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Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production

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DOI: 10.31202/ecjse.443880

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ISSN:2148-3736
El-Cezerî Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi
Cilt: 6, No: 1, 2019 (8-23)

El-Cezerî Journal of Science and Engineering

Vol: 6, No: 1, 2019 (8-23)
ECJSE
DOI : 10.31202/ecjse.443880

Research Paper / Makale

Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production

Alper KOÇAK, Bekir KARASU

Eskişehir Technical University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
26555, Eskişehir TÜRKİYE
[email protected]

Received/Geliş: 14.07.2018 Accepted/Kabul: 12.10.2018

Abstract: Tile production has an important place in overall ceramic production. There are different types of
methods for them. Companies generally use wet route for raw materials preparation. However, dry route has
been started to be used at large scale in recent years. There are some advantages and disadvantages for dry and
wet route tile productions. This paper was prepared to give detail information about both methods.

Keywords: Tile, Wet route, Dry route, Production, Advantage, Disadvantage, Comparison.

Karo Üretiminde Kuru ve Yaş Yöntem Farklılıkları

Öz: Seramik sektörünün büyük bir kısmını oluşturan karo üretiminde farklı yöntemler kullanılmaktadır.
Genellikle üretim ıslak yöntem ile gerçekleştirilmektedir. Son yıllarda kuru yöntemle üretim de yaygın bir
biçimde kullanılmaya başlamıştır. Her iki yönteminde bir takım avantajları ve dezavantajları bulunmaktadır.
Bu makale kuru ve ıslak yolla karo üretimi hakkında detaylı bilgi sunmak amacıyla hazırlanmıştır.

Anahtar kelimeler: Karo, Islak yöntem, Kuru yöntem, Avantaj, Dezavantaj, Karşılaştırma.

1. Introduction

The ceramics industry began to expand as a modern industry with new techniques and knowledge
gained in the 1970s. It has since been one of the most competitive industries on the market [1].
Properties of ceramics are determined by the types of atoms present, the types of bonds between
atoms, and the way the atoms are packed. Ceramics usually have a combination of ionic (which
occurs between metal and ametal, and involves the attractiveness of opposing charges when
electrons are transferred from metal to ametal); and covalent (between two non–metals and contains
the sharing of atoms) bonds.

There are considerable differences between traditional ceramics and modern, engineering ceramics
which are sometimes designed for a single specific purpose [3].
 Traditional Ceramics
The word ‘earthenware’ for ceramic pots and jugs is an indication that their raw materials
are literally obtained from the ground.
 Advanced Ceramics

How to cite this article

Koçak, A., Karasu, B., “Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production”, El-Cezerî Journal of Science and Engineering, 2019, 6(1); 8-23.

Bu makaleye atıf yapmak için

Koçak, A., Karasu, B., “Karo Üretiminde Kuru ve Yaş Yöntem Farklılıkları”, El-Cezerî Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi 2019, 6(1); 8-23.
Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

Since the 1980s, new types of ceramic named as advanced ceramics have been developed.
They are, also known as technical ceramics being strong and hard due to the strong ionic or
covalent bonds between these elements [4].
Like other industries, in ceramic sector there have been numerous innovative approaches in both
body and glaze formulations as well as new touches in the production processes thanks to the
technological development all around the World. When looked through the relevant literature one
can easily see the countless modifications made in ceramic body and glaze compositions to adopt
them to single fast–firing procedure that is recently being very popular and alternative to
conventional double–firing still being used especially in the production of sanitary wares and
porcelains.

Another attempt taken is the development of new frit compositions facilitating such an adaptation of
lower temperature glazes to single fast–firing in which everything is expected to be over between
35–50 min during sintering. Zircon (zirconium silicate–ZrSiO4) is widely used as an opacifier to
supply an acceptable level of whiteness and opacity to the ceramic glazes, so, it is one of the
inevitable components in glaze formulations. However, it increases the starting cost, consequently
limiting it wide usage. Therefore, a group of scientists has studied its elimination in industrial wall
tile glazes without deteriorating the overall final properties. For such purpose Al2O3/ΣR2O,
Al2O3/ΣRO and Al2O3/B2O3 ratios have been changed and their noteworthy effects on decreasing
the amounts of zirconia (ZrO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) in the frit composition were reported.
Additionally, one other study was conducted on diminishing zircon content in floor tile body
through compositional modification. In that sense, a model opaque glaze was developed by
modifying the alumina/silica ratio, incorporating K2O, or using higher amount of opaque frit while
diminishing ZrSiO4 content in the glaze batch.

Glass–ceramics discovered in the early 1950s are ceramic materials produced by preciously
controlled heat treatment of a parent glass. The chemical composition of glasses, from which glass
ceramic transformation is expected, must consist of nucleation agent(s) and be capable of volume
crystallisation unlike ordinary conventional silicate–based glasses inhibiting uncontrolled surface
crystallisation with dendrite formation which leads to brittleness. Nucleating agents having high
surface energy are quite important and their selection depend on the system, into which they are
added. Glass–ceramic glazes have recently been altered for ceramic tiles. Some researches made
very valuable studies on such systems [for example: Li2O–Al2O3–SiO2, CaO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2,
ZnO–Al2O3–SiO2, CaO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2, ZrO2–CaO–MgO–SiO2 etc.], which are unique in the
suitability for single fast–firing. That is not an easy phenomenon actually since it is quite difficult to
control nucleation and crystal growth within a very short period of time in new generation of
industrial ceramic production. Some companies tried to adopt crystal glazes mostly known as art
glazes to the table ware industry. In those glazes containing ZnO the effects of certain oxides like
cobalt, copper, manganese and titanium oxides were searched for and their micro–structural
characterisation with the importance of structure–property relationship determining the properties
was reported in the literature.

There have been several publications on the evaluation of phosphorus pigments, which are capable
of absorbing daylight or light of certain wavelength when exposed to a light source and after,
emitting phosphorescent light when the light source has been removed, in several glaze systems
leading to new product achievement with phosphorescent ability in differing ceramics such as wall
tile, Turkish çini, stoneware, schamot, earthenware as well as art glasses where they can directly be
applied onto glass slump or added between glass layers. Of course, every different type of body
may require engobe if there is intolerable thermal expansion mismatch between substrate and glaze.
Since in such application’s low temperature decoration frit with phosphorescent pigment is used on
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ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

the top of transparent glaze already applied and matured, this final top layer must also satisfactorily
stick to the glaze below. Otherwise decoration layer will not cover the whole ceramic surface
without any defect and there will be no use of it.
As to functionality, there are new products with higher mechanical strength, antibacterial resistance
supplied by certain oxides added to starting glaze chemical compositions, self cleanibility thanks to
lotus effect coming from the surface morphology, photocatalytic and antifungal activity, better frost
and slipping resistance, or aesthetic effects etc.

From the environmental points of view, with the concern of rapidly consuming all the available raw
materials already being in use in many industrial branches and huge amount of wastes occurring
during processing and threatening human life and liveable environment, it also becomes
compulsory to see the evaluation of alternative raw materials and several suitable wastes (sepiolite,
thermal power plant’s fly ash, rice husk, limonite, different clays taken from different part in Earth
crust, red mud, Si containing waste mud, electrolysis wastes, chromite wastes, albite flotation
wastes, concentrator and derivative borax solid wastes etc.) incorporated into ceramic body and
glaze mixtures. As a result, in most cases both alternative raw materials and the industrial wastes
mentioned here have been found usable sources which could easily be evaluated up to a certain
level in ceramic industry. In order to improve the attractiveness of new products the technological
developments experienced in decoration especially giving the impression of three-dimensional look
must also be mentioned here. Among these innovative contributions especially at the body
preparation step as will be touched hereby valuable studies are being made to develop dry route tile
productions possibly and expectedly replacing conventional wet route in soon future.

Figure 1. Classification of materials and ceramics [2].

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Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

Figure 2. Detailed classification of ceramics [5].

2. Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tile is a term that encompasses many diverse products from wall to floor tiles to porcelain
to tiles that used on countertops. They come with a variety of finishes from smooth to rough, and
from flat to irregular shape. They have either a sealed non–porous surface or a water–absorbing
porous surface. Whatever type one chooses, all ceramic tiles are basically installed in the same
manner [6].

3. Production of Ceramic Tiles

The stages of ceramic tile production briefly cover the preparation of raw materials for batching,
forming the green body by milling, shaping, drying, and then producing final product by sintering,
packaging and storage [3–4].

Slurry processing facilitates mixing and minimizes particle agglomeration. In slurry processing,
deflocculants, surfactants and antifoaming agents are added to improve processing.

Ceramic tile producers usually use a maximum of 4–5 % moisture. In mills heated by hot air
(indicating the drying performance) this rate can be up to 10 %. The primary crush reduces the size
of the incoming material to a maximum of about 6 cm, which is about 20 cm in size. Grinding is
carried out in centrifugal pin type mills, fixed or moving hammer mills and pendulum mills
according to the required grain size [7–8].

4. Raw Materials for Tile Production

Because of their three–part composition of quartz, clay and feldspar ceramics can be named as
triaxial materials. It is common to use tap water, usually containing a wide range of cations. Many
similar products, ceramic tiles tend to be produced from naturally occurring raw materials. In most
cases, these are silicates. Clay and kaolin are the most important raw materials for tile production.
In general, the raw materials used in traditional ceramics are divided into three commonly known
groups: silica, clay and feldspar. These groups are described below [8–9].

4.1. Silica

Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the continental crust at 28.2 % and its oxide,
Silica, is hugely abundant in nature, occurring in seven distinct mineral forms [10]. Quartz is the
commonest form and the one most widely exploited. The other varieties are tridymite and
cristobalite, which are widely distributed in volcanic glass and opal, coesite, stishovite, and
lechatelierite. Silica occurs in combination with other oxides in minerals such as the feldspathoids
and other silicates [11]. The only stable form under normal conditions is alpha quartz. The high–
temperature minerals, cristobalite and tridymite, have both lower densities and indices of refraction
than quartz [12].

4.2. Clays

Typical common components in clayey minerals are feldspars, quartz, iron oxides, hydroxides,
titanium oxide, calcite, dolomite and organic substances [9, 13–14].
11
ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

Without some water, clay is just a powder. It is apparent that clay needs the right amount of water
to become plastic (approx. 20 wt. %). Clay particles are attracted to each other by weak electrostatic
forces. Water conducts these forces [15–16]. When clay matters then there is a series of
considerations:

Plasticity [17], content of colouring oxides with chromophore action [18], content of organic
substances [19], deflocculability [20], capacity to develop mullite [21], content of accessory minerals
[22] and metallic impurities [23].

Clays bring the advantage of plasticity and ease of workability in the green state and facilitate
sintering during firing [24–26]. They are the main component of porcelainized stoneware
bodies [27]. The clays chosen are prevalently kaolinitic [28]. In selecting raw material, grain
size and purity are the technical counterparts to the strategic ones of availability and cost [29–
30].

4.3. Feldspar

Feldspar can be defined as a group of natural crystalline aluminium silicate minerals with Na,
K, Ca or Ba. Alkali feldspars are used most in ceramics [31]. Feldspars feldspathoids, eurites,
pegmatites and eventually quartz is known as hard materials. Feldspars are to be considered as
fluxing agents [32–35]. There are 3 types of feldspar: Microcline [K(Si3AlO8)–
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2], albite [Na(Si3AlO8)–Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2] and anorthatite [Ca(Si2AlO8)–
CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2] [36].

4.4. Other Minerals

4.4.1. Wollastonite

Wollastonite (natural calcium silicate) can play the role of fluxing activity lowering the
maturation point of ceramic bodies [37–38]. It consists of 48.5 wt. % CaO and 51.5 wt. % SiO2
but sometimes iron, manganese or magnesium may replace Ca [39].

4.4.2. Lithium minerals

There have been numerous researches previously done, main conclusions of which are: lithium
addition into the body results in the glassy phase activity during the consolidation process [40–
41].

4.4.3. Natural chromite

Cr oxides are important for providing several colours to ceramics and are employed with other
compounds. Ferrochromium fly ash, and particularly natural chromite have been examined as a
source of Cr compounds in colouring unglazed ceramic tiles [42].

4.4.4. Zircon

The major sources of zircon (ZrSiO4) are granites. Its most serious reserves are in Australia
and South Africa being the main suppliers in the World [43]. Zircon is one of the widely used
components in ceramic production (especially in ceramic glazes as an opacifier). It is mainly
used in a wet–milled (micronized) version thanks to its high refractive index [44].

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Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

5. Wet Process in Ceramic Industry

Wet processing is a traditional process known for ceramic production. In ceramic tile manufacturing
industry, it includes wet grinding and spray drying and is widely used for granule preparation. The
grain size of starting raw materials should be reduced first. Some of the most common reasons for
reducing particle size are to:

 create appropriate particle sizes,

 improve material blending and prevent segregation,
 increase the material’s surface area,
 control material’s bulk density,
 liberate impurities,
 reduce porosity of the particles and,
 modify shape of the particles.

There are 2 ways for reducing the particle size: Crushing and grinding. Crushing is the method with
which the reduction of large lumps from cm size to 1–2 mm is made for subsequent further
reduction. Most industrial grinding cycle are operated under wet conditions. The mass flow rate of
the output of the circuit must remain reasonably constant with a preset value of the representative
size, accomplished by abrasion, impact or compaction by hard media such as balls or rolls [45].

Figure 3. Raw materials preparation by wet route [45].

5.1 Milling

In terms of milling the most difficult to the least difficult is dense fused materials, sintered
materials, and precipitated powders. Materials being not brittle to some degree, metals or soft
plastics for example, cannot easily be milled. A slip consists of a liquid, usually water, and
suspended ceramic particles [45]. Wet milling reduces the particle size for fine grained slips and
disperses the agglomerates in both fine- and coarse-grained slips. One of the primary reasons for
expending time and energy to granulate powders is to increase the apparent density of powders
before forming. Usually, in powder this can be controlled by selecting a narrow particle size
distribution. In some body preparation systems, there is also a moisture distribution effect where
larger particles contain more moisture than smaller ones. There are many methods of preparing
granules for pressing operations, the majority of which can be separated into two categories: wet
13
ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

and dry. Among the wet prepared powders, spray drying is, by far, the most accepted and
widespread process. Dry granulation processes have acquired several aliases including moist
palletisation, spray granulation, and slip palletisation [46].
5.2. Wet Granulation

Spray drying is accomplished first by mixing dry, finely ground powders with water (typically 65–
72 % solids by weight) to form a slurry, which is then atomized inside the drying chamber by either
a slotted, spinning centrifugal disc or a spraying nozzle. Hot, burned gases evaporate all but 4–6 %
of water from each drop, leaving a hollow, smooth, spherical agglomerate. In spray dryer, material
is moved due to the vibration and streaming air. The structure of these granules looks like
blackberries [47]. It is possible to achieve varying granule morphologies by spray drying [48]. The
average size of a droplet is inversely proportional to atomizing energy, air flow rate in two–fluid
nozzle. Flocculated slurries (or slurries containing large agglomerates) lead to denser granules [49].
The main goals of using wet system with spray dryer are [50]:
- Quality improvement of final product,
- Far lower costs,
- Usage possibility of more economical raw materials,
- Nearly no water consumption,
- Eliminating pollution coming from the spray dryer,
- Higher production level from the kilns.

6. Dry Method in Ceramic Industry

This technology was chosen for the advantages in terms of both the production process and
environmental sustainability. It produces a dry granulate (without the use of fluidised bed dryers)
with excellent characteristics of homogenisation, flow and density and guarantees perfect blending
of all the raw materials present in the formulation and excellent stability in the subsequent stages of
pressing, drying and firing. The result is a high–quality finished product that maintains the same
levels of water absorption (< 3 %) and green, dried and fired breaking load and the same drying and
firing cycles. The tile surface is also extremely uniform and ideal for matt and gloss applications.
Fusion also completely eliminates natural gas consumption in the production process and
consequently reduces CO2 emissions.

Unlike spray drying, where nearly 100 % of product is of appropriate size and moisture content for
pressing, the pelletized body in the initial stages has a relatively large fraction which is over– and
under–sized and must be recycled. The undersized fraction is easily collected by a cyclone attached
to the fluid bed dryer. This "superfine" powder may be added directly to the next batch. The
oversized fraction, > 25 mesh, can be ground and returned to the fluid bed dryer or added directly to
the press powder [47].

If the water content is less than 1 % by volume, this process is called dry grinding. Free moisture
content of a material should be as low as possible for dry milling. Dry milling also avoids the
formation of hard agglomerates as there is no liquid present [46].

The dry granulation can be used to form granules without requiring a liquid solution. In this process
the primary powder particles are aggregated under high pressure. Swaying granulator or a roll
compactor can be used for the dry granulation [51]. The densification of the granules can be
described like a creation of a snow ball.

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Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

Figure 4. Raw materials preparation by dry route [45].

7. Agglomeration

An agglomeration or also called granulation can be done as wet or dry but it is to note that with dry
agglomeration a certain amount of wetness in the system is also needed. Wet granulation is done in
a spray dryer (Figure 5) [52].

Figure 5. The mixer being used in dry process [53].

8. The Comparison of Dry and Wet Milling

Wet milling;
- Low power usage,
- No dusting,
- Higher rotational speeds,
- Good homogenisation,
- Smaller particle size availability compared to dry milling,
- Narrower particle size distribution than dry milling,
- Compatibility with spray drying and casting process.

Dry milling;
- No need for drying powder,

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ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

- Avoiding the reaction of the powder/liquid,

- Less media and lining wear than wet milling,
- Start/stop at any time,
- Easier to optimise.

Figure 6. Spray dryer [52].

Figure 7. Doughnut structure out of the spray dryer [52].

9. Particle Size Distribution, Shape, Moisture and Bulk Density

Particle size distributions for spray dried powders can be tailored by proper selection of nozzle
orifice diameter, feed pressurization, and slip viscosity.

Figure 8. Morphology achieved with dry method [54].

16
Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

Figure 9. Morphology achieved with wet method [54].

They are relatively narrow distributions compared with dry granulated size distributions. Figure 7
inhibits the difference in cumulative size distribution for spray dried, dry (or spray) granulated, and
crushed filter cake particles. Dry granulated powders appear solid, spheroidal, with a rough outside
surface [54].

10. Firing and Pressing Properties of Dry and Wet Tile Production

In one of the previously done studies ten fired samples of each pressing were measured for size.
Shrinkages were calculated based on cavity size. As expected, the spray dried and dry granulated
powders compacted at 360 kgs exhibited less shrinkage than samples compacted at 200 kgs.
Shrinkage differences occurs between samples. Spray dried powders exhibit approximately 0.2 %
greater shrinkage than the dry granulated powders at both tested pressures [54].

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Brick produced a) by wet method b) by dry method [55].

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Surface morphology of brick produced a) by wet method b) by dry method [55].

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ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

11. Operation Cost

Many difficult–to–measure factors must be weighed before an economic decision for a body
granulation plant can be made. Since experience with spray drying abounds, there is much less risk
involved in choosing it over dry granulation. Spray drying is guaranteed to deliver a consistent
product, assuming the equipment is being run in an appropriate manner. There are, however, large
initial investment savings which can be realized by choosing a dry granulation plant over a spray
drying plant. The operating costs of a granulation plant consist of the cost of energy, both thermal
and electrical, the labour, the raw materials, and the energy required for the firing process. Several
studies exhibit that the different dry granulation techniques use in average only 65 % of the
electrical energy required in the wet process. Comparison of several operating systems in Italy,
Spain, and Brazil indicate that the dry granulation processes use only 15 % of the thermal energy
required in a wet process. This is not surprising, as in the dry granulation processes only 6 % water
needs to be evaporated whereas in the wet process up to 35 % water needs to be removed. Table 2
explains the symbols and data used in the thermal energy consumption equations [47].

Table 1. Consumption comparison between dry and wet system [45]

Incidence Dry System Traditional Wet System
Water (L/t) 36 266
Electricity (kW/t) 39 55
Natural Gas (mc/t) 3.9 with 12 % humidity 45
in the raw materials
Personnel 2 People 3 People
Global Maintenance Costs (€/t) 5.5 7.5

Table 2. Wet process–consumption [55]

Table 3. Dry process–consumption [55]

12. Recent Development on Tile Production with Dry Route

Strategy Europe 2020 declares several objectives, one of which is regarding to climate change and
energy sustainability [56]. In 2014, the EU declared its 2030 policy, driving continuous progress
towards a low–carbon economy [57–58]. Since 1990, the European ceramic tile industry has been
adopting innovative technologies and implementing energy saving actions to decline its energy
consumption and CO2 emissions [59–60]. However, implementation of EU–ETS scheme affects the
economic situation of ceramic companies directly due to the allowances to buy and indirectly
through electricity costs, monitoring system and auditing costs [61]. Figure 4 depicts the
18
Koçak, A., Karasu, B. ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23

preparation of raw materials by the most popular dry method available. Tables 2 and 3 inhibit the
consumptions in the wet and dry process respectively [55]. In wet process CO2 direct emissions are
lower than dry method. However, the wet method is the most popular method due to the better
technical properties of the final granulate obtained [62–64]. Finally, the wet method facilitates
electricity generation [65]. New developments in dry grinding and granulation systems with the
significant reductions achieved have been successfully used in some countries, such as Brazil [66–
67]. Especially water, thermal energy, electricity consumptions and CO2 direct emissions were
considerably reduced [68]. Pneumatic dry granulation (PDG), an innovative technology, supplies
many advantages, like much faster processing speed, low cost, little or no material wastage, low
dust etc. [69–72].

13. Recent Progress in Wet Granulation

Reverse wet granulation is a new granulation method involving the immersion of the dry powder
formulation into the binder liquid followed by controlled breakage to form granules [73–75]. By
steam granulation instead of water steam is used as binder, giving the advantages of the higher
ability of the steam to distribute uniformly and diffuse into the powder particles, spherical granule
production with larger surface area, and shorter processing time eco–friendly (no involvement of
organic solvents) [76–78]. In moisture–activated dry granulation (MADG), by adding a small
amount of water to the mixture of slurry, binder and other excipients agglomeration is facilitated
[79–80]. Melt granulation is an appropriate alternative to other wet granulation techniques used for
water sensitive materials. Additionally, compared to the conventional wet granulation process, it
proposes several advantages [81-82].

14. Conclusions

This paper compares the differences between dry and wet route ceramic tile production. This
comparison contains granule quality, cost, milling behaviour and firing behaviour of ceramic tile.
As mentioned, wet and dry method have certain advantages and disadvantages. Although wet
method has higher granule quality than that of dry method, latter one is more economical and has a
lower cost. Wet and dry processed granules have different shape, density, flowability. Spray
granulation can contain donut shape, so, low density but it has better moisture content, because of
that better flowability. On the other hand, dry granulate has higher density but it causes roughness at
the surfaces of granules and due to lower moisture content flowability may be a problem. Particle
size distributions are much lower for spray–dried powders than dry granules. Therefore, particle
size distribution and homogenization may lead to a problem with dry method. Spray–dried powders
have a lower stiffness angle than dry granulated dusts due to surface roughness differences. Spray
dried powders exhibit a higher after press expansion than dry granulated powders of the same
composition. Spray granulated can fill the pressing mould due to the good flowability, because of
that compact density is higher than dry granulated ones, so firing behaviour of two methods is
different. Higher green density means lower firing shrinkage and less problems. Spray–dried
powders form stronger compacts than dry granules and stick to steel moulds more than dry
technical powders due to the moisture content. Installation and production costs support dry
granulation processes.

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ECJSE 2019 (1) 8-23 Differences Between Dry and Wet Route Tile Production...

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