadership, management and motivation. I found that the
concepts and models discussed were easier to understand and relate
back to my workplace. I was naturally interested in this area as this is
the role I have within my workplace and felt that this topic could
develop on skills and knowledge I had already had within this area. I
found this topic interesting and worked through this at an easy pace.
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Chapter 10: Reflection
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58
Chapter 10: Reflection
. How does your reflection indicate that you are reporting on something
you were involved in or observed?
. How does your reflection show your knowledge of LB170? For example,
have you made any reference to LB170 materials and tutorials?
. How does your reflection relate to your personal experience?
. How does your reflection explain why something happened the way it
did?
. How does your reflection evaluate things or incidents you observed or
experienced?
. How does your reflection show that you are thinking to the future and
the application of your new knowledge?
(Adapted from Ryan, 2011, p. 108)
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References
Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning Development, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning
methods, Oxford, Further Education Unit, Oxford Polytechnic.
Ryan, M. (2011) ‘Improving reflective writing in higher education: a social
semiotic perspective’, Teaching in Higher Education, vol. 16, no. 1,
pp. 99–111.
Parkes-Winters, P. (2014) TMA 01, submitted to The Open University as
part of B121 assessment.
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Chapter 11: Building a case
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Chapter 11: Building a case
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Reporting verbs also indicate how much you agree or disagree with the
other sources in relation to your argument. So you may be positive
(e.g. facilitate, confirm), negative (e.g. devalue, criticise) or neutral
(e.g. state, mention). You may also fully commit to others’ views or
distance yourself from them.
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Chapter 11: Building a case
References
Hyland, K. (2000) Disciplinary discourses: social interactions in academic
writing, Harlow, Longman.
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66
Chapter 12: Negotiation
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References
Koester, A. (2014) ‘“We’d be prepared to do something, like if you say …”:
hypothetical reported speech in business negotiations’, English for Specific
Purposes, vol. 36, pp. 35–46 [Online]. Available at http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.esp.2014.03.005 (Accessed 3 August 2016).
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Chapter 13: Writing effective workplace proposals
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. key findings
. a summary of the key claims in the conclusion
. the report’s recommendations.
Workplace proposals are a form of report writing and so the advice to
provide clear information in an introduction and to write concisely is
relevant in structuring your writing. However, there are other sections that
must be included in order to carry out the problem-solving function of a
workplace proposal.
Another important point to bear in mind is that proposals may be read by a
number of people who work in different parts of the business, and thus one
of the aims of effective proposal writing is to present information in a way
that can be understood easily by a reader who may not have detailed
knowledge of that area of the business.
. More family friendly shift patterns will help us to attract and keep
our evening staff. Public transport will be accessible at the later time
making travel to and from the site to the city cheaper, easier and
safer for staff.
. A more competitive pay structure will improve our ability to
recruit and retain staff. This will result in more reliable care for our
residents.
. Provision of training and staff development structures will improve
our staff retention rate as those undertaking training will have an
interest in continuing their service with us.
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[Section Seven]
. Vary the length of your sentences so that you have both long and shorter
sentences in your text. This is closer to the rhythm of ordinary speech.
. Do not economise on politeness: use the same polite requests and thanks
as you would in conversation.
. Restate complex matters or summarise them so that there is less chance
of misunderstanding.
. Leave your work for a short time before returning to edit it. It is more
likely that you will return with a fresh eye and be able to find and
correct mistakes.
This text was written by a business student as part of their workplace
proposal for staff development training. The words and phrases showing the
writer’s positive tone is in bold and those indicating positive attitudes
towards colleagues are in italics.
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Training proposal
Organisational and Departmental Benefits
Action Required
Our preliminary date for delivery of the training is 1st June. The HR
department requires a list of all staff that you will be putting forward for
the first cohort of the training by 30th April. I understand that this may
be short notice, therefore the HR team endeavour to support you as
much as possible to gather this information.
On behalf of the HR team I would like to thank you for co-operation with
this matter and we look forward to working with you to provide an
outstanding provision for our staff and service users.
(Adapted from Whitehurst, 2015)
References
Whitehurst, S. (2015) LB160 EMA, submitted to The Open University as
part of LB160 assessment.
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Chapter 14: Effective workplace meetings
. An entire group may sit back and say nothing. When asked to
contribute, they decline.
. People may be reluctant to contribute as they feel their ideas are not
going to be listened to.
. There are times when an individual is unable to limit how much they
say or they provide excessive detail. They may like to hear themselves
talk or they may be insensitive to the needs of others.
. There are sometimes group members who talk over each other, also
known as ‘overtalkers’.
. People may chat with those next to them on other issues, instead of
paying attention to the group discussion. Some people do this out of
habit or because they believe that if they are not involved in the topic,
they can start their own discussion.
. During the discussion, some members may be unable to move beyond an
issue which they see as blocking any further progress. They become
‘stuck’ on issues which they cannot change.
These are some of the behaviours which can challenge a chairperson or
facilitator and which they may have to overcome, first by identifying the
behaviour and then by using professional meeting management skills and
effective language (Human Resources, The Open University, 2015).
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Examples of words and phrases that may be used for a particular action are
described in Table 14.2 (this is based on the video transcript included in
Book 2: Readings, Models and Frameworks).
Action Language
Alan begins the discussion by making Well, bearing in mind that this
it clear that the group must follow decision has already been taken …
policy
Alan sets the topic for discussion How do you think we can mitigate
these issues …?
Alan engages Mark in a discussion of Alright, well just imagine for one
how the new office might be minute, there was a way to reduce the
organised disruption for you and your
colleagues, how do you think that
would look …?
Mark shows he is prepared to I suppose ... it might help a bit …
compromise
Alan elicits opinions from the whole If we can go round the room …
group
Louise expresses her opinions I don’t know about you, but I’m fed up
…
Alan makes sure that Michelle is Michelle, is there anything you’d like
included to add?
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. business goals and social relationships: for example, group dynamics and
power relations
. transactional goals or arrangements to complete tasks.
These relationships are shown in the language used, and achieving business
goals characteristically involves decision-making where the speakers are
trying to reach an agreement. For this, they may need to use clarification
language, for example:
You mentioned that it might be possible to reduce the cost. Could you
say a bit more please?
Am I right to think that you meant reduced costs?
So, would it be correct to say that the cost could be reduced?
In transactional goals, the speakers already have a common aim and are
trying to find a way to achieve it using the language of suggestion: for
example ‘let’s do that’, ‘why don’t we’.
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References
Human Resources, The Open University (2015) Learning and
Organisations, Milton Keynes, Human Resources, The Open University.
Koester, A. (2006) Investigating Workplace Discourse, London, Routledge.
Vestal, K. (2015) ‘Setting standards for successful meetings’, Nurse Leader,
vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 14–15.
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Chapter 15: Developing discussion skills
A look at language
The following extracts come from an audio discussion, in which two
academics (Nik and Owain) outline arguments for and against the use of
zero-hours contracts. A copy of the audio transcript is in Book 2: Readings,
Models and Frameworks.
Nik uses a formal style of language in his argument. Here are some
examples from Nik’s argument contrasted with less formal expressions that
might have been used in a more informal context.
Extract 1: Nik
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Extract 2: Owain
Sentence Explanation
Both Nik and I have worked on zero Owain starts with an example. The
hour contracts, when we were starting purpose of this is to illustrate the point
out, especially as students to get our he wants to make. This example is
way through and, you know, the personal anecdote, which can be very
people we worked for they were effective, but should be used sparingly
decent people, small business, in formal discussions.
medium business owners – people
who owned hotels and pubs we
understood that we were there to do a
job to get us through and it helped
them out in the short term.
So, perhaps it’s unrealistic to expect The word ‘so’ acts as a signpost to
too much of business, for business to show that Owain is now going to draw
act as these kind of great moral a conclusion from the example made.
guarantors of our society. Owain includes abstract terminology,
‘moral guarantors’ taking the
discussion to a more theoretical level.
The word ‘perhaps’ is an expression
of possibility, which shows that the
issue is complex and he is keeping
the discussion open.
Are they really there to do that? Owain reiterates his point by asking a
rhetorical question. A rhetorical
question is one that does not require
an immediate answer but that makes
your listeners think about the point
made. It can be used sparingly for
stylistic effect in formal speeches,
presentations or discussions.
If their focus was not primarily upon Owain makes a further point to
making profit, then perhaps our strengthen his argument that
society would be much the worse in businesses need to offer zero
terms of innovation, energy, choice contracts hours in order to carry out
and so on. the function expected of them. He
uses expressions of possibility (if,
would) to acknowledge that the issue
is not a simple one of ‘right’ and
‘wrong’.
And making profit provides lots of Owain lists the benefits of profit
opportunities, provides a lot of good making to expand the point in the
for society. It provides employment, it previous sentence. The list effect is
provides decent work conditions in maintained by the repetition of the
many contexts, it provides verb ‘provides’ to guide listeners.
opportunities for people to gain
income and follow their desires, their
needs, the way they want to actually
organise their life.
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Sentence Explanation
Actually one of the arguments for zero Owain signposts that he is going to
hours contracts is in terms of benefits introduce another argument in favour
for workers and often that’s presented of zero hours contracts. He then
in terms of flexibility – as in terms of continues the theme of benefits for
the opportunity to follow one’s life, workers from the previous sentence
underpinned by notions of autonomy and brings in more abstract
and freedom. terminology: ‘flexibility’, ‘autonomy’
and ‘freedom’. This has the effect of
moving the argument into a more
theoretical realm. This can clarify the
issue under discussion as long as all
participants agree on what is meant
by these abstract concepts.
So if zero hour contracts do that and Owain signposts that he will bring the
provide that freedom and flexibility, argument to a conclusion with the
they might be actually considered to word ‘so’. Also it is in a sense drawing
be ethically appropriate. a conclusion from the summary of the
arguments. He then summarises his
argument but the use of the
expressions of possibility ‘if’ and
‘might’ indicate that the argument is
still open.
Both Owain’s and Nik’s arguments are effective in that they include the
features listed above, however, they are constructed differently.
Extract 3: Nik
Sentence Explanation
Well one of the key issues is this Nik introduces a key theme linked to
notion of power. zero hours contracts by using abstract
terminology: ‘notion of power’. This
takes the argument to a more
theoretical realm.
I talked earlier about this idea that Nik outlines the counterargument to
you can decide when you want to the one he is going to put forward,
work, you become flexible, you’ve got signposting that it was mentioned
freedom, you’ve got autonomy earlier. Abstract concepts are used:
‘freedom’ and ‘autonomy’.
but actually the experience of workers In the same sentence, Nik signposts
is actually they’re waiting on the end that he is going to contradict the idea
of the phone or an email and when just mentioned, using the words ‘but
work is offered to them, they feel they actually’. He then expresses his
can’t turn it down and indeed some viewpoint by using an example. This
express the fear that if they turn it example would be stronger if he
down, they will be no longer included where the evidence comes
employed. from (e.g. an ACAS report).
So in this point, the rhetoric of Nik reiterates his point, using abstract
freedom isn’t really realised. language (‘rhetoric of freedom’) to say
that people working on zero hours
contracts are not experiencing the
freedom that is so often mentioned as
a key advantage of these contracts.
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Sentence Explanation
It’s actually workers being very much Nik reiterates the point he has just
dependent upon their employer’s made, using the word ‘actually’ again
preferences and, given that, it to infer that his argument is based on
becomes difficult to make the facts. The expression ‘given that’ is a
argument that this is about freedom. way of saying ‘because of this’.
Actually it’s about asymmetry of Nik continues the argument on an
power and of course in that context, it abstract level, referring back to the
becomes very difficult to actually concept of power mentioned at the
follow some of your life practices. beginning and focusing on
‘asymmetry’ (lack of equality, lack of
balance).
For example, in the U.K. it’s quite Nik gives a concrete example to
common to aspire to own a house. provide evidence to support the point
Now imagine you walk into your he has just made. The language
mortgage provider and say, “I’ve got a becomes less formal to reflect the
zero-hour contract.” You’ve got to day-to-day nature of the example.
demonstrate your income. Well what
is your income? Well it says zero
guaranteed income.
So in that sense, you might feel Nik concludes his point that zero
restricted. You might not be able to hours contracts restrict the freedom
partake in some of the shared and power of individuals. He uses the
aspirations of British society for expression ‘might’ to keep the
example. discussion open.
. the environment
. treatment of stakeholders, including employees, suppliers, customers,
and other people and communities affected by the business
. the impact of the products made, marketed and distributed (e.g. on the
health and well-being of stakeholders)
. the protection of vulnerable people (e.g. children)
. choices about which community causes to support
. choices about what sponsorship a business chooses to offer
. choices about who represents a business’s brand.
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Sentence Explanation
I think the same rule applies here as I Anja starts with a clear statement of
do for private individuals. her viewpoint. This could be made
more formal by replacing ‘I think’ with
a more impersonal expression, such
as ‘Companies should comply with the
same rules that individuals are
expected to’.
So, if we own a car then clearly, it is Use of analogy. Anja compares the
our right to use this car and to drive issue under discussion to something
around it. It’s not, however our right to from everyday life that is easy to
drive around in it recklessly, too fast, relate to: the responsibility that comes
not paying attention to traffic or with driving a car.
pedestrians and thereby harm other
people, say, by knocking them over.
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Sentence Explanation
I think we would all accept that the Anja uses a persuasive phrase ‘I think
right to do as we please with our we would all accept …’ appealing to
private property does not extend to the sense of ‘common decency’
the right to harm other people and mentioned earlier in the discussion.
infringe on their rights.
The same applies to business. Anja makes an authoritative and
unambiguous statement based on the
viewpoint stated above.
So businesses clearly must look after Anja uses impersonal phrasing to put
their shareholders’ property, or their across her viewpoint: ‘businesses
shareholders’ investment by trying to clearly must’. This is more effective
maximise the return on this than ‘I think’ or ‘I believe’ and the use
investment. of ‘clearly’ persuades her listener that
the point is obvious.
They may do so for instance, by Anja introduces an example to
manufacturing goods which they can illustrate the point she has just made.
sell to other people at a profit.
What they can’t do, however, or what The use of an introductory phrase
I think they don’t have a right to do, is such as ‘What they can’t do, however,
to manufacture these goods in such a is …’ makes Anja’s point more
way that to stay with the strongly by creating suspense and
environmental example, the local river then announcing it.
is polluted or the atmosphere is
polluted, because that could harm
other people.
They might get ill or their quality of life Use of modal verbs (e.g. might,
might be quite seriously diminished by would) to imagine the negative effects
having to use water which is not of a situation. This is used as an
clean, by having to breathe air which example to illustrate her point.
is not clean.
And thereby the right to do with Anja uses cause and effect language,
shareholders’ private money as you ‘thereby,’ to illustrate the
please would impinge on the rights of consequences of reckless behaviour
other people to do with their own lives by businesses.
as they please.
And I think there is where the limits to Anja concludes with a clear statement
property rights apply in the same way summing up her argument.
as the limits to all other rights apply.
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A worked example
In these assignment questions from a business module the key concepts
(also called content words) are in bold and the instruction or process words
are in italics.
Assignment questions
Read the case study below and then answer the questions that follow
as instructed.
(a) Explain the extent to which you think that Mapco is a globalised
business.
Question (a) relates to Session 3.1 and 3.2 of Book 5. In your answer
you will need to explain briefly what globalisation is, before explaining
the extent to which you think that Mapco is globalised. In answering
this part of the question, reflect specifically on the examples that you
can find in the article that agree or disagree with the definition of
globalisation that you have provided. You might consider things like
the nature of Mapco’s product, supplier, trading and other
relationships.
Question (b) asks you to discuss how each of the four drivers of
globalisation relates to the case before concluding which of the four is
more influential. You will find Session 3.3 of Book 5 helpful. Explain
your understanding of each driver and give examples from the case
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Chapter 16: Writing business essays
In addition to read and answer, there are two main instruction words in
these assignment questions: explain and evaluate . It is essential that you
understand what they mean and how you should respond to them.
. When you are asked to explain, you should focus on the why of a
particular business issue or on the how by looking at cause and effect
relationships (e.g. why Mapco is a globalised business or how it is or it
is not).
. Evaluate requires you to think about an issue in an organisation
critically by applying some criteria and analysing strengths and
weaknesses, and the value of something under consideration
(e.g. strengths and weaknesses of four drivers of globalisation –
i.e. factors causing globalisation – and their relevance to Mapco). This
also means giving reasons for your argument.
The guidance note repeats the word ‘explain’ and rephrases the word
‘evaluate’ (e.g. it uses ‘discuss’, ‘explain’, ‘conclude’). The note asks you
to conclude which driver of globalisation is the most influential. This
requires you to identify one most influential driver and explain why. In sum,
the instruction words require you to show knowledge and understanding of
concepts and theories and their critical application.
The key concepts primarily include globalisation and its associated terms in
marketing. In order to answer this assignment, you should know about
globalisation and its relevance to an organisation’s marketing. This requires
you to select relevant concepts and theories on globalisation taught in
module materials and from other sources.
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Chapter 16: Writing business essays
After stating the claim (general point), the paragraph moves to particular
points that explain and support it as shown in Figure 16.1. This is what
lecturers mean by coherence: the reader can see clearly what you are doing
and the steps are clear through which you achieve it.
Sentence 1
(Claim)
Sentence 2
(Supporting point)
Sentence 3
(Supporting point)
Sentence 4
(Supporting point)
Figure 16.1 General to particular in Michael’s essay paragraph: claim (S1) plus
support points or evidence
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. He uses ‘and’ to add information. Other linking words that you can use
for this purpose are: ‘also’, ‘besides’, ‘furthermore’, ‘moreover’, ‘in
addition’.
. He uses ‘such as’ to exemplify or elaborate a concept by providing
examples. Other linking words to exemplify include ‘for example’, ‘for
instance’, ‘to illustrate’, ‘to exemplify’, etc.
. He uses ‘although’ to contrast ideas. Some other words that function like
this word are ‘even though’, ‘but’, ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’,
‘nonetheless’, etc.
. The fourth type of linking words in the paragraph is ‘given that’ which
shows a causal relationship between ideas in the paragraph.
Other linking words or phrases indicating causal relationships are ‘because’,
‘because of’, ‘therefore’, ‘so’, ‘as a result’, ‘consequently’, etc. All these
linking words help Michael to focus on the key point of the paragraph.
In order to maintain the focus of the paragraph, Michael repeats some key
words such as ‘globalisation’, ‘trade’ and ‘government drivers’. In addition
to the repetition of the key words, some words are repeated in different
forms, for example, from a verb (e.g. ‘encouraging’ in sentence 2) to a noun
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Chapter 16: Writing business essays
. Consider what sources of information you can use (e.g. concepts from
the reading text on globalisation, information about the organisation such
as marketing)
. Look back at notes and develop your ideas
. Decide on the main idea of the paragraph
. Consider what your topic sentence is (your key point and claim in the
paragraph). Remember your topic sentence frames the paragraph and it
needs to have a key concept
. Consider how you want to organise the paragraph to support the key
point and the argument in the essay
. Define the key concept
. Explain the main idea of the paragraph
. Elaborate the points by giving examples or data from the organisation
(e.g. how the chosen driver of globalisation is relevant or not to the
organisation and why)
. Think what linking words, reference words and technical terms are
suitable for the paragraph
. Consider if you need a sub-heading for the paragraph
. Proofread and edit your paragraph
. Include your references in an alphabetical list at the end of the
paragraph.
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body of the essay. More importantly, your conclusion should answer the
assignment question by pulling key points together. Successful business
essay conclusions tend to have these functions:
Conclusion Function
Based on the discussion of four Links back to the assignment title and
drivers of globalisation, the most – the second part of the sentence –
relevant driver for Mapco is market states the argument (main claim)
drivers.
As the case study states, fish heads Summarises the argument
and fish frames are not appealing in
the western world and of little
monetary value; however, they can
provide nutritious and life-saving
food for people in other countries.
Therefore, there is a market for Makes recommendations
Mapco’s product in other countries
and profit can be made by exporting
it to them. Without being able to
trade on a global level Mapco would
not be a profitable business.
Amanda begins the conclusion by referring back to the body of the essay
(i.e. ‘Based on the discussion of four drivers of globalisation’) and states
her main argument: ‘the most relevant driver for Mapco is market drivers’.
This argument is expanded in the next sentence which summarises her
previous explanations and argument why market drivers are influential. In
the last two sentences, Amanda looks to the future of Mapco by making
recommendations. Throughout the conclusion she uses evaluative terms (in
bold) to show her judgement.
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In the first sentence Michael uses a quote to define globalisation. The quote
comes from an author called Nayyar. When you use a quote, it is necessary
to include in your text the author’s name, the date of the publication and the
page number to indicate exactly where the quote has come from.
As you can see, this is a particularly complicated citation as it is a
secondary reference. This means that Michael read the quote in his module
materials (written by Ball) and did not read the original source of the quote.
He shows this by naming the author, Nayyar, and indicating the date of the
original publication (2002). Michael then adds the words ‘cited in’ to
indicate the course materials where he read the quote (Ball, 2012). Notice
the punctuation. It is important to be consistent with this.
The next two sentences talk about pressures forcing businesses towards
globalisation. All the information comes from the materials written by Ball
and therefore it is enough to cite this at the end of the information along
with the date of the publication. There is no need for a page reference as
this is summary or paraphrase.
The final sentence refers to information which has come from a source
written by Hurley and published in 2013. The page reference is not
necessary as this is summary, not a quote. You can see that the citation is
placed in the middle of the sentence. This is because only the first half of
the sentence contains information from Hurley. The second half of the
sentence is Michael’s own idea.
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As you can see, any information which comes from another source, must be
cited within your text. This is the case when you have used a direct quote,
and also when you have summarised or paraphrased. The citation that you
see here in the text refers your reader to the full reference list which you
write below your assignment. Here the reader will find the full details of the
source, should they wish to consult it.
Michael will need to write two full references for his paragraph, one for
Ball and one for Hurley. He does not need to write a full reference for
Nayyar as he did not read the original text and has indicated in his
paragraph that he read it in Ball. This is what Michael’s references should
look like if you are using the OU Harvard referencing system.
Ball, K. (2012) Different ways of looking at business, Milton Keynes,
The Open University.
Hurley, J. (2013) ‘Fortune to be made from fish heads; a storm destroyed
Mapco’s processing factory but the tenacious owner has resurrected the
business’, in B120 EMA Assignment Booklet, Milton Keynes, The Open
University.
First of all, they should be listed in an alphabetical order, organised by
family name of the author.
The first reference is a book and includes:
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Chapter 16: Writing business essays
References
Ball, K. (2012) Different ways of looking at business, Milton Keynes, The Open
University.
Hurley, J. (2013) ‘Fortune to be made from fish heads; A storm destroyed
Mapco’s processing factory but the tenacious owner has resurrected the
business’, in B120 EMA Assignment Booklet, Milton Keynes, The Open
University.
Johnson, M. (2015) B120 EMA, submitted to The Open University as part of
B120 assessment.
The Open University (2014) B120 EMA, Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Wells, A. (2015) B120 EMA, submitted to The Open University as part of B120
assessment.
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Chapter 17: Team working and communication
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Chapter 17: Team working and communication
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. Use plain English (or appropriate language) where possible rather than
using idioms and culture-specific humour.
. When communicating with a team member with a disability, adjust your
tone (e.g. when talking with someone with hearing difficulties), physical
position (e.g. position your head/face at the same level if the person is in
a wheelchair) and style of speech if required. At the same time, do not
make them feel that you are treating them differently from other team
members.
. Avoid using language that indicates stereotypes of people, their cultures
and their languages.
. If your team comprises members from different cultures, research these
cultures to show respect and reduce the risk of causing offence.
. Silence can be interpreted differently by people from different cultures –
for instance, in many Asian cultures it is seen as positive, whereas
people from most Western cultures consider it negative – so respect how
others use it.
. Develop an awareness of how team members disagree with each other.
In some cultures, people are direct, while in others they are less so.
Adjust your communication with each member accordingly.
. Consider if everyone in the team is task-oriented or if there are some
who value building relationships in the team and may therefore use
different styles of language.
. It may be inappropriate to use humour when communicating in a team
of members from diverse cultures because, while something may be
regarded as funny in one culture, it may be offensive in another.
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References
CBI (2015) Inspiring growth: CBI/Pearson education and skills survey
2015, London, Confederation of British Industry.
The Open University (2011) B628: Managing 1: organisations and people,
Milton Keynes, The Open University.
Tuckman, B. and Jensen, M. (1977) ‘Stages of small group development
revisited’, Groups and Organization Studies, vol. 2, pp. 419–27.
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Consumer
A person who actually uses a product or service. A customer may also take
this role.
Customer
A person or organisation that buys a product or service.
Need
An individual’s perceived lack of something.
Product
Anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a need or want.
Selling orientation
A perspective that a business needs to focus its efforts into selling a product
or service no matter how good or attractive they may be.
Marketing orientation
A perspective that ‘takes an “outside-in” approach, starting with a thorough
assessment of the needs and expectations of buyers and then trying to fulfil
those needs and expectations in order to attract customers’ (Schaefer, 2012,
p. 11).
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Product orientation
A perspective that customers value product quality more than anything else.
As long as a business produces better quality products than others, there is
little else to do.
Production orientation
A perspective ‘that buyers are very price conscious and are prepared to
accept merely adequate quality. These businesses focus on making their
production and marketing processes as efficient as possible so they can
produce large quantities of products at low cost. This usually means mass
production of fairly standardised goods’ (Schaefer, 2012, p. 9).
Market
The actual and potential buyers of a business’s products or services.
Marketing strategy
This ‘starts with the setting of objectives that will support the overall aims
of the business. Next, a company needs to decide on a strategy that will
allow these objectives to be achieved. The strategy may involve research
into product or service development, how the product or service will reach
the market (channels) and how the customers will find out about it
(communication). It will also attempt to define a unique positioning for the
product or business to differentiate it from its competitors’ (CIM, n.d.).
Marketing information
Different ways of gathering and analysing information about a business’s
customers, their needs and expectations, and its competitors, as well as
social and economic factors affecting the business.
Market research
Formal research that provides specific data (primary or secondary) about
customers, products and services to solve a particular problem.
Market segmentation
Grouping a business’s customers according to their needs, expectations and
behaviour.
Marketing communication
‘Getting the right message about a business and its products or services
with the appropriate promotional channel’ (CIM, n.d.).
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Table 18.2 Examples of discourse features and language resources in the Gelati report
Key discourse features and language resources Examples from the Gelati report
Highlighting key patterns in the data and explaining A recent Euromonitor report (2016a) on ice cream
the pattern with supporting details and frozen desserts in the UK indicates that ice-
cream sales have grown marginally in recent
years, as shown in Table 1 [Key pattern]. This is
because consumers are increasingly health-
conscious and concerned about levels of obesity,
and so tend to cut back on the consumption of fat
and sugar, resulting in the decline of sales of
traditional family-pack sizes. [Explanation with
supporting details]
Correlating with other evidence The remaining interviewees, nevertheless, agreed
that they were more likely to buy organically
sourced ice cream than a normal ice cream, which
supports the survey result.
Compare patterns in two or more data sets For example, similar to the UK trend, more than
three-quarters of the interviewees preferred to buy
frozen yoghurt because it has health benefits and
can be taken as a snack or breakfast option.
However, the interview data indicated mixed
results.
Use and punctuation of direct quotes from However, during the interview, 12 of the 30
participants to support or give examples of what is participants were concerned that the quantity of
claimed sugar may be too high in our ice creams, and this
was cause for concern. One participant, for
example, argued that
… this is a product aimed at children.
Companies have a responsibility to promote
healthy eating.
Reference to data A recent Euromonitor report (2016a) on ice cream
and frozen desserts in the UK indicates that ice-
cream sales have grown marginally in recent years,
as shown in Table 1.
The results, as presented in Table 3, showed that
the vanilla flavour (30%) was the most popular,
followed by chocolate (20%).
As summarised in Table 4, the majority of them
(80%) reported that they would buy frozen yoghurt,
which we currently offer in a limited amount.
Words for referring to the people involved in Participants and interviewees for interviews and
surveys, interviews and studies respondents for people replying to surveys
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(Harris, 2014)
In this text, the writer is addressing a real audience of managers. The writer
begins with positive remarks about the general performance of the company,
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before highlighting the negative aspects of the business. Emphatic terms are
used. These are useful to draw attention to significant differences but
remember to be moderate in your description of accounts, so that you do
not exaggerate the position for managers. The report then concludes with a
comment.
Table 19.2 shows examples from this text of language used to qualify a
previous statement; to make a direct criticism; to indicate a problem; to
emphasise a point; and to indicate cause and effect.
In this strong response, the writer begins by signposting what they are going
to discuss. The writer starts with a positive indicator – the increase in assets
– and then goes on to highlight the negative indications in their findings.
The writer does not use distancing or polite language and makes a direct
criticism of the company. He indicates that debtors are usually expected to
pay their debts in the short term, but there is always a risk that they will
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not, so the language reporting that ‘debtors are not being managed properly’
– is a clear message to the manager concerned that action needs to be taken.
The writer ends with a warning about a reduction in company equity in the
near future.
References
Harris, C. (2014) TMA 03, submitted to The Open University as part of
B120 assessment.
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Glossary
Abstract noun
The general term for nouns which describe an idea or quality, such as
globalisation or happiness.
Abstract vocabulary
The general term for words which refer to mental things and actions, such
as ability or democracy.
Adjective
Used in a sentence, adjectives describe or modify nouns or pronouns. For
example, in the phrase ‘a difficult problem’, difficult (the adjective)
describes what kind of problem (the noun) it is. Adjectives generally come
before a noun, or after verbs such as be, sound, look and seem. For
example, in ‘this problem is difficult’, the adjective difficult comes after is
(which is a form of the verb be) even though it is describing this problem
(the noun).
Adverb
Describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, a
clause or a sentence. For example, in the sentence ‘Gap improved its
relationship with its vendors significantly’ the verb improved is modified by
the adverb significantly. Adverbs tell you why, how, when, how often,
where, how far and for what purpose something happened. They are
commonly used in academic writing.
Agenda
A list of matters to be discussed at a meeting. The items are usually
numbered.
Analogy
A comparison between two things that are perceived to have similarities,
usually for the purpose of explaining or clarifying something. Those
similarities are often presented in support of an argument.
Argument
This can either refer to the flow of information in a text – how one point
links to another in a coherent way – or refer to the point of view that a
writer presents in a text. This point of view may be made up of several
claims, usually with a single central claim. The claims are supported by
evidence and data, which are often linked to the claims by explanations.
Assurance
A positive signal given to the other party that what is agreed will be
adhered to. Offering assurance to the other party in negotiation may help
with reaching mutually satisfying agreements.
Audience
A listener or reader who is intended to receive the message (spoken or
written).
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Axe (verb)
To cut (i.e. cancel, withdraw, terminate).
Balance sheet
A summary statement that shows the financial position of an organisation at
a specific point in time.
Boosting
Increasing the strength of claims with certain modal verbs (e.g. must),
adverbs or other word choices. See hedging.
British Airways
British Airways, often shortened to BA, is the flag carrier airline of the
United Kingdom and the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on
fleet size.
Broadsheet
Large paper-sized newspapers.
Bulldozed
A colloquial expression for when people are forced to do things that they do
not want to, by powerful and often insensitive argument that ignores their
point of view.
Business hypothesis
A business statement that makes predictions based on relevant information.
Cause
Something that makes something else happen. For example, in ‘Due to an
interruption, we did not finish the deal’, the interruption is a cause because
this made us not finish the deal.
Cause-and-effect language
Words or phrases used to explain why something happened (cause) and
what happened as a result (effect). For example, in ‘due to an interruption,
we did not finish the deal’, due to indicates the cause being an interruption
and the effect being we did not finish the deal. Examples of cause words are
‘because’ and ‘due to’. Examples of effect words are ‘as a result’ and
‘consequently’.
Centre–left press
The news media that is associated with the political view that social justice
and equality can be achieved by working within the established system.
Claim
This word can be used as both a noun and a verb. In academic writing, if
someone claims something, they are presenting a point of view or an
opinion. This point of view or opinion may be supported by evidence or
explanation. A claim is therefore an opinion or a point of view. See
argument.
Close reading
Reading a text carefully looking at details.
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Coherent
When a text is coherent, it is logical and easy to follow. It is important to
be coherent in professional communication.
Company limited by shares
A private limited company which has shareholders with limited liability and
does not offer shares to the public unlike a public limited company (plc),
such as Sainsburys.
Comparative
A form of adjective or adverb used to show the difference between two
items (e.g. words, ideas, actions and states). The comparative form of an
adjective or adverb can be made by adding er to the end of the word or
more/less in front. For example, becomes more successful, larger and less
profitable.
Concept
A concept is an idea. In this module, the word is used frequently to refer to
key concepts. These are the ideas which are central to the study of business.
Usually, in this module the ideas referred to are represented by nouns; that
is, they are things. However, it is important to recognise that they are
usually mental things and often expressed by abstract nouns. For example,
stakeholder is a business concept.
Part of the meaning of a concept is that it has relationships with other
concepts. To ‘know’ the concept properly you may need to know some of
the related concepts. For example, other concepts associated with the
concept of stakeholder include power and interest. Business theories and
models are often sets of concepts related in various ways, particularly in
causal relationships.
Conditional
Conditional sentence in English expresses a factual or hypothetical situation
and its consequence(s). It is conditional because the event is dependent on
certain circumstances. For example: if the house price goes up, fewer
people may be buying houses.
Conjunction
In this module, this term is used to refer to the words that connect sentences
or clauses. These are words or phrases, such as however or as a result in
sentences, and because or but in clauses. These words tell us something
about the relationship between the sentences or clauses. For example,
whether it is a cause and effect, compare and contrast, or time sequence
relationship, or any of the other possible relationships between ideas in
writing. Conjunctions that make these relationships clear make the text
easier to read. See also linking words and phrases under signposting.
Content
The subject matter in a text. It is the information in a text communicated to
the intended audience.
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Context
A situation where language is used to convey meanings. It is affected by
who is involved in communication, what is communicated and how the
information is communicated (e.g. written or spoken).
Critical thinking
This means, in simple terms, asking questions about something (such as an
argument, claim or evidence), rather than accepting that thing at its face
value. It is also an ability to develop a reasoned argument based on
evidence. It does not necessarily mean being negative.
Current assets
Assets that form elements of the working capital cycle, comprising cash or
assets that are to be transformed into cash in a relatively short period (less
than 12 months), e.g. inventory and receivables.
Data
Information in its raw or unorganised form that can be about an
organisation, its stakeholders, products, etc.
Data commentary
An interpretation of the data collected for a particular purpose. It highlights
key patterns and its significance for an organisation when making decisions.
Decision making
This involves taking a certain course of action to address a problem or issue
in a workplace. It may relate to negotiation where a decision has to be
made to reach an agreement between parties.
Depreciation
The amount by which a non-current asset is deemed to have fallen in value
in any particular accounting period.
Discourse feature
Characteristics of any spoken or written language used for a particular
purpose in a specific context. For example, a business negotiation discussion
has certain discourse features that are not found in a team meeting
(e.g. bargaining in negotiations).
Discussion
A form of argument. Its main point is to present more than one side of an
argument. It usually requires an explanation and evidence as well.
Diversity
Diversity is the current term used for equal opportunities. It is the legal
obligation to protect against discrimination on grounds of sex, gender,
disability, sexual orientation, religion, belief, race or age.
Dividend
A sum of money paid regularly (typically annually) by a company to its
shareholders, out of its profits or reserves.
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Effect
The result of an event or an action. For example, the decrease of house
sales is an effect of the high interest rate in ‘the high interest rate decreased
house sales’.
Emotive language
Language that has an impact on the reader’s or listener’s emotions, such as
sadness, happiness, anger, etc. It is often used in advertising and news
reports.
Empathy
Ability to connect with and relate to others or see through others’ eyes. In
the workplace, whether working with a colleague or negotiating with others,
empathy helps you find shared ways of doing things.
Etiquette
Acceptable or appropriate professional behaviour when negotiating with
another party. Depending on various factors, such as culture and language,
your etiquette may need to be adapted in meetings or business dialogue with
the other party.
Evaluative language
It refers to the language used to make judgements about people, their
behaviour, things, their quality and events.
Fishbone diagram
It is a diagram showing root cause or causes of a problem. It is also known
as an Ishikawa diagram.
Focus group discussion
Group discussion consisting of a small number of people who discuss
specific issues related to an organisation (e.g. marketing a new product). It
is led by a facilitator and used to collect qualitative data.
Framework
A basic structure that supports a set of ideas. Frameworks are used to
outline policies, procedures and management in organisations.
Future or imagined time
One of the main uses of a verb is to tell what time the sentence refers to.
The main way of referring to imagined time, using the verb leave as an
example, is would leave. This is also referred to as the conditional.
Generalisation
A general statement about situations, events or ideas in contrast with
statements of detail. In a text, generalisations are sentences or clauses which
sum up the general idea of several paragraphs or sentences. These are the
high-level information in a text.
Goodwill
The excess of purchase price charged over the fair market value of a
company’s identifiable assets and liabilities based on intangible items such
as reputation, experienced workforce, family name, etc.
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Grammar
A system of language to describe how people use language(s) to make
meanings when they communicate with others for a particular purpose.
Graphs and charts
These are visual representations of a set of data or findings from data. They
are commonly used in business reports and workplaces. The most common
graphs and charts are bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts.
Gross profit
The profit earned directly from the sale of a particular good or goods,
before any costs.
Hedging
Reducing the strength of claims by showing uncertainty or modesty, or by
referring to other sources through citations. You can use certain modal verbs
(e.g. may and might), adverbs (e.g. possibly and potentially) and other word
choices for hedging your claims. See boosting.
Holistic
The belief that the parts of something are interconnected.
Imperative
It refers to the verb form used to give orders or instructions. For example,
in the sentence ‘Follow the policy guidelines’ the verb follow demands the
reader or listener to follow what is said. The modal verb must in ‘You must
consult your line manager before making the decision’ is also used for
giving instructions.
Infinitive verb
The basic form of a verb that usually follows to. For example, every
organisation should consider its external environment to plan for its future
success. Both consider (i.e. to consider) and to plan are infinitives.
Inflation
The increase in the cost of goods and services over time. It focuses on the
overall level of prices in a country.
Informal meeting
A meeting that has no formal agenda and a chair to run the meeting. It is
quite common in an organisation to meet informally and discuss minor
issues.
Instruments
Tools designed to collect data for a particular purpose (e.g. to understand
the marketing environment of a company). Some examples of these tools
are surveys, interviews and observations.
Intangible assets
Assets that cannot necessarily be seen or touched in a form that represents
their true value – for example, a patent.
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Interviews
Tools used to collect in-depth information from a small number of people
about issues related to an organisation or a business issue. Interviews are
used to collect qualitative data.
Language of possibility
The language used to show how likely something is to happen as
understood by the speaker or writer. When you are not 100 per cent certain,
you want to use the language that expresses a degree of possibility. This
kind of language is particularly useful when you are evaluating something
and you do not have sufficient evidence to be 100 per cent certain. For
example, ‘Gap’s vendors may have exploited their employees’ uses the
language of possibility as indicated by may. This expresses a degree of
possibility.
The language of possibility can also be used in persuasive writing to signal
awareness of other opinions on a subject.
See modal verb.
Language register
The level of formality you use in the language when communicating with
others. It is always associated with your audience, purpose and context.
Legally binding
This means that those who have agreed to a decision now have certain
responsibilities in law.
Liabilities
A company’s debt or obligations that arise during the course of its business
operations (e.g. loans, expenses, etc.)
Linking words
In this module, the term ‘linking word’ is sometimes used instead of the
terms ‘connective’ or ‘connecting word’. Linking words connect sentences
or clauses together, showing how they relate to each other and making a
text flow more smoothly. They are words such as however or as a result in
sentences, and because or but for in clauses.
Liquid assets
The resources that can be converted into cash quickly, which a business can
call on to conduct its operations or fulfil its obligations.
Marketing information
Information about a business’s customers, their needs and expectations,
competitors, and social and economic factors affecting the business.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A theory of human motivation that Abraham Maslow developed in
psychology. According to Maslow, humans are motivated to fulfil their
needs, which start from a basic low-level need of survival and develop to
growth and self-development. His theory is often used in business studies to
understand people’s motivation.
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Noun phrases
Groups of words which include a noun. There are many different ways in
which words can be combined with a noun to make a noun phrase, e.g. ‘the
external environment’ and ‘an increase in the sale price’.
Observation
A data collection tool used to observe participants in their natural settings
in relation to a product or service. It is used to collect qualitative data.
Oxfam
Oxfam is a globally renowned aid and development charity with 70 years of
experience, working and campaigning with partners in over 90 countries
worldwide.
Paraphrasing
Restating the ideas in the original source in your own words. It is a skill
you need to show your understanding of an academic text. It also helps you
with avoiding plagiarism. Paraphrasing can be commonly done by using
synonyms and changing grammar of the original source. See plagiarism and
summarising.
Partnership
A form of business in which several people work jointly, by agreement,
with the objective of profit to be shared by all. In general partnerships, there
is no separation between personal and business resources.
Past participle
A form of a verb in the past tense, for example fired, stored and replaced. It
is used with the passive and all perfect forms, for example: They were fired
[passive]; he has stored [present perfect] his data on a memory stick; they
had already replaced [past perfect] the computer when they bought the new
software.
Pitch
In a business context, a pitch is a speech or an act that attempts to persuade
someone to do or buy something.
Plagiarism
Deliberately copying others’ work and presenting it as your own. Plagiarism
is taken seriously at university and can lead to severe consequences. You
should avoid it by acknowledging sources and paraphrasing or summarising
the information.
Press release
A public statement given by an organisation about an event, product or
programme. It is to promote what is in the statement. The statement may be
written, audio or video.
Pro bono work
Pro bono work is work that is done by a business for free. Usually it
involves giving skills and expertise to a chosen interest, such as a charity.
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Procedure
The (negotiation) procedure is a set of guidelines followed in negotiations.
These guidelines may be from the organisation you represent or mutually
agreed with the other party for the purpose of a specific negotiation.
Pronoun
A short word that substitutes for a noun or a noun phrase (e.g. he, she and
it).
Purpose
A goal someone wants to achieve by communicating verbally or in writing.
There is always a purpose when we speak or write and this purpose is
determined by our audience too.
Qualitative data
Data that is word-based and often answers questions such as why and how.
Qualitative data tends to be in-depth and is, therefore, typically collected
from a small sample. Such data may be subjective and less statistically
robust than quantitative data. See quantitative data.
Quantitative data
Data that is measurable or countable, and so numerical. It is generally
considered objective and reliable. However, the data may be subjective if it
includes measurement of people’s views, for example. The data is usually
collected from a large sample of a population through surveys. Such data
usually answers questions like how many and how often.
Questionnaire
A series of questions used to collect information from a large sample.
Organisations may use it to collect marketing information. It is used as a
source of quantitative data.
Reading for gist
Reading a text for main points in it. See skimming.
Referencing
It is a common practice to refer to other sources of information or research
in university writing and some business reports. This means you need to
include the detailed information about all the sources you have consulted in
your text. Referencing takes two forms: in-text citation in the body of your
text and reference list at the end of your text.
Reflection
Looking back at what we did and considering how we can improve what we
do in the future. It is part of our learning process based on our experience.
It applies to both study and work.
Register
The level of formality in the language you use when communicating with
others. It is always associated with your audience, purpose and context.
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Rhetorical question
A question asked to make a point or an emphasis. It is not meant to elicit
an answer.
Robust
Strong or healthy.
Salutation
A greeting at the beginning of a letter, email or when you meet another
person or group. It may be formal, such as Dear … or Ladies and
gentlemen, or informal, such as Hi or Hello. The type of salutation you use
depends on how much you know the other person, your relationship with
that person and the context in which you are communicating.
Scanning
To look through a text quickly in order to find a piece of information that
you want.
Scenarios
A description of business circumstances imagined or in the future. Scenarios
are often used to discuss potential threats and opportunities resulting from
possible interactions of external agents such as competitors, customers and
the economic environment.
Screencast software
A digital video recording of what happens on the screen of a computer. It
often includes an audio narration describing what is happening onscreen.
Screencasts are used to demonstrate a process of doing something, such as
how to identify main points in a paragraph and how to use spreadsheets.
Serviced office space
Fully furnished, work-ready offices to rent on flexible terms.
Sheltered accommodation
Self-contained accommodation, often for elderly or infirm people, with
communal areas and a warden.
Signposting
In language, signposting is a way of signalling to the listener or reader what
is going to happen, so that they can follow and understand. There are two
types of signposting:
Major signposting marks the development of a text or speech, such as the
introduction and conclusion.
Linking words and phrases are used to connect ideas developed in the text
or speech (e.g. in addition, however, as a result, etc).
Skimming
Reading something quickly to understand the main point(s) without studying
it in detail.
Socialisation processes
Socialisation is more long term and less tangible. It is an ongoing process
of understanding, in terms of how the newcomer makes sense of the
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business and their role within it. It is as much about the unwritten rules of
the business (often referred to as organisational culture) as it is about the
formal procedures.
Sole-trader
A business owned and run by a single person, with no separation between
personal and business assets.
Spreadsheet
A computer application programme that captures, displays and manipulates
data arranged in rows and columns. It is mainly used to hold numerical data
and short strings of text. For example, Microsoft Excel® is widely used to
produce spreadsheets.
Stakeholder
A popular way of identifying groups of people who have a legitimate
interest in the way a business is being run. Stakeholders might typically be
identified as employees, shareholders, government, Inland Revenue, public
and local community.
Statistically robust
If a statistical measure does not change when some variables change, it can
be considered robust. This is important for quantitative data.
STEEPLE
This model is commonly used to assess a business’s external environment.
The initials stand for the social, technological, environmental, economic,
political, legal and ethical factors facing a business in its environment.
Summarising
Selecting the relevant key information from an original source and
condensing the information by using your own words (paraphrasing). You
should present the information in the original source accurately and
acknowledge the source. Summaries vary depending on your purpose and so
does their length.
Support
Any evidence, data or explanation you present to back up your claims in
your report, essay or discussion. Support is an essential element in an
argument as without it your claims, made in support of the argument,
become baseless. See claim and argument.
Survey
A tool used to collect data from a large sample to understand particular
marketing issues of an organisation. It is commonly used to collect
quantitative data. Typically, it includes a questionnaire.
SWOT
A business framework which provides a way of analysing aspects of an
organisation according to four criteria: its internal strengths and weaknesses,
and the opportunities and threats within the wider environment.
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Synonyms
Words that mean the same or a similar thing.
Tangible assets
Physical assets, such as vehicles and machinery.
Text
A unit of authentic language that is spoken or written for the purposes of
communication by real people in real circumstances. It is a harmonious
collection of meanings which fit the circumstances and also fit together. A
text is a unit of language which is complete, in contrast with an extract,
which is a part of a text. Usually it is possible to say which text type a text
belongs to. Examples of text types are essay, case study, newspaper article,
academic textbook, conversation and negotiation.
Theme
The opening part of a text or sentence which says what the text or sentence
is about. The writer wants the reader to know what topic the writer is
writing about as soon as possible and puts it first in the sentence or
paragraph. The theme of a sentence/paragraph/text may be a person, an
object/organisation or an idea/concept. The theme of the sentence ‘The boss
hired a new secretary’ is the boss.
Topic sentence
It is generally the first sentence in a paragraph which contains the main
point of the paragraph. It is also known as high-level generalisation.
Verb
The central language unit in most sentences. There are many types of verbs,
but in simple terms, verbs are ‘doing’, ‘being’ and ‘having’ words.
Examples of ‘doing’ words are buy, sell, expand and rise. The main ‘being’
and ‘having’ words are be and have, but these have various forms
(depending on what the sentence is conveying) including is, was, has and
had.
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:
Text
Section 6.4, Javier’s solution text on Arena Flowers: Javier Garcia Cobos
Section 6.4, Gillian’s solution text on Arena Flowers: Courtesy of Gillian
Lowe
Section 10.6: Used by permission of Phillipa Parkes-Winters
Section 19.1: Used by permission of Carl Harris
Illustrations
Cover: © iStock.com/lisegagne
Figure 4.1: Courtesy of Michael Boyd
Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3: Google
Figure 6.1: Himmelfarb, J. et al. (2002) ‘The elephant in uremia: Oxidant
stress as a unifying concept of cardiovascular disease in uremia’ Kidney
International, vol 62 issue 5. Elsevier. Cartoon Artist G. Renee Guzlas
Figure 10.1, Step 1: © iStockphoto.com/Sam Camp
Figure 10.1, Step 2: Petra U
Figure 10.1, Step 3: © iStockphoto.com/woolzian
Figure 10.1. Step 4: © iStockphoto.com/ShutterWorx
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been
inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the
necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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