DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 423 911 IR 057 214

AUTHOR Clute, Robin

TITLE Technostress: A Content Analysis.
PUB DATE 1998-05-00
NOTE 60p.; Master's Research Paper, Kent State University.
Contains colored graphs with light/very small print.
PUB TYPE Dissertations/Theses (040) Information Analyses (070)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Coding; *Computer Anxiety; *Computer Attitudes; Computer
Literacy; Content Analysis; Coping; *Information Technology;
Library Research; Personality Traits; Research Methodology;
Skill Development; *Symptoms (Individual Disorders);
*Technological Advancement; Training
IDENTIFIERS Competency Needs; *Technology Implementation; *Technostress

ABSTRACT
This paper reports on a study that explores the literature
of technostress--the anxiety over using technological equipment--both inside
and outside of the library field. Fifty-eight unique articles were abstracted
and evaluated. By using a coding sheet a measurement was taken of symptoms,
reasons given for the "modern disease," and recommendations on how to combat
technostress. The results of the coding sheet were then graphed. The results
showed a high percentage of fear and anxiety as symptoms, and showed
"performance anxiety" and "inexperience with computers" as the top two
reasons given for technostress. Training was the most frequently cited
recommendation to either avoid or combat technostress. Two appendices contain
the coding sheet and tables and graphs illustrating the results. (Contains 61
references.) (Author/DLS)

********************************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
********************************************************************************
 TECHNOSTRESS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS.

A Master's Research Paper submitted to the

Kent State university School of Library Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree Master of Library and Information Science

by

Robin Clute

May, 1998

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Office of Educational Research and Improvement
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS
BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
O This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
D originating it.
O Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

1
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
2 Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do not necessarily represent
official OERI position or policy.
 Technostress is considered a psychosomatic illness that involves either anxiety

over using technological equipment, or overidentification with the computer. This study

explores the literature of technostress both inside and outside of the library field. Fifty-

eight unique articles were abstracted and evaluated. A measurement was taken of

symptoms, reasons given for the "modern disease" and recommendations on how to

combat technostress, by using a coding sheet. The results of the coding sheet were then

placed into graphs. The results showed a high percentage of fear and anxiety as

symptoms, and that "performance anxiety" and "inexperience with computers" as the top

two reasons given for technostress. Training was the most cited recommendation to

either avoid or combat technostress.

3
 Master's Research Paper by

Robin Clute

B.A. , University of Akron, 1996

M.L.S., Kent State University, 1998

Approved by

Advisor Date

Ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

L INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the study 2

Purpose of the study 4
Limitations of the study 4
Definition of terms. 4

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 6

3. METHODOLOGY 41

4. RESULTS 42

Symptoms 42
Reasons 43
Recommendations 44

5. CONCLUSION 46

APPENDIX A (Coding sheet) 47

APPENDIX B (Table and Graphs) 48
REFERENCES 51

5
 CHAPTER I.

Introduction

With the advent of any new technology, associated problems arise. Machines

have always had their detractors. In the early nineteenth century, the Luddites were

millworkers who destroyed the machines they felt were taking their jobs. Their fears

were real. Yet, never in history have machines changed so much and so fast as today's

computers. From large mainframes in the early days, to the desk top personal computers

today, computers evolve daily. Almost before it hits a retailer's shelf, a PC is considered

"obsolete." In the twentieth century, workers do not destroy the machines that threaten

them, but as psychologists Michelle Weil and Larry Rosen state, "Technology may do

wonders for us, but it is also doing something to us." (Weil 1997, 5) With computer

automation and integrated systems in libraries, CD-ROMs and multiple databases, and

the Internet and the World Wide Web, a "modern disease" named "technostress" (Brod

1984, 16) has developed due to the rapid changes in technologies.

Librarianship has changed dramatically over the last twenty years, and the

majority of that change is due to automation. Fifteen years ago, Online Public Access

Catalogs (OPACs) were virtually unheard of, and OCLC and Dialog were among the

few computerized databases that librarians had contact with. Now, some libraries are on

their second automation system, most are automated, and the few remaining are

contemplating automation for the first time. Yet, it is not just the computerized catalogs

and integrated systems that cause technostress. Another whole layer of searching has

been added with CD-ROM databases, as well as the Internet and World Wide Web. If

6
 Page 2

that was not enough, printers run out of ink and paper, and users are as unfamiliar with

the technologies as staff are.

With all that in mind, technological change does not have to be a bad thing. With

proper planning and implementation, and the increasingly user friendly interfaces, even

the most resistant computer-phobic can learn to use the tools at her fingertipsas long as

all individuals see technology as a tool, and not as the answer to all the ills of the library.

Librarians and staff have always had to balance patrons and other tasks.

In a time of "multi-tasking," a recent term also coined by the computer age,

technology in libraries can beneficial. Most of the routine tasks have been automated.

Access to sources outside the library opens up a new world in reference service. The

benefits of technologies outweigh the drawbacks, yet there is a definite resistance to

change among library staff

Background of the Study

Technostress is a fairly recent word added to the lexicon. Attributed to Craig

Brod in 1984, but used as early as 1983 in a Washington Post article (OED 1989),

technostress is considered a psychosomatic illness that involves either: 1) anxiety over

using technological equipment; or 2) over identification with the computer.(Brod 1984,

16) This definition takes it a bit farther:

Technostress is a modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to

cope with the new technologies in a healthy manner. It manifests itself
in two distinct but related ways: in the struggle to accept computer
technology, and in the more specialized form of overidentification with
computer technologies (Brod 1984, 16).

Brod's model includes symptoms of ambivalence, reluctance and fear of computers,

which all translate into anxiety. Anxiety manifests itself in other ways: irritability,

7
 Page 3

headaches, nightmares and insomnia, technological resistance, or technological rejection,

and an assortment of other symptoms. It affects "those who feel pressuredby

employers, peers, or general cultureto accept and use computers" (Brod 1984, 16).

Other symptoms have been observed, such as isolation and frustration, negative

attitudes toward computers, self-negativity, and using statements like "I don't do that"

when referring to CD-ROMs, either searching or servicing. Also, there is an inability to

cope, and a general feeling of panic when confronted with a task that must be done on

the computer (Kupersmith1992, 9).

In Craig Brod's definition of technostress he mentioned not only the inability to

cope but "overidentification" with the computer as another aspect of technostress. This

occurs when a person is "technocentered," becoming more and more computer-like. The

person who "overidentifies" with the computer becomes less emotional, more impatient

with people. There is "a loss of capacity to feel and to relate to others" (Brod 1984, 17).

Exhaustion is often coupled with this, and factual thinking, while not necessarily a

harmful thing, becomes the person's mindset.

Technostress is not always technological in nature. It may not be the computer at

all that creates fear and/or stress in the individual. Change in itself is frightening and

powerlessness may be at the root of many resistors. As such, technostress can be divided

further into four distinct but related components: performance anxiety, information

overload, role conflicts and organizational factors (Kupersmith 1992, 8). Each of these

can affect the lives of librarians and other library staff

 Page 4

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to show: 1) that technostress does exist in libraries

because of the rapidly changing technological environment; 2) that both library staff and

users are affected by the increasing technological factors, and 3) that there are answers to

combat these effects. The library literature shows an awareness of Brod's definition of

technostress and there are additional interpretations that fit the library field.

Limitations of the Study

As the term "technostress" is a modern term, the literature included shall be from

1984 to the present. The literature, however, will include academic, public, special, and

school libraries and also literature outside the field on technostress as well.

Definition of Terms

Technostress: Technostress is a modern disease of adaptation caused by an

inability to cope with the new technologies in a healthy manner. It

manifests itself in two distinct but related ways: in the struggle to

accept computer technology, and in the more specialized form of

overidentification with computer technologies (Brod 1984, 16).

Performance anxiety: "Debilitative thoughts and statements, negative self evaluation,

expectations of failure or distracting thoughts" (Kupersmith 1992,

8).

Role conflicts: When roles are no longer clearly defined. For example, "an expert

searcher is reduced to the role of CD ROM attendant, fiddling with

paper jams and spent ink cartridges . ." (Kupersmith1992, 9).

.
 Page 5

Organizational factors: Factors such as insufficient staffing, particularly because of the

misconception that technology has made the job easier; not enough

terminals, printers, etc., for users; lack of management, either in

training, or providing information about systems. Another aspect

is if decisions on automated systems were made without library

staff being a part of the decision, then some staff may reject the

new system.

Integrated systems: A computer system that supports many of the library functions,

such as circulation, online public access catalogs, ordering and

acquisitions, cataloging and management information (Rowley

1992, 317).

OPACS: Online public access catalogs, which provide a database of library

collections and other services.

 Page 6

CHAPTER H.

Literature Review

The rapidly changing nature of technology has created a need for knowledge of

what is, and will be, expected of librarians, staff and users in the future. The literature

that will be reviewed carries the term "technostress" within the title, subject or abstract

of the article.

John Kupersmith, in his article "Technostress and the Reference Librarian"

(1992), has produced one of the foremost articles on technostress in libraries. He

identifies technostress and its components: performance anxiety, role conflicts,

information overload and organizational factors, and how all of these factors lead to

burnout. Kupersmith also identifies individual strategies to combat technostress, such as

cultivating a positive attitude, time management and setting realistic goals. On an

organizational level, he advises department heads and staff managers to believe in each

individual, foster cooperation and provide opportunities for hands-on practice, plus many

more strategies. He concludes that there is no magic to wish technology away, but there

are ways to ease into the computer revolution.(Kupersmith 1992, 13)

Carl Hanson (1994) finds that the automation frenzy has divided librarianship into

two sections: the humanists and the technoids. In his article "Trekking with the

Technoids: Public Service Librarianship in the Year 2010," he characterizes the

humanists as clinging to old ways of doing things, and the technoids of exalting the

database, yet notes that both have a good deal of common ground. The merits of

automation have been undercut by the frenzied pace of implementation, and costly
 Page 7

mistakes. Hanson foresees a congruence of automation and librarianship that will meld

the two divisions, and perhaps create a utopian-like medium ground.

Jeanette Woodward (1997) deals primarily with librarianship and the older

learner in her article "Retraining the Profession, or, Over the Hill at 40". She finds that

there is a growing resentment among the younger librarians, who know how to deal with

the technologies, and the older librarians, who want nothing to do with the technologies

and only acquire the basic skills to carry themselves through the routine duties. She

notes that the "baby boomer" generation and its older siblings went to school prior to the

arrival of automation in libraries and these generations are the fastest growing age group

in the work force. Interestingly enough, Woodward suggests that computer skills are

learned, and that there is no evidence to support the belief that people stop learning as

they age. She states that often the real answer is improving the workers self-esteem, thus

making them more productive.

The cultural aspect of electronic information retrieval is Irene Sever's focus in

"Electronic Information Retrieval as Culture Shock" (1994). "Culture shock" is what

workers and users experience when faced with some new aspect, or unfamiliar cultural

experience (Sever 1994, 336). The physical forms taken by technology, such as screens

versus printed pages and the need to press keys in order to operate the equipment only

increase the difficulty in acceptance of technology. Sever states that because older

generations have not been raised in an electronic environment, it is difficult for them to

accept new technologies, whereas the younger generations have taken to technology "as

ducks take to water.- This also provides a reason why older people do not ask for help.

Since the help may be in the form of someone half their age. They do not want to appear
 Page 8

ignorant in asking the younger person for help. She concludes that librarians need to be

the agents of socialization, to serve as guides to those who resist change.

Virginia Moreland says in her article "Technostress and Personality Type" (1993)

that the different aspects of technology produce greater stress for different personality

types. People learn differently, and these differences should be taken into account.

Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and psychological type literature, identification

can be made of the likely sources of stress for diverse personality types. She notes that

there are sixteen possible psychological types; however, she also believes that the

concepts of type should never be used to pigeon-hole, typecast or limit someone's

possibilities.

Avoiding technostress is Greg Byerly's point in "Introducing Staff to Change"

(1990). Training and implementation should be started with patience. Byer ly states that

with "positive progress" the staff can be introduced to changes in technology. There are

"Six points of Positive Planning," which are: planning, participation, preparation,

preview, prudence and patience (Byer ly 1990, 39). With these points, the automation

process can be a somewhat painless one. Byer ly breaks down each point, giving practical

methods of dealing with issues such as previewing technology, and keeping based with

reality when it comes to schedules. Finally, he concludes that directors and managers

must find ways to introduce change in the least threatening and most positive way, in

order to have staff fully cooperate and embrace technology.

Shelly Heaton and Jeanne M. Brown look at technology as a series of incentives

and hurdles in their article "Staff perceptions of Incentives and Hurdle to the Use of

Technology." (1995). The Technology Committee of the University of Nevada, Las

13
 Page 9

Vegas (UNLV) administered a survey to the staff in spring of 1994. Their results

concluded that the "hurdles" were often due to supervisory problems, lack of

communication and time/staff levels. Some staff felt that they were "bogged down" by

the information they were receiving in the automation implementation. However, the

"incentives" were training and a newsletter published by the Technology Committee

called Tech Notes. Most of the staff recognized that technology was essential, but a third

felt that their background and experience was actually a "hurdle" to overcome in learning

the new technology.

The focus of Rachel Daniels' article "Effects on Non-professional Staff of the

Implementation of Computer-based Library Systems in College Libraries" (1995) is on

three college libraries' non-professional staff The libraries surveyed had implemented

new automation systems within the last two years. Interviews by phone were conducted

of as many of the non-professional staff as possible, as well as the librarian in charge.

Daniels' findings were that the staff's large range of age and experience had little effect

on how they faced their new system. Instead, personality of the individual had far more

effect on whether they learned easily or not. Stress, due to the new technology, was

completely different for all three libariesone library's staff was concerned about when

the system would crash, while another library's staff was concerned over fines and

policies. The third library found that they were busier due to their new technology,

which added to their stress. Training and communication were found to be key elements

in the staff s coping with the new automation. The library that had the most problems

had limited the information that was distributed to staff The non-professional staff knew

this and resented that they were not getting the whole picture. (Daniels 1995, 11)
 Page 10

Virginia Bartlett talks about the causes and symptoms of technostress in her

article "Technostress and Librarians." (1995) She cites research from both Craig Brod

(1984) and Jo 1m Kupersmith (1992), relaying that there are physical and psychological

stressors which, coupled with insufficient training and lack of standardization,

contributes to technostress in libraries. Another issue that Bartlett raises is that of jargon,

and how the technical language of computers causes intimidation and fear in users

(Bartlett 1995, 227). She concludes that overcoming technostress is something that

librarians can do by talking to vendors to make their products easier to use (Bartlett 1995,

228) and that time must be allowed for the training of employees, since change is often

difficult in organizations. She also advocates the use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

that Virginia Moreland (1993) wrote about and a participatory management style to give

employees more of a sense of ownership in the automation processes.

Linda Dobb's experience with a major computer disaster is the subject of her

article "Technostress: Surviving a database crash." (1990) In 1987, the database of the

Kennedy Library of California Polytechnic State University "crashed" when a glitch in a

back up tape delivered garbled and unreadable data. Approximately 300,000 out of

500,000 records were effected, leaving all the title entries from A to M without

bibliographic records. Data recovery efforts found that the cost was going to be high, and

would take a long time. At that point, staff morale "plummeted" and "technofear" set in.

(Dobb 1990, 66) The process of recovery ended up taking seven months, and the staff

was reluctant to use the computer system when it was brought back up. Dobb states that

some of the staff "even experienced the classic stages of bereavement: denial, resistance,

anger and depression." (Dobb 1990, 66) She gives ideas, however, on how libraries

15
 Page 11

should prepare themselves to avoid and cope with the possibility of a database crash: 1)

Have a contingency plan, much like you would have a disaster plan; 2) Use preventative

measures; 3) If outsiders are responsible for a crash, get tough; 4) Think about the impact

a crash has on staff attitudes. Dobb also gives what lessons her library has learned,

ranging from "Be positive" to "Forget past difference and work together toward a

smooth recover." (Dobb 1990, 67).

Katie Clark and Sally Kalin explore how even those who embrace technology can

be at risk, in their article "Technostressed Out? How to cope in the digital age." (1996)

The authors state that it is not the technology that is the culprit, but the "pace of

technological change that has us reeling." (Clark and Kalin 1996, 31) They also state

that it is "resistance to change" that is the real definition of technostress, and that stress is

a natural reaction. However, that reaction should only be temporary. Managers should

be role models and set about learning new software. Communication is the key in the

battle to avoid technostress. Also, another way to deal with technostress is to hire people

with the necessary flexibility and coping skills since technological proficiency is a job

requirement nowadays. The authors also bring up the training issue. Training is critical

for all staff, and the timing of training is very importantcoinciding with "people's

actual need to use the technology." (Clark and Kalin 1996, 32) Practice and

reinforcement is also a must. Technical support is considered essential, with competent

people to deal with the hardware and software problems. The authors conclude with a

reiteration of all of the above ideas, as well as the issue of fiscal funds should be

appropriated to upgrade and repair PC's.

16
 Page 12

In Barbara Call's article "PC Phobia: Lack of knowledge leads employees to fear

their computers," (1986) the author explores the reactions of employees who are

undergoing training either for the first time, or just after in-house training. "PC phobia,"

she says, is fear of the unknown, and "fear of making mistakes . . . in front of your

colleagues." (Call 1986, 80) Several PC training consulting firms were interviewed, and

the trainers divided phobia sufferers into several categories. Beginning users and women

often suffer more PC phobia, as well as employees who have little or no input in the

planning process of automation. PC phobia, however, can be overcome, Call reports, by

trainingindividualized and hands-onand involvement of employees in future

planning processes of organizations. (Call 1986, 81)

Donald Rothberg gives a small example of "computer phobia" in his article "Fear

and loathing of Cyberspace not uncommon." (1997) He asserts that "computer phobia,"

or technostress, has shown up in the federal government, and that even the president did

not use e-mail until his daughter went away to college. Rothberg cites embarrassment,

fear, and the idea that computers are "impersonal monsters" as reasons given for the

phobia. (Rothberg 1997, A4) Absenteeism in the federal government has also risen, and

technostress is the suspected cause.

Mary Gluckman's article "The dark side of the boom" (1991) reveals a very

pessimistic view of how employees are affected by new technology. Gluckman

interviews Craig Brod, who coined the phrase "technostress," who asserts that isolation

and disconnection are rising in individuals in the "bottom levels of electronic

hierarchies." (Gluckman 1991, 37) Communications are cut off in an effort to measure

quantity (via the computer) rather than quality. In an interview with a human resources

17
 Page 13

consultant, Gluckman likens technostress to symptoms of post-traumatic stress syndrome,

and says that people "operate from a position of chronic performance anxiety and

background stress." (Gluckman 1991, 38) Brod, Gluckman reports, believes we need to

"reevaluate our value systems" and "coevolve with technology" if we are to exist in any

kind of peace. (Gluckman 1991, 38)

Reid Goldsborough's article "Battling computer phobia" (1997) states that "for

every person smitten with the power of a PC, there's another person cowering."

(Goldsborough 1997, 1) Goldsborough explores performance anxiety and fear, and how

even training does not stick with some employees. In effort to combat the effects of

computer phobia, Goldsborough believes that first and foremost the person must

understand that they are not alone in their fear. Then, the computer phobic can move on

to trying the basics, i.e., playing games which makes the user more familiar with the

mouse and the keyboard. Also, it is important, according to Goldsborough, not to worry

about breaking the computer. Other points are to simply take learning slow and easy,

forgive mistakes (but do not forget them), and to reward successful completion of

training programs by offering days off, or even a drawing for a home computer.

Walter Giesbrecht and Roberta McCarthy explore "Staff resistance to library CD-

ROM services." (1991) This article resulted from a question posted on an electronic

forum. The question was about resistance to technology. They found seven categories of

responses to their questions, given primarily from academic libraries: 1) Psychological

reasons, i.e., fear of the unknown; 2) Problems with multiple interfaces and the need to

learn all of them; 3) Increased teaching load, i.e., the need of the user for more

assistance; 4) Increased costs; 5) Increased stress, i.e., the feeling that technology has

16
 Page 14

been imposed on them (the workers); ) Time required to maintain CD-ROM services;

and 7) Hardware/software issues such as no standardization. Although these all were

considered adverse reactions by the forum and authors, resistance to library technologies

was recognized as nothing new, and "the reasons for resisting CD-ROM are much the

same as those for resisting technology in general." (Giesbrecht and McCarthy 1991, 36)

While the authors did not dismiss the categories, several were thought to be needless

(i.e., increased costs, since print sources cost as much; and teaching loads, since the

librarians rarely taught students how to use print indexes).

Fear of technological tools is what Mike Livingston reports on in his article

"Technophobic." (1993) He states that "the future is in the fast lane" and that "fear of

technology . . .[is] the phobia of the 1990's." (Livingston 1993, DO Livingston breaks

down a survey done by Dell Computer Corporation in 1993 which revealed that thirty-

two percent of adults are intimidated by computers, and twenty-five percent would not

use them "unless forced to." (Livingston 1993, D1) Of all those considered

"technophobic,- sixty-seven percent are adults, with women being the majority, and

thirty-three percent are teens. "Jargon" is one of the reasons Livingston gives as to why

people remain resistant to technology. The other major reason for resistance are

socialization factors, and he cites Alvin Toffler's dire prediction that the American

civilization will have to be restructured due to our shift toward technology. (Livingston

1993, D2)

Bob Grove's article also deals with the Dell Computer Corporation survey and a

psychiatrist's fear of computers in "Man vs. Machines: Techno-terror." (1993) The

psychiatrist, Dr. Steven Simring, relates to Groves that he felt "uncomfortable near the

19
 ra 15

computer" and that he ''recoiled from the very ianguage of computers." (Groves 1993,

Ai) Groves then leads in to the Deft survey, relaying that fifty-five percent of

Aniericans were silii reSiStarli i0 technology at the time the article was wrinen and thai

women were more technophobic than men. He aiso brings us the themes of
technophobia that run through science fiction and horror literature, such as Frankenstein,

2661: A space odyssey, and Christine. Therapists interviewed by Groves attribute

tecilliophobia io fear of failure, loss of control, and low self-esteem as well as to fear of

the unknown. Another factor, according to Groves, is that new technology has an age

threshold': people over fifty find' it more frightening than younger people. (Groves 1993,

Ai) Overall, Groves concludes that the -most typical tactie peopie use to cope with

their fear of tecimology is avoidance behavior.

Kate Hickey and other members of the Technology Committee of the Community

and Junior Corteges of the American Library Association document cases where

technostress is caused by a variety of factors. Their article 'Technostress in libraries and

media centers (1952) covers community college libraries in Kentucky, norida and

Georgia, where impiementation of a new automation system coincided with the addition

of other technologies: CD-ROlvis, fax centers, e-maii as weii as some other new services.

The Kentucky community colleges fared the best, but found staffing patterns had

changed with the need for more, not less, stafr forthe public service sector to handle the

new demands. Training and planning were considered the key to their success. In the

Florida community college libraries, an inventory of holdings coincided with the new

technologies, leading to "shocks and frustrations' due to the changing information

environment. (Hickey eta" 1992, 18) They also chose Macintosh computers after the
 Page 16

staff had been familiar with MS DOS based applications, and the training took staff away

from hectic public service, causing a new level of stress when desks were not covered.

Another problem was insufficient time for staff to practice before implementation took

place. In Georgia, the DeKalb College libraries also went through varied technologies

simultaneously, but their problem was different. "Loss of traditional information," which

included visually seeing the amount of circulation they had done, who and how many

overdue slips were being sent out, as well as the uselessness of the shelf list, made the

staff s adjustment stressful. (Hickey et.al. 1992, 18) Rapid change and improvement also

created anxiety, with no end in sight. The authors recommend ways to combat

technostress, which includes balancing private and work life; a participatory management

style; and most of all, training and communication. Hickey concludes that technostress

will never be eliminated, since technology is here to stay.

Connie Koenenn defines symptoms of an illness in her article "Technostress: The

high price of a high-tech world." (1990) Symptoms include tension, paranoia, fatigue

among others, and she attributes these symptoms to technostress. Even headaches and

back pains, according to Koenenn, are caused by fear of technology. (Koenenn 1990, D1)

Rapid change is one of the reasons given for this fall out as well as isolation factors

(people communicate via e-mail instead of in-person). Craig Brod is interviewed and

states that high-tech creates the stress for perfection, and that "technostress victims react

with anger and hostility." (Koenenn 1990, D1) Impatience is another reaction due to

technologypeople are more impatient when loading software, etc. However, Koenenn

also consults Ann Majchrzak, an organizational psychologist, who states that technostress

is really caused by a lack of training and communication from management. Majchrzak

21
 Page 17

gives examples of how successful companies devote up to "ten percent of their time to

on-going high-tech training" and that it is much preferred to give employees time to

prepare for and accept new technology. (Koenenn 1990, D1)

Debbie Galant relates how the world of the Wall Street analysts has changed in

her article "The technology trap." (1994) The new technology has connected financial

analysts and made them even more competitive, but at what price, Galant asks. One

analyst is quoted as saying "If I don't use it [technology], I'll be at a competitive

disadvantage." (Galant 1994, 141) Although computers, fax machines, voice mail and e-

mail have made analyst's jobs easier, they are also tied to their clients and firms twenty-

four hours a day. The proliferation of gadgetry also undermines the quality of their

research, and the resulting information overload gives the analysts technostress. Speed is

the product of new technology. Galant also finds some brokerage analysts have been

"cut . . . out as the middleman" due to teleconferencing. (Galant 1990, 142) As analysts

scramble to keep up, they are writing "thought" pieces, in which one analyst included

over five pages of computer terms as a glossary. "These days every analyst has to be in

part a technology analyst," Galant states, yet a top ranked savings and loan analyst boasts

that he has never used a computer, and still only uses a 20 year old calculator and legal

pad. (Galant 1990, 143)

Michelle Rapter's article "Technostress takes toll in Internet users" (1998)

discusses that among the manifestations of technostress is an inability to focus or

concentrate on anything for a significant amount of time. She cites Michelle Weil and

Larry Rosen's (1997) research on how technology has created high expectations, and that

the constant waiting for e-mail, software and World Wide Web pages to load has created

22
 Page 18

technostress in Internet users particularly. Adverse behavior also includes a decrease in

work productivity, insomnia, losing your train of thought, and even changes in sleeping

patterns. (Rafter 1998, D8) Some people feel compelled to check their e-mail even in the

middle of the night. Some Internet users also take advantage of their Internet anonymity

to behave in ways they would never normally, particularly in chat rooms. Yet, e-mail

breaks in the workplace might be a good idea, Rafter finds one user saying.

Richard Hudiberg conducts a study to measure technostress in his article

"Psychology of computer use VII: Measuring technostress: Computer related stress."

(1989) A Computer Technology Hassles Scale was developed in order to measure

computer related stress, and given to both undergraduate and graduate students at the

University of North Alabama. The sample was predominantly female, and the majority

of the sample has taken a computer course and/or used a computer. The results of the

study indicated that the subjects perceived "moderate stress" and "few subjects reported

high stress." (Hudiberg 1989, 770) Most frequently checked hassles were: computerized

junk mail; the computer system was down; lack of expertise; and keyboard typing errors,

among others. Hudiberg states that the Perceived Stress Scale scores "were significantly

correlated with sex" and that "women tended to perceive more stress than men."

(Hudiberg 1989, 770) The study also indicated that those who perceived more stress

"tend to experience more hassles with computers and have slightly more negative

attitudes toward computers." (Hudiberg 1989, 771) The more people use computers,

Hudiberg says, the more likely they are to experience a hassle. However, he suggests "if a

person experiences stress when dealing with computer technology, it has little to do with

attitudes toward technology." (Hudiberg 1989, 771)

 Page 19

Anne Fliotsos gives a view from a college library perspective in "Anxiety

layering: The effects of library computer anxiety on CD-ROM use." (1992) Multiple

interfaces or "vendor differences" are a big problem for both librarian and student.

Students also believe that everything is in the computer, and do not go on to print

sources. Faculty, on the other hand, can be afraid of CD-ROMs, and hesitant to use

them. Fliotsos gives an example of an interview with a "humanist researcher" who

"explained that humanists do not use a linear research style" and that "technology does

not always mesh with the needs of the humanist researcher." (Fliotsos 1992, 48) Role

conflicts occur when librarians need to put paper in printers, load software, and so on.

Another problem Fliotsos sees is obsolescenceproducts, hardware and software are

obsolete almost as soon as they are purchased. Network options can be a source of stress,

and training is definitely a must. However, the first step, Fliotsos says, is for people to

realize that they are not alone in their fear of technology.

Richard Lally's article "Managing teclmostress" (1997) focuses on how managers

do not deal with their own fears of technology. Burn-out and information overload are

cited as one of the leading causes of ill health in managers, and technostress is

considered the culprit. "The majority of American managers suffer a technological

knowledge gap," Lally states. (Lally 1997, 5) Many managers do not even know how to

type, and their reluctance to learn "sends a message that pervades their departments."

Lally also says that the way for employees to have confidence in technology is to see

their managers use it. Asking employees for their input is critical, and training should be

comprehensive and ongoing. An on-site help desk to address technological problems is a

24
 Page 20

must, but if there is no formal help desk, then tapping the resources of those employees

who are the most comfortable with the new technology is crucial. (Lally 1997, 6)

The article "Self-help is on the way" (1997) is partly a book review, partly a

commentary. Eric Nee discusses the book TechnoStress: Coping with technology @work

@home @play by Michelle Weil and Larry Rosen. Nee terms it as a "self-help book for

people who panic at the sight of computers," and says the book would have benefited

from more humor. Jargon is a problem, Nee comments, because the computer industry is

dominated by engineers, and thus the products are hard to use. However, he states that

the authors, Weil and Rosen, stretch the thesis too far when they say that modem

technology "tends to alienate us from one another" and increases people's stress levels,

leaving them feeling incompetent and inadequate. He also disputes that the "profusion of

technology makes life today more stressful than it was in the past." (Nee 1997, 198) His

point is to think about how our ancestors crossed the stormy Atlantic in a cargo hold, or

were quarantined for months at Ellis Island, or made their way across the Great Plains

to "scratch out a living on a desolate farm." (Nee 1997, 198) Technostress pales in

comparison to the hardships of the past. Weil and Rosen have termed the computer

waiting periods (software loading, etc.) "technologically captive moments," turning it

into a malady, which Nee disputes. He asks, "Should we now have 'naturally captive

moments' " when we wait for rain, or snow to stop so we can go outside? (Nee 1997,

198) Nee does recommend that the book be read by anyone who designs high-tech

products.

Laurie Larwood's article "Women workers as users of computer technology,"

(1992) raises the issue of how women are impacted by new technologies. Larwood

25
 Page 21

states that "the experience of women indeed has been substantially different than men"

Larwood 1992, 38) in that women are usually at the lower end of the pay scale and are

perceived as less adequate. Computers are leading to changes, Larwood reiterates, and

trends include "deskilling," when tasks run by computers require less educated and

lower paid individuals. Another trend is that standards become higher due to the

computers ability to create a perfect document, so secretarial staff would not be

"deskilled" but instead have their standards increase. "Complex high-level tasks"

performed by artificial intelligence programs may perform tasks that take the place of

physicians; and computerized tasks in areas "where human labor was either too

expensive or non-existent" (Larwood 1992, 38) is another trend that may increase

employment. These trends still imply that the fields are dominated by men, but women

who plunge into these fields should do as well as men. However, Larwood says, women

are users and not designers of technology. If women can modify their work patterns, they

will not be hurt by computerization. Those unable to adapt will face being phased out, or

"deskilled." (Larwood 1992, 39)

Catherine Edwards, Joan Day and Graham Walton write about academic libraries

in the United Kingdom in "Impel Project: the impact on people of electronic libraries."

(1995) The Impel Project was run by the Information Services Department and the

Department of Information and Library Management at the University of Northumbria at

New Castle. Eighty-two in-depth interviews were conducted and brief questionnaires

based on the Likert scale were distributed to staff of six university libraries. The results

of the questionnaires were then broken down into three groups of staff hierarchy: library

assistants, information librarians and senior managers. The responses to the

41) 6
 Page 22

questionnaires and interviews found that technology did not reduce workloads, but
technology and
changed tasks. Teaching loads were heavier due to the demands of new

"huge increases in enquiry work" were reported by staff (Edwards, Day and Walton
did occur when staff
1995, 204) Job satisfaction, however, also increased. Frustrations

was unable to practice on new systems. Lack of technical support also caused anxiety.

Very few of the staff admitted to being totally against technology. Most agreed strongly
Day and
that the new technology made them more effective in their work (Edwards,

Walton 1995, 205), but the staff also felt frustrated by their lack of technical expertise

and inability to keep up with electronic developments. Surprisingly, the staff strongly

disagreed with the statement that working in an electronic environment isolated them
technology would put
from their colleagues and users. They also did not believe that

them out of a job. The authors found most responses positive and enthusiastic, and

planned to continue the Impel Project surveys. (Edwards, Day and Walton 1995, 208)

Cathleen Palmini's article discusses a 1992 survey of academic library staff in

Wisconsin. "The impact of computerization on library support staff' (1994) looks at year

of employment, type of automated systems, adequacy of training, job satisfaction and

overall change in effectiveness since computerization, among other questions. Palmini

reports that the sixteen question survey elicited over two hundred responses. The results

showed a stable staff, where "nearly one-third of the total group has been employed in a

support staff position for over fifteen years." (Palmini 1994, 120) The staff reported that

they often had to work in multiple places, thereby having to deal with different computer

applications in different areas. Over seventy-five percent used the online catalog

regularly, and two-thirds used word processing and e-mail. Health problems due to
 Page 23

computers were considered to have increased, and one source

of frustration was poorly

written manuals and inadequate training. While computers have increased the

effectiveness of serving patrons, the support staff considers their jobs to have increased,

due the demand. Computer related frustration totaled sixty-two percent, with the

"computer is down" and "work load, being understaffed" leading the two most cited
suggested by the
reasons for frustration on the job. Palmini concludes that changes
ergonomics in the libraries. She
survey should include adequate training, and attention to

also states that with the rapid changes, the support staff has been "reasonably
extraordinary" in adapting to automation. (Palmini 1994, 127)

Charles Seavey's article, "A failure of vision: Librarians are losing the war for
behind
electronic professional turf," (1993) addresses the problem that libraries are way
the primary market for
in technology. Seavey points out that although librarians provide

commercial databases and CD ROMs, they often have obsolete equipment and very little
library
training. Seavey tells an anecdote about a colleague who hired a computer savvy

technical assistant. The technical assistant became very popular in helping departments
the
with their computers. Yet, because the technical assistant did not have an MLS,

assistant director of the library decided that the technical assistant "should devote himself

to nonprofessional tasks, like making sure the printers had ribbons . . ." (Seavey 1993,

944) Seavey says the problem is that "we are still mired in the realm of bibliography"

and that if hiring a non-librarian is necessary, then do it. (Seavey 1993, 944) If it takes

investing in training for existing librarians, then consider it necessaryor "we are going

to be relegated to low-paying custodial jobs in buildings full of unused paper," Seavey

warns. (Seavey 1993, 944)

 Page 24

Sara Fine's article "Technological innovation, diffusion and resistance: An

historical perspective" (1986) covers the literature of change, whether technological or

not, and how people have always resisted change. She states that no matter how well

technological innovation is planned out or communicated, "some individual will resist

The
change whether through active aggression or passive retreat." (Fine 1986, 84)

"resistance phenomenon" still amazes managers in libraries, where most technology is

not new. Fine reports that there is literature that suggests that librarians are predisposed
personality." (Fine 1986, 85) Other
to resistance because of "certain attributes of
barrier to
literature implies that the custodial nature of librarians provide a psychological

change. However, even prior to wide spread automation in libraries (1980's through

1990's), library staff have resisted changes in tasks, where "negative attitudes manifested
Some
by absenteeism, turnover, underproduction and sabotage." (Fine 1986, 86)

librarians wrote literature that outright opposed the use of technology as "fiscally

irresponsible and managerially incompetent." (Fine 1986, 88) Fine goes on

to trace the

beginnings of resistance from even the 16th and 17th centuries of Europe to the present.

Educators and librarians as well as businesses have become more aware of resistance.

Theories on how to cope with resistance are now more commonplace in the literature.

Fine reports that communication, along with a participatory management style is a thread

that runs throughout the literature as a way to avoid resistance and technostress. "People

need precise understanding of tasks and expectations," Fine says. (Fine 1986, 98)

Training, too, is reiterated throughout the literature, but Fine concludes that "resistance

will always exist" and that maybe the purpose of resistance "is to give us pause, force us
 Page 25

to slow down and impel us to pay attention to our basic human needs and values." (Fine

1986, 106)

Bengt Arnetz and Clairy Wiholm explore the psychosomatic symptoms of

technostress in their article "Technological stress: Psychophysiological symptoms in

modern offices."(1997) They state that due to radical reorganization and downsizing in
have been
business plus technological innovations in business, "uncommon syndromes

reported." These syndromes are characterized by symptoms such as weakness, difficulty

concentrating, chronic fatigue, eye and respiratory irritation, and memory disturbances,

among others. (Arnetz and Wiholm 1997, 36) The authors studied the symptoms

scientifically, finding "significant correlation between perceived workload and the

psychosomatic index at three different assessments" (Arnetz and Wiholm 1997, 36) in
"that mental stress was behind
cross sectional relationships. They tested the hypothesis

the observed increases in circulating prolactin" by making a study of stress management

in telecommunication employees. A stress management program, the authors found,

Arnetz and Wiholm

significantly resulted in lower levels of reported mental stress.

concluded that "their investigation has presented the case for technostress being

predominantly a state of psychophysiological activation." (Arnetz and Wiholm 1997, 41)

Margaret Gaff's article "GUI vs. CUI: Individual personality types and the

experience of learning to use library databases" (1994) focuses on how certain

personality types have more difficulty using Character User Interfaces (CUI) than

Graphical User Interfaces (GUI). Gaff explains the Myers-Briggs Personality Type

Indicator, and how if "there is a mistake between type and occupation, the client usually

reports feeling tired and inadequate." (Gaff 1994, 185) Using this type of information,

30
 Page 26

Gaff applied it to her own pilot project by taking a small sample of five participants. The

personality types represented primarily introverts. Databases were selected that were

both character based and graphics based. Each participant was given printed handouts on.
questions to which they
how to use the databases. The participants were then given three

were to find the answers on the CUI database first, and then on the GUI database for

similar questions. (Gaff 1994, 187) The results were that all five participants found the

GUI easy to use. Three out of five found the CUI "frustrating" to use, and one found it
This
"challenging" while the remaining individual thought it was "very easy."
with a
participant was an ISTJ personality type (Introvert, Sensing, Thinking, Judging),

Thinking dominance. Gaff concludes that "understanding the implications of their own

personality preferences and that of coworkers" can be illuminating for librarians and

staff, and that to cart), out this type of exercise, it would be wise to hire a practiced

consultant or psychologist. (Gaff 1994, 190)

Benjamin Amick and Judith Jacobs explore the problems of automation in

"Assessing the impact of automation on employee productivity and health." (1987)

Clerical jobs are profoundly effected as technology advances, and increased productivity

will drive industries to automate. As offices become more automated, new types of

interpersonal conflicts will arise. (Amick and Jacobs 1987, 34) Training will also be a

problem since organizations never budget for it. Changing work patterns create changing

roles, patterns of communications and power and leadership changes. Technology may

even interfere, according to the authors, with personal management styles, where face-to-

face meetings may become obsolete due to e-mail. Social interaction is important and

without social support, workers develop more illnesses and are "less satisfied with the
 Page 27

the authors do not

job." (Amick and Jacobs 1987, 37) Productivity then falls. However,

instead stating that it is actually

consider these conditions "technostress,"

"technologically determined" since "stress" happened before automation. (Amick and

Jacobs 1987, 39) Indeed, workers who lack control show the same symptoms whether

there is technology in the office or not. Physical problems, such as eye strain or

musculoskeletal problems can be prevented. The authors report three conditions in the

workplace that can lead to stress and illness: social isolation, or lack of social support;
workloads. (Amick and
lack of control over timing, speed and tasks; and finally, heavy

Jacobs 1987, 42) Employee assistance programs are recommended by the authors to help

individuals under stress.

Gene Sullivan, Karen Darling and Bill Kara each give information in "Change

and impact on serials staff." (1996) Sullivan first gives an overview of how serials

librarians evolved, and how their world has changed due to automation. He believes a

"sub profession" has emerged as clerical workers become "highly skilled technicians."

(Sullivan, Darling and Kara 1996, 298) Training must be mandated in order to compete

in a more computerized marketplace. Darling relates how her library migrated to

InnoPac, and how automation has created the need to hire workers with keyboarding

skills. She expresses a greater need for staff training on e-mail and electronic services.

(Sullivan, Darling and Kara 1996, 300) Kara also reports the need to maintain a high

level of skill to process materials such as CD-ROMS and electronic journals. Staff

development is carried out in his library in small teams who train others on topics such as

e-mail, using macros and DOS. All three authors agree that their libraries are in the

32
 Page 28

midst of change, and libraries have to keep up and adapt. (Sullivan, Darling and Kara

1996, 304)

School library media specialists are the subject of Sandra Champion's article

"Technostress: Technology's toll." (1988) She states that "technostress threatens library

media specialists by attacking their physical and psychological well-being," (Champion

1988, 48) and that managing changes in technology can impact the future of school

librarians. Symptoms of technostress include resistance, intolerance, and panic, among

others. Champion identifies four dominate personality profiles of school library media
who try
specialists: 1) Resistors, who deny the new, value the old; 2) Experimenters,

new ideas scientifically; 3) The lover, who tries anything and loves everything new; and

4) The manager, who "thinks, plans, chooses selectively." (Champion 1988, 49)

Champion believes that "knowledge is the key, and as times change, librarians need to

change with them." Face changes head on and learn to reduce stress with positive

feelings, meditation and decreased resistance to technological advancement, Champion

advises.(Champion 1988, 51)

Training throughout life is the focus of Rita Hanna, Randy Ross-Ganguly and

Barbara Ross's article "The wired administrator: Technology training and lifelong

learning." (1995) They note that the "half-life of knowledge" is the "time it takes for

one-half of worker's skills to become obsolete" and that time is now three to five years.

(Hanna, Ross-Ganguly and Ross 1995, 5) Coupled with the rapid changes in hardware

and software, technology training must be lifelong learningonce started, it should

never stop. Teachers, support staff and managers all need to have continuous training.

The authors recommend that a technology committee should be formed, including all

33
 Page 29

levels of staff. A needs assessment must be done of hardware, software and

skills. Hire a

consultant, they urge, since internal people have things to do. (Hanna. Ross-Ganguly and

Ross 1995, 8) The authors also recommend the need for standardization in software

(office suites) and hardware (printers, etc. ). Training should be hands-on, and timing of

the training is important. There should be no excuses for not attending training. Use

people in teams for training. Technical support should not be haphazard, and a full time

network administrator should be hired. The authors conclude that lifelong learning does

not stop at any point, and that everyone needs a learning plan or road map. (Hanna, Ross-

Ganguly and Ross 1995, 12)

Daniel Barron's article explains the anti-technology movement in "The Luddites

are coming! Are we ready? Are they us?" (1996) He gives a brief history of the Luddite

movement in England, which was spawned by the Industrial Revolution. Barron likens it

to what is going on today. For example, the Second Luddite Congress is a modern day

group whose founder begins his presentations by "bashing a computer with a

whose
sledgehammer." (Barron 1996, 49) The Lead Pencil Club is another group

members are proud to be computer illiterate. Barron suggests that we take these and

other groups seriously. "They represent . . voices from taxpayers," he notes. Barron

does go on to state that books, compact disks, CD ROMS, TV programs and web sites are

all some sort of publication, and need to be used appropriately. (Barron 1996, 50)

Automation brings new issues to the fore for human resource managers in the

article "Robotics and Technology: How to manage technostress." United States

companies need "to automate, integrate or evaporate," according to Fred Foulkes, a

professor of management policy and director of the Human Resources Institute, Boston

34
 Page 30

University. (Personnel 1984, 51) He states that companies need to assess what jobs

should be automated, particularly ones that are "dull, dirty, or dangerous," or "hot,

heavy, or hazardous." (Personnel 1984, 51) Policies need to be put into place regarding

early retirement, displacement and reassignment of workers. Foulkes notes that "line

management has been even more resistant to technological changes than hourly

workers," and that training is the key for both managers and workers. (Personnel 1984,

52)

Steven Stone's article "Technostress: Taking some steps to cope" details how

technostress is a real problem in the Cullom-Davis Library of Bradley University. Ten

different interfaces create frustrations for user and librarians, as well as hardware

problems like printers running out of paper. Stone states that training is the way his

library deals with eliminating some of the problems. Communication, particularly when

a problem occurs like system down time, is very important for both staff and users.

Hardware is a factor in stress, so preventative maintenance helps keep machines running,

and training is given on tasks such as loading paper in the printers and clearing paper

jams. (Stone 1993, 35)

Frances Jacobson studies how boys and girls use both computers and libraries

differently in "Gender differences in attitudes toward using computers in libraries: An

exploratory study." (1991) A study was conducted in a high school for academically

talented students. Forty-nine students comprised the senior class, and the students were

required to engage in a year long formal debate project. (Jacobson 1991, 271) Among

the tools students had available to use were word processing programs, InfoTrac and

Wilson Indexes, as well as other CD ROM products, plus on online catalog. Results

35
 Page 3 1

showed a significant difference between boys' and girls' comfort levels. Girls found

libraries "friendlier," while boys found computers "friendlier." (Jacobson 1991, 275)

Computers in libraries tended to overcome the boys perception of the library, but the

girls perception of the computer (although in the library) did not change: "The computer

appears to have a dampening influence upon the totality of their [the girls] experience in

the library." (Jacobson 1991, 276) That suggests that there is a female-based library

culture versus a male-based computer culture.

Julie Pinnell reports on a program held July 8, 1997 in New York, in her article

"Collaborative solutions to technostress."(1997) Among the presenters was Richard

Hudiburg, who developed the Computer Hassles Scale. He explained that "techno-

anxiety" affects those who feel pressured to use technology, and that there are two ways

people usually cope with technostress: by using emotion-centered strategies, or by

problem solving strategies. (Pinnell 1997, 1) Hudiburg also states that the Internet is fast

becoming the number one technostressor for librarians. (Pinnell 1997, 1) Education and

training is the only way to cope with evolving technologies. Guest panelist librarians

Nancy Dewald, Gail Griffith and Catherine Palmer shared experiences of dealing with

others in "technology induced stressful situations."(Pinnell 1997, 2) Application of new

skills helped ease stress, they report, and staff training along with communication will

also ease transitions.

Julie Bichteler's article "Human aspects of high tech in special libraries" focuses

on technostress and librarians. Physical manifestations, such as eye strain and

musculoskeletal problems, are increasingly being corrected by ergonomics. However, it

is the psychological aspect which alters work, Bichteler states, as people feel they have

31
 Page 32

less control, and perceive greater fatigue. (Bichteler 1986, 122) Technostress behavior

can take the form of vocal disapproval, passive avoidance, and outright hostility, while

technocentered people over identify with computers. A study conducted of special

librarians showed, however, that special librarians are less affected by technostress "than

other working groups in our society that have been studied." (Bichteler 1986, 124) Word

processing has eased document preparations. Programmers (librarians) thought that their

personalities had changed to more efficient, organized and computer-oriented. The

major source of technostress was inadequate training in hardware and software.(Bichteler

1986, 126) Most felt, however, that technology had enhanced their work.

Joanne Euster brings a management perspective to technological change in

"Coping with changing times." (1995) She states bluntly that "change causes stress" and

that technology is changing us. (Euster 1995, 60) Organizational charts are flattening,

and administrators are now typing their own letters. Change causes anxiety, and stress

comes from fear of the unknown and the loss of control. (Euster 1995, 61) Euster

recommends breaking a problem down into smaller components. Making mistakes, she

says, is only part of the learning process. Slowing down is also a way to reduce stress,

since "sick and highly stressed employees are not productive."(Euster 1995, 61) As

changes evolve, Euster concludes, learn from each other.

Craig Brod's article "Managing technostress: Optimizing the use of computer

technology" (1982) explains the symptoms of technostress: resistance, increased errors

and illness, which are all due to an inability to adapt to new technology. (Brod 1982, 754)

Variables affect the probability of technostress, including age of user, perceived control,

and past experience with computers. Brod describes patterns of avoidance behavior,

37
 Page 33

such as simply not using the computer, as well as those who suffer from overload, and

cannot remember new procedures. An error cycle begins that leads to increased

frustration. Brod states that often managers play a part, albeit unwittingly, in the

technostress cycle by not using the technology, or by being anti-technological. (Brod

1982, 755) Training must take place to reduce technostress in three phases: educational,

rehearsal and network training. "Network mentors" are employees who are given

additional training in problem solving methods, technostress and leadership skills, and

these mentors will be able to "monitor the environment for signs of technostress."

Carol Tenopir's article "Plagued by our own successes" (1998) relates the mixed

emotions that librarians have about technology. Technology has brought a rise in service,

but it is difficult to keep up with the rapidly changing world of hardware and software,

and the myriad of interfaces. Library instruction has increased substantially, and the

"need for librarian guidance to sources is becoming critical." (Tenopir 1998, 39) Staff

training, too, is a challenge, with the numerous databases, range of software, among all

the changes. Tenopir points out that collection development can be affected due to

consortial agreements. Heightened expectations lead users to libraries with thoughts of

instantaneous information online, and often the users leave behind tools such as print

indexes. Technostress, however, can be a good thing. Several long time librarians

expressed a revitalization of their work due to technology, whereas before they were

getting bored with their jobs. (Tenopir 1998, 40)

Charles Bunge reports on how technology has become the new villain, in "CD

ROM stress." (1991) Role conflicts are occurring more and more as non-reference duties

like clearing paper jams and changing CD ROM discs take up librarians time. Multiple

38
 Page 34

interfaces give librarians "feelings of lack of control." (Bunge 1991, 64) Bunge does say,

however, that librarians are adaptable, and need to take charge. Positive thinking and

communication are key, plus the need for greater standardization. Training outside of the

reference/work area is a must. Bunge concludes that "If we respond with negative

attitudes and helplessness, CD ROM will be just another hassle that causes us pain and

robs us of satisfaction at the reference desk." (Bunge 1991, 64)

Richard Hudiburg and James Necessary report on a study of college student

computer users in "Coping with computer stress." (1996) Eighty-three students

participated in the survey, and the Computer Hassles Scale was used to assess the level of

user's stress. (Hudiburg and Necessary 1996, 116) Commonly reported computer

problems that caused stress were 1) Hardware; 2) Software; 3) lack of knowledge; 4) lack

of time; 5) computer lock-up; and 6) loss of in-put. Interestingly enough, there were no

significant differences of stress due to age. The results were broken into two groups:

high computer stress and low computer stress. The authors reported that based on the

differences between the two groups, those who have high computer stress have "less

computer skills and computer knowledge" than those with low computer stress.

(Hudiburg and Necessary 1996, 121) Those with high computer stress are more likely to

be aggressive and hostile in their coping strategy. Also, "emotional-focused coping" is

often employed by high computer stress users than problem focused-coping.

Kitty Smith's article "Toward the new millennium," (1993) focuses on the fact

that adaptation to technology can cause problems. Physical and mental fatigue are

symptoms, as are feelings of powerlessness, distrust, alienation, self-doubt and anxiety.

(Smith 1993, 210) Individuals express emotions at machines, not realizing that

39
 Page 35

computers are designed to follow instructions. On an organizational level, behavioral

factors need to be considered in implementing technology. Automation has, according to

Smith's research, changed the way we do things, how librarians are perceived, and the

traditional organizational structure. Participatory management style, communication

skills, patience and a commitment to training are all essential ingredients to successfully

integrate technology into the library's schematics. (Smith 1993, 214)

Virginia Elder, Ella P. Gardner and Stephen R. Ruth look at clerical workers in

"Gender and age in technostress: Effects on white collar productivity."(1987) They

define technostress as a "computer generated" form of physical and emotional burnout,

coupled with an inability to adapt to technological change. (Elder, Gardner and Ruth

1987, 17) The authors define "cyber-phobia" as slightly different, which causes victims

to produce physical symptoms. Productivity is affected by technostress, and serious

performance problems have been reported. A survey was conducted by the authors using

the Computer Interest/Concerns Questionnaire. This questionnaire was created by

Gardner, Render, Ruth and Ross and validated by a clinical psychologist. (Elder, Gardner

and Ruth 1987, 18) The purpose of the survey was to elicit answers in order to diagnose

phobia. The responses led to the formulation of four diagnostic groups: normal, non-

avoider, anxious avoider, and phobic. Results found that 81.5 percent of participants

were in the normal category, and only 18.5 percent were in the other three categories,

which was combined to make one technostressed category. A significantly higher

percentage of women were found to be technostressed than men, and age was also found

to be significant in computer anxiety. (Elder, Gardner and Ruth 1987, 21) Twice as

many clerical workers were technostressed than professionals.

40
 Page 36

Stuart Glogoff writes about library technology transition, in his article "Staff

Creativity Lab: Promoting creativity in the automated library." (1994) In 1991, the

University of Arizona staff and librarians worked in a "sparse micro-computing

environment that inhibited creativity in the use of technology." (Glogoff 1994, 19) Few

staff had access to personal computers, and software was limited to word processing

programs. The transition began with a grant from IBM in which 100 IBM PS/2 machines

were acquired. Twenty of the machines were used for OPACS and sixty-plus were

assigned to staff The remaining machines were put in a room that was designated as a

lab for training programs. Apple Computer donated ten Macintoshes, a scanner and a

printer. These were then put into another labthe Staff Creativity Lab. (Glogoff 1994,

20) Glogoff notes that the benefits of this lab has been that the staff is more comfortable

with automation, and support networks have formed between and within departments.

Software was selected, and hand-on training, seminars, and workshops help the

University of Arizona meet the technology challenge.

Collin T. Ballance and Sydney Rogers use Richard Hudiburg's Computer Hassles

Scale to survey students in their article "Psychology of computer use: XXIV. Computer-

related stress among technical college students." (1991) The study was done to examine

computer-related stress where computers are often used as "both an aide and the object

of instruction." (Ballance and Rogers 1991, 539) Results affirmed Hudiburg's work that

the Computer Technology Hassles Scale can be used to measure technostress. A

moderate relationship showed that the technical students' attitude toward the computer is

related to computer-related stress. However, there was no correlation between academic

41
 Page 37

achievement "and the measure of stress, computer attitude, or computer hassles were

found." (Ballance and Rogers 1991, 542)

Sethi Amarjit, Denis H.J. Caro and Randall Schuler cover the sociological impact

of technology on organizations in their article "Technostress management." (1986) They

define technostress as a form of "social stress which is specific to new information

technology." (Amarjit, Caro and Schuler 1986, 41) To prepare for this social stress,

organizations need to adopt plans of "strategic choice," which has been defined as both

"actions or rules for choosing actions in a conflict situation" and "long term planning."

Strategic choice, when used in technostress management, should prepare an

organizations' environmental condition. (Amarjit, Caro and Schuler 1986, 45) Options

with strategic choice can be proactive, reactive or interactional. Identification and

assessment is a must in order to reduce uncertainty and increase opportunity. The

authors also break down strategic choice from organizational to individual to a societal

level. Managing change and social responsibility are only part of the choices on a

societal level. (Amarjit, Caro and Schuler 1986, 55)

Julie Bichteler focuses this time on library staff and users in "Technostress in

libraries: Causes, effects and solutions." (1987) While the great majority of staff is open

minded and accepting of new technology, Bichteler reports that there are a minority who

are "resistors." Some staff may avoid technology, while others are outright hostile.

Reasons for resistance may be due to age, fear of the unknown, job insecurity,

performance anxiety and organizational factors. Bichteler gives a list of solutions for

management who plan on implementing an automation system, including involving staff

in decisions, communicating with staff about each step and preparing for

42
 Page 3 8

implementation and "hand-holding" the first week the system goes up. (Bichteler 1987,

284) Ergonomics are also a factor in technostress which management should pay

attention to. End-users, or clients, also experience technostress, and the library staff

needs to be available to help answer questions. Bichteler points out that end-user

education, not just training should include basic information on how to search, subject

headings arrangement and so on. (Bichteler 1987, 285) Printed instructions in the form

of fliers or manuals also need to be available for patrons. Staff training is again

considered crucial, but Bichteler reports that managers still do not heed the advice.

Librarians have reported that sessions are too brief, or knowledge is assumed of certain

systems, which staff have never seen. "Poor training engenders negative attitudes on the

part of staff and these attitudes are quickly passed on to patrons," Bichteler concludes.

(Bichteler 1987, 286)

Brian Quinn's article "Reducing stressful aspects of information technologies in

public services" is a review of the technostress literature of the field. He uses both Craig

Brod's(1984) and Amarjit Sethi's (1986) definition of technostress. Quinn highlights

many points, including how on an organizational level, technostress may affect labor

relations and staff morale. (Quinn 1995, 4) Role conflicts, age, lack of control and

inexperience with computer systems as well as performance anxiety are some of the root

causes of technostress. Job insecurity due to fear of obsolescence, or displacement, also

has a role in computer anxiety. Organizational factors, such as lack of involvement of

staff and lack of communication, are another aspect of cause. Quinn reports that

solutions include communication and involvement of staff, a slower implementation

process, adequate training and planning. Ergonomics should definitely be a

43
 Page 39

consideration in avoiding the physical side of technostress. (Quinn 1995, 19) Well

designed user interfaces and hardware/software standardization are also cited as ways to

reduce and avoid technostress. (Quinn 1995, 29)

James E. Walters and James R. Necessary study college students' attitudes toward

computers in "An attitudinal comparison toward computers between underclassmen and

graduating seniors." (1996) Several demographic factors were also considered : 1) by

groub (underclassmen versus seniors); 2) by gender; 3) number of university courses

completed; 4) years of computer experience; 5) grade-point average; 6) overall computer

knowledge; and 6) ownership of a computer. (Walters and Necessary 1996, 623) The

study revealed a significant difference "between students attitudes and their overall

knowledge of computers." The authors state that the results were predictably related to

those who had taken courses, had computer experience and overall knowledge and

owned a computer. (Walters and Necessary 1996, 629) However, according to this study,

there were no significant differences due to gender. (Walters and Necessary 1996, 629)

John Friedlein discusses the technostress of university students in "Information

overload may lead to 'technostress." (1997) He states that "college students seem

particularly susceptible" to technostress, since some classes use LISTSERV, and

electronic media now as an aide in teaching. Isolation and lack of social contact can

cause feelings of alienation. (Friedlein 1997, 1) The other problem for college students

is the credibility of information on the World Wide Web. However, a student that

Friedlein interviewed advises other students to ask for help, since technology is always

changing. (Friedlein 1997, 2)

44
 Page 40

Celina Pascoe's article "The impact of an integrated information management

system on the job characteristics, satisfaction and motivation of library staff' looks at

the staff of an Australian research library. While she reports that some studies show a

blurring of lines between technical and public services as well as the creation of new

positions and departments, there have also been elimination of jobs. (Pascoe 1996, 136)

Pascoe used the Job Diagnostic Survey, which was designed to collect data on job

attitudes. Results showed a decrease in job satisfaction, which was found to be due to

concerns over health and safety. (Pascoe 1996, 139) Some workers felt isolated by the

new technology. Yet, the respondents had positive expectations and attitudes toward

technology and its impact on their jobs. Pascoe concludes that the study needs to be

replicated because the "findings were, to a large degree, unexpected." (Pascoe 1996, 142)

45
 Page 41

CHAPTER M.

Methodology

This is a content analysis of the literature of technostress. The information was

compiled and literature analyzed in order to: 1) Define the symptoms of technostress; 2)

Define the reasons for technostress, and 3) Define recommendations that illustrate how

to avoid or combat technostress. A rudimentary coding sheet was created (APPENDIX

A) in order to gather and group information. The coding sheet was used as a statistical

tool to help tally information in order to draw conclusions about technostress.

First, articles were selected if they had "technostress" in the title, subject or

abstract. Articles were selected from a number of databases, including Library

Literature, ERIC, EBSCO 1500, Infotrac, Magazine Index, PsychAbstracts, Perodical

Abstracts, and Electric Library. The literature is from both inside and outside of the

library field. Articles were not included if they were reviews of other articles. A total of

fifty-eight unique articles were gathered.

Secondly, a coding sheet was used for each article to analyze the recurring themes

within the literature. The coding sheet was broken into sections, with three main areas of

concentration: 1) Symptoms described for teclmostress, 2) Reasons stated for

technostress, and 3) Recommendations for the avoidance and/or help to reduce

technostress. Synonyms were reduced to one or two appropriate terms. Once each

article was coded, then each area was tallied and broken down into percentages. The

results were then graphed by the main areas of concentration on Microsoft Excel. The

data was put into tables which are included in Appendix B.

46
 Page 42

CHAPTER IV.
Results

Symptoms.

Crapb 1: Tecknostreso Symptoms, broken doom Into Pereentogeo.

The most common symptom given for technostress was "panic/fear/anxiety." Nearly

40% of the articles mentioned some kind of fear or anxiety, and almost 33% cited

"feelings of isolation/frustration." (Graph 1) The third most common symptom, "negative

attitude toward computer," was mentioned 31% of the time. At the lower end of the

symptoms graph, "burnout" was mentioned in a scant 3% of the articles, while "illness"

was named in 10% of the articles. It is the author's surmise that there is a thin line

between "illness" and "burnout," thereby garnering a larger percentage if combined.

47
 Page 43

This compendium of symptoms is distressing, not just for the person suffering

technostress, but for those who must work with, for, or manage these technostressed

individuals. However, the literature suggests that there is often more than the

implementation of technology that causes workers to feel stress.

Reasons

30%

25%.

20%

15%

10%

5% L.._

0%
8

Gmph 2. Reasons given for technostress in individuals.

Many reasons were given as to why workers suffer technostress. (Graph 2.)

"Inexperience with computers" (29%), "performance anxiety" and "lack of

traiMng/insufficient staffing" were the top three reasons given for technostress. Training,

ae Julie Rinlatcdp.r (10271 cave ie reftc.n adwicrad but narc.1, inanlgancontc.d and nraaniaatinne

are paying the price. "Organizational factors" also reflect a lack of awareness that some

administrators have about participatory management, communication and staff

involvement as a factor to success. "Gender" (17%) and "age" (12%), are both

BEST COPY AVAILAbLL. 48

 Page 44

disturbingly high as factors, particularly since libraries are female dominated with an

aging work population.

Many of the reasons given for technostress are unavoidable. As Sara Fine (1986)

pointed out, no matter how much planning and training goes into automation
implementation, someone will be a resistor. Yet, as organizations move into the future,

there are ways they can work to lessen the technostress in their employees.

Recommendations

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%

Graph 3. Recommendations for Me avoidance of technostress.

Perhaps the most underrated and ill-budgeted piece of advice is training. (Graph

3.) 59% of the articles mentioned training in some way for any implementation of

technology. The articles that did not mention training were often factual studies,

measuring attitudes, such as in the writings of Richard Hudiburg (1989, 1996) and Bengt

Arnetz (1997). "Communication with staff' (41%), including staff involvement and

participatory management styles, was the second biggest recommendation. "Better

BEST COPY AVAI1ABLE

49
technical support" (21%), "sufficient staffing" (19%) and "user friendly interfaces"

(17%) round out the top five recommendations for organizations.

50
 Page 46

CHAPTER V.
Conclusion

There are two fields of thought in the literature about technostress. The first field

of thought is that technostress is a real problem, brought on by the implementation of

technology into the workplace. The second field of thought is that technostress is another

form of stress due to changes in the environment. Change is perhaps the keyword of both

fields of thought. The technology evolution has only just begun and it changes everyday.

Change, however, is not just about technology. It is about new ideas. Perhaps the one

thing that none of the articles mentions is the ability for employees to keep an open mind

and accept new ideas. Technology is a new idea, the young upstart that the oldsters

cannot accept. Are librarians predisposed by their custodial natures to resist new ideas?

(Fine 1986, 85) What will this do to the future of libraries, if this is true? However,

libraries are not the only institutions who have technostress problems.

Administrators need to heed the literature's advice and implement consistent, hands-

on training programs. Learning should never stop, as Hanna, Ross-Ganguly and Ross

(1994) suggest in their article. Staff involvement should occur not just in automation

implementation, but in many other areas of organizations. If the library staff were

involved in other areas of the organization, morale would be higher and resistance would

lessen. Finally, technology is here to stay. It will be ever changing, and even frustrating

for those who are "technofreaks." (Bichteler 1989, 283) [Technology] resistance is

futi 1 e.

51
 Page 47

APPENDIX A

CODING SHEET-TECHNOSTRESS LITERATURE

AUTHOR: . TITLE:
FROM: VOL. NO. DATE

TYPE OF MATERIALS:
Journals Periodicals Book Other

TYPE OF LIBRARY DESCRIBED IN LITERATURE:

Academic Public Special School Other

IN FAVOR OF TECHNOLOGY (GENERALISATION): Yes No.

WHO ARE THE USERS: Library Staff Patrons/Customers/Clients

SYMPTOMS DESCRIBED FOR "TECHNOSTRESS:"

1. Irritability/Anger 7. Negative attitude toward computers.

2. Panic/Anxiety 8. Feelings of Isolation and frustration
3. Exhaustion 9. Sabotage
4. Increased absenteeism 10. Increased errors
5. Illness 11. Other
6. Substance abuse

REASONS STATED FOR "TECHNOSTRESS:"

1. Inexperience with computer systems 8. Organizational factors

2. Loss of Prestige in library field/Role conflicts 9. Age
3. Language/Jargon intimidating 10. Gender
4. Overwork/Insufficient staffing 11. Personality type (MBTI scale)
5. Fear due to socialization factors 12. Lack of training
Performance Anxiety 13. Training, but insufficient time frame.
6.
7. Information overload 14. Other

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AVOIDANCE AND/OR HELP TO REDUCE TECHNOSTRESS.

1. Training for staff.

2. Informing staff of impending changes/involvement of staff.
3. User friendly interfaces
4. Better technical support
5. Sufficient staffing, since computers take more time, not less
6. Other

BEST COPY AVAILABn

52
 Page 48

APPENDIX B.
Results of Technostress Coding Sheet

Symptoms of Technostress from the Technostress Coding Sheet

Symptoms Percentage Hits
Panic/Anxiety/Fear 38% 22
Feelings of isolation/frustration 33% 19
Negative attitude toward computers 31% 18
Irritability/Anger 22% 13
Exhaustion 19% 11

Increased Errors 17% 10

14% 8
Denial/Avoidance behavior
12% 7
Increased Absenteeism
Illness 10% 6
9% 5
Sabotage
Substance Abuse 5% 3
3% 2
Low Morale/Confidence
3% 2
Other
3% 2
Burnout
3% 2
Difficulty Concentrating

Table 1: Results of Teehnostress Coding Sheet.

Graph 1: Result broken into pereintages.

EST COPY AVAILABLE

53
 Page 49

Reasons given for technostress from Technostress Coding Sheet

Reasons Percentages Hits
Inexperience with computers 29% 17
Performance Anxiety 29% 17
Lack of training/insufficient training 29% 17
28% 16
Organizational Factors
Overwork/Insufficient Staffing 21% 12
Information Overload 21% 12
Language/Jargon Intimidating 17% 10
Gender 17% 10
Multiple Interfaces 17% 10
Role Conflicts/lack of prestige 16% 9
Fear due to socialization factors 16% 9
Age 12% 7
Personality Type 9% 5
Fast pace of change 7% 4
5% 3
Other
Teaching Loads 5% 3
Database crash 3% 2
3% 2
24 hour demand: e-mail, pagers,etc.
Table 2: Reasons given for technostress. Results from Technostress Coding Sheet.

30%

25%

20%

15%
Tr
10%

5%

0% 6
.?;
§ . - 72 rg
tElEi.g
'5 g B

0! .
R "a 2
E
8 e- `kE g
e .

Graph 2: Reasons given for technostress, broken down into percentages.

BEST COPY AVAILOLL

54
 Page 50

Recommendations for avoiding technostress from Technostress Coding Sheet

Reccommendations Percentages Hits
Training for staff 59% 34
Communication with Staff 41% 24
Better technical support 21% 12
Sufficient staffing 19% 11

User friendly interfaces 17% 10

Positive attitude/goal setting 5% 3
Standardization 5% 3
3% 2
Coevolve with technology
3% 2
Ergonimics
3% 2
Other
Personality Type training 3% 2
Accept diversity 2% 1

Contingency Plans 2% 1

Counseling(EAP) 2% 1

Training for users 2% 1

User Friendly Jargon 2% 1

Tabk 3: Recommendations. Hits and Percentages from Teehnostress Codmg Sheet

It, 11,,tItt, II tllitt.

L'-'1 rn, " 1

Graph 3: Recommendations, broken down into percentages.

Inn COPY AvAILABLE

55
 Page 51

REFERENCES

Amick, Benjamin C. and Judith H. Jacobs. 1987. Assessing the impact of office
automation on employee productivity and health. Employee Assistance
Quarterly 2, no.2 (winter): 31-46.

Arnetz, Bengt B. and Clairy Wiholm. 1997. Technological stress: Psychophysiological

symptoms in modern offices. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 43, no. l :35-
42.

Ballance, Collin T. and Sydney U. Rogers. 1991. Psychology of computer use:)0(IV.

Computer-related stress among technical college students. Psychological Reports
69 (October): 539-542.

Barron, David. 1996. The Luddites are coming! Are we ready? Are they us? School
Library Media Activities Monthly 13 (October): 48-50.

Bartlett, Virginia. 1995. Technostress and the librarian. Library Administration and
Management 9, no.4 (Fall): 226-230.

Bichteler, Julie. 1986. Human aspects of high tech in special libraries. Special
Libraries 77, no.3 (summer): 121-128.

Bichteler, Julie. 1987. Technostress in libraries: Causes, effects and solutions.

Electronic Library 5 (October): 282-287.

Brod, Craig. 1982. Managing technostress: Optimizing the use of computer technology.
Personnel Journal 61, no. 10 (October): 753-757.

Brod, Craig. 1984. Technostress: the human cost of the computer revolution. Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Bunge, Charles. 1991. CD ROM stress. Library Journal 116 (April 15): 63-64.

Byerly, Greg. 1990. Introducing staff to change. Computers in Libraries 10

(December):39-40.

Call, Barbara. 1986. PC phobia: Lack of knowledge leads employees to fear their
computers. PC Week 3 (November 18): 79-83.

Champion, Sandra. 1988. Technostress: Technology's toll. School Library Journal 35

(November): 48-51.

5
 Page 52

Clark, Katie and Sally Ka lin. 1996. Technostressed out? How to cope in the digital age.
Library Journal 121 (August): 30-32.

Daniels, Rachel. 1995. Effects on non-professional staff of the implementation of

computer-based systems in college libraries: Some user studies. Program 29
(January): 1-13.

Dobb, Linda. 1990. Technostress: Surviving a database crash. Reference Services

Review (Winter): 65-68.

Edwards, Catherine, Joan M. Day and Graham Walton. 1995. IMPEL Project: The
impact on people of electronic libraries. ASLIB Proceedings 47 (September):
203-208.

Elder, Victoria, Ella P. Gardner and Stephen R. Ruth. 1987. Gender and age in
technostress: Effects on white collar productivity. Government Finance Review 3
(December): 17-21.

Euster, Joanne. 1995. Coping with changing times. Wilson Library Bulletin 69 (May):
60-61.

Fine, Sara. 1986. Technological innovation, diffusion and resistance: An historical

perspective. Journal of Library Administration 7, no.1 (spring): 83-107.

Fliotsos, Anne. 1992. Anxiety layering: The effects of library and computer anxiety on
CD-ROM use. Southeastern Librarian (Summer): 47-49.

Friedlein, John. 1997. Information overload may lead to lechnostress." University

Wire (October 1): 1-2.

Gaff, Margaret. 1994. GUI vs. CUI: Individual personality types and the experience of
learning to use library databases. Australian Library Journal 43 (August): 1 83-
191.

Galant, Debbie. 1994. The technology trap. Institutional Investor 28, no.5 (May): 141-
143.

Giesbrecht, Walter and Roberta McCarthy. 1991. Staff resistance to library CD-ROM
services. CD ROM Professional 4 (May): 34-38.

Glogoff, Stuart. 1994. Staff Creativity Lab. Journal of Academic Librarianship 20

(March): 19-21.

Gluckman, Mary. 1991. Dark side of the boom. Omni 13, no.7 (April): 36.
 Page 53

Goldsborough, Reid. 1997. Battling computer phobia. Personal Computing

(October 30).

Groves, Bob. 1993. Man vs. Machines: Techno-terror. The Record (Hackensack, NJ)
(September 19): Al+

Hanna, Rita, Randy Ross-Ganguly and Barbara Katz. 1994. The wired administrator:
Technology training and lifelong learning. School Business Affairs 61, no.2
(February): 4-6, 8-12.

Hanson, Carl A. 1994. Trekking with the technoids: public service librarianship in
the year 2010. RQ 34, no.1 (fall): 28-31.

Heaton, Shelly and Jeanne M. Brown. 1995. Staff perceptions of incentives and
hurdles to the use of technology. Computers in Libraries 15 n.2 (February): 28-
31.

Hickey, Kate. 1992. Technostress in libraries and media centers: Case studies and coping
strategies. Tech Trends 37, no.2 : 17-20.

Hudiburg, Richard A. and James R. Necessary. 1996. Coping with computer stress.
Journal of Educational Computing Research 15, no.2 : 113-124.

Hudiberg, Richard A. 1989. Psychology of computer use VII: Measuring technostress:

Computer related stress. Psychology Reports 64 (March 27): 767-772.

Jacobson, Frances. 1991. Gender differences in attitudes toward using computers in

libraries: An exploratory study. Library and Information Science Research 13
(July-September): 267-279.

Koenenn, Connie. 1990. Technostress: The high price of high-tech. Star Bulletin and
Advertiser (Honolulu, Hawaii) (September 30): D 1.

Kupersmith, John. 1992. Technostress and the reference librarian. Reference Services
Review 20 (summer): 7-14.

Lally, Richard. 1997. Managing technostress. Getting Results . . . for the Hands-on
Manager 42, no.10 (October): 5-6.

Larwood, Laurie. 1992. Women workers as users of computer technology. Computers

in Libraries 12 (March): 38-39 .

Livingston, Mike. 1993. Technophobic. The State (Charlotte, NC) (November 28):
1D+
 Page 54

Moreland, Virginia. 1993. Technostress and personality type. Online 17 (July): 59-62.

Nee, Eric. 1997. Self-help is on the way. Upside 10, no.10 (November): 198.

Palmini, Cathleen. 1994. The impact of computerization on library support staff: A

study of support staff in academic libraries in Wisconsin. College and Research
Libraries 55 (March): 119-127.

Pascoe, Celina. 1996. The impact of an integrated information management system on

the job characteristics, satisfaction and motivation of library staff. Australian
Library Review 13 (May): 135-146.

Pinnell, Julie. 1997. Collaborative solutions to technostress.

Http:www.harvard.edu/acrl.html : 1-2.

Quinn, Brian. 1995. Reducing stressful aspects of information technology in public

services. Public and Access Services Quarterly 1, no.4 (February): 1-34.

Rafter, Michelle V. 1998. Technostress takes toll on Internet users. Akron Beacon
Journal (January 12): D8.

Robotics and technology: How to manage technostress. 1984. Personnel 61, no.4 :51-
52.

Rothberg, Donald. 1997. Fear and loathing of cyberspace not uncommon. The
Columbian (October): A4.

Rowley, Jennifer. 1992. Organizing knowledge. Brookfield, VT.: Gower Publishing.

Seavey, Charles A. 1993. A failure of vision: Librarians are losing the war for electronic
professional turf. American Libraries 24 (November): 943-944.

Sethi, Amarjit, Denis H.J. Caro and Randall Schuler. 1986. Technostress management.
Journal of Comparative Sociology and Religion 13: 41-60.

Sever, Irene. 1994. Electronic information retrieval as culture shock: an anthropological

exploration. RQ 33, no.3 (spring): 36-41.

Smith, Kitty. 1993. Toward the new millennium: The human side of library automation
(revisited) Information Technologies and Libraries 12 (June): 209-216.

Stone, Steven A. 1993. Technostress: Taking some steps to cope. Library Hi Tech 11,
no.3 : 35-36.
 Page 55

Sullivan, Gene, Karen Darling, Bill Kara and Jay Harris. 1996. Change and the impact
on the serials staff. Serials Librarian 28, no. 3-4 : 297-304.

Tenopir, Carol. 1998. Plagued by our own successes. Library Journal 123, no.4 (March
1): 39-40.

Walters, James E. and James R. Necessary. 1996. An attitudinal comparison toward

computers between underclassmen and graduating seniors. Education 116 (June
1): 623-631

Weil, Michelle and Larry D. Rosen. 1997. TechnoStress: Coping with technology @work
@home @play. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Woodward, Jeanette. 1997. Retraining the profession, or over the hill at 40. American
Libraries 28 (April): 32-34.
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (0 ERI)
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)
ERIC

NOTICE
REPRODUCTION BASIS

This document is covered by a signed "Reproducdon Release

(Blanket)" form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all
or classes of documents from its source organizadon and, therefore,
does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission to

reproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may
be .reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproducdon Release
form (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket")..