Banc-131 e
Banc-131 e
BANC‐131 : ANTHROPOLOGY AND RESEARCH METHODS
Tutor Marked Assignments
Course Code: BANC‐131
Assignment Code: ASST /TMA /July 2019 and January 2020
Total Marks: 100
There are three Assignments. All questions are compulsory.
Assignment‐A Answer the following in about 500 words each.
1. Define Anthropology and briefly discuss the objectives and scope of Anthropology. 20
2. Describe methods of data collection in Anthropology. 20
Assignment‐B Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
3. Discuss current fields of Biological Anthropology 10
4. Explain the relationship of Archaeological Anthropology with other disciplines 10
5. Write short note Emic and Etic Approach. 10
Assignment‐C Answer the following questions in about 125 words each.
6. Write a note on Human Growth and Development. 5
7. What is Ethnography? 5
8. What are different dating methods . 5
9. Briefly describe the types of research design. 5
10. What is the analytical phase of Anthropology in India? 5
11. What are the contributions of Bronislaw K. Malinowski? 5
B.A.N.C.‐131
Anthropology and Research Methods
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There are three Assignments. All questions are compulsory.
Assignment ‐A Answer the following in about 500 words each.
Q. 1. Define Anthropology and briefly discuss the objectives and scope of Anthropology.
Ans. Anthropology is the study of what makes us human. Anthropologists take a broad approach to
understanding the many different aspects of the human experience, which we call holism. They consider
the past, through archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands of years ago and
what was important to them. They consider what makes up our biological bodies and genetics, as well as
our bones, diet, and health. Anthropologists also compare humans with other animals (most often,
other primates like monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in common with them and what
makes us unique. Even though nearly all humans need the same things to survive, like food, water, and
companionship, the ways people meet these needs can be very different. For example, everyone needs
to eat, but people eat different foods and get food in different ways. So anthropologists look at how
different groups of people get food, prepare it, and share it. World hunger is not a problem of
production but social barriers to distribution, and that Amartya Sen won a Nobel Prize for showing this
was the case for all of the 20th century’s famines. Anthropologists also try to understand how people
interact in social relationships (for example with families and friends). They look at the different ways
people dress and communicate in different societies. Anthropologists sometimes use these comparisons
to understand their own society. Many anthropologists work in their own societies looking at
economics, health, education, law, and policy (to name just a few topics). When trying to understand
these complex issues, they keep in mind what they know about biology, culture, types of
communication, and how humans lived in the past.
Objectives: The objective of anthropology is to “attempt to understand the steps by which man has
come to be what he is, biologically, psychologically and culturally”. Race must be studied “not as a whole
but in its genotypical lines as developing under varying conditions”. Focus must be on genotypical lines,
not populations.
Race alone is hardly adequate to explain differences between cultures and people. “If it is possible that
analogous anatomical forms develop independently in genetically distinct lines, it is ever so much more
probable that analogous cultural forms develop independently”.
Scope of Anthropology
Anthropology has two main branches:
(a) Physical Anthropology, and
(b) Cultural Anthropology.
But in Europe except in England, U.S.A., Australia and other English speaking countries including India,
Anthropology means both physical and cultural anthropology and the term ethnology is rarely used for
cultural anthropology. Ethnography has been known as merely a descriptive study of human culture.
(a) Scope of Physical Anthropology:
Physical Anthropology deals mainly with:‐
Human Biology: The physical anthropologist studies human biology as he is interested in Homo sapiens
alone. He studies man out of the vast range of creatures that claim the attention of the general
biologists. Therefore, there is close relationship between the Physical Anthropology and the study of
other living beings. The Physical anthropologist tells about the man’s place in the animal kingdom by
making a comparative study on the different groups of man and his near relations like apes, monkey,
etc. whom we call primates.
Human Evolution: Another object of Physical Anthropology is to deal with human evolution. Like other
creatures man is also a living organism. It is difficult to explain under what conditions life had appeared
on earth. But from the geological and palaeontological evidences it has been known that the first living
organism that had appeared on earth consisted of one cell only, which is known as a unicellular
organism or amoeba. In course of time this simple homogeneous organism through the process of
changes attained the heterogeneous form at various stages. Ultimately, a complex form of animal called
man had emerged. All living forms of humanity today belong to the single genus and species of Homo
sapiens. Man is said to have emerged during the quaternary epoch of Cenozoic era. As time elapsed
varieties of man had evolved from the date of his origin.
In analysis of human evolution paleontology plays an important role. Anatomy is essential for studying
different human forms especially in the study of racial differences, and no one can specialize Physical
Anthropology without prior training in anatomy. On the basis of geological evidences it has become
possible to find out the age of the different forms preserved under the earth.
Human Variation: The physical anthropologist after having studies the origin, development and place of
evolution of man focuses his attention on the study of the different varieties of man. Outwardly through
they appear different, all men have some common characteristics and belong to the species – Homo‐
sapiens. However, it is generally found that the common hereditary does not resemble those of other
groups in various ways. Each of these groups is designated as race. So, in physical anthropology the
different aspects of race are studied. Somatology ‐ Somato‐scopic observation and anthropometry is
useful for this purpose.
Human Genetics: The methodology of Physical Anthropology has now been changed. The days of
descriptive stage are gone and the analytical stage has taken its place. The classical Physical
Anthropology was mainly interested in the classification and not in the interpretation. For example, a
black native African has platyrrhine nose whereas the European has the leptorrhine nose. Previously, it
was not interpreted why these two groups of people had different types of noses. Now, explanations
are being put forward why they have different types of noses.
In recent times the attention of physical anthropologist has been diverted to Genetics a branch of
biology, which deals with descent, variation and heredity. They now study the blood types, difference in
musculature, etc. They also study the group differences in time of sexual maturation, in growth rates
and various disease immunities. These studies have practical value and the results may be used in
various ways. The physical anthropologist studies also the influences of the natural environment on man
and trees to find out whether the physical traits of man are affected by environment. Moreover, he
studies the problems associated with physical changes, effects of food and mode of life on racial and
physical characteristics.
Other Studies of Physical Anthropology:
Another aspect of study of Physical Anthropology is Demography which is directly related to fertility and
mortality. There are various factors including heredity and environment that influence fertility and
mortality. These are studied by the physical anthropologists.
There is another subject called pedagogical anthropology which is directly concerned with education. In
various educational fields pedagogical studies are utilised by many advanced countries. On the whole,
the Physical Anthropology is highly a specialized branch of Anthropology.
(b) Scope of Cultural Anthropology: There are almost as many definitions of culture as there are
scholars. In order to understand culture one must know the steps by which mankind has transformed
itself from an instinct dominated anthropoid into a cultural adaptive human being. Cultural
Anthropology deals with learned behavioral characteristics of the past, present and future of human
societies. Now, the main fields of studies under Cultural Anthropology are: Pre‐historic archaeology,
ethnology and ethno‐linguistics. Under ethnology again economic anthropology, social anthropology,
ethnography, religion, art, musicology, recreation, folklore etc. are studied.
Pre‐historic Archaeology: It is now a specialized branch of Cultural Anthropology. The prehistorians with
their pick and shovel have been contributing much to get the first hand knowledge about the extinct
peoples and their cultures and the past phases of living peoples. They enlighten us with how the pre‐
historic people coped with the natural setting by making tools and implements, weapons and other
necessary equipments in order to serve their biological and psychological needs such as food, clothing,
art, etc. Pre‐historic archaeology has also been helpful in finding out the sequence of culture and dating
the past by adopting the various methods such as Stratigraphy, Radio‐ carbon methods, etc.
Paleontology: There is another scientific discipline called paleontology which is closely associated with
prehistory and helpful to make a study on the extinct races from their fossilized forms. It tells us how the
modern races have evolved from those extinct fossil races.
Technology: In order to satisfy his wants and to live by adjusting with the natural environment, man had
to make some material objects such as tools and implements, weapons, utensils, clothes, houses,
canoes etc. This is called the material culture of the people. The study of the techniques of making these
objects of material culture is known as Technology. This aspect of culture in the past is being studied
with the help of Prehistoric Archaeology.
Ethnology: Ethnology is another field of study under Cultural Anthropology. It made its appearance as a
recognized branch in about 1840 and it developed very greatly during the next hundred years. It makes
a comparative study of the cultures of the world and emphasizes the theory of culture. It is often called
Cultural Anthropology and sometimes used as synonym for Anthropology also.
Ethnography: Ethnologic studies are essential for a cultural anthropologist to know the links between
the different cultures and the principles guiding the socio‐cultural systems. Ethnology includes in its fold
Economic Anthropology, Social Anthropology, Religion, Art, Musicology and Recreation, Folklore, etc. As
a matter of fact
Ethnology interprets the facts on data collected through ethnographic studies, classifies them and
formulates principles with regard to the nature of human behaviour and the evolution and functioning
of culture.
Ethnography is the study of the cultures of the living peoples of the world through direct and indirect
observation of behaviour. Ethnography is not the study of races, which is the work of the physical
anthropologist. It involves the collection of data only, the raw materials for scientific analysis.
Economic Anthropology: The anthropologist studies under Economic Anthropology the different means
of subsistence of man. He studies different features of production, distribution and consumption of
material goods and their relationships with other aspects of the socio‐cultural complex. It is a field that
attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It is
practiced by anthropologists and has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it
is highly critical. Thus, the anthropologist studies what man produces, how he produces, what and how
he consumes and what and how he distributes or exchanges. He also analyses how far the economic
factors are responsible to the growth of socio‐cultural system of a people. For the most part, studies in
economic anthropology focus on exchange.
Social Anthropology: Man is a gregarious animal and lives in a society. So he has to adapt to the social
environment and learn to live in social cohesion. A man is born is a family, the smallest unit of a society.
He is socialized through this unit. As a society is a web of social relationships, a man is tied to the society
with various strings of social relationships. He is a member of different kinship groups such as the family,
the lineage, the clan, the phratry, the moiety etc. as well as he may be a member of various non kin
groups or associations viz. boy’s club, secret society, village council, etc.
Man is also involved in social institutions such as marriage, government, law etc. So in adjusting with
social environment and to keep the society in continuity, one has to abide by the various laws and
customs formulated by the society. But society has got intimate relationship with culture which is
created by man. Culture exists to make the society survive but without the existence of society culture
has no entity. So the social anthropologist studies various aspects of society in keeping with the cultural
development.
Religion: It is a product of psychic reaction and adjustment of man to the supernatural world. Man could
not explain why there exist the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, water, air, other etc. Man also
did not know what were the causes of storm and thunder, earthquake and volcano, drought and floods,
life and death, etc. He most often questioned why man suffers from diseases. Similarly he was curious
about many other natural phenomena. These made him think and believe that there were some
supernatural powers in the background by the action of which these phenomena had come into being.
Thus, religious ideas and beliefs seemed to have arisen out of these situations. Man believed that of
these supernatural powers, some were benevolent and some harmful. So he did some magico‐religious
performances in order to propitiate those powers. With these were associated some rituals which
represent the various techniques that are applied as a means of controlling or influencing the
supernatural world. These techniques were generally used by some specialists called shamans and
priests who were known as religious practitioners. The shaman deals with spirits. He may have power
either to cure or to do harm. The priest worships gods for the welfare of men and acts as an
intermediary between Gods and men. Thus the anthropologists study the varieties of rituals connected
with different beliefs and practices found among different groups of people living in different parts of
the world and how they are related to their day to day activities which make them survive peacefully.
Q. 2. Describe methods of data collection in Anthropology.
Ans. Four common qualitative anthropological data collection methods are: (1) participant observation,
(2) in‐ depth interviews, (3) focus groups, and (4) textual analysis.
Participant Observation: Participant observation is the quintessential fieldwork method in anthropology.
Anthropologists use various degrees of participant observation, from full participation in ongoing
activities to passive observation within the locations of interest. Participant observation is useful at
multiple stages of an evaluation:
(1) Initially, to identify issues that need to be explored with other data collection methods;
(2) Ongoing, as process evaluation; and
(3) Following other types of data collection, to triangulate earlier findings and directly observe the
specific phenomena that participants have spoken about. Participant observation allows the researcher
to assess actual behavior in real time; information gathered in this way can strengthen interpretation of
information collected through interiews. Large projects that employ multiple observers can use an
observation template to guide observers in taking notes about core phenomena and allow them to add
notes about other phenomena. It is important to ensure that observations of any location take place at
different times of the day and week to identify patterns and differences.
In‐Depth Individual Interviews: In‐depth interviews using open‐ended questions aim to capture the
mental and experiential world of the informant. Individual interviews allow participants to tell their
stories, uninterrupted, in a detailed and coherent manner, without worrying about what their peers may
think (as in a focus group). Given the frequent requirement in PCMH evaluations for multiple interviews
(often conducted by more than one interviewer) and the desire to compare and contrast responses of
interviewees, the most useful type of interview for PCMH evaluation is the semi‐structured interview,
which combines consistency with flexibility. A semi‐structured interview uses an interview guide with a
core list of open‐ended questions and anticipated followup questions to ensure that researchers ask all
participants a minimum set of identical questions, in order to collect reliable, comparable qualitative
data. In addition, this interview technique allows researchers to ask spontaneously generated questions
to probe for clarification of participants’ responses and to follow new, relevant topics that participants
raise. Semi‐structured interviews should be conducted by someone trained in qualitative interviewing
and comfortable using open‐ended questions to encourage participants to expound on their thoughts.
The length of the interviews can vary and evaluators can audio record and transcribe them. PCMH
evaluations include interviews with all types of participants involved in the process of care — patients,
registration clerks, nurses, medical assistants, residents, physicians, and allied health staff. Collecting a
range of view‐points provides rich information and often unexpected insights on the PCMH and its
impact by exposing areas of challenge or success for the practices.
Focus Groups: The focus group is a group interview method useful for obtaining information on
relatively unstudied topics for which the full range of relevant domains is not known and the dynamic
interaction among participants is of interest. Researchers choose focus groups over individual in‐depth
interviews when data acquisition will benefit from the dynamic that is created through group discussion.
The discussion often elicits information and insights that might not be gained from an individual
interview, including the colloquial ways in which participants speak with one another about working in
or seeking care from the practice. For example, in the baseline assessment phase of a PCMH evaluation,
evaluators might use focus groups to (1) enable practice personnel to grapple with their expectations for
practice transformation or (2) identify some issues to address early on and others to address later in the
process. To maintain participants’ confidentiality and foster a comfortable environment for expressing
ideas, researchers usually avoid including participants at different levels of status and within supervisory
hierarchies in focus groups. The following factors are critical to the success of focus groups:
1. Thoughtful creation of a list of open‐ended questions designed to draw participants into discussion on
desired topics.
2. Careful attention to recruitment of participants who have the desired characteristics or experiences
and who are comfortable with non‐hierarchical group discussion.
3. Skillful group facilitation by a trained focus group moderator.
4. The presence of an observer who keeps process notes, operates the recording equipment, and assists
the moderator as needed. Focus groups usually include 6 to 12 participants, and last 1 to 2 hours.
Discussions are audio recorded and transcribed with participants’ identities masked. Each focus group is
considered a unit of analysis (N=1), irrespective of the number of participants. Moderators should strive
to facilitate open and dynamic dialogue among participants to allow opportunities for creative insights.
Textual Analysis: Practices produce a wide range of documents that provide valuable windows into
their operation, values, and mechanisms. Anthropological methods can be used to examine the
underlying themes and patterns in documents such as practice mission statements, informational
brochures, and procedure manuals. To understand the broader context in which the practice, its
employees, and its delivery of services exist, researchers can conduct a systematic review of textual
materials produced 4 by the practice for its staff, its patients, and the public to identify how
stakeholders think about the practice’s overall mission, services, and transformation goals. One less‐
commonly considered type of textual material that can provide useful insights into the practice
environment is practice‐produced narratives. Evaluators can obtain rich insights into otherwise
unarticulated beliefs, motivations, and dreams about and for the practice culture if individuals and
groups construct their own practice narratives, record their practice histories, and even participate in re‐
biography—rewriting their stories to reflect their transformations—as part of the transformation
process.
Assignment‐B Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
Q. 3. Discuss current fields of Biological Anthropology.
Ans. As a subfield of anthropology, biological anthropology itself is further divided into several branches.
All branches are united in their common orientation and/or application of evolutionary theory to
understanding human biology and behaviour.
Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from
extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioural changes in
the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.
Human biology is an interdisciplinary field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine,
which concerns international, population‐level perspectives on health, evolution, anatomy, physiology,
molecular biology, neuroscience and genetics.
Primatology is the study of non‐human primate behaviour, morphology, and genetics. Primatologists use
phylogenetic methods to infer which traits humans share with other primates and which are human‐
specific adaptations.
Human behavioural ecology is the study of behavioural adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny)
from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioural ecology). It focuses on human
adaptive responses (physiological, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses.
Bioarchaeology is the study of past human cultures through examination of human remains recovered in
an archaeological context. The examined human remains usually are limited to bones but may include
preserved soft
tissue. Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology and
archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.
Paleopathology is the study of disease in antiquity. This study focuses not only on pathogenic conditions
observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, but also on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or
morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived
biomechanic stress.
Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary
perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the
functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Evolutionary biology is
the study of the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a
single common ancestor. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation.
Q. 4. Explain the relationship of Archaeological Anthropology with other disciplines
Ans. Relationship between Social Anthropology and Sociology: Sociology is a science of society that
studies human behavior in groups. Anthropology is a science of man and studies human behaviour in
social surroundings. Thus, it is clear that the subject matter of sociology and social anthropology is
common to a great extent. Sociology and anthropology have highly influenced each other. Hoebel states
that sociology and social anthropology in their broadest senses are one and the same. Evans Pritchard
takes social anthropology as a branch of sociological studies that devotes to primitive societies.
Radcliffe‐Brown suggests that anthropology be renamed Comparative Sociology. Concerning the
tendency in the United States, Levi‐Strauss wants to regard sociology as a special form of anthropology.
Even though social anthropology and sociology share an interest in social relations, organization and
behavior, there are important differences between these two disciplines. John Beattie (1964: 29) points
out the difference in the area of study. He writes, “ ...Sociology is by definition concerned with the
investigation and understanding of social relations, and with other data only in so far as they further this
understanding, social anthropologists, although as we have seen they share this concern with
sociologists, are interested also in other matters, such as people’s beliefs and values, even where these
cannot be shown to be directly connected with social behavior. In brief, social anthropologists are
cultural anthropologists as well. For example, people’s religious and cosmological ideas do not
necessarily reflect their social system, though it has sometimes been assumed that they do. And even
where such relationships can be established, the anthropologist’s interest in people’s ideas is by no
means exhausted when these connections have been pointed out. He is interested in their ideas and
beliefs as well as in their social relationships, and in recent years many social anthropologists have
studied other people’s belief systems not simply from a sociological point of view, but also as being
worthy of investigation in their own right.”
Relationship between Social Anthropology and History: The historians are more interested in particular
sequences of past events. Anthropologists are centrally interested in understanding the present
conditions of culture or community which they are studying. But the two disciplines have a close
relationship. Both history and ethnography (the empirical description of a people on which the cross‐
cultural comparison technique is applied for the extraction of anthropological theories) are concerned
with societies other than the one in which the researcher live. Whether this otherness is due to
remoteness in time, or to remoteness in space, or even to cultural heterogeneity, is of secondary
importance compared to the basic similarity of prospective. The historian or ethnographer enlarges a
specific experience to the dimensions of a more general one, which thereby becomes accessible as
experience to men of another country or another epoch. And in order to succeed, both historian and
ethnographer must have the same qualities: skill, precision, a sympathetic approach and objectivity.
Relationship between Social Anthropology and Political Science: Political science developed to
investigate particular domain of human behavior. It also works mainly in modern nations. In small‐scale
societies where social anthropology grew up, politics generally do not stand out as distinct activities to
separate analysis, as they do in modern society. Rather they are submerged or embedded in the general
social order. There is no formal authority figure. People generally follow orders of their kin rather than
formal leaders. Studying political organizations cross‐ culturally, anthropologists find out a wide range of
various political and legal systems. It is found that legal codes along with ideas of crime and punishment,
means of resolving conflicts vary substantially from culture to culture.
Relationship between Social Anthropology and Psychology: Like sociologists and economists, most
psychologists do research in their own society. Anthropology again contributes by providing cross‐
cultural data. Statements about human psychology can not be based solely on observations made in one
society or a single type of society. The area of social anthropology known as psychological anthropology
studies cross‐cultural variation in psychological traits. Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, and others
attempted to find out different patterns and psychological traits among different cultures.
Both social anthropology and psychology deal with the same basic subject matter, people in relation
with other people. Psychology is mainly concerned with the nature and functioning of individual human
minds. Social anthropology is more keenly interested in the study of various forms and structure of
groups and organizations. Its unit of study is society. It tries to find out types of society, their function,
structure, origin and development. But psychology is not basically interested in the society and their
forms. It is interested in the study of individual’s behavior. Broadly speaking social anthropology studies
the culture and social system in which the individuals live rather than the individuals themselves. But the
individual and society can not exist separately of each other. Thus the subject matter is almost the same
but with the difference in emphasis.
Regarding the importance of psychology in social anthropology, John Beattie states, “In fact every field
anthropologist must be, to a considerable extent a practicing psychologist, for a main part of his job is to
discover the thinking of those people whom he studies, and this is never a simple task. Ideas and values
are not given as data; they must be inferred, and there are many difficulties and dangers in such
inferences, especially when they are made in the context of an unfamiliar culture. It may well be that
there is much to be learned about the less explicit values of other cultures (as well as about those of our
own), especially about the kinds of symbolism involved in ritual and ceremonial, through techniques of
depth psychology. But a word of warning is necessary. The incautious application in unfamiliar cultures
of concepts and assumptions derived from psychological researchers in western society may lead – and
indeed has led – to gross distortions. The Oedipus complex, for example, is something to be proved, not
assumed, in other cultures. Nevertheless it is likely that as psychologists increasingly work in cultures
other than their own (and they are doing this) profitable collaboration between them and social
anthropologists will take place”
Relationship between Social Anthropology and Economy: Economics is one of the oldest and
theoretically most sophisticated disciplines in comparison to anthropology. But, like other social
sciences, economics developed to investigate particular domains of human behavior and work mainly in
advanced societies. In small‐scale societies wherein the anthropologists mainly study, there may not be
distinct economic transaction as found in the advanced societies.
The subject‐matter of economics has been defined as economizing – the rational allocation of scarce
means (resources) among alternative ends (uses). In the west, the goal of maximizing profit – the profit
motive ‐ is assumed to guide economic decision making. Studying cross‐culturally, the anthropologists
find variation in the motivations.
Anthropologists know motives other than the desire for personal gain for making economic decisions in
different cultures. And, in recent decades, fewer social‐cultural anthropologists have tried to borrow
some general ideas from economics; others strongly feel that it would be irrelevant to explain economic
behavior of small‐scale (pre‐industrial) societies in terms of formal economics which were developed for
the industrial societies. Economic anthropology classifies the diversity of economic systems into
different types at different technological levels. Anthropologists find such categories as hunter‐gatherer
or band economics, pictorial economies, hoe and forest cultivators, sedentary cultivators and so.
Q. 5. Write short note Emic and Etic Approach.
Ans. Etic: An etic view of a culture is the perspective of an outsider looking in. For example, if an
American anthropologist went to Africa to study a nomadic tribe, his/her resulting case study would be
from an etic standpoint if he/she did not integrate themselves into the culture they were observing.
Some anthropologists may take this approach to avoid altering the culture that they are studying by
direct interaction. The etic perspective is data gathering by outsiders that yield questions posed by
outsiders. One problem that anthropologists may run in to is that people tend to act differently when
they are being observed. It is especially hard for an outsider to gain access to certain private rituals,
which may be important for understanding a culture.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is an example of an “Etic” view. The WHO created a group that
specializes in Health and Human Rights. Although the idea that all cultures should have their rights
protected in terms of health seems logical, it can also be dangerous as it is an “Etic” view on culture. The
WHO posits that “violations or lack of attention to human rights (e.g. harmful traditional practices,
slavery, torture and inhuman and degrading treatment, violence against women) can have serious
health consequences.”[4] Although some cultures may see this as a big step in health care, others could
see it as an attack on their way of life. This problem of right and wrong in terms of crossing cultural lines
is a big one. It can be hard for some cultures to watch other cultures do things that are seen as
damaging when to the culture itself it has a purpose and a meaning.
Emic: An emic view of culture is ultimately a perspective focus on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that
are meaningful to the members of a given society, often considered to be an ‘insider’s’ perspective.
While this perspective stems from the concept of immersion in a specific culture, the emic participant
isn’t always a member of that culture or society. Studies done from an emic perspective often include
more detailed and culturally rich information than studies done from an etic point of view. Because the
observer places themselves within the culture of intended study, they are able to go further in‐depth on
the details of practices and beliefs of a society that may otherwise have been ignored. However, the
emic perspective has its downfalls. Studies done from an emic perspective can create bias on the part of
the participant, especially if said individual is a member of the culture they are studying, thereby failing
to keep in mind how their practices are perceived by others and possibly causing valuable information to
be left out. The emic perspective serves the purpose of providing descriptive in‐depth reports about
how insiders of a culture understand their rituals.
Assignment‐C Answer the following questions in about 125 words each.
Q. 6. Write a note on Human Growth and Development.
Ans. As the physical anthropologist seeks to understand the meaning of the striking range of variability
which confronts him he is constantly faced with the importance of the processes of physical growth and
development. In addition to the obvious fact that the size and shape of the adult are the direct result of
his own unique pattern of development, there are a number of other ways in which ontogeny (i.e.,
development) is responsive to the evolutionary forces which affect human populations. For example,
the longer growth period of Homo sapiens relative to other Primates (successively longer periods being
a feature observed as we proceed up the Primate scale) is of selective value in affording more time in
which to learn the many facets of human culture while still socially and biologically
dependent upon one’s parents. The study of growth and of the forces which which create and maintain
its variability are basic parts of any discipline which seeks to understand man in his entirety. Small
wonder it is, then, that anthropologists such as Boas, Krogman and Garn have contributed many of the
basic advances in growth research, while other biological scientists, such as Todd, Skerlj and Tanner,
who have likewise contributed much, have always been closely associated with anthropology. In other
words, though human growth research has always been multi‐disciplinary in nature, anthropologists
have been prominent throughout its rather short history.
One of the most striking features of growth is its regularity. If we plot repeated measurements of, for
example, the height of a single child as taken by a single trained measurer against the age of that child,
we will immediately note the smoothness of the resulting curve. In fact, it is so smooth that it may be
accurately described by a very simple mathematical equation. Even the course of adolescence,
characterized by a rapid and intense spurt in growth, proceeds along a smooth pathway for the same
individual. The regularity in the shape of the growth curve is such that, as early as five years of age, we
may estimate the adult height of a particular child and be confident of accuracy within a range of about
two inches on either side of our estimate.
Q.7. What is Ethnography?
Ans. Ethnography is a qualitative research method that comes from the discipline of anthropology but is
applicable to other disciplines. Ethnography is the in‐depth study of a culture or a facet of a culture.
Because of this, ethnographic research often looks very different compared with other research designs.
There are a couple of aspects of ethnography that differentiate it from research approaches like
phenomenology and case studies. The first is that ethnography takes long periods of time. Traditionally,
ethnographers spent a minimum of one year living amongst members of the culture they are studying.
This extended period of data collection allowed local people a chance to know and get used to the
ethnographer, and this also allowed the ethnographer to build rapport with local people. Today,
ethnographers still spend as much time as possible collecting data, though not necessarily an entire year
or more like in the past.
A second difference is that ethnography relies on participant observation as its key data collection
method. This is when the ethnographer becomes completely immersed in another culture and way of
life. An ethnographer not only observes the phenomenon under study, but also becomes a participant in
daily life. The goal is to understand a practice or set of practices within a culture; that is, why a practice
might make sense in the context of the day‐to‐day life of a group. For example, an ethnographer
studying the religious practices of a culture would not only attend religious services but also participate
in them, because this would allow them to truly understand these practices from an insider’s point of
view.
Finally, a third difference is that this extended period of participant observation in the field (the time
spent living in another culture) is often used in conjunction with other data collection methods, like
interviews, focus groups, or surveys. However, much ethnographic data comes from the ethnographer’s
field notes. Field notes are written daily logs, almost like journals, that describe daily life and events that
the ethnographer witnessed and took part in.
Q. 8. What are different dating methods.
Ans. Relative dating methods allow one to determine if an object is earlier than, later than, or
contemporary with some other object. It does not, however, allow one to independently assign an
accurate estimation of the age of an object as expressed in years. The most common relative dating
method is stratigraphy. Other methods include fluorine dating, nitrogen dating, association with bones
of extinct fauna, association with certain pollen profiles, association with geological features such as
beaches, terraces and river meanders, and the establishment of cultural seriations. Cultural seriations
are based on typologies, in which artifacts that are numerous across a wide variety of sites and over
time, like pottery or stone tools. If archaeologists know how pottery styles, glazes, and techniques have
changed over time they can date sites based on the ratio of different kinds of pottery.
Stratigraphic dating is based on the principle of depositional superposition of layers of sediments called
strata. This principle presumes that the oldest layer of a stratigraphic sequence will be on the bottom
and the most recent, or youngest, will be on the top. The earliest‐known hominids in East Africa are
often found in very specific stratigraphic contexts that have implications for their relative dating. These
strata are often most visible in canyons or gorges which are good sites to find and identify fossils.
Understanding the geologic history of an area and the different strata is important to interpreting and
understanding archaeological findings.
The majority of chronometric dating methods are radiometric, which means they involve measuring the
radioactive decay of a certain chemical isotope. They are called chronometric because they allow one to
make a very accurate scientific estimate of the date of an object as expressed in years. They do not,
however, give “Absolute” dates because they merely provide a statistical probability that a given date
falls within a certain range of age expresse d in years. Chronomet ri c methods incl ude r adioca rbon,
potassium‐argon, fi ssion‐track, and thermoluminescence.
Q. 9. Briefly describe the types of research design.
Ans. Types of Research Designs: The research design is a broad framework that describes how the entire
research project is carried out. Basically, there can be three types of research designs – exploratory
research design, descriptive research design, and experimental (or causal) research design. Use of
particular research design depends upon type of problem under study. Let’s have glimpse of each of
them:
Exploratory Research Design: This design is followed to discover ideas and insights to generate possible
explanations. It helps in exploring the problem or situation. It is, particularly, emphasized to break a
broad vague problem statement into smaller pieces or sub‐problem statements that help forming
specific hypothesis. The hypothesis is a conjectural (imaginary, speculative, or abstract) statement about
the relationship between two or more variables. Naturally, in initial state of the study, we lack sufficient
understanding about problem to formulate a specific hypothesis. Similarly, we have several competitive
explanations of marketing phenomenon. Exploratory research design is used to establish priorities
among those competitive explanations.
Descriptive Research Design: Descriptive research design is typically concerned with describing problem
and its solution. It is more specific and purposive study. Before rigorous attempts are made for
descriptive study, the well‐defined problem must be on hand. Descriptive study rests on one or more
hypotheses. For example, “Our brand is not much familiar,” “Sales volume is stable,” etc. It is more
precise and specific. Unlike exploratory research, it is not flexible. Descriptive research requires clear
specification of who, why, what, when, where, and how of the research. Descriptive design is directed to
answer these problems.
Causal or Experimental Research Design: Causal research design deals with determining cause and
effect relationship. It is typically in form of experiment. In causal research design, attempt is made to
measure impact of manipulation on independent variables (like price, products, advertising and selling
efforts or marketing strategies in general) on dependent variables (like sales volume, profits, and brand
image and brand loyalty). It has more practical value in resolving marketing problems. We can set and
test hypotheses by conducting experiments. Test marketing is the most suitable example of
experimental marketing in which the independent variable like price, product, promotional efforts, etc.,
are manipulated (changed) to measure its impact on the dependent variables, such as sales, profits,
brand loyalty, competitive strengths product differentiation and so on.
Q. 10. What is the Analytical {hase of Anthropology in India?
Ans. Analytical Phase: Contact of Indian anthropologists with American anthropologists occurred after
the World War II and especially after India’s independence. A shift in approach was noted with the
intervention of the American scholars. The influence of British anthropology with its emphasis on
preliterate isolate society was gradually replaced by the analytical study of the complex societies. Study
of Indian Village became very fashionable.
The American anthropologist’s viz. Morris Opler of Cornell University, Oscar Lewis of the University of
Illinois, David Mandelbaum of the University of California and a lot of their students came in India with
research team.
Their objective was three fold Firstly they wanted to make a systematic study of Indian villages for
testing some of their own hypotheses. Secondly, they tried to refine their already established
methodological framework and thirdly, they urged to assist the community development programmes in
Indian villages.
The modem Bengal has been the principal centre of anthropological investigation from the very
inception of anthropology in India. Calcutta is said to be the cradle of Indian anthropologists as different
anthropological ideas and talents have always been diffused from his spot by enhancing its glory.
Later, when the fields of anthropology was extended to include the complex society, Indian
anthropologists also made them involved in the studies like acculturation, culture‐contacts,
technological change, socio‐political organization, economic activities, etc. Gradually the study of
civilization, applied and action research also gained a ground in India.
In this phase of anthropological development, apart from the impact of British and American
anthropologists, influence of French Structural anthropologists were also found. Approach of Levi‐
Strauss was followed in this field of kinship and folklore studies. Dumont and Leach influenced
considerably in the study of Caste system.
Among the Indian anthropologists D.N. Majumdar, M.N. Srinivas and S.C. Dube made notable
contributions to community and village studies. American anthropologists namely, R. Redfield, M.
Singer, M. Marriott and Bernard S. Cohn devoted themselves in the study of the dimensions of Indian
civilization.
Redfield’s ‘Great traditions and little traditions’ as well as ‘Folk‐urban Continuum’ were the universal
propositions. K. Gaugh, E. Leach, N.K. Bose and A. Beteille were busy for unveiling the socio‐economic
basis of Indian society. Beteille conducted his studies on caste and stratification in Tamil Nadu. Srinivas’s
concept of sanskritization and westernization are the important tools to understand the caste dynamics.
American anthropologist G.P. Steed and British anthropologist G.M. Carstairs had spent huge time to
relate anthropology with psychology. Uma Chowdhury and R.C. Roy fried to relate personality structure
with the cultural tradition. Thus horizon of Indian anthropology gradually expanded with time.
Indian scholars felt that the application of western model would be totally unwise, as those seemed to
be inadequate to explain the complexities of Indian society and civilization. Moreover, the spirit of
nationalism was very prominent among the anthropologists of this generation.
Q. 11. What are the contributions of Bronislaw K. Malinowski?
Ans. Bronislaw Malinowski is arguably the most influential anthropologist of the 20th century, mostly
for social anthropology. Bronislaw Malinowski is considered the father of ethnographic methodology by
most field working anthropologist because of his ideas on participant observation. He is one of the
pioneer to lead participant observation method whereby, the observant lives with the people he
studies, gets to understand them and participates in their activities.
Unlike earlier monographs, which were dry catalogs of facts, Malinowski’s ethnographies painted a
romantic picture of native life, had an institutional focus, and provided a vivid narrative where the
ethnographer is seen to interact with real people. He demonstrated that even so‐called superstitions
had a logic and function within the context of that society, helping it cope successfully with
environmental and social challenges.
Malinowski also tackled some of the most important and controversial topics of his day: Economics,
religion, family, sex, psychology, colonialism, and war. He insisted that a proper understanding of culture
required viewing these various aspects in context. Malinowski was instrumental in transforming social
anthropology from an ethnocentric discipline concerned with historical origins and based on the writings
of travelers, missionaries, and colonial administrators to one concerned with understanding the
interconnections between various institutions and based on fieldwork, where the goal was to “Grasp the
native’s point of view”.