Physical Science Book PDF

Foundations of Physical Science
Florida Edition
Copyright © 2011 CPO Science, a member of School Specialty Science
ISBN: 978-1-60431-122-8
Part Number: 292-2552
Printing 1 — 3/2010
World Color USA, Leominster, MA
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Authors and Writers Stacy Kissel – Writer Jesse Van Valkenburgh – Designer/Illustrator
B.S., Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon B.F.A. Illustration, Rochester Institute of Technology
Thomas C. Hsu, Ph.D. – Author University; M.Ed., Physics Education, Boston College Worked in prepress and design. Was responsible for
Nationally recognized innovator in science and math Teaches physics, math, and integrated science at Brookline creative design and prepress film production for computer
education and the founder of CPO Science. Holds a Ph.D. High in Massachusetts. Stacy was selected as Brookline catalogs, brochures and various marketing materials. Jesse
in Applied Plasma Physics from the Massachusetts High School Teacher of the Year for 2007. She has completes photography and illustrations as a graphic
Institute of Technology (MIT), and has taught students developed curriculum with CPO for the last six years and is designer for CPO book and media products.
from elementary, secondary and college levels. Tom has an adjunct professor for Endicott College in Massachusetts.
worked with numerous K–12 teachers and administrators Contributing Writers
and is well known as a consultant, workshop leader and
Senior Editor
developer of curriculum and equipment for inquiry based Erik Benton – Principle Investigation Editor and Writer
learning in science and math. Lynda Pennell – Executive Vice President B.F.A., University of Massachusetts with minor in Physics
B.A., English; M.Ed., Administration, Reading Taught for eight years in public and private schools,
Scott Eddleman – Co-Author, Curriculum Manager Disabilities, Northeastern University; CAGS Media, focusing on inquiry and experiential learning. Erik brings
B.S., Biology, Southern Illinois University; M.Ed., University of Massachusetts, Boston. extensive teaching and technical expertise, ranging from
Harvard University Nationally known in high school restructuring and for elementary and adult education to wildlife research. As a
Taught for 13 years in urban and rural settings. Developed integrating academic and career education. Served as the naturalist for the Web of Life Field School in Santa Cruz,
two successful science-based school-to-career programs. director of an urban school for 5 years and has 17 years California, he participated in a worldwide amphibian
Nationally recognized teacher trainer in inquiry-based and teaching/administrative experience in the Boston Public population study. Currently he is involved in bird
project-based instruction. Participated in a fellowship at Schools. Lynda has led the development for CPO Science population studies in Massachusetts. Erik is our
Brown University where he conducted research on the for the past eight years. She has also been recognized for investigation writer and conducts national content
coral reefs of Belize. Worked on National Science her media production work. presentations.
Foundation-funded projects at TERC. Scott has been a
principal writer and curriculum developer for CPO Art and Illustration Lainie Ives
Science for the last seven years. B.A., Gordon College and graduate coursework at Cornell
Mary Beth Abel – Writer, Curriculum Specialist Polly Crisman – Graphics Manager/Illustrator University's Shoals Marine Laboratory and Wheelock
B.F.A., University of New Hampshire College
B.S., Marine Biology, College of Charleston; M.S.,
Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island. Worked as a designer and illustrator in marketing and Taught elementary and middle school science at an
advertising departments for a variety of industries. Polly independent school and an environmental education center
Taught science and math at an innovative high school and in New England. Taught middle and high school English
at the college level. Has expertise in scientific research, has worked in the CPO Science design department since
2001, and is responsible for organizing workflow of overseas. Laine has worked in curriculum development at
inquiry-based teaching methods, and science curriculum CPO Science since 2000.
graphics and file management. She created the CPO
development. Mary Beth has been a principal writer with
Science logo and supervises the graphic design image for Laura Preston
CPO Science since 2000.
CPO publications and media products.
B. S. Geology and teaching certification, University of
Patsy Eldridge – Writer Bruce Holloway – Senior Designer/Illustrator Texas, Arlington
B.S., Biology, Grove City College; M.Ed., Tufts University. Pratt Institute, N.Y., Boston Museum of Fine Arts Has thirteen years of science and math teaching experience
Experienced science teacher and national hands-on science Expertise in illustration, advertising graphics, exhibits and for grades 5–12. Currently teaching at Salem High School
trainer and presenter. As an adjunct professor for Endicott product design. Commissioned throughout his career by in Salem, New Hampshire. Worked as a geologist in the
College in Beverly, MA, and the College of Charleston, The National Wildlife Federation’s Conservation Stamp early 1990's, and as a geophysicist in 2007. Laura
developed content-intensive Physical Science courses for Campaign. Other commissions include the New participated in a research cruise aboard the R/V “Atlantis”
educators. Partners with Dr. Tom Hsu to create and deliver Hampshire State Duck Stamp campaigns for1999 and collecting data on the East Pacific Rise. Member of the
innovative science lessons on interactive DVDs for 2003. Bruce has worked as senior designer with CPO New Hampshire Geologic Society. Laura joined the CPO
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Contributing Writers (continued) David H. Bliss Material Support
B.S., Science, Cornell University; M.Ed., Zoology.
Laurette Viteritti Has taught for 39 years in the science field: biology, Kathryn Gavin – Purchasing and Quality Control Manager
chemistry, earth science, and physics. Served as science Responsible for all functions related to purchasing raw
BSCE, University of New Hampshire, MFA, Vermont College
department chair of Mohawk Central School District in materials and quality control of finished goods. Works
Structural engineer and physics teacher who has taught Mohawk, N.Y.
physics, physical science, and a project-based engineering closely with product development and design.
course at Swampscott High School in Massachusetts. Also Editorial Consultant
worked with the Museum of Science in Boston on their Special Thanks
“Engineering the Future” curriculum. Laurette has served Christine Golden
as a consultant for CPO Science since 2007. David Pinsent
B.A., Psychology, Gordon College: M.B.A., Rivier College Independent photographer
Leslie Sheen Project manager at Imperial Communications since 1999,
B.A. English, Gordon College; M.A.T. Teaching English as with 22 years publishing experience. Owner and managing J. Michael Williamson
a second language, Georgetown University editor of Big Dog Publishing Services. Christine’s work Founder and Principal Investigator, WhaleNet
Taught ELL for 10 years. Taught elementary school and centers on editing of K-12 textbook material.
John Kwasnoski
adult education courses in the United States, and secondary
school at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Leslie Project and Technical Support Professor Emeritus of Forensic Physics, Western New
England College
joined the CPO Science curriculum team as an ELL
consultant in 2005. Susan Gioia – Educational CPO Science Administrator Emily Dagon
Shannon Donovan Expertise in office management. Oversees all functions Center for Advanced Technology Initiatives, System
necessary for the smooth product development of CPO Planning Corporation
B.A., M.A. Botany, University of Rhode Island
products, including print and media.
Worked briefly in the biotech industry. Currently teaches Dr. Hugh Herr
physical science, chemistry, biology, and environmental Lynn L’Heureux Director, Biomechatronics group, MIT Media Lab
science in Rhode Island. Volunteers for several local Owner of M&M Composition, LLC. Has worked in
Jen Wallace
environmental groups with her students. Shannon began textbook composition for 10 years and specializes in math,
writing for CPO Science in 2008. computer, and science texts. Publications Coordinator, Chesapeake Bay Foundation
Alyson Mazza Heinz Rudolf

B.A., Environmental Biology and Education, Houghton
Equipment Design Principal, BOORA Architects (Clackamas High School)
College
Thomas Narro – Senior Vice President Dr. Edith Widder
Experienced science teacher with inquiry-based science
teaching expertise. Alyson has worked with the PROBE K- B.S., Mechanical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Senior Scientist, 2006 MacArthur Fellow, Harbor Branch
12 project through the Leitzel Center at the University of Institute Oceanographic Institution
New Hampshire to research and practice inquiry-based Accomplished design and manufacturing engineer; Mr. Garth Fletcher
teaching strategies. She currently teaches science at Salem experienced consultant in corporate reengineering and President, JacqCAD International
High School in Salem, NH. industrial-environmental acoustics.
Brenda Gillian
Assessment Danielle Dzurik
Business Adviser to Dame Evelyn Glennie DBE
B.S., Industrial Design, Auburn University
Focuses her efforts in product development on creating Robin Hurst
Mary Ann Erickson
new products and improving upon older designs. Media Relations, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
B.S, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Liz Goehring, Ridge 2000 and the National Science
Ran a technical writing consulting business, writing Foundation
process control manuals for water treatment plants,
Brookline High School Science Students
software design documentation for simulation software,
and operator manuals for mining equipment. Brookline High School, Massachusetts
Reviewers
Mark Baker Chrystal Brooke Johnson William Miller Melissa Vela
Diamond, OH MacArthur High School Arlington Heights High School Freelance Science Specialist
Dr. Nicholas Benfaremo Irving, TX Ft Worth, TX Brookline, NH
South Portland, ME Daniel Klein Kathryn Schommer Neuenschwander Michael Vela
Nancy Baker Cazan Fairless High School Northrop High School Concord-Carlisle High School
SAMM Center Navarre, OH Indiana Concord, MA
Massillon, OH Kathleen Kuhn Stacey L. Nunley Elizabeth Volt
Ann Cleary Lake High School Mumford High School Science Curriculum Coordinator
Medina High School Uniontown, OH Detroit, Michigan Cleveland Metropolitan School District
Medina, OH Jay Kurima Joel C. Palmer Ed. D. Ohio
Jean A. Cyders Fort Worth ISD Science Coordinator David Warner
McKinley High School Texas Mesquite Independent School District Tuslaw High School
Canton, OH Ed Laubacher Texas Massillon, OH
Deirde L. Davenport Lake High School Neil Parrot Dan Williamson
William Miller Uniontown, OH Tuslaw High School Irving High School
Central Medical Magnet High School Matt Leatherberry Massillon, OH Irving, TX
Beaumont, TX Minerva High School Jeff Pickle Kathleen Woodring
Dr. Gregorio Garcia Minerva, OH Hoover High School Edna, TX
Brownsville ISD Department of John C. Lineweaver North Canton, OH Jaclyn L. Ziders
Curriculum and Instruction Science Consultant Emily O. Price Lake High School
Brownsville, Texas Abilene, Texas Waxahachie High School Uniontown, OH
Cort Gillen Anita K. Marshall Texas
Cypress, TX Cypress, TX Julie Randolph
Alan P. Gnospelius Maria Estela Martinez Odom Academy
Design & Technology Academy Irving Union Bower High School Beaumont, TX
Northeast Independent School District Irving, TX Steve Remenaric
San Antonio, Texas Chandra R. Maxey Tuslaw High School
Lisa Q, Gothard Irving Union Bower High School Massillon, OH
East Canton High School Irving, TX Jay Don Steele
East Canton, OH Alyson Mazza Floresville High School
Liz Gregory Salem High School Floresville, TX
Atkins High School Salem, NH Ginger Torregrossa
Austin, TX Thomas McArthur Montgomery High School
James Max Hollon Hoover High School Montgomery, TX
Indiana North Canton, OH Timothy Totten
William C. Huckeba Michael Mihalik Fairless High School
Academy High School Lake High School Navarre, OH
Irving, TX Uniontown, OH
Unit One: Science and Chapter 5: Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5.1 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Table of Contents
5.2 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Chapter 1: Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.3 Forces and Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.1 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Connection: Parabolic Flights . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.2 Time and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Chapter 5 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1.3 Converting Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Working with Measurements . . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 6: Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . 137
Connection: Nanotechnology - It’s a 6.1 Newton’s First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Small World After All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 6.2 Newton’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 1 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 6.3 Newton’s Third Law and Momentum . 148
Connection: Forensic Engineering:
Chapter 2: Science Skills . . . . . . . . . . 29
A Two Part Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.1 Measuring Mass and Volume . . . . . . . 30 Chapter 6 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.2 Determining Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Unit Three: Work and Energy . . 162
2.4 Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter 7: Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Connection: Density and Ocean Currents . . 52
Chapter 2 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 7.1 What Is Energy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.2 Energy Transformations . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter 3: The Scientific Process . . . 57 7.3 Conservation and Forms of Energy . . 177
3.1 Inquiry and the Scientific Method . . . . . 58 Connection: A Matter of Survival . . . . . . . . 182
3.2 Experiments and Variables . . . . . . . . . 64 Chapter 7 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3 The Nature of Science and Technology 68
Chapter 8: Work and Power . . . . . . . 187
Connection: Ethics in Medical Research . . . 72
Chapter 3 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 8.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.2 Efficiency and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Unit Two: Motion and Force . . . . . 76 Connection: Human-Powered Transportation 200
Chapter 8 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Chapter 4: Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Position, Speed, and Velocity . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 9: Simple Machines . . . . . . 205
4.2 Graphs of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 9.1 Types of Simple Machines . . . . . . . . 206
4.3 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 9.2 Mechanical Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Connection: High Tech Animal Trackers . . 100 9.3 Levers in the Human Body . . . . . . . . 217
Chapter 4 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Connection: Prosthetics in Action! . . . . . . . 220
Chapter 9 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Unit Four: Matter and Energy . . . 226 Unit Five: Atoms, Elements, and Com-
Chapter 10: Matter and Temperature 227 pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.1 The Nature of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Chapter 14: Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
10.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 14.1 The Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . 314
10.3 The Phases of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 14.2 Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Connection: Television Technology . . . . . . 246 Connection: Bioluminescence - Glow Live! 328
Chapter 10 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Chapter 14 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Chapter 11: Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Chapter 15: Elements and the Periodic
11.1 Heat and Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . 252 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.2 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 15.1 The Periodic Table of the Elements . 334
Connection: Needed: Efficient Buildings . . . 264 15.2 Properties of the Elements . . . . . . . . 341
Chapter 11 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Connection: Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Chapter 12: Properties of Matter . . . 269 Chapter 15 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
12.1 Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Chapter 16: Compounds . . . . . . . . . 353
12.2 Properties of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 16.1 Chemical Bonds and Electrons . . . . . 354
12.3 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 16.2 Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Connection: The Hull: What Makes a 16.3 Molecules and Carbon Compounds . 369
Boat Stay Afloat? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Connection: The Spin on Scrap Tires . . . . . 376
Chapter 13: The Behavior of Gases 295
13.1 Gases, Pressure, and the Atmosphere 296 Unit Six: Changes in Matter . . . . 382
13.2 The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Chapter 17: Chemical Change . . . . . 383
Connection: Up, Up, and Away . . . . . . . . . . 308 17.1 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Chapter 13 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 17.2 Balancing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
17.3 Classifying Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Connection: Hydrogen-Powered Cars . . . . 404
Chapter 17 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Chapter 18: Energy and Reactions . 409 Chapter 22: Electricity and
18.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions . . . . 410 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Table of Contents
18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems . . . . . . . 415 22.1 Properties of Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
18.3 Nuclear Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 22.2 Electromagnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Connection: Your Footprint Matters . . . . . . 430 22.3 Electric Motors and Generators . . . . . 540
Chapter 18 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Connection: A Walk on the Wild Side
Under the Sea! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Chapter 19: Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 435
19.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
19.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Unit Eight: Waves, Sound, and
19.3 Acids, Bases, and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Connection: Are You Feeling a Little Sour? 464
Chapter 19 Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Chapter 23: Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
23.1 Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Unit Seven: Electricity and 23.2 Properties of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 23.3 Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Connection: Cell Phones: How They Work . 572
Chapter 20: Electric Circuits . . . . . . 471
20.1 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
20.2 Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Chapter 24: Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
20.3 Current and Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 24.1 Properties of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
20.4 Resistance and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . 486 24.2 Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Connection: The Shocking Truth: 24.3 Sound, Perception, and Music . . . . . . 590
You Are Wired! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Connection: Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Chapter 21: Electrical Systems . . . . 499 Chapter 25: Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
21.1 Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 25.1 Properties of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
21.2 Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 25.2 Color and Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
21.3 Electrical Power, AC, and DC 25.3 Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Connection: Searching the Cosmos:
Connection: Bright Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 The Hakeem Oluseyi Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Unit
Science and
1
Measurement
CHAPTER 1 Measurement
CHAPTER 2 Science Skills
CHAPTER 3 The Scientific
Process
Does a 1-cup dry measuring cup hold the same

amount as a 1-cup liquid measuring cup? Fill a
1-cup measuring cup that is meant to be used for
dry cooking ingredients with water. Pour the water into a plastic cup and
mark the water level, then discard the water (use it to water a plant!).
Now measure out 1 cup of water in a liquid measuring cup. Pour this into
the plastic cup and mark the level. How do the amounts compare? Why
should scientists use a standardized system of measurement?
Chapter 1
Measurement
Measurement is to physical science what power tools are to a house

builder; what clues are to a detective; what musical notes are to a
musician. Scientists measure dimensions, distances, temperature, mass, force,
electrical current, and the list could go on for pages. Scientists want to discover the
natural laws of the universe. Measurements give us information about the world
around us—reliable facts that form the basis of scientific theories that explain how the
world works. In this chapter, you will make measurements and learn how to convert
from one unit of measurement to another. You will also learn how to decide if one
measurement is significantly different from another, or if it is essentially the same.
These skills will be used many times throughout this physical science course as you
collect data to learn how things work.
What is the SI system of measurement,

and how does it compare to the
English system?
What are two of the most important physical

science quantities to measure?
How do you decide how many digits to

include in a measurement value?
Chapter 1 MEASUREMENT
1.1 Measurements
A rocket must reach a speed of over 40,000 kilometers per hour to break free from Earth’s gravity measurement - a determination of
and get into space. The rocket has to travel very fast—it covers about 7 miles each second! How the amount of something. Typically
do kilometers and miles compare? Which is a longer distance: one kilometer, or one mile? The has two parts—a value and a unit.
answer is one mile, but why do we talk about distance in two different units? Kilometers and unit - a fixed amount of something,
miles are two common ways to describe distance, but scientists prefer to use kilometers. Read on like a centimeter (cm) of distance.
to find out why.
Measurement and units

Measurements When studying physical science, you will make many measurements.
Distance, time, mass, volume, weight, and temperature are just some of the
quantities you will measure. A measurement is a determination of the
amount of something. A measurement has two parts: a number value and a
unit (Figure 1.1). For example, 2 meters (2 m) is a measurement because it
has a number value, 2, and a unit, meters.
Units A unit is a standard amount that everyone agrees on. Without units, the
numbers in a measurement don’t make any sense. For example, if you asked
someone to “walk 22,” she would not know how far to go. Do you want her
to walk 22 meters, 22 miles, or 22 centimeters (the height of this textbook)?
If you say “walk 22 meters” then you have given her enough information
because the unit “meters” tells her how to understand the quantity “22.” An
important rule of science is to always include the correct units with number
values.
Figure 1.1: A measurement includes

a number value and a unit. Two meters
is much taller than 2 feet!
4 SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.

MA.912.S.1.2-Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to be collected in a survey or experiment.
MEASUREMENT Chapter 1
Two common measurement systems

English System of The English System is used for everyday measurements in the United
measurement States. Miles, yards, feet, inches, pounds, pints, quarts, gallons, cups, and English System - measurement
system used for everyday
teaspoons are all English System units. However, only one or two countries measurements in the United States.
other than the United States still use this old system of measurement.
SI - International System of Units
Measuring with SI During the 1800s, a new system of measurement—the Metric System—was used by most countries for everyday
units developed in France and was quickly adopted by other European and South measurement and used by the
American countries. The goal of this system was for all units of measurement scientific community worldwide.
to be related, and for the units to form a base-10, or decimal, system. In 1960,
the Metric System was revised and simplified, and a new name was
adopted—International System of Units, or SI for short. The acronym SI Prefix Meaning Number
comes from the French name Le Système International d’Unités. Today, the
United States is the only industrialized nation that has not switched giga
1 billion 1,000,000,000
completely to SI. (G)
Scientists use SI Almost all fields of science worldwide use SI units because they are so much mega
1 million 1,000,000
easier to work with. In the English system, there are 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet (M)
in a yard, and 5,280 feet in a mile. These are not easy numbers to remember.
In the metric system, there are 10 millimeters in a centimeter, 100 centimeters kilo
1 thousand 1,000
in a meter, and 1,000 meters in a kilometer. Factors of 10 are easier to (k)
remember and work with mathematically than 12, 3, and 5,280 (Figure 1.2).
centi one-
0.01
United States uses Did you know that you use both English and SI units in your daily life? In (c) hundredth
both systems many other countries, people use SI units for all measurements. Do you think
the United States will ever use SI units for all measurements? milli one-
0.001
(m) thousandth
Table 1.1: Everyday SI Measurements in the United States
micro one-
Measurement Unit Symbol Usage 0.000001
(μ) millionth
length millimeter mm film, nails and screws, tools, pencil lead
length meter m track and field sports, olympic swimming pools Figure 1.2: SI prefixes.
volume liter L 1- and 2-liter soda bottles
mass milligram mg medication, nutrition labels
power kilowatt kW electricity
MA.912.S.1.2-Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to be collected in a survey or experiment. 5
The International System of Units (SI)

Units allow people to communicate amounts. To make sure their measurements are accurate,
scientists use a set of standard units that have been agreed upon around the world. Table 1.2 shows
the units in the International System of Units, known as SI.
Table 1.2: Common SI Units

STUDY SKILLS
Measurement Approximations Unit Value Learn to Think SI
How long is a centimeter? How heavy
Length meter (m) is 1 gram? How much is a milliliter?
kilometer (km) 1 km = 1,000 m The easy way to “think SI” is to
decimeter (dm) 1 dm = 0.1 m remember some simple
centimeter (cm) 1 cm = 0.01 m measurements. Take a look at the
millimeter (mm) 1 mm = 0.001 m pictures in the table at the left, and
micrometer (μm) 1 μm = 0.000001 m see if you can remember them.
nanometer (nm) 1 nm = 0.000000001 m 1. 1 cm is about the width of your
little finger.
Volume 2. 1 mL is about the same volume as
cubic meter (m3) 10 drops of water.
cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 cm3 = 0.000001 m3 3. 1 g is about the mass of one large
10 drops of water
10 mL
liter (L) 1 L = 0.001 m3 paperclip.
1 mL = 0.000001 m3
= 1 mL
1 mL
milliliter (mL) 4. 21 degrees Celsius is a
comfortable room temperature.
Learning to think SI is like learning a
Mass
kilogram (kg) new language; the more practice you
gram (g) 1 g = 0.001 kg have, the easier it is to understand.
milligram (mg) 1 mg = 0.000001 kg
Temperature
Kelvin (K) 0°C = 273 K
Celsius (°C) 100°C = 373 K
6 MA.912.S.1.2-Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to be collected in a survey or experiment.
Bytes and SI prefixes

A byte is a unit of computer data storage. When you add SI prefixes to any unit, you change the
size of the unit as you can see in the chart below and in Figure 1.3. It’s difficult to imagine a
quantity as large as one quadrillion! One quadrillion bytes equals 1,000 trillion—that’s a petabyte.
Figure 1.3: Use these prefixes on any

SI unit to change its size. A nanometer
is one billion times smaller than a
meter!
7
Section 1.1 Review

1. Explain, using your own example, why you must always give a unit Everyday English and SI Units
when reporting a measurement. How many different ways are English
2. Draw two columns on your paper. Label the first column SI and the and SI units used to measure
everyday things in the United States?
second column English System. Sort this list and write the units in the Speed is measured in miles per hour
correct column: inch, centimeter, yard, teaspoon, milliliter, bushel, (mph). Is that an English or SI unit? Is
gallon, liter, mile, gram, quart, pint, kilometer, pound. gasoline sold in English or SI units?
3. Explain two reasons why SI is easier to use than the English System. What is that unit? Here is a list of
things that are commonly measured.
4. An external computer flash drive can hold 1 gigabyte of data. How many Make a chart that shows what unit is
bytes is this? most commonly used to measure
5. Which is larger: a megawatt or a kilowatt? How many times larger is it? each thing in the United States, and
6. Put these units in order from smallest to largest: decimeter, meter, show whether that unit belongs to the
English System or SI. You may be
kilometer, millimeter, centimeter, nanometer, micrometer. surprised at how much we use both
7. Your friend asks you for a glass of water and you bring her 5 milliliters systems!
of water. Is this more or less than what she was probably expecting? • gasoline
Explain your reasoning. • road map distances
8. The length of a sheet of U.S. standard (letter size) paper is closest to: • aspirin/pain reliever tablets
• camera film
a. 8 centimeters
• mechanical pencil lead
b. 11 centimeters • skis
c. 29 centimeters • milk
• large soda bottles
d. 300 centimeters
• electricity
9. A nickel weighs about: • time
a. 0.1 gram • body weight
b. 5 grams
c. 50 grams
d. 100 grams
10. Why do you suppose the United States still uses the English System for
everyday measurements, while almost every other country uses SI? Give
several possible reasons.
8
1.2 Time and Distance

Measurement is a key skill and concept in physical science. In this section, you will learn about
measuring two fundamental properties of the universe: time and distance.
Time
Time in science We often want to know how things change over time. For example, a car rolls
down a hill over time. A hot cup of coffee cools down over time. The laws of
physical science tell us how things change over time.
What time is it? Time is used two ways (Figure 1.4). One way is to identify a particular
moment in the past or in the future. For example, saying your 18th birthday
party will be on January 1, 2011, at 2:00 p.m. identifies a particular moment
in the future for your party to start. This is the way “time” is usually used in
everyday conversation. Figure 1.4: There are two different
ways to understand time.
How much time? The second way is to describe a quantity of time. The question “How much
time?” is asking for a quantity of time. A quantity of time is also called a time
interval. Any calculation involving time that you do in physical science will What is your reaction time?
always use time intervals, not time of day. Sit at a table and rest your arm on the
Time in seconds Many problems in science use time table, with your hand hanging off the
edge. Have a friend dangle a metric
in seconds. For calculations, you
ruler just above your thumb and index
may need to convert hours and finger. When your friend drops the ruler,
minutes into seconds. For example, catch it quickly between your thumb
the timer (left) shows 2 hours, 30 and finger. Record the centimeter mark
minutes, and 45 seconds. where you caught the ruler.
Approximate reaction times are: 0.10
Hours Minutes Seconds
How many total seconds does this seconds for 5 cm, 0.14 s for 10 cm,
time interval represent? There are 60 0.18 s for 15 cm, 0.20 s for 20 cm,
seconds in a minute, so multiply 30 0.23 s for 25 cm, and 0.25 s for 30 cm.
minutes by 60 to get 1,800 seconds. Do several trials and discuss.
There are 3,600 seconds in an hour,
so multiply 2 hours by 3,600 to get 7,200 seconds. Add up all the seconds to
get your answer: 45 + 1,800 + 7,200 = 9,045 seconds.
Distance
What is distance? Distance is the amount of space between two points (Figure 1.5). You can
distance - the amount of space
also think of distance as how far apart two objects are. You probably have a between two points.
good understanding of distance from everyday experiences, like the distance
from your house to school, or the distance between your city and the next length - a measured distance.
town. The concept of distance in physics is the same, but the actual distances meter - a basic SI unit of length.
may be much larger or much smaller than anything you measure in everyday
life.
Distance is Distance is measured in units of length. The English System uses inches,
measured in units of feet, yards, and miles for length units. One foot equals 12 inches. Do you
length know how many feet are in a yard? There are three feet in a yard. How many
yards are in a mile? There are 1,760 yards in a mile. Did you know those
answers? These numbers are not easy to remember. The SI units of length are
much easier to use, because they are based on powers of 10, and the prefixes
tell you something about the unit value. For example, the prefix centi- means Figure 1.5: Distance is the amount of
space between two points.
one hundredth, so you know that a centimeter is 100 times smaller than a
meter. There are 100 centimeters in a meter. The unit “inch” does not tell you
anything about how it is related to a foot. There are 12 inches in a foot, but
you wouldn’t know that from the unit name!
SI distance unit The meter is a basic SI distance unit. In 1791, a meter was defined as one
ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the equator. Today a
meter is defined more accurately using the speed of light (Figure 1.6). The
meter was used as a starting point for developing the other SI units.
Useful prefixes Prefixes are added to the names of basic SI units. Prefixes describe very
small or very large measurements. There are many SI unit prefixes, but these
three are commonly used with meters to measure distance.
Prefix Prefix + meter Compared to 1 Meter Figure 1.6: In 1791, a meter was
kilo- kilometer 1,000 times bigger defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance
from Earth’s North Pole to the equator.
centi- centimeter 100 times smaller Today, a meter is defined more
milli- millimeter 1,000 times smaller accurately as the distance that light
travels in a fraction of a second.
The meter stick A meter stick is a good tool to use for measuring ordinary lengths in the
laboratory. A meter stick is 1 meter long and is divided into millimeters and
centimeters. Figure 1.7 shows a meter stick next to objects of different
lengths. Can you see how the meter stick is used to measure the length shown
for each object?
Using a centimeter Using a meter stick or a centimeter ruler to make distance or length
ruler measurements is easy. Each centimeter is divided into 10 smaller units, called
millimeters. Try using the centimeter rulers below to find the measurement of
the length each object. Don’t peek at the answers!
Figure 1.7: Reading a meter stick.
The measurements are:

bolt: 4.70 cm
pencil: 7.90 cm
pushpin: 2.60 cm
Section 1.2 Review

1. What are two different ways to understand time? Explain and give
examples. Running Time
Movie
2. How many minutes are there in 1.5 hours? Don’t forget to show your (min)
work! Casablanca 102
3. Convert 330 minutes to hours, and show your work. Citizen Kane 119
4. Men in the age group of 18–34 years need to be able to run a marathon in Gone with the Wind 222
3 hours and 10 minutes to qualify for the Boston Marathon. How many E.T. the
115
seconds is this? Show your work! Extraterrestrial
5. Study the table in Figure 1.8 to answer the following questions. Jaws 124
King Kong (2005) 188
a. Which movies are longer than 2 hours?
Titanic (1997) 194
b. Which (if any) movies are longer than 3 hours?
Back to the Future 116
c. Convert the running time of Gone With the Wind to hours and
minutes. Figure 1.8: Question 5.
d. Does any movie have a running time of less than 1.5 hours? If so,
which one(s)?
6. Your teacher says, “There are 100 centimeters in a meter, and this fact is
revealed in the unit’s name (centimeter). There are 3 feet in one yard, but
this fact is not revealed in the unit’s name (yard).” Explain what your
teacher means by this.
7. Which is larger? Copy each pair of units and circle the one that is the
largest quantity for each pair.
a. 1 centimeter or 1 meter
b. 1 millimeter or 1 centimeter
c. 1 kilometer or 1 meter
8. Which is larger? Copy each pair of measurements and circle the length
that is the longest for each pair.
a. 42 mm or 10 cm
b. 15 mm or 0.15 cm
c. 10 mm or 2 cm
12
1.3 Converting Units

When describing the length of a ski, you could say that it is 150 centimeters or 1.5 meters. The ski
length is the same—the only thing that is different is the measurement unit. Unit conversion is an
important skill in the language of measurement.
Why convert? SI Estimation Challenge

What does it mean to Suppose you empty your coin bank and count out 1,565 pennies. You For each item below, only one
“convert”? probably would rather think of that quantity of money in dollars. How do you measurement in the list is realistic.
figure out how many dollars you have? Well, you convert the 1,565 cents to The other two measurements are
wildly wrong. Can you choose the
the dollar amount. Since there are 100 pennies in a dollar, you divide 1,565 by realistic measurement for each item?
100. This is the same as moving the decimal point two places to the left.
1. width of a postage stamp:
1,565 pennies and 15.65 dollars represent the same amount of money.
1 m, 15 cm, or 20 mm
2. thickness of a CD:
0.1 m, 0.01 m, or 0.001 m
3. height of a bus:
152.4 mm, 2.0 m, or 250 cm
4. length of an inchworm:
25.4 mm, 25.4 cm, or 0.254 m
Converting SI units Converting SI units is just as easy as converting pennies to dollars. Suppose a 5. length of a football field:
snail can travel about 65 millimeters in one minute. In 10 minutes it can go 91.44 m, 200 m, or 1 km
10 times as far (65 × 10) or 650 mm. It’s hard to visualize 650 mm. You know
that a meter stick is relatively close in size to a yard stick, which you are
familiar with. If you convert millimeters to meters, you might be able to better
visualize how far the snail can travel in 10 minutes.
Solving Problems: Converting SI Units STUDY SKILLS

SI Conversion Tool
When you convert from one SI unit to another, you multiply or divide by a Copy this SI place value table on an
series of tens. This conversion tool will help you move the decimal point. index card so you can refer to it
whenever you have to convert SI
kilo hecto deca meter deci centi milli units. The table will tell you how many
gram places to move the decimal point, and
1000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 in what direction to move it.
liter
Convert 650 millimeters to meters.
1. Looking for: You are asked for the distance in meters.
2. Given: You are given the distance in millimeters.
3. Relationships: There are 1,000 millimeters in 1 meter.
4. Solution: 1. Find the millimeter place, and put your pencil on that space.
kilo hecto deca meter deci centi milli
2. Move your pencil to the meters place, and count how many spaces you
move your pencil, including the last landing space.
3. Now move the decimal point in 650 to the left 3 places.
6 5 0. becomes .6 5 0 a. 142,000 m
b. 7.54 km
650 mm = 0.650 m
Your turn...
a. Convert 142 kilometers to meters.
b. Convert 754,000 centimeters to kilometers.
14
Converting between English and SI units

The problem of It would be nice if everyone always used the same unit for length, like the
conversion factor - a ratio that
multiple units meter. Unfortunately, many different units of length are used for different has a value of one, and is used when
things, and in different places. In the United States, you will find inches, feet, setting up a unit conversion problem.
and miles used more commonly than centimeters, meters, and kilometers. dimensional analysis - a method
Sometimes you will need to covert from English to SI units. of using conversion factors and unit
Comparing English Downhill skis come in many different centimeter lengths. If you stand a ski canceling to solve a unit conversion
problem.
and SI units up next to you, the ski should come up as high as your chin. Suppose the
distance from your toes to chin is 4.5 feet. What length skis should you buy, in
centimeters? To answer the question you need to convert from feet to
centimeters. To do the conversion you multiply 4.5 feet by a conversion
factor. A conversion factor is a ratio that has the value of one. Study the English and SI Units
problem solving steps on the next page to see how to set up a conversion Suppose you are working on your
using conversion factors. This method of converting units is called bicycle and the wrench you select is
dimensional analysis. one size too small. The illustration
below shows that it is easier to choose
the next bigger size if you use SI units.
SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.
STUDY SKILLS
Solving Problems: Converting Units Handy Conversion Factors
Convert 4.5 feet to centimeters. Copy these handy conversion factors
down so you can use them anytime
1. Looking for: You are asked for a length in centimeters. you need to set up a unit canceling
problem like the one on this page.
2. Given: You are given the length in feet. Note: You can flip these fractions
around as needed; the “1” (larger unit)
3. Relationships: There are 30.48 cm in one foot (you can look this up in a conversion table).
isn’t always in the denominator.
4. Solution: 1. Write down the given measurement and a multiplication symbol.
2. Create a conversion factor by drawing a fraction bar and copying the

given unit (feet) into the bottom of the fraction. Next, put the unit you
are looking for in the numerator (cm). Put the number “1” next to the
larger unit (foot) and for the smaller unit, write down how many of them
equal 1 of the larger unit (30.48 cm).
3. Cancel like units in the problem setup. This is how you keep track of
how well your dimensional analysis setup is working. Your goal is to
cancel all units except the one you are solving for (cm).
a. 160 m
4. Now you are ready to do the math! This problem setup tells you to b. 63.5 mm
multiply 4.5 by 30.48. The answer is 137 cm.
Your turn...
a. Convert 175 yards to meters. (You might need more than one fraction!)
b. Convert 2.50 inches to millimeters. (More than one fraction is needed!)
16
Section 1.3 Review

1. What does it mean to “convert” from one unit to another? Give an Find Out!
example. What are the official measurements
2. What are the general mathematical operations you use when converting for an Olympic swimming pool?
from one SI unit to another? Create a table in your journal with the
answers:
3. How many meters do you cover in a 10 km (10-K) race?
• length of pool
4. An Olympic swimming pool is 50 meters long. You swim from one end to • width of pool
the other four times. • number of lanes
a. How many meters do you swim? • lane width
• water temperature
b. How many kilometers do you swim?
• depth
c. How many centimeters do you swim?
5. In the United States, a standard letter-sized piece of paper is 8.5 inches
wide by 11 inches long. The international standard for a letter-sized piece
of paper is different. The international standard is based on SI units:
21.0 cm wide by 29.7 cm long. Do an Internet search using the
a. Convert 21.0 cm to inches. Show your dimensional analysis setup. keywords “international paper size.”
b. Convert 29.7 cm to inches. Show your dimensional analysis setup. Write a report of your findings about
the standards for paper sizes. Do all
c. State the dimensions, in inches, of the international standard for a countries use the same size paper for
letter-sized piece of paper. letters? How was the international
d. Which piece of paper is longer: a U.S. letter-sized piece of paper, or an standard paper size defined? What
international letter-sized piece of paper? are some interesting outcomes of
having different standard paper sizes
e. Suppose the United States adopted the international standard for in different countries? What surprised
letter-sized paper. Explain at least two things that might result from you the most about your research?
this change.
6. The height of an average adult person is closest to:
a. 1.0 meter
b. 1.8 meters
c. 5.6 meters
17
1.4 Working with Measurements

\
All measurements involve a degree of uncertainty. The object in Figure 1.9 is definitely longer significant digits - meaningful
than 2.6 centimeters. But how much longer? Not everyone would agree on the third digit of the digits in a measured quantity.
measurement. Is it 2.63 cm or 2.65 cm? In this section, you will explore different ways to work
with measured quantities where every measurement involves some amount of error or uncertainty.
How much is acceptable? Read on to find out.
Significant digits
Uncertainty in In the real world it is impossible to make a measurement of the exact true
measurements value of anything (except when counting). Using a meter stick the paper clip
is 2.65 cm. To a scientist this number means “between 2.62 and 2.67 cm.”
The last digit, 5, representing the smallest amount, is always considered to be
rounded up or down. Significant digits are the meaningful digits in a
measured quantity. For the paper clip, the third digit serves to tell someone
that the object is about halfway between 2.6 and 2.7 cm long. Therefore, we
say there are three useful or significant digits in the length measurement. It is
important to be honest when reporting a measurement, so readers know how
much resolution it has. We do this by using significant digits.
Using significant What happens when you use measured quantities with different numbers of
digits in math significant digits in a math problem? A shoe is 38 cm long and you want to
problems convert the length to inches:
Figure 1.9: Find the length of the

To find the answer, divide 38 by 2.54 and you get 14.960629. This answer object in centimeters. How many digits
has an artificially large number of significant digits (eight). An answer does your answer have?
involving measured quantities should have no more resolution than the
starting measurement with the least number of significant digits. The correct
answer to this conversion problem is rounded up to 15 inches, since
38 centimeters has two significant digits. Study the next page for more help
with using significant digits in math problems.
STUDY SKILLS
Solving Problems: Significant Digits Which digits are significant?
What is the area of an 8.5 inch by 11.0 inch piece of paper? Digits that are always significant:
1. Non-zero digits.
1. Looking for: You are asked for an area.
2. Zeros between two significant
2. Given: You are given the width, 8.5 inches, and the height, 11.0 inches. digits.
3. All final zeros to the right of a
3. Relationships: Area = width × length decimal point.
4. Solution: Area = 8.5 inch × 11.0 inch Digits that are never significant:
1. Leading zeros to the right of a
Area = 93.5 square inches decimal point. (0.002 cm has only
one significant digit.)
2. Final zeros in a number that does
93.5 has three significant digits. The width measurement had only two not have a decimal point.
significant digits, and the length measurement had three significant digits. So
Note: A decimal point is used after a
how many significant digits should your answer have? That’s right, the whole number ending in zero to
answer can have no more significant digits than the measurement with the indicate that a final zero is significant.
least number. In this case, since the width measurement only had two Thus, 50. cm has two significant
significant digits, your answer can only have two. You must round digits, not one.
93.5 square inches to 94 square inches. The correct answer is 94 square
inches.
Your turn...
a. How many significant digits does each of these numbers have?
a. 40 cm: 1; 4 cm: 1;
40 cm, 4 cm, 4.0 cm, 40. cm, 45 cm, 450 cm, 450. cm
4.0 cm: 2; 40. cm: 2;
b. Convert 1.10 miles to kilometers and report your answer with the correct 45 cm: 2; 450 cm: 2;
number of significant digits. Use the relationship 1 mi = 1.6 km. 450. cm: 3
b. 1.8 km
19
Accuracy, precision, and resolution

Accuracy The words accuracy and precision have special meanings in science that are
accuracy - how close a
a little different from how people use these words in daily conversation measurement is to an accepted or
(Figure 1.10). Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true value. true value.
An accurate clock or watch will give a time reading that is the same as or precision - describes how close
extremely close to the official time from a government standard. An accurate together or reproducible repeated
golf putt is one that falls in the hole. A very accurate golf drive would be a measurements are.
hole-in-one! resolution - refers to the smallest
Precision Precision does not have the same meaning as accuracy. Precision describes interval that can be measured.
how close together repeated measurements or events are to one another.
Precise clocks throughout a school would all read the same time at any given
moment. School clocks can be precise without being accurate. Can you
explain how this could be true? If I hit three different golf balls off the same
tee, and each one of them goes into the same sand trap, I have good precision
but poor accuracy!
Resolution Resolution is another important term to understand when you are working
with measured quantities. Resolution refers to the smallest interval that can
be measured (Figure 1.10). The resolution of a centimeter ruler is 0.5 mm.
This is because, if you look closely, you can tell if a measurement falls right
on a millimeter mark, or between millimeter marks. The resolution on most
classroom clocks is 1 second. Without a second hand, the resolution of a
clock would be only 1 minute.
Resolution in The word resolution often appears in connection with digital cameras or high
images definition (HD) TV. A high resolution image is very sharp and high quality.
For example, an HDTV image has 1,980 dots in the horizontal direction. A
standard TV image has only 640 dots. A feature that is two dots wide in an
HDTV image is just a blur on a standard TV. You can think of resolution as
the “sharpness” of a measurement. A measurement with lots of resolution is
a very “sharp” measurement. A timer that measures seconds to four decimal
Figure 1.10: Accuracy, precision,
places has a resolution of one ten-thousandth of a second. A stopwatch that and resolution.
measures seconds to two decimal places has a lower resolution of one-
hundredth of a second.
SC.912.N.4.1-Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based perspective to inform society's decision making.
Comparing measurements
\
Reproducible Precise measurements are reproducible. This means a measurement gives the
significant difference - two
measurements same result if you or any one else makes the same measurement again in the
results are only significantly different if
same way. This brings up a key question: How can you tell if two results are their difference is much larger than the
the same when both contain uncertainty (often called error)? estimated error.
Measurements that In everyday conversation, “same” means two numbers that are exactly the
are the same are not same, like 2.56 and 2.56. When comparing scientific results, however, “same”
significantly means “not significantly different.” Significant differences are differences
different that are much larger than the estimated uncertainty (or error) in the results.
That means two results are “the same” unless their difference is greater than
the estimated error. This is important to remember.
Comparing data sets You will collect lots of data when you do the investigations for this physical
science course. Once you collect data, you usually compare measurements to
check for differences. For example, suppose two different groups of students
use electronic timers to measure the time it takes a cart to pass between two
points on a ramp. Each group makes four measurements and takes the average
(Figure 1.13). Are the results different or are they the same? The numbers
0.3352 and 0.3349 are different. But is the difference significant or could it
just be uncertainty?
Finding estimated To answer the question, we need to estimate the uncertainty, or error. When
Figure 1.11: The groups have
error we estimate error in a data set, we will assume the average is the exact value. different time averages. Are the averages
Our estimated error will be the average of the differences (use absolute value, close enough to be called “the same”
drop negative signs) between each measured value and the group average result? Note: The estimated error is
time (see problem solving steps on the next page). calculated by taking the group average
time and subtracting each individual
Looking for Use the estimated error to decide if two results are the same or if they are trial time. The estimated error is an
significant significantly different. If the difference in the averages is at least three times absolute value; drop any negative signs.
differences larger than the estimated error, you can assume the difference is significant. In
Figure 1.11, the difference between the groups’ time averages is only 0.0003
seconds. This is not three times larger than the estimated error of 0.0002
seconds. We conclude that the two experiments produced “the same” result,
meaning that the results are not significantly different.
SC.912.N.1.3-Recognize that the strength or usefulness of a scientific claim is evaluated through scientific argumentation, which depends on critical and logical thinking, and the active consideration of
alternative scientific explanations to explain the data present.
21
Solving Problems: Comparing Data Sets

Table 1.3: Comparing Data
Group 1 mass Est. Error Group 2 mass Est. Error
Trial
(g) (+/–) (g) (+/–)
1 2.6 0.0 2.1 0.0
2 2.7 0.1 2.2 0.1
3 2.8 0.2 2.1 0.0
AVERAGE 2.7 0.1 2.1 0.03
Two groups of students were each given their own small container of candy Group 1 Group 2
mints. Each group counted out 15 mints and divided them into 3 piles of time (s) time (s)
5 mints each. Then they found the mass of each collection of 5 mints. Are the 0.1776 0.2134
average masses significantly different, or are they the same? 0.1780 0.2130
1. Looking for: Significant difference between two data sets. 0.1772 0.2129
0.1777 0.2137
2. Given: Masses in Table 1.3.
3. Relationships: • estimated trial error = avg mass – trial mass (drop negative signs) Figure 1.12: Two groups of students
• If difference between averages is at least three times the largest estimated record how long it takes a cart to pass
between two points on a ramp. Each
error average, then we will conclude that the results are
group does four time trials. Are their
significantly different. averages significantly different?
4. Solution: See bold numbers in Table 1.3 for answers.
The difference between the averages: (2.6 – 2.1) = 0.5
The difference of 0.5 is five times greater than the largest estimated error Group 1 avg = 0.1776 s
(0.1), so the results are significantly different; the groups probably had Group 2 avg = 0.2132 s
different brands of mints!
Difference = 0.0356 s; This is
significant. One group had the ramp at
Your turn... a greater angle than the other. Can
you tell which one had the higher
a. Study the table in Figure 1.12. Are the group averages significantly
ramp angle? (Group 1)
different? Show your work to prove your answer.
22 SC.912.N.1.1-Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science.s
Section 1.4 Review

1. Which of these measurements has 3 significant digits? (There may be
more than one correct answer choice.)
a. 29.3 cm
b. 290 cm
Measurement Length of toy
c. 0.029 cm take by: cart (cm)
d. 290. cm Jessica 10
2. Convert 345 cm to inches. Show your dimensional analysis setup and Marco 10.5
report your answer with the correct number of significant digits. Julius 10.8
(1 in = 2.54 cm). Steve 11
3. Four different students measure the length of a toy cart. The manufacturer
reports the length to be 10.5 cm. Study the data in Figure 1.13 and answer Figure 1.13: Question 3.
the questions below.
a. Are the measurements accurate? Explain why or why not.
b. Are the measurements precise? Explain why or why not.
c. Do the measurements all have the same resolution? Explain.
4. What does it mean when two measured quantities are different but not
significantly different?
5. All measurements contain some error. Why is this a true statement?
6. Suppose you are going to measure the length of a pencil in centimeters.
What should you do to get the most accurate measurement? If you give
the ruler to three different friends, what should they do to achieve good
precision?
7. Refer to Figure 1.14 to answer these questions: Figure 1.14: Question 7.
a. What is the resolution of the stopwatch?
b. Time measurements from a stopwatch are not very precise. Why not?
23
TECHNOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 1
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is based on a unit of measurement called a
nanometer, which is one billionth of a meter. Comparing a
nanometer with a meter is like comparing a marble with the planet
Earth. What registers on the nanometer scale? A double-helix
DNA molecule has a width of two nanometers. Bacteria have a
It’s a Small World width of about 200 nanometers. A sheet of paper has a thickness of
100,000 nanometers.
After All By manipulating the nanoworld, scientists can influence the

visible world. This is because an object’s observable properties,
such as strength and electrical conductivity, begin on the nano or
molecular level.
If you could shrink yourself to
the size of a molecule, what Nanotech: More Common Than You Think
do you think you would see?
Nanotechnology is currently used to
You might think you had
make many everyday products. Small
just been dropped into an hair-like molecules, or nanoparticles, of
enormous climbing structure zinc oxide are currently used as a water
made from magnetic toys. and stain repellent on clothing. These
You’d see atoms arranged nanoparticles have the ability to pass
in all sorts of amazing liquid molecules along from one to the
geometric patterns—like next so water or other liquids cannot
rings of benzene, seep into the cloth. Nanoparticles
are also used in glass to scatter water
tetrahedron-shaped
into small drops to disperse it across a
methane molecules, and the windshield faster. Silver nanoparticles
intricate DNA double helix. embedded in antimicrobial bandages
break up bacterial cell membranes,
Chemists have known
bind to bacteria’s DNA, and interrupt bacteria metabolism.
for years that, in nature,
atoms are arranged
in many different The Wonder Nanoparticle: Carbon Nanotubes
geometric patterns, and that each of these patterns forms a
substance with its own unique properties. Why is steel stronger than wood? It has to do with the particular
molecules and atoms that make up each material and the bonds
Nanotechnology is the exciting new branch of science that attempts between those particles. The bonds between steel particles are
to arrange individual atoms into specific patterns, forming molecules stronger than those between wood particles.
that can do incredible things. Someday, these molecules may be able
to repair damaged cells in the body, fight diseases, form tiny circuits, Now imagine a substance that is hundreds of times stronger than
and create super-strong, extremely lightweight materials. steel but weighs six times less. What you’re imagining actually exists.
It’s carbon made from carbon nanotubes.
24 SC.912.L.16.10–Evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including medical and ethical issues.
Chapter 1
Carbon has two well Nanomedicine: The New Frontier
known forms, or allotropes:
diamond and graphite. As Did you ever wonder how medicines work in the body? A
you know, diamond is much medicine’s effectiveness depends in part on its bioavailability, or
stronger than graphite; this how well the medicine can travel through the blood to the part
is due to the arrangement of the body where it is needed. Due to their size, nanoparticles
and stronger bonds incorporated into a drug can pass easily through cell membranes,
between the carbon making bioavailability more efficient. The size of nanoparticles is
atoms in a diamond also important for fighting disease because many diseases affect
allotrope’s structure. processes within the cell itself, such as the production of proteins
that govern immune responses. Diseases like rheumatoid arthritis
The carbon nanotube is a and multiple sclerosis elevate the production of these proteins,
third kind of carbon, with activating the immune responses of the body unnecessarily. Diseases
capabilities far beyond the like these can only be impeded by drugs that have the ability to
Diamond Graphite
materials we use today. penetrate a cell membrane.
This allotrope is composed
of cylinders of carbon atoms One current application of nanotechnology is in the surgical removal
a few nanometers in width but thousands in length. Their special of certain types of tumors. Surgeons can inject cadmium selenide
structure allows carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to have unique properties. nanoparticles into a tumor to locate its boundaries. When exposed
They are excellent conductors of electricity and heat because they to UV light, these nanoparticles glow and effectively illuminate the
can conduct with little resistance, behaving as tiny electrical wires or tumor so the surgeon can remove it more precisely.
thermal energy “pipelines.” They also allow the carbon material to
What if biological nanomachines could seek out a broken part of a
be very, very strong and lightweight.
cell and fix it? What if a bio nanomachine could seek out cancer cells
Carbon nanotubes are still and destroy them? How can a nanomachine mimic nature’s ability
in development because of to heal? These are the cutting-edge questions that nanomedicine
the difficulty in processing scientists are trying to answer. Their research includes the
them for mass production. development of molecular machines that have the ability to mimic
However NASA and many nature’s healing processes by entering cells, sensing dysfunction,
companies are researching and making appropriate modifications by either repairing damaged
their use with polymers and cells or manufacturing new ones. Scientists predict these cell-repair
epoxies for construction of machines will have the ability to open and close cell membranes and
spacecraft, aircraft, cars, correct a single molecular disorder like DNA damage.
and skyscrapers. CNTs are
more commonly used in Questions:
The carbon nanotube allotrope is usually manufactured
electrical circuit applications in laboratories under high heat, high pressure, and 1. A nanometer is what fraction of a meter?
because smaller amounts controlled conditions.
of them are needed and 2. Name two practical applications of nanotechnology.
because of their outstanding
electrical properties. 3. Research: Use the ;Internet keyword search: NASA +
“carbon nanotubes” to learn how NASA plans to use this
technology. Briefly explain three possible applications.
SC.912.L.16.10–Evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including medical and ethical issues. 25
Chapter 1 Assessment
Vocabulary 10. A method of using conversion factors and unit canceling to
solve a unit conversion problem is called ____.
Select the correct term to complete the sentences.
Section 1.4
accuracy length resolution
conversion factor mass SI
11. Meaningful digits in a measured quantity are known as
____.
dimensional analysis measurement significant difference
distance meter significant digits 12. ____ refers to the smallest interval that can be measured.
English System precision unit 13. When you describe how close a measured quantity is to a
true or accepted value, you are describing its ____.
Section 1.1 14. ____ describes how close together repeated measurements
1. A _____ is a standard amount, like a kilometer or a gallon, are.
which is used to communicate different quantities. 15. If the difference between two results is larger than the
2. The ____ is a measurement system used for everyday estimated error, the result is called a(n) ____.
measurements in the United States.
3. ____ is the international system of units used by scientists Concepts
worldwide. Section 1.1
4. When someone determines the amount of something using a 1. Explain, using examples, how SI and English systems of
value and a unit, they are making a(n) ____. measurement are both used in daily life in the United
States.
5. The amount of matter an object contains is its ____.
Section 1.2
2. All SI units use a common set of prefixes. For example, you
can have milligrams, milliliters, and millimeters. What does
6. ____ describes how far it is from one place to any other place. milli mean in each case? How are these units similar? How
7. The amount of space between two points is measured in are they different?
units of ____. Section 1.2
8. A(n) ____ is a unit of length in SI that equals 100 3. What are the two different ways to understand time? Give
centimeters. examples to support your explanation.
Section 1.3 4. In the following list of units, which are SI units of length?
9. A ratio that has a value of one and is used when setting up mm, yd, cm, mi, m, g, mg, lb, oz, km, ml
unit conversion problems is called a(n) ____.
26
5. What unit is represented by the smallest intervals printed 2. Rank these units from smallest to largest: micrometer,
on a centimeter ruler? nanometer, kilometer, centimeter, meter.
Section 1.3 Section 1.2
6. How do you use the SI conversion tool to perform metric 3. Arrange the following intervals of time from shortest to
conversions? Explain, step-by-step, using your own example. longest: 160 seconds, 2 minutes, 2 minutes 50 seconds.
7. Why can’t you use the SI conversion tool to convert from SI 4. Write 3,800 seconds in hours, minutes, and seconds.
to English units? 5. Report the length of the object shown below.
8. The dimensional analysis method of unit conversion is
sometimes called “unit canceling.” Explain why this is a
good name for the method.
Section 1.4
9. Suppose you are measuring the height of a small child.
What will determine the number of significant digits you 6. How many millimeters is represented by 6.7 cm?
record?
Section 1.3
10. Why do you often have to round off answers to math
7. Convert 54 grams to kilograms.
problems that involve measured quantities?
8. Convert 26 decimeters to meters.
11. Compare and contrast the terms accuracy, precision, and
resolution. What do they have in common? How are they 9. Convert 1,200 meters to millimeters.
different? 10. Convert 525 pounds to kilograms. Show your dimensional
12. How can two experimental results be considered “the same” analysis setup. 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds.
if the numbers are not exactly the same? 11. A runner completes a 4,000.-meter race. How many yards
did she run? Show your dimensional analysis setup.
Problems
Section 1.1
1. Which of the following is closest to 2 cm?
a. the width of your pinky finger
b. the length of a dollar bill
c. the length of a small paperclip
27
Section 1.4 f. One of the groups actually had the wind-up toy travel
12. A meter stick with millimeters as its smallest graduation is down a ramp for 1 meter, and the other group had their
used to measure a wood block. Which value correctly toy travel across a flat surface. Which group was which?
represents the resolution of the best measurement that can Explain how you know.
be made?
a. 20 cm Applying Your Knowledge
b. 20.5 cm Section 1.1
1. Do some research to find out what influenced the
c. 205.5 mm
development of the International System of Units. Where
d. 205.53 mm did the system originate? When did other countries decide to
adopt the system? Did the United States adopt the system?
Wind-up Toy Travel Times (You may be surprised at what your research will reveal!)
Group 1 Group 2 2. Do you think the United States will ever switch completely
Time (s) Time (s) to SI? Why or why not?
2.56 1.23 Section 1.2
2.62 1.29 3. What is the distance from Earth to the Moon? Is that
2.75 1.22 distance changing? Do some research to find out.
2.65 1.24
Section 1.3
13. Two groups of students test the same wind-up toy. Each 4. Why do you think it is necessary to know how to convert
group conducts four trials to find out how long it takes the from English to SI units and vice versa? Give your own
toy to travel 1 meter. Study their data in the table above and example.
answer the questions. Section 1.4
a. Find the average time for each group’s four trials. 5. Measuring time is necessary for many Olympic events.
b. Estimate the average error for each group. Choose one Olympic event and write a report on how time is
c. Which group had the best precision? Explain. measured, and how much resolution is necessary.
d. What was the resolution of the stopwatch? 6. You are asked to find the area of a room that measures 24.5
e. The group averages are quite different. Are they meters by 21 meters. How many significant digits should
significantly different? Explain, and use a very simple the answer have?
math problem to prove your answer.
28 LA.910.2.2.3-The student will organize information to show understanding or relationships among facts, ideas, and events.
Chapter 2
Science Skills
No one knows the importance of including the correct unit with a measurement
like NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). On December 11,
1998, NASA launched the Mars Climate Orbiter. This spacecraft was designed
to orbit Mars and collect weather data. When the orbiter reached Mars on the 23rd of September
in 1999, its guidance system brought it too close to the surface and the orbiter was destroyed by
atmospheric friction. Why did the guidance system malfunction? They discovered that the
guidance software, instead of using the SI unit of newtons for force data, used the English
unit of pounds instead. The orbiter computer was expecting the guidance data to be in
newtons. Because of this incorrect unit, the orbiting altitude was off by a factor of
4.45. The low altitude orbit destroyed the spacecraft. In this chapter, you will
measure important properties of matter like mass, weight, volume, and density.
Don’t forget to report the correct unit when you record science measurement data!
How are mass and volume different, and

how are they related?
Does a large piece of copper have a larger

density than a smaller piece of copper, or are
the densities the same?
What types of graphs are there, and which

type is used the most in physical science?
Image courtesy of NASA

Chapter 2 SCIENCE SKILLS
2.1 Measuring Mass and Volume

How many gallons of gasoline do I need to fill the tank of this car? Do I have enough sugar to mass - the amount of matter in an
make a batch of brownies? Will this suitcase fit in the airplane’s overhead compartment? Every object.
day, people need to measure various amounts of matter. In this section, you will review the matter - anything that has mass and
definitions of mass and volume and how to measure these important properties of matter. takes up space.
kilogram (kg) - the basic SI unit of
Mass mass.
What is mass? Mass describes the amount of matter in an object. Matter is anything that gram (g) - a unit of mass smaller
has mass and takes up space. All matter has mass. A car has more mass than than a kilogram. There are
1,000 grams in 1 kilogram.
a bicycle because the car contains more matter. Steel, plastic, rubber, and
glass are different kinds of matter, and a car has a lot more of each kind than
a bicycle does (Figure 2.1).
Kilograms The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). A bunch of bananas has a mass of
about 1 kilogram. An average adult has a mass of about 55 kilograms.
Common masses for vehicles range from a bicycle (about 12 kg) to a
motorcycle (about 200 kg) to a car (1,000–2,000 kg). Try it for yourself: Can
you think of something with a mass of 1 kilogram? Is the object you are
thinking of heavier or lighter than this book?
Figure 2.1: A car contains more

matter than a bicycle, therefore it has
more mass.
Grams The kilogram is too large a unit to be convenient for measuring small
Where did the unit of kilograms come
masses. One gram (g) is one-thousandth of a kilogram. One large paperclip from? Research the origin of the
has a mass of about one gram (1,000 large paperclips = about 1 kilogram). metric system to discover how the
Grams are also convenient for analyzing food. Look at the nutrition label on kilogram was first defined and what
a food package and you will find the protein, fat, and carbohydrate content other units of mass it replaced.
listed in grams per serving.
SCIENCE SKILLS Chapter 2
Measuring mass in the laboratory

Using a mass You will usually use an electronic scale (also called a balance) to measure
balance mass in your lab investigations. Most lab balances display mass in grams. For
example, the balance in Figure 2.2 shows the mass of six steel nuts to be 96.2
grams. The resolution of most classroom balances is to the nearest tenth of a
gram. A tenth of a gram is a tiny mass and balances are therefore sensitive
(and quite delicate). Never drop things onto a balance! Instead, set things
gently on the balance. You can also damage the balance if you press down on
the cover plate with your hand. This can be tempting, but don’t do it!
Converting grams to For some calculations you might have to convert masses from grams to
kilograms kilograms. To convert a mass in grams to kilograms, you need to divide by
1,000 since there are 1,000 grams in 1 kilogram. You can see the dimensional
analysis setup in Figure 2.2. You can also use your metric conversion tool
from the previous chapter.
Masses you will Ordinary objects tend to have masses between a few grams and a few hundred
consider in science kilograms. However, you will encounter a much wider range of masses in
science. A bacterium has a mass of 0.000000001 kg! That seems small—but
then an atom has a mass a thousand billion times smaller than a bacteria.
Science also involves large masses, such as planets and stars. A star like our
Sun has a mass of 2 million trillion trillion kilograms! It may seem strange,
but stars and bacteria are made of the same kinds of matter, and can both be
Figure 2.2: A balance displays
measured in the same units of kilograms! mass in grams. You may need to
Do you say “mass” Does it seem awkward to say “I’m going to find the mass of these objects” convert grams to kilograms when
or “weight”? instead of “I’m going to weigh these objects”? In everyday language, we use doing calculations.
the word weight but hardly ever use the term mass. However, physical science
is about the true nature of how the universe works, so it is time for us to learn
and understand the difference between mass and weight—and there is a big
difference! Read on to find out what the difference is. When you use the triple
beam balance or electronic scale in your classroom laboratory, you are finding
the mass of objects, not the weight.
MA.912.S.1.2-Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to be collected in a survey or experiment.s 31
Mass and weight are different

Mass vs. weight We tend to use the terms mass and weight interchangeably, but they are not
weight - a measure of the pulling
the same thing. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Weight is a force of gravity.
measure of the pulling force of gravity on an object. Your mass is constant
throughout the universe, but your weight can change, depending on which
planet you are on! Since most of us live and work on Earth, it is easy to
forget that mass and weight are different.
Mass is constant, Figure 2.3 compares the mass and weight of a bag of flour on Earth and on
weight can change the Moon. A 2.3-kg bag of flour has the same mass no matter where it is in
the universe. The weight of the bag of flour, however, is less on the Moon.
This is because the force of gravity on the Moon is six times less than the
force of gravity on Earth.
Mass is fundamental Although mass and weight are related quantities, always remember the
difference. Mass is a fundamental property of an object measured in
kilograms (kg). Weight is a force that depends on the pulling force of gravity
and is measured in newtons (N). Use the venn diagram below to review
similarities and differences between mass and weight.
Comparing Mass and Weight
Mass Weight
amount of matter measure of the
in an object property of force of gravity
matter acting on an
stays the same object’s mass
unless you lose or can be measured
changes when
gain matter
On Earth: gravitational force
changes
SI unit: kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 9.8 N = 2.2 lb
Figure 2.3: A 2.3-kg bag of flour has
English unit: slug
SI unit: newton (N) the same mass everywhere, but its
English unit: weight will be less on the Moon, where
pound (lb)
the force of gravity is less.
Volume
Volume Volume is the amount of space an object takes up. The fundamental unit of
volume in SI is the cubic meter (m3). However, a cubic meter is a relatively
huge volume for laboratory work, about the size of the inside of a refrigerator.
More convenient, smaller units include cubic centimeters (cc or cm3), liters
(L), and milliliters (mL). One cubic centimeter is the volume of a cube
measuring 1 cm on each side. One cubic centimeter is the same volume as one
milliliter. One liter is 1,000 milliliters (1 L = 1,000 mL)
Measuring the You can measure the volume of liquids by pouring them into a graduated
volume of liquids cylinder. A graduated cylinder has markings that show volume in milliliters
(mL). To read a graduated cylinder correctly, follow these two rules:
1. Read the mark at eye level.
2.
You will notice that the surface of the liquid forms a curve rather than a Figure 2.4: The meniscus of water
has a concave shape. Read the mark at
straight line (Figure 2.4). This curve is called the meniscus. Read the the center of the meniscus, which is the
volume at the center of the meniscus. bottom of the curve.
Volume of solids You have probably already learned to measure the volume of some solid
shapes. The volume of a rectangular solid (a shoebox shape), for example, is
found by multiplying length times width times height. The volume of a sphere
is 4/3πr3, with r equal to the radius of the sphere.
The displacement You can find the volume of an irregular shape using a technique called
method displacement. To displace means to “take the place of” or to “push aside.”
You can find the volume of an irregularly shaped object by putting it in water
and measuring the amount of water displaced.
Making a Here’s how to use the displacement method to find the volume of a house key.
displacement Fill a 100-mL graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water (Figure 2.5) and then
measurement add the key. The water level will rise, because the key displaces some water.
If the level now reads 53.0 mL, you know that the key displaced 3.0 mL of
water. The volume of the key is equal to the volume of the water it displaces.
The key has a volume of 3.0 milliliters (mL), or 3.0 cubic centimeters (cm3).
Figure 2.5: The key displaced 3.0 mL

of water.
Comparing mass and volume

Mass and volume Mass and volume are not the same thing; they are two different properties of
volume - the amount of space taken
are different matter (Figure 2.6). Mass is the amount of matter in an object, and volume up by matter.
is the space that matter takes up. Breakfast cereal, for example, is not sold by
volume. As boxes of cereal are shipped from plant to warehouse to store, the
contents “settle.” Settling means the individual bits of cereal jostle and nest
into each other so the same quantity that once filled the bag takes up less
space when “packed” more tightly. By the time you buy it, a cereal box may
appear to be only three-fourths full! For this reason, cereal is measured in
grams, to reflect the true amount of cereal in the box. An equal mass of
cereal is placed into each box at the factory. Breakfast cereal is sold by mass,
not volume, because mass is a more fundamental property that only changes
if the amount of cereal (matter) changes.
Mass vs. volume Can you think of something that has a relatively large amount of mass, but
fits in a small space? How about a construction brick or a cement block? A
brick has quite a bit of mass for the amount of space it takes up. A brick is
smaller than a loaf of bread, but it has considerably more mass.
Volume vs. mass Can you think of something that has a relatively small amount of mass, but
takes up quite a bit of space? How about a large, fake boulder made of foam?
You would easily be able to lift the foam boulder even if it were 1 meter
across. On the other had, a real boulder 1 meter in diameter has as much
mass as 12 average-sized people!
Mass and volume We naturally assume that an object’s mass is proportional to its size. Big
are related! objects do tend to have more mass than small ones. Don’t be fooled! Mass
and volume are related, but are not the same thing at all. The type of matter
an object is made of and how that matter is distributed have an enormous
effect on the object’s mass. Foam is light and airy, or low density, and even a
large volume of foam has very little mass. Brick is heavy, or high density, Figure 2.6: Mass and volume are two
and therefore contains a lot more mass per cubic centimeter than foam. You different properties of matter.
will explore the property of density in the next section.
34
Section 2.1 Review

1. If object A has more mass than object B, does object A contain more Scale vs. Balance
matter? Explain. How does a scale work? An
2. Copy Table 2.1 and fill in the missing boxes. All answers can be found in electronic scale, like one you might
Section 2.1. (Hint: Don’t forget to check the illustrations.) have in your bathroom, measures the
gravitational force between an object
Table 2.1: Measuring Matter and Earth. A scale that displays
grams or kilograms has actually
SI Unit English Unit measured weight and calculated the
Property of Matter mass from the weight. How does a
(abbreviation) (abbreviation)
balance work? A balance measures
mass kilogram (kg) ? the mass of an object by comparing it
with objects whose masses are known
weight ? pound (lb) (Figure 2.7).
volume (liquids) ? fluid ounce (fl oz)
volume (solids) ? cubic inch (in3)
3. Mass is constant, but weight can change with location. Explain.

4. On Earth, 1 kg = 9.8 N = 2.2 lbs. On the Moon, 1 kg = 1.6 N = 0.37 lbs. Use
these relationships to answer the following questions. Show your work.
a. What is weight, in newtons, of a 50.-kg person on Earth?
b. What is the weight, in newtons, of a 50.-kg person on the Moon?
c. What is the mass, in kilograms, of a 100.-lb. person on Earth?
d. What is the mass of the person in question c on the Moon?
5. Explain, using numbered steps, how you could find the volume of a small,
irregularly shaped rock.
6. Read the following statements. If the italicized word is used correctly,
answer “correct.” If the italicized word is not used correctly, rewrite the Figure 2.7: An electronic scale and a
triple beam balance.
statement with the correct word.
a. Taylor’s weight is 65 kilograms.
b. I went on a diet and my mass decreased.
c. I went to the Moon and I lost mass, even though I didn’t lose any of
my matter.
35
2.2 Determining Density

Mass and volume are different properties of matter, but they are related. For instance, a solid density - the mass per unit volume
block of wood and a solid block of steel can have the same volume, but they would not have the of a given material. Units for density
same mass. The steel block has a lot more mass than the wood block. Because of the mass are often expressed as g/mL, g/cm3,
or kg/m3.
difference, the wood block floats in water and the steel block sinks. Whether an object floats or
sinks is related to the object’s density. This section will explain density, a property of all matter.
Density is a property of matter

Density is mass per Density describes how much mass is in a given volume of a material. Steel has
unit volume high density; it contains 7.8 grams of mass per cubic centimeter (7.8 g/cm3).
Aluminum, as you might predict, has a lower density; a one-centimeter cube
has a mass of only 2.7 grams (2.7 g/cm3).
The density of water Liquids and gases are matter and have density. The density of water is about
and air one gram per cubic centimeter. The density of air is lower, of course—much Figure 2.8: The density of steel,
aluminum, water, and air expressed in
lower. The air in your classroom has a density of about 0.001 grams per grams per milliliter (1 mL = 1 cm3).
cubic centimeter (0.001 g/cm3) (Figure 2.8).
36
Units of density Material (kg/m3) (g/cm3)

Density in units of Your laboratory investigations will typically use density in units of grams per Platinum 21,500 21.5
grams per milliliter milliliter (g/mL). The density of water is one gram per milliliter. That means
Lead 11,300 11.3
1 milliliter of water has a mass of 1 gram.
Steel 7,800 7.8
Density in g/cm3 and Some problems use density in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Titanium 4,500 4.5
kg/m3 Since one milliliter is exactly the same volume as one cubic centimeter, the Aluminum 2,700 2.7
units of g/cm3 and g/mL are actually the same. For measuring large objects, it Glass 2,700 2.7
is easier to use density in units of kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). Granite 2,600 2.6
Figure 2.9 gives the densities of some common substances in both units.
Concrete 2,300 2.3
Converting units of To convert from one unit of density to the other, remember that 1 g/cm3 is Plastic 2,000 2.0
density equal to 1,000 kg/m3. To go from g/cm3 to kg/m3, you multiply by 1,000. For
Rubber 1,200 1.2
example, the density of ice is 0.92 g/cm3. This is the same as 920 kg/m3. To
Liquid water 1,000 1.0
go from kg/m3 to g/cm3, you divide by 1,000. For example, the density of
aluminum is 2,700 kg/m3. Dividing by 1,000 gives a density of 2.7 g/cm3. Ice 920 0.92
Ash (wood) 600 0.67
Pine (wood) 440 0.44
Cork 120 0.12
Air (avg.) 0.9 0.0009
Figure 2.9: Density of some

common materials.
Ipe (pronounced ee-pay) is a Brazilian

hardwood that can be used as a
durable (and expensive!) construction
material for decks, docks, and other
outdoor projects. Every cubic foot of
ipe weighs 69 pounds. Use
dimensional analysis to convert the
density of ipe to g/cm3. How does the
density compare to other woods and
materials on the list above?
Density of solids and liquids

Material density is Density is a property of material independent of quantity or shape. For
independent of example, a steel nail and a steel cube have different amounts of matter and Steel density
shape therefore different masses (Figure 2.10). They also have different volumes. Steel cube
But they have the same density. Dividing mass by volume gives the same Volume: 10.0 cm3
density for the nail and the cube, because both are made of steel. Mass: 78 g
Density: 7.8 g/cm3
Density of a material is the same no matter what the
size or shape of the material.
Liquids tend to be The density of a liquid is usually a little less than the density of the same Nail
less dense than material in solid form. Take the example of solder (pronounced sod-der). Volume: 1.6 cm3
solids of the same Solder is a metal alloy used to join metal surfaces. Mass: 12.5 g
material Density: 7.8 g/cm3
500 g of solid solder fills a volume of 50 mL.
The density of solid solder is 10 g/mL. The Figure 2.10: The density of a steel
same mass of melted (liquid) solder takes up nail is the same as the density of a solid
52.6 mL. Liquid solder has a lower density of cube of steel.
9.5 g/mL. The density of a liquid is lower
because the atoms are not packed as tightly as
in a solid. Picture a brand-new box of toy
blocks. When you open the box, the blocks are
tightly packed, like the atoms in a solid. Now
imagine dumping the blocks out of the box,
and then pouring them back into the original
box again. The same number of jumbled
blocks take up more space, like the atoms in a
liquid (Figure 2.11).
Water is an Water is an exception to this rule. The density of solid water, or ice, is less
exception than the density of liquid water. When water molecules freeze into ice
crystals, they form a pattern that has an unusually large amount of empty
space. The water molecules in ice are actually farther apart than they are in Figure 2.11: The same number (or
mass) of blocks arranged in a tight,
liquid water. Because of this, ice floats in liquid water. repeating pattern take up less space
than when they are jumbled up.
SC.912.L.18.12-Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and
38 versatility as a solvent.
Determining density
Finding density To find the density of a material, you need to know the mass and volume of a
sample of the material. You can calculate density using the formula below.
m
V
Density gives Density gives us information about how tightly the atoms or molecules of a
information about particular material are “packed.” Diamond is made of carbon atoms and has a
atoms and density of 3.5 g/cm3 (3,500 kg/m3). The carbon atoms in diamond are
molecules relatively tightly packed. Paraffin wax is also made mostly of carbon atoms,
but the density is only 0.87 g/cm3 (870 kg/m3). The density of paraffin is low
because the carbon atoms are mixed with hydrogen atoms in long molecules
that take up a lot of space. The molecules in paraffin are not as tightly packed
as the atoms in diamond.
The average density Suppose you have a piece of aluminum foil, a length of aluminum wire, and
of a hollow object an aluminum brick. At the same temperature and pressure, the aluminum
making each of these has the same density. It does not matter whether the Figure 2.12: The aluminum block
aluminum is shaped into a brick, flat sheet, or long wire. The density is and can have the same mass but
2.7 g/cm3 as long as the object is made of solid aluminum. different volumes and densities. The
density of the aluminum can is called its
If an object is hollow, its average density is less than the density of the average density because it also includes
material the object is made from. Suppose a small block of aluminum with a the air inside the can as part of the
volume.
mass of 10.8 grams is used to make a soda can (Figure 2.12). Both the solid
block of aluminum and the soda can have a mass of 10.8 grams, but the
hollow can has a much larger volume. The can has 100 times the volume of
the block, so its density is 100 times less.
39
Solving Problems: Calculating Density To Find: Use:

m
density D=
A solid wax candle has a volume of 1,700 mL. The candle has a mass of V
1.5 kg (1,500 g). What is the density of the candle?
m
1. Looking for: You are asked for the density. volume V=
D
2. Given: You are given the mass and volume.
3. Relationships: Density is mass divided by volume. mass m= D × V
4. Solution: Density = 1,500 g ÷ 1,700 mL = 0.88 g/mL

(answer should have only 2 significant digits)
Your turn...
a. Look at Figure 2.13. A student measures the mass of five steel hex nuts to
be 96.2 g. The hex nuts displace 13 mL of water. Calculate the density of
the steel in the hex nuts.
b. The density of granite is about 2.60 g/cm3. How much mass would a solid
piece of granite have that measures 2.00 cm x 2.00 cm x 3.00 cm?
c. Ice has a density of about 0.920 g/cm3. What is the volume of 100. g
of ice?
Figure 2.13: A student measures the
volume and mass of five steel hex nuts.
a. 7.4 g/mL; b. 31.2 g; c. 109 cm3
40
Section 2.2 Review

1. Define density, write the formula (from memory!), and give two different
units used to measure density.
2. One cubic centimeter (cm3) is the same volume as one ________. 20
1 cm
3. A material’s density is the same, no matter how large or small the sample grams
is, or what its shape is, as long as it is a solid, uniform piece of the 4 cm
2 cm
material. Explain how this is possible and give an example.
4. The density of balsa wood is about 170 kg/m3. Convert to g/cm3. Why do
you think balsa wood, rather than oak or ash, is commonly used for
building models? (Use evidence from Figure 2.9 on page 37.)
2 cm
5. A certain material has a density of 0.2 g/cm3. Is this material better for Mass = ?
building a bridge or for making sofa cushions? Explain, using evidence m
3c
from Figure 2.9 on page 37. 4 cm
Two toy blocks are made of

the same type of material.
One has a mass of 20 grams
and its dimensions are
2 cm × 4 cm × 1 cm. The
second block measures
4 cm × 3 cm × 2 cm. Calculate
the mass of the second block.
6. The piece of wood shown above has a mass of 20 grams. Calculate its
volume and density. Then, use Figure 2.9 on page 37 to determine which
type of wood it is. What are the two factors that determine a material’s
density?
7. The density of maple wood is about 755. kg/m3. What is the mass of a
solid piece of maple that has a volume 640. cm3?
41
2.3 Graphing
Mass, volume, and density are common properties of matter that we measure. Once we have graph - a visual representation
of data.
measured and collected data, it is often necessary to organize it visually, and look for
relationships. A graph is a visual way to organize data. In this section, we will focus on creating scatterplot (or XY graph) - a
graph of two variables thought to be
and interpreting scatterplots (XY graphs). There are other types of graphs, but scatterplots are the
related.
most useful for organizing and presenting physical science data.
Types of graphs
Scatterplots, bar Most graphs are either scatterplots, bar, pie, or line graphs. A scatterplot or
graphs, pie graphs, XY graph is used to determine if two variables are related. For example, the
and line graphs more hex nuts you have, the more space they take up (Graph A). Scatterplots
are commonly used in science, and you will create many of them from the
data you collect in your investigations.
A bar graph compares groups of information (Graph B). A pie graph is a
circular graph that shows how a whole is divided up into percentages.
(Graph C). A “connect-the-dots” line graph is often used to show trends in
data over time (Graph D). Strictly speaking, a line graph does not usually
show cause and effect. For example, a line graph of a stock price may change
over time, but it is not the time that causes the change to happen.
42 MA.912.S.3.2-Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle
graphs; histograms; box and whisker plots; scatter plots; and cumulative frequency graphs.
Making a scatterplot or XY graph

Independent and Scatterplots show how a change in one variable influences another variable.
independent variable - a
dependent variables The independent variable is the variable you believe might influence variable that you believe might
another variable. It is often controlled by the experimenter, and is sometimes influence another variable. The
called the manipulated variable. The dependent variable is the variable independent variable can also be
that may be influenced by the independent variable, and can also be called the called the manipulated variable.
responding variable. dependent variable - the
variable that you believe is
An example Pressure is measured in units of atmospheres. You live at Earth’s surface influenced by the independent
under a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Pressure is critical to safe scuba diving. As variable. The dependent variable can
a diver goes deeper under water, she has to think about pressure. How does an also be called the responding
increase in depth affect the pressure? What sort of graph would best show the variable.
relationship between pressure and depth? Figure 2.14 shows depth and
pressure data for the ocean.
Depth Pressure
Step 1: Assign the x- In this example, depth is the independent or manipulated variable. The diver (m) (atm)
and y-axes can choose her depth in the water. The independent variable always goes on (x-axis) (y-axis)
the x-axis of a graph. The dependent variable always goes on the y-axis. In
0 1.0
this example, pressure is the dependent variable. Pressure depends on the
5 1.5
diver’s depth in the water.
10 2.0
Step 2: Make a scale To create a depth vs. pressure graph, you first make a scale. When talking 15 2.5
about a graph, scale refers to how each axis is divided up to fit the range of 20 3.0
data values. Use the formula below to make a scale for any graph. 25 3.5
30 4.0
35 4.5
data range
value per box on graph = 40 5.0
number of boxes on axis
Figure 2.14: Depth of the ocean and
pressure data.
A quick rule-of-thumb to use for creating scales is to try counting first by

ones, then twos, then fives, then tens. One of these should work most of the
time. For example, if the data range for the x-axis is 0 to 40 units and the x-
axis on your graph covers 20 boxes, each box would be worth 2 units.
MA.912.S.3.2-Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle graphs; 43
histograms; box and whisker plots; scatter plots; and cumulative frequency graphs.
Step 3: Plot your Using the data in Figure 2.14, plot each point by finding the x-value and
data tracing the graph upward until you get to the correct y-value. Make a dot for STUDY SKILLS
each point. Draw a smooth curve that shows the pattern of the points. Key Elements of a Scatterplot
MIXES TUCS
M: maximize your graph (use all of
the graph paper!)
IX: Independent variable on x-axis
(dependent variable on y-axis)
ES: Equally spaced scale increments
(start at 0)
T: Title (y-variable vs. x-variable)
U: Units and labels on both axes
CS: Continuous smooth curve to
connect the data points
Step 4: Create a title Create a title for your graph. Also, be sure to label each axis including units
(shown above).
If time is a variable Like many rules, there are important exceptions. Time is an exception to the
rule about which variable goes on which axis. When time is one of the
variables on a graph it usually goes on the x-axis. This is true even though
you may not think of time as an independent variable.
Using scatterplots in When scientists create scatterplots, they are usually working with large
science amounts of data. Figure 2.15 shows a scatterplot of data for the Old Faithful
geyser in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. The graph shows there are Figure 2.15: Waiting time vs.
generally two types of eruptions: short-wait-short-duration, and long-wait- eruption duration for Old Faithful.
long-duration. This discovery about the geyser activity would be hard to
make without the visual aid of the scatterplot!
Identifying relationships between variables on a graph

Patterns indicate When there is a relationship between the variables, the graph shows a clear
direct relationship - a relationship
relationships pattern. The speed and distance variables (below left) show a direct in which one variable increases with
relationship. In a direct relationship, when one variable increases, so does an increase in another variable.
the other. inverse relationship - a
When there is no relationship, the graph looks like a collection of dots. No relationship in which one variable
decreases when another variable
pattern appears. The number of musical groups a student listed in one minute
increases.
and the last two digits of his or her phone number are an example of two
variables that are not related.
Inverse relationships Some relationships are inverse. In an inverse relationship, when one
variable increases, the other decreases. If you graph how much money you
have against how much you spend, you see an inverse relationship. The more Figure 2.16: Graphs of inverse
you have, the less you spend. Graphs of inverse relationships always slope relationships slope down to the right.
down and to the right (Figure 2.16).
What type of relationship does the depth vs. pressure graph on the previous
page show? The depth vs. pressure scatterplot shows a strong direct
relationship. That makes sense. The deeper you go, the more water is on top
of you, pushing down and creating more pressure.
MA.912.S.3.2-Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle graphs;
histograms; box and whisker plots; scatter plots; and cumulative frequency graphs. 45
Reading a graph
Using a graph to Suppose you measure the speed of a car at four places on a ramp. Can you
make a prediction figure out the speed at other places without having to actually measure it? As A student
measures the
long as the ramp and car are set up the same, the answer is yes! A graph can mass of water
give you an accurate answer even without doing the experiment. Look at the collected every
example below to see how. The students doing the experiment measured an five minutes on
graphed the speed of the car at 20, 40, 60, and 80 cm. They want to know the a rainy day.
speed at 50 cm. Design a graph
to show the
student’s data.
1) Start by finding 50 cm on the x-axis. Estimate how many minutes it took
for 20 grams of water to be collected.
Draw a line vertically upward from 50 cm until it hits the
2) Time is the independent variable,
curve that fits the points that were measured.
therefore mass is the dependent
3) Draw a line across horizontally to the y-axis. variable. The mass axis should go
from 0 to at least 50 grams. The time
4) Use the scale on the y-axis to read the predicted speed. axis should go from 0 to at least
20 minutes. The graph shows that
20 grams of rainwater fell in the first
7.5 minutes.
Large graphs are For this example, the graph predicts the speed to be 76 cm/s. You will
more precise get the best predictions when the graph is big enough to show precise
measurements. That’s why you should draw your graphs so they fill as
much of the graph paper as possible.
A graph is a form of A graph is a simple form of a model. Remember, a model is a relationship
a model that connects two or more variables. Scientists use models to make and test
predictions.
MA.912.S.3.2-Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle
46 graphs; histograms; box and whisker plots; scatter plots; and cumulative frequency graphs.
SC.912.N.3.5-Describe the function of models in science, and identify the wide range of models used in science.
Section 2.3 Review STUDY SKILLS

Four Steps to Making a Graph
1. Scatterplots, bar graphs, pie graphs, and line graphs all have different
purposes. Which type of graph best fits each purpose? Step 1: Determine which variable is
independent and which is dependent.
a. Grouping data for comparison The dependent variable (responding
b. Comparing parts of a whole variable) goes on the y-axis and the
c. Seeing if two variables are related, such as in cause and effect independent variable (manipulated
variable) goes on the x-axis. If time is
2. For each pair of variables, identify which is the independent and which is one of the variables, it goes on the
the dependent variable. x-axis.
a. How much gas is left in the gas tank vs. how far the car has traveled Step 2: Make a scale for each axis by
b. How much money you’ve spent vs. how much money is in your wallet counting boxes to fit your largest
c. How far a toy car traveled vs. how much time went by value. Count by multiples of 1, 2, 5,
or 10.
3. You have a small tank of water. Suppose you make waves in the tank, and
measure their speed in different depths of water. Which is the independent Step 3: Plot each point by finding the
x-value and tracing upward until you
variable, and which is the dependent variable? get to the corresponding y-value.
4. Make a scatterplot using the data below.
Step 4: Draw a smooth curve that
Water Depth Wave Speed shows the trend of the points. Do not
(cm) (cm/s) just connect the dots with straight
lines.
0 0
1 29.8
2 43.3
3 52.1
4 59.2
5 64.4
6 69.3
5. Use the graph of wave speed vs. water depth to answer the following
questions.
a. What happens to wave speed as the depth of the water increases?
b. What would the average wave speed be at 4.5 cm?
2.4 Solving Problems

People use problem-solving skills daily. Doctors collect information about patients to figure out
what is causing their pain. Mechanics gather information about a car to figure out how to fix the
engine. To solve a problem, you use what you already know to figure out something you want to
know. Many physical science problems ask you to calculate something using math formulas.
A four-step The method for solving problems has four steps (Figure 2.17). Follow these
technique steps and you will be able to see a way to the answer most of the time. You
will at least make progress toward the answer almost every time. Keep in
mind that there is often more than one way to solve a problem. Sometimes
you will have to use creativity to find information or to use the information
given to figure out a solution.
Solved example Throughout this book you will find full-page example problems that have
problems are been solved for you. Below the solved problem, there is a “Your turn...”
provided section of practice problems. The answers to the practice problems are to the
right. Always remember to write out the steps when you are solving
problems on your own. If you make a mistake, you will be able to look at
your work and figure out where you went wrong. You have already seen
several example problem pages in this unit. The example on the next page
shows how to follow the problem-solving steps.
Step What to Do
What is the problem asking for? Figure out exactly what variables or
1. Looking for:
values need to be in the answer. Figure 2.17: Follow these steps and
What information are you given? Sometimes this includes numbers or you will be able to find the answer to a
2. Given: problem most of the time.
values. Other times it includes descriptive information to interpret.
What relationships exist between what you are asked to find and what
3. Relationships: you are given? Suppose you are given mass and volume and you are
asked to find the density. The relationship to use is D = m/V.
Combine the relationships with what you know to find what you are
4. Solution: asked for. Once you complete steps 1 through 3, you will be able to see
how to solve most problems.
48 SC.912.N.1.1-Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science.
Solving Problems: Example

Dense Water
The Dead Sea between Israel and
A 6-gram marble, placed in a graduated cylinder of water, raises the water Jordan is said to have the saltiest
from 30 mL to 32 mL. Calculate the marble’s volume and density. water of all the bodies of water on
Earth. This makes the water very
dense. Visitors can float effortlessly on
1. Looking for: You are looking for the marble’s volume and density. the surface of the Dead Sea. In fact,
you can’t swim under water in the sea
2. Given: You are given the mass and the results of water displacement. because it is so dense, your body is
forced to float. On average, the Dead
m
3. Relationships: water displaced = marble ’s volume; D = Sea is nearly nine times saltier than
V average ocean water. Is the Dead Sea
really dead? Almost!
4. Solution: water displaced = 32 mL – 30 mL = 2 mL = Volume Only some bacteria can survive the
6g high mineral content to live in the
D= = 3 g / mL Dead Sea.
2 mL
Your turn...
Set up the problem below by writing out steps 1 through 3. This will give you
Looking for: V and D
some practice with the problem-solving steps. No need to find the solution
unless you want to, of course! Given: m and block dimensions
Relationships: V = L × W × H;
a. Calculate the volume and density of a block that has the dimensions D = m/V
10 cm × 5 cm × 4 cm and a mass of 400 grams.
Solution: V = 10 cm × 5 cm × 4 cm
V = 200 cm3
D = 400 g/200 cm3 = 2 g/cm3
SC.912.N.1.1-Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science. 49
How to solve design problems

Different kinds of Consider the following two problems.
problems
• How far do you travel in 2 hours at 60 mph on a straight road?
• Create a container that will protect a raw egg from breaking when
dropped 10 meters onto a sidewalk.
“Formula” problems The first problem has a single answer, 120 miles. You apply what you know
(distance = speed × time) to the information you are given and find the
answer.
Design problems The second problem is more challenging (and more fun, too). You have to
use what you know to design a solution that solves the problem. Unlike
“formula problems,” design problems have many correct solutions limited
only by your creativity, ingenuity, skill, and patience (Figure 2.18). The
important thing is to create something that “does the job” and fits the
requirements. In the egg-drop problem, typical requirements are that the
container must have a mass less than 1 kilogram, and cannot be something
simply purchased “off the shelf.”
Solving design Here are some useful steps to help you solve design problems.
problems
1. Write down everything your The Design Cycle
solution needs to accomplish.
2. Write down every constraint
that must also be met.
Constraints are limits on cost,
weight, time, materials, size, or
other things.
3. Think up an idea that might
work. Talking with others,
doing research, and trying
things out are all ways to help.
4. Follow the design cycle (shown above).
Figure 2.18: Some successful
solutions to the egg drop problem.
Section 2.4 Review

1. What are two different types of problems you will be asked to solve in Helpful Relationships
this physical science course? Give an example of each. Use these to help you with question 4.
2. Describe two benefits of following the 4-step method of problem solving. 1 mile = 5,280 feet
3. Devise a memory device that could help you remember the 4 problem- 1 hour = 3,600 seconds
solving steps. Describe the memory device.
Cals = Calories/hr x activity hrs
4. For each of the following, set up the problem using the 4-step method of
1 kg = 2.2 lb.
problem solving, and find the answer. Use the list of relationships at the
right to help you with your setups. 1 kg = 9.8 N
a. Downhill skiing burns about 600 calories per hour. How many m=D×V
calories would you burn if you skied for 3.5 hours? 1 L = 1,000 mL
b. What is your mass in kilograms if you weigh 120 pounds on Earth?
c. A car is moving at 65 miles per hour (mph). How many feet can it
travel in one second?
d. The density of Dead Sea surface water is about 1.166 g/mL. How
much mass, in grams, would 2 liters of this salty water have?
5. There are four steps to help you solve design problems. What are the four
steps?
6. Find a solution to the following design problem (Figure 2.19):
What is the average mass of one grain of rice?
You must use an electronic scale that measures to the nearest tenth of a
gram. Also, your answer must be precise to one percent. Use the steps
outlined on the previous page for solving design problems. Try out your
solution in class, with your teacher’s permission and the right materials.
Be sure to write down what you are trying to accomplish, what your
constraints are, and what your idea is for finding the answer. Then show
how you would follow the steps of the design cycle. Hint: One grain of Figure 2.19: Question 6: How can
you find the mass of a single grain of
rice will not register any mass on the electronic scale. The smallest mass rice?
you can measure on the scale with one percent precision is 10 grams
(0.01x = 0.1 g; x = 10 g).
SC.912.N.1.1-Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science.
51
ENVIRONMENT8CONNECTION
Chapter 2
Density
and Ocean Currents
In a remote mountainous region of
southeastern Venezuela, water spills
over a rocky ledge and tumbles down an river which then separates into clockwise-flowing eddies that may
amazing 979-meter vertical drop—that’s continue to spin westward for more than two years. These eddies
almost a full kilometer! It is the world’s often merge with others to form giant, salty whirlpools up to
100 kilometers in diameter. Scientists dub these eddies “Meddies”
highest above-ground waterfall, a spec-
because they originate from water that comes from the
tacular site known as Angel Falls. Mediterranean Sea.
Did you know that there are underwater The Meddies are part of a larger system of ocean currents that
waterfalls in the ocean that are about plays a critical role in regulating Earth’s climate patterns. Currents
the same height as Angel Falls? While absorb, store, and release huge amounts of heat and carbon dioxide
it may seem strange for water to fall at different times and places. Complex surface ocean currents and
through water, it really happens due to deep ocean currents are driven by a combination of factors. Density
density differences in ocean water coming from different sources. is one important factor that influences these ocean current patterns.
Tracking Meddies
Underwater Waterfalls Dr. Amy Bower studies these
Atlantic At the Strait of swirling masses of warm, salty ocean
Ocean Gibraltar, where the currents. She is a senior scientist
Mediterranean Sea in the Department of Physical
empties into the Oceanography at the Woods Hole
Atlantic Ocean, there’s Oceanographic Institution in Woods
a giant underwater Hole, Massachusetts. Dr. Bower and
Strait Mediterranean Sea waterfall. Why? The her colleagues use several tools to
of Gibraltar water flowing out of the investigate the location and movement
Mediterranean Sea is of Meddies. Images from satellites
very salty due to low rainfall and the high rate of evaporation there. are used to measure sea surface
(When ocean water evaporates, the salt is left behind.) temperature, color, and height. But to
get information about ocean currents
Saltier water is denser, so when the Mediterranean water enters the far below the surface, Dr. Bower uses a
less-dense Atlantic, it sinks down along the continental slope. At a device called a RAFOS float.
depth of about 1,000 meters the waterfall becomes an underwater
SSC.912.N.2.5–Describe instances in which scientists’ varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of
52 natural phenomena and describe that competing interpretations (explanations).
Chapter 2
The RAFOS float is a glass tube about two meters long containing spent a lot of my time exploring the rocky beaches there. In high
electronic devices. RAFOS floats can carry multiple sensors for school, I mostly enjoyed physics and math, and so decided to pursue
measuring important ocean properties, including pressure, the physical, rather than biological, aspects of oceanography.
temperature, and dissolved oxygen. A device is attached to make I was introduced to the field of physical oceanography as an
the floats “isopycnal,” or density-following, so that they drift in undergraduate in a program called Sea Semester offered by Sea
ocean water of a specific density as it rises, falls, and swirls along. Education Association in Woods Hole. This field of oceanography
allows me to explore the oceans from a physical perspective.”
Computer/ Glass housing When she was in her mid-20s, Dr. Bower was diagnosed with macular
Transmitter Antenna
Sensors Battery degeneration, an incurable eye condition that damages the area
of the retina responsible for central vision. While she has some
peripheral vision remaining, she is unable to drive, read normal-sized
print, or recognize faces. She hasn’t let this visual impairment stop her
from leading research cruises and doing significant research.
The bottom of the float contains an “acoustic hydrophone,” which
is basically an underwater sound sensor. The hydrophone picks up When asked what she finds challenging in her work, Dr. Bower
sound signals from acoustic beacons (underwater “beepers”) that replied, “It’s challenging to function at a professional level in
are anchored at specific, known locations. The sound from several a sighted world. The most challenging aspect otherwise is to
beacons is recorded at one time, raise research funding.” Scientists frequently have to write grant
which makes it possible to pinpoint proposals to organizations that can provide financial support for
RAFOS launching area
the float’s exact location. At the their research. Effective communication and persuasive writing skills
end of the float’s preprogrammed are critical for scientists so that they can continue to do what they
love—to use the tools of science to gain greater understanding of
Portugal
mission, it drops its ballast weights,
rises to the surface, and beams its the natural world.
data to orbiting satellites.
Dr. Bower’s research has contributed to our understanding of the
Latitude
Dr. Bower receives the information complex deep ocean current system that profoundly affects Earth’s
from the satellites and uses it to climate. It has also given her an opportunity to travel to many
construct a map of the journey interesting parts of the world. “My favorite part of the job is going
taken by the float. Maps such as to sea on research vessels, an opportunity that few individuals ever
these are used to build our overall have. I like especially research cruises to less explored areas.”
understanding of how different Longitude
bodies of water interact to transfer
heat, carbon dioxide, and salt from Each colored line represents the path of Questions:
one float.
one place to another in the oceans.
1. Why is the Mediterranean sea water so salty?
Challenges and Opportunities 2. Why do oceanographers study Meddies?

Dr. Bower loves her job. She explains, “Since childhood, I’ve always 3. What skills help scientists obtain research funding?
had an insatiable curiosity about how the Earth works. I grew
up on the coast north of Boston in Rockport, Massachusetts and Photo of Dr. Bower by David Fisichella, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
SC.912.N.2.5–Describe instances in which scientists’ varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural
phenomena and describe that competing interpretations (explanations).
53
Vocabulary 12. When one variable decreases as another increases, you have
a(n) ____.
Concepts
density graph mass
Section 2.1
dependent variable independent variable scatterplot
direct relationship inverse relationship volume 1. Draw a Venn diagram to show the similarities and
gram kilogram weight differences between mass and volume.
2. Describe how to properly find the volume of a liquid in a
Section 2.1
graduated cylinder. Use the term meniscus in your answer.
1. ____ is the amount of space taken up by an object. 3. What are two precautions to take when using an electronic
scale, so you don’t damage the equipment?
2. The amount of matter an object contains is called ____.
4. What is the difference between mass and weight?
3. The basic SI unit of mass is the ____.
5. At the top of Mt. Everest in the Himalayas, the force of
4. One thousandth of a kilogram: ____. gravity is slightly less than it is at sea level. Would your
5. ____ is a measure of the pulling force of gravity. weight be a little greater or a little less on the top of this
Section 2.2 mountain? Explain.
6. The mass per unit volume of a material is its ____. Section 2.2
Section 2.3 6. In general, how do the densities of a material in solid and

liquid form compare? Name a common exception to the
7. A(n) ____ is shown by a continuous smooth curve rising from
general rule.
left to right on a scatterplot.
7. A cube of solid steel and a cube of solid aluminum are both
8. The ____ can also be called the manipulated variable.
covered with a thin plastic coating, making it impossible to
9. A(n) ____ is also called an XY graph, and it is often used to identify the cubes based on color. Referring to Figure 2.9 on
determine if one variable causes an effect in another page 37, tell how you could determine which cube is steel
variable. and which is aluminum.
10. The ____ is always plotted on the y-axis of a scatterplot. 8. Which makes better packing material: a high density or low
11. A(n) ____ is a visual representation of data; there are four density material? Why?
major types.
54
Section 2.3 Problems
9. Why is the scatterplot the most commonly used type of
Remember: Use problem-solving steps to solve these problems.
graph in science?
Section 2.1
10. A blank graph grid is 20 boxes by 20 boxes. You want to plot
1. Make the following
a data set on this graph. The range of x-axis values is 0–60.
calculations for the
The range of y-axis values is 0–15. Sketch the best scale to
weight, in newtons, of a
use that would maximize the graph size.
60-kg person on:
11. You wish to make a graph of the height of the Moon above
a. Earth (1 kg = 9.8 N)
the horizon every 15 minutes between 9:00 p.m. and 3:00
b. Mars (1 kg = 3.7 N)
a.m. during one night.
c. Find the weight, in
a. What is the independent variable? pounds, of the person
b. What is the dependent variable? on Earth (1 kg = 2.2
c. On which axis should you graph each variable? lbs.)
Section 2.4 d. Find the weight, in pounds, of the person on Mars.
12. Copy the problem-solving steps table below on a piece of (Hint: Use information from question 1b to help you
paper or in a notebook. Fill in the table as you solve this figure out the correct relationship to use.)
problem.Platinum is a valuable metal. The density of Section 2.2
platinum is 21.4 g/cm3. Suppose you have a 113-cm3 disk of 2. A chunk of paraffin (wax) has a mass of 50.4 grams and a
pure platinum. What is the mass of the disk? volume of 57.9 cm3. What is the density of paraffin?
Step What to Do 3. A large amount of the gold reserve for the United States is
stored in the Fort Knox Bullion Depository vault in
1. Looking for: Kentucky. Much of it is in the form of bars with the
2. Given: dimensions 7 in × 3 5/8 in × 1 3/4 in. The gold has a density
3. Relationships: of 19,300 kg/m3. Calculate the mass of one gold bar (1 in =
4. Solution: 2.54 cm). If you picked up this gold bar, would it be more like
picking up a can of soda, a gallon of water, or a box of books?
13. You have an idea for making a new type of backpack that is Set up this problem using your problem-solving steps and
more comfortable to wear. Describe how you would use the you will avoid a lot of confusion!
design cycle to turn your idea into a practical solution.
55
Section 2.3 6. Make a quick sketch of what you think the scatterplot would
Use the graph below to answer questions 4 through 7. This look like if you used random hex nuts of different materials
graph was created by a student who measured the mass and and sizes, rather than a collection that is all the same.
volume of a collection of hex nuts from a hardware package.
Each hex nut was made of the same material, and each was the 7. Challenge: Can you use information from this graph to
same size and shape. determine what material the hex nuts are made from? You
can use information from Figure 2.9 on page 37 to help you.
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
Applying Your Knowledge

Section 2.1
1. Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Is air
considered to be matter? Describe a simple demonstration
you could do to prove your answer.
2. Write a procedure for finding the volume of air spaces in an
ordinary kitchen sponge.
Section 2.2
3. Deep ocean currents are caused by differences in ocean
water density. What two things can cause density
differences in ocean water? How does the density difference
4. Each data point in the mass/volume graph represents actually cause the movement of deep ocean water? Do some
adding an additional hex nut to the group. The first data research to find the answers to these questions. Be sure to
point shows the mass and volume of one hex nut, and the cite your references.
second data point shows the mass and volume of two hex Section 2.3
nuts together, and so on up to five hex nuts. 4. Look through recent newspapers and/or magazines to find
a. What is the mass and volume of one hex nut? at least one example of a scatterplot, bar graph, pie graph,
b. What is the mass and volume of five hex nuts together? and line graph. Photocopy or cut out the graph examples
c. What do you predict the mass and volume of six hex and create a small poster that illustrates the differences
nuts would be? between these types of graphs.
5. What type of relationship exists between mass and volume
on the mass/volume graph?
Chapter 3
The Scientific Process
On Aug. 21, 2003, on a specially built hill in Irvine, California, six adults
climbed into cars with no motors and rolled downhill. In the “Extreme Gravity
Race,” the cars reached speeds of up to 60 miles per hour as they raced down
the hill using nothing but gravity for energy. The six cars represented six fiercely competitive
design and engineering teams. The race featured teams from five different automakers. Each
team had created the slipperiest low-friction car they could, using carbon fiber, titanium, and
many other high-tech materials.
How did the cars reach such high speeds using nothing but gravity? How did each team
design its car so that it would be as fast as possible? Answers to these questions involve
experiments and variables. Read on, and you will find out how engineers learn to
make things better, faster, and more efficient!
What does “learning by inquiry” mean?

How do you design a good scientific
experiment?
How are science and engineering similar,

and how are they different?
Chapter 3 THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS
3.1 Inquiry and the Scientific Method

Scientists believe the universe follows a set of rules called natural laws. Everything that happens natural law - a theory that has been
obeys the same natural laws. Unfortunately, the natural laws are not written down nor are we born tested many times without any
knowing them. The primary goal of science is to discover what the natural laws are. Over time, contradictions.
we have found the most reliable way to discover natural laws is through scientific inquiry. inquiry - a process of learning that
starts with asking questions and
What “inquiry” means proceeds by seeking the answers to
the questions.
Inquiry is learning Learning by asking questions is called inquiry (Figure 3.1). deduce - to figure something out
through questions Inquiry resembles a crime investigation with a mystery to from known facts using logical
solve. Something illegal happened and the detective must thinking.
figure out who did it. Solving the mystery means accurately
describing who did what, when they did it, and how. The
problem is that the detective never actually saw what
happened. The detective must deduce what happened in
the past from information collected in the present.
Searching for In the process of inquiry, the detective asks lots of questions related to the
evidence mystery. The detective searches for evidence and clues that help answer the
questions. Eventually, the detective comes up with a theory about what
happened. The theory is a description of what must have occurred in the
crime, down to the smallest details.
How do you know At first, the detective’s theory is only one possible explanation among
you have learned the several of what might have happened. The detective must have evidence to
truth? back up the theory. To be accepted, a theory must pass three demanding tests.
First, it must be supported by enough evidence. Second, there cannot be even Figure 3.1: The steps in learning
a single piece of evidence that contradicts the theory. Third, the theory must through inquiry.
be unique because if two theories both fit the facts equally well, you cannot
tell which is correct. When the detective arrives at a theory that passes all
three tests, he believes he has “solved” the mystery by using the process of
inquiry.
58 SC.912.N.3.3-Explain that scientific laws are descriptions of specific relationships under given conditions in nature, but do not offer explanations for those relationships.
SC.912.N.3.4-Recognize that theories do not become laws, nor do laws become theories; theories are well supported explanations and laws are well supported descriptions.
THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS Chapter 3
Scientific evidence
What counts as In science, the only way to know if you are right is to test your idea against
objective - describes evidence that
scientific evidence? real evidence. But, what types of evidence qualify as scientific evidence? Do documents only what actually
feelings or opinions count as scientific evidence? Does what other people happened as exactly as possible.
think qualify as scientific evidence? The answer to both questions is no. repeatable - describes evidence
Because evidence is so important in science, there are exacting rules defining that can be seen independently by
what counts as scientific evidence. others if they repeat the same
experiment or observation in the
An example of Scientific evidence may include numbers, tables, graphs, words, pictures, same way.
scientific evidence sound recordings, or other information. The important thing is that the
evidence accurately describes what happens in the real world (Figure 3.2).
Scientific evidence may be collected without doing experiments in a
laboratory. For example, Galileo used his telescope to look at the Moon. He
recorded what he saw by sketching in his notebook. Galileo’s sketches are
considered scientific evidence.
When is evidence Scientific evidence must be objective and repeatable. Objective means the
considered evidence should describe only what actually happened as exactly as possible.
scientific? Repeatable means that others who look the same way at the same thing will
observe the same results. Galileo’s sketches describe in detail what he
actually saw through the telescope. That means the sketches are objective.
Others who looked through his telescope saw the same thing. That makes the
sketches repeatable. Galileo’s sketches are good scientific evidence because
they are both objective and repeatable. Galileo’s sketches helped convince
people that the Moon was actually a world like Earth with mountains and
valleys. This was not what people believed in Galileo’s time.
Communicating It is important that scientific evidence be clear, with no room for
scientific evidence misunderstanding. For this reason, scientists define concepts like “force” and
with exact “weight” very clearly. Usually, the scientific definition is similar to the way
definitions you already use the word, but more exact. For example, your “weight” in
science means the force of gravity pulling on the mass of your body.
Figure 3.2: Some examples of
scientific evidence.
SC.912.N.1.5-Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in many parts of the world result in the same outcome.
SC.912.N.1.6-Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and provide examples from the content being studied.
59
SC.912.N.2.4-Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to change.
Scientific theories
How theories are A scientific theory is a human attempt to describe a natural law. For
theory - a scientific explanation
related to natural example, if you leave a hot cup of coffee on the table, eventually it will cool supported by a lot of evidence
laws down. Why? There must be some natural law that explains what causes the collected over a long period of time.
coffee to cool. A good place to start looking for the law is by asking what it
is about the coffee that makes it hot. Whatever quality that creates “hot”
must go away or weaken as the coffee gets cold (Figure 3.3). The question of
what causes hot and cold puzzled people for a long time. What makes these two
cups of coffee different?
The theory of caloric Before 1843, scientists believed (a theory) that heat was a kind of fluid (like
water) that flowed from hotter objects to colder objects. They called this
fluid caloric. People thought hot objects had more caloric than cold objects.
When a hot object touched a cold object, the caloric flowed between them
until the temperatures were the same.
Hot coffee Cold coffee
Testing the theory The caloric theory explained what people knew at the time. However, a big 70 C 21 C
problem came up when people learned to measure weight accurately. Figure 3.3: A question that might
Suppose caloric really did flow from a hot object to a cold object. That begin inquiry into what “heat” really is.
means an object should weigh more when it’s hot than it does when it’s cold.
Experiments showed this was not true. Precise measurements showed that
objects have the same weight, whether hot or cold. The caloric theory was Humans understood much less about
soon abandoned because it could not explain this new evidence. science 1,000 years ago. That doesn’t
mean that people didn’t know about
How theories are Scientists are always testing theories against new experiments and new things like temperature. They certainly
tested against evidence. One of two things can happen when new evidence is found. knew the difference between hot and
evidence cold. What they didn’t know was the
1. The current theory correctly explains the new evidence. This gives us scientific reason for why things were
confidence that the current theory is the right one. hot or cold. Research a theory about
something in science that was
OR
believed in the past, but is no longer
2. The current theory does not explain the new evidence. This means there believed. What convinced people to
is a new (or improved) theory waiting to be discovered that can explain change their minds?
the new evidence (as well as all the old evidence).
SC.912.N.2.4-Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to change.
60 SC.912.N.3.1-Explain that a scientific theory is the culmination of many scientific investigations drawing together all the current evidence concerning a substantial range of phenomena; thus, a scientific
theory represents the most powerful explanation scientists have.
SC.912.P.10.4-Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter.
Hypotheses
The hypothesis Based on observations and evidence, a good detective evaluates many
hypothesis - a possible explanation
different theories for what might have happened. Each different theory is then that can be tested by comparison with
compared with the evidence. The same is true in science, except that the word scientific evidence.
theory is reserved for a single explanation supported by lots of evidence
collected over a long period of time. Instead of theory, scientists use the word
hypothesis to describe a possible explanation for a scientific mystery.
Theories start out as Theories in science start out as hypotheses. The old explanation that heat was
hypotheses the fluid caloric was an incorrect hypothesis, one of many leading up to the
modern theory of heat. The first hypothesis that heat is a form of energy was
made by a German doctor, Julius Mayer, in 1842, and confirmed by
experiments done by James Joule in 1843. Energy has no weight, so Mayer’s
hypothesis explained why an object’s weight remained unchanged whether it Figure 3.4: A hot cup of coffee has
more heat energy than a cold cup of
was hot or cold. After many experiments, Mayer’s hypothesis (that heat was a
coffee. As coffee cools, its heat energy is
form of energy) became the theory of heat that we accept today (Figure 3.4). transferred to the air in the room. As a
Hypotheses must be A scientific hypothesis must be testable. That means it must be possible to result, the air is warmed.
testable to be collect evidence that proves whether the hypothesis is true or false. This
scientific requirement means not all hypotheses can be considered by science. For
instance, it has been believed at times that creatures are alive because of an
undetectable “life force.” This is not a scientific hypothesis because there is no
way to test it. If the “life force” is undetectable, that means no evidence can be
collected that would prove whether it exists or not. Science restricts itself only
to those ideas which may be proved or disproved by actual evidence.
SC.912.N.2.1-Identify what is science, what clearly is not science, and what superficially resembles science (but fails to meet the criteria for science). 61
The scientific method

Learning by chance In their early years, children learn about the world by trial and error. Imagine
scientific method - a process of
a small child trying to open a jar. She will try what she knows: biting the lid, learning that begins with a hypothesis
pulling on it, shaking the jar, dropping it, until, by chance, she twists the lid. and proceeds to prove or change the
It comes off. She puts it back and tries twisting it again—and the lid comes hypothesis by comparing it with
off again. The child learns by trying many different things and then scientific evidence.
remembering what works.
Learning by the It takes a long time to learn by randomly trying everything. What’s worse,
scientific method you can never be sure you tried everything. The scientific method is a
much more dependable way to learn.
The Scientific Method
1. Scientists observe nature, then develop or revise hypotheses about how
things work.
2. The hypotheses are tested against evidence collected from observations
and experiments.
3. Any hypothesis that correctly accounts for all of the evidence from the
observations and experiments is a potentially correct theory.
4.
A theory is continually tested by collecting new and different evidence.
Even one single piece of evidence that does not agree with a theory will
force scientists to return to step one.
Why the scientific The scientific method is the underlying logic of science. It is a careful and
method works cautious way to build an evidence-based understanding of our natural world.
Each theory is continually tested against the results of observations and
experiments. Such testing leads to continued development and refinement of
theories to explain more and more different things. The way people came to
understand the solar system is a good example of how new evidence leads to
new and better theories (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Three different models
for Earth and the solar system that were
believed at different times in history.
62 SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.


1. Which of the following is an example of deduction?
a. Hector calls the weather service to find out if the temperature outside
is below freezing.
b. Caroline looks out the window and concludes that the temperature is
below freezing because she sees that the puddles in her neighbor’s
driveway are frozen.
2. Describe the relationship between a hypothesis, a theory, and a
natural law.
3. To be correct, a scientific theory must be everything except
a. supported by every part of a large collection of evidence
b. considered to be unchangeable even if new scientific evidence Keep Your Eyes and Ears Open
disproves it
A great many discoveries were made
c. testable by comparison with scientific evidence almost by accident! For example,
d. an explanation of something that actually occurs within the natural paper used to be made of cotton or
world or within man-made technology linen, which are costly plant fibers.
4. Julie, a third-grade student, believes that the Moon disappears on certain Inventors searched for a less
expensive way to make paper. In
days every month. Explain why the following information is or is not
1719, French scientist and inventor
scientific evidence which can be used to evaluate Julie’s hypothesis. Rene de Reaumer was walking in the
a. Julie sometimes cannot see the Moon all night even though the sky woods when he noticed that wasp
is clear. nests were made from something a lot
b. Anne, Julie’s older sister, thinks the phases of the Moon are caused by like paper! How did the wasps do it? In
1840, Friedrich Keller made the first
the Moon’s position in its orbit around Earth.
all-wood paper and today nearly all
5. When describing scientific evidence, what is the meaning of the paper is made from wood. Reaumer’s
word repeatable? curiosity and alert eyes lead directly to
6. Which of the following is an example of learning through inquiry? the paper we use today.
a. Miguel is told that hot objects, like a cup of coffee, cool off when left
on the table in a cooler room.
b. Erik wonders what happens to hot objects if you remove them
from the stove. He puts a thermometer in a pot of boiling water
and observes that the water cools off once it’s removed from the
heat source.
SC.912.N.2.2-Identify which questions can be answered through science and which questions are outside the boundaries of scientific investigation, such as questions addressed by other ways of knowing,
63
such as art, philosophy, and religion
3.2 Experiments and Variables

An experiment is a situation specifically set up to investigate something. For example, you could experiment - a situation specifically
do an experiment in your class to investigate how fast a car moves as it travels down a ramp set up to investigate relationships
(Figure 3.6). An experiment is designed around a system, or a group of variables that are related between variables.
in some way. system - a group of variables that
are related.
Experiments experimental variable - the
variable you change in an experiment.
Experiments tell us The goal of any experiment is to understand the relationship between
how variables are variables. For example, what is the relationship between the speed of the car variable - a factor that affects how
related and the angle of the ramp? To answer the question, you set up the experiment an experiment works.
with the ramp attached to different holes in the stand. Each hole sets the control variable - a variable that
is kept constant (the same) in
ramp at a different angle. You measure all the variables that affect the speed
an experiment.
of the car and see how (and if) they change when the angle is changed. A
variable is a factor that affects how an experiment works.
Changing one In a simple, ideal experiment only one variable is changed at a time. You can
variable at a time assume any changes you see in other variables were caused by the one
variable you changed. If you change more than one variable, it’s hard to tell
which one caused the changes in the others. The experiment will probably
still work, you just won’t learn much from the results!
The experimental The variable you change in an experiment is called the experimental
variable variable. This is usually the variable that you can freely manipulate. For the
experiment with a car on a ramp, the angle of the ramp is the experimental
variable. If you were experimenting with different brands of fertilizer on
tomato plants, the experimental variable would be the brand of fertilizer.
Control variables The variables you keep the same are called control variables. If you are
changing the angle of the ramp, you want to keep the mass of the car the
same each time you roll the car. Mass is a control variable. You also want to
keep the position of the photogate the same. Photogate position is also a
control variable. You will also want to have the same release technique for Figure 3.6: A car rolling downhill
the car each time it rolls down the ramp. If you want to test different angles, can be an experiment.
the ramp angle should be the only variable you change.
Experimental techniques
Experiments often Many experiments are done over and over with only one variable changed.
trial - each time an experiment
have several trials For example, you might roll a car down a ramp 10 times, each with a different is tried.
angle. Each time you run the experiment is called a trial. To be sure of your
experimental technique - the
results, each trial must be as similar as possible to all the others. The only exact procedure that is followed each
change should be the one variable you are testing. time an experiment is repeated.
Experimental Your experimental technique is how you actually do the experiment. For procedure - a collection of all
technique example, you might release the car using one finger on top. If this is your the techniques you use to do
technique, you want to do it the same way every time. When you place the an experiment.
photogate on the track, you make sure the gate is always perpendicular to the
track. By developing a good technique, you make sure your results accurately
show the effects of changing your experimental variable. If your technique is
sloppy, you may not be able to determine if your results are due to technique
or changing your variable.
Procedures The procedure is a collection of all the techniques you use to do an
experiment. Your procedure for testing the ramp angle might have several
steps. Good scientists keep careful track of their procedures so they can come
back another time and repeat their experiments. Writing the procedures down
in a lab notebook is a good way to keep track (Figure 3.7).
Scientific results Scientific discoveries and inventions must always be testable by someone
must always be other than you. If other people can follow your procedure and get the same
repeatable results, then most scientists would accept your results as being true. Writing
good procedures is the best way to ensure that others can repeat and verify
your experiments. This is a good thing to keep in mind when you write your
own procedure for an experiment. Write it with enough detail that someone
else could follow the procedure and do the experiment exactly the way you
did it.
Communicating your A lab report is a good way to communicate the results of an experiment to Figure 3.7: A notebook keeps your
results others. It should contain your research question, hypothesis, experiment observations and procedures from
procedures and data, and your conclusion. If you give an oral report to your getting lost or being forgotten.
class, colorful charts and graphs are a good way to show your data. This is
how scientists present the results of their experiments to other scientists.

65
Experiments: Then and now

Electricity and Michael Faraday, a British scientist, made some important discoveries while
magnetism in the experimenting with electricity and magnets. This is a great example of how
1800s one experiment often leads to another. Faraday’s original question was,
“How are electricity and magnetism related?”
The original Faraday designed a controlled experiment with a loop of wire and a magnet.
experiment When he moved the magnet through the loop of wire, an electric current was
produced in the wire. In previous experiments, he had generated electricity
by using homemade batteries, but the magnet experiment was different.
Moving a magnet through the wire loop was enough to produce an electric
current in the wire, without using the chemical reactions of his homemade
batteries. The opposite was also true. When Faraday rotated a wire through a
magnetic field, an electric current was produced in the wire (Figure 3.8). Figure 3.8: Electric current is
created when a coil rotates in a
A new experiment NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) has conducted a magnetic field.
based on the old one modern version of Faraday’s electromagnetism experiments. In simple
terms, Earth is like a giant magnet. Magnetic field lines extend out from
Earth into space. What would happen if Faraday’s experiment were
performed in space? What if you dragged a wire through Earth’s magnetic
field? Could an electric current be produced in the wire? This became an
important mission for the space shuttle in 1996 (Figure 3.9).
The world’s most NASA scientists worked with Italian scientists to design equipment for the
amazing electricity experiment. They made a special satellite and connected it to the space
generator shuttle with over 20 kilometers of a special insulated copper cable. As the
shuttle orbited Earth, scientists released the tethered satellite and conducted
12 different experiments while dragging the cable through Earth’s magnetic
field at speeds over 15,000 mph! The satellite was equipped with many
instruments to study the electricity generated in the cable. As the cable cut
through Earth’s magnetic field, 3,500 volts of electricity was produced, and
a current of 0.5 amperes was generated. Faraday’s experiment worked in Figure 3.9: NASA’s tethered satellite
outer space! Unfortunately, the tether broke during the experiment and the experiment from shuttle mission STS-
satellite was lost, but not before scientists gathered enormous amounts of 75. An electric current was created when
the cable was dragged through Earth’s
interesting data.
magnetic field.
66 SC.912.N.1.5-Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in many parts of the world result in the same outcome.
SC.912.N.1.7-Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods and correlations.
Section 3.2 Review

1. Why is experimentation so important to science? Science and Serendipity
2. Why is it important, in an ideal, simple experiment, to change only one Not all discoveries in science are
variable from trial to trial? made using the scientific method! In
fact, many important new discoveries
3. What is the difference between an experimental variable and a control and inventions happen by trial and
variable? Give an example to explain your answer. error, a lucky experiment, or by
4. You are planning an experiment to find out which detergent is the best at accident. The word serendipity
removing grass stains from cotton fabric. Think about how you might do describes an event in which a
valuable discovery is made by
this experiment and what kinds of variables are involved. Make a list of
accident.
two variables that would be a part of the experimental system and two
variables that would not be a part of this system. 1. Describe a situation in which you
made a serendipitous discovery.
5. Suppose you have three identical drinking cups: one made of plastic, one 2. Think about an object that you use
foam, and one paper. You want to find out which cup will keep your hot everyday. Find out how it was
cocoa hot for the longest time. invented. Was this invention the
a. Phrase a formal question for this experiment. result of serendipity? Why or why
not?
b. What is your hypothesis?
c. What is the experimental variable?
d. What are three important control variables?
e. What type of evidence will you collect to test your hypothesis?
f. Challenge: Conduct your experiment and summarize your findings. For question 5, predict what a graph
or graphs of the data you collect
6. Think of an experiment you did in a past science class. would look like. Sketch the graph or
a. Describe the experiment. graphs. The graph(s) should support
b. What was the experimental variable? the hypothesis you made in 5b.
c. What were two control variables?
d. What was the outcome of the experiment?
7. When an open cup of water sits on a table, it will evaporate over time. Do
all liquids evaporate at the same rate? Suppose you conduct an
experiment to see how quickly water, rubbing alcohol, and nail polish
remover evaporate. Describe three important techniques you will have
to follow to make sure your experimental procedure is repeatable
and objective.
3.3 The Nature of Science and Technology

Science is a way of knowing that is based on evidence, logic, and skepticism. The purpose of Scientific Journals
scientific study is to learn about our natural world. Technology, such as mobile phones and Perhaps you are keeping a journal for
medical devices, uses scientific knowledge to create devices like mobile phones and medical your science class. Your science
instruments that meet needs and solve problems. Science and technology are closely related, as journal can contain notes, thoughts,
you will see in this section. reflections, scientific data,
experimental procedures, tables,
Ethical traditions graphs, and lab reports.
A scientific journal is a specific kind of
Truthful reporting Scientists all over the world conduct experiments every day, in colleges and publication that is different from a
universities, in industry, and for government agencies. Truthful reporting is science journal you might create in
the most important tradition of science. When scientists collect data, class. A scientific journal is a
organize it, report it, and write about their results and conclusions, they must periodical publication that contains
be unbiased and honest in their communication. the results and conclusions of many
different experiments. All of the
Scientific journals How do scientists get the word out about their findings? Often, scientists papers (you might think of them as
and peer review write a report of their experiments and submit it to a scientific journal. A articles) submitted to a scientific
scientific journal is a publication, like a magazine, that comes out on a journal must be reviewed by peers
and accepted before they are
regular basis. There are hundreds of major scientific journals in print. Before published.
a paper is published in a scientific journal, the work is reviewed by peers.
Have you heard of any of these
Only if the work is approved by independent scientists can the paper be
scientific journals?
published.
• Nature
Science news for Scientific journals can be very technical, and cannot be read like an ordinary • Science
everyone magazine. Other periodicals such as Popular Science or Scientific American • Proceedings of the National
are also published. Their articles are less technical. They are selected from Academy of Sciences
the thousands of papers that are published each month in scientific journals. • Journal of the American Medical
Association
These magazines are not scientific journals, but they are a good source of • Journal of the American Chemical
current science research findings. Daily news broadcasts on television, radio, Society
and the Internet also carry headlines about recent scientific discoveries. • Advances in Physics
Sometimes these headlines are unintentionally misleading, because they are
just quick summaries of technical research explanations. Keep this in mind
when you hear science news “sound bytes.” Remember, good science is
always repeatable, durable, based on evidence, and unbiased.
68 SC.912.N.2.4-Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to change. Scientific knowledge can change because it is often examined and re-examined by new investigations
and scientific argumentation. Because of these frequent examinations, scientific knowledge becomes stronger, leading to its durability.
SC.912.N.3.2-Describe the role consensus plays in the historical development of a theory in any one of the disciplines of science.
Science and technology

Inventions solve You are surrounded by inventions, from the toothbrush you use to clean your
technology - the application of
problems teeth to the computer you use to do your school projects (and play games). science to meet human needs and
Where did these inventions come from? Most of them came from a practical solve problems.
application of science knowledge. engineer - a professional who uses
What is technology? Science helps us understand the natural world. Technology is the application scientific knowledge to create or
of science to meet human needs and solve problems. All technology—from improve inventions that solve
problems and meet needs.
the windmill to the supersonic jet—arises from the perception that “There
must be a better way to do this!” Although technology is widely different in
the details, there are some general principles that apply to all forms of
technological design or innovation. People who design technology to solve
problems are called engineers. Scientists study the natural world to learn the GPS
basic principles behind how things work. Engineers use scientific knowledge GPS stands for Global Positioning
to create or improve inventions that solve problems. System. A GPS receiver can
determine its position to within a few
meters anywhere on Earth’s surface.
How does this work? How does the
GPS receiver “know” its position?
There are 24 satellites in orbit around
Earth that transmit radio signals as
part of a global navigation system. At
any one time, you can receive signals
from anywhere from 6 to 11 of those
satellites are in the sky, all transmitting
their unique codes and locations. A
GPS receiver works by comparing the
signals from four different GPS
satellites.
SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods. 69

Engineering
A sample Suppose you are given a box of toothpicks and some glue, and are told to
prototype - a working model of a
engineering problem build a bridge that will hold a brick without breaking. After doing research, design that can be tested to see if
you come up with an idea for how to make the bridge. Your idea is to make it works.
the bridge from four structures connected together. Your idea is called a engineering cycle - a process
conceptual design. used to build and test devices that
solve technical problems.
The importance of a You need to test your idea to see if it works. If you could figure out how
prototype much force it takes to break one structure, you would know if four structures
will hold the brick. Your next step is to build a prototype and test it. Your
prototype should be close enough to the real bridge that what you learn from
testing can be applied to the actual bridge.
Testing the You test the prototype by applying more and more force until it breaks. You
prototype learn that your structure (called a truss) breaks at a force of 5 newtons. The
brick weighs 25 newtons. Four trusses are not going to be enough. You have
two choices now. You can make each truss stronger, by using thread to tie the
joints. Or, you could use more trusses in your bridge (Figure 3.10). The
evaluation of test results is a necessary part of any successful design. Testing
identifies potential problems in the design in time to correct them.
Changing the design If you decide to build a stronger structure, you will
and testing again need to make another prototype and test it again.
Good engineers often build many prototypes and
keep testing them until they are successful under a Figure 3.10: Testing the prototype
tells you if it is strong enough. Testing
wide range of conditions. The process of design, often leads to an updated design, such
prototype, test, and evaluate is the engineering as this one that uses more trusses.
cycle. The best inventions go through the cycle
many times, being improved after each cycle until all
the problems are worked out.
SC.912.N.1.7-Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods and correlations.
Section 3.3 Review

1. Why are scientific journals such as Nature and Journal of the American Magnetic Levitation
Medical Association extremely important to scientific progress? In the previous section, you read
2. Suppose a scientist conducts a series of experiments and the results are so about Michael Faraday’s experiments
amazing, she wants to share them with other experts in the field. Why with electromagnetism. A powerful
new technology based on Faraday’s
would it be risky for her to make the results public on her own Web site
experiments is currently in
before publishing them in a scientific journal? development. Magnetically levitated,
3. Identify whether each item is an example of science or technology. or maglev, train technology uses
a. digital music player electromagnetic force to lift a train a
few inches above its track (see figure
b. Newton’s laws of motion below). By “floating” the train on a
c. atomic theory powerful magnetic field, the friction
d. windmill between wheel and rail is eliminated.
Maglev trains can reach high speeds
e. Universal law of gravitation using less power than an ordinary
f. GPS train. In 1999, a Japanese prototype
g. biochemistry five-car maglev train carrying
15 passengers reached a record
h. maglev train speed of 343 mph! Maglev trains are
4. Discuss what might happen if an automobile manufacturer began making now being developed and tested in
and selling cars based on a prototype that went through only one Germany and the United States. Many
engineering design cycle. engineers believe maglev technology
will become the standard for mass
transit systems over the next
100 years. Perhaps someday you will
commute to work on a maglev train!
A maglev train track has electromagnets in it that both lift the train and pull it
forward. See the technology box in the sidebar.
71
SOCIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 3
The vast majority of scientists are very careful with both the
Ethics process of research and the reporting of results. They realize

that accuracy and honesty are required to serve the purposes of
discovery and advancement in science. Peer review, publication in
in Medical Research scientific journals, and informal exchanges of ideas are the most
common ways that scientists share and critique one another’s work.
Naturally, some errors do occur in research, but usually they are
Dr. Louis Cantilena enjoys being close to the not intentional or unethical. However, when an individual scientist
decides to deceive others about the nature of his or her research,
cutting edge of science. As director of the
Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical it is called ethical misconduct. Some examples of ethical misconduct
Toxicology at the Uniformed Services University include making up results, changing data, or not giving the proper
of Health Science (USUHS), Cantilena leads credit for someone else’s ideas.
a team of researchers who look for and test
new drugs as well as antidotes for poisons. Truthfulness and Trust
Their medical research studies the effects of
Cantilena explains that scientists are not helping anyone by not
these potential treatments on human subjects.
telling the truth about research results. While it may be tempting to
In his work as a professor, doctor, and researcher, he sees first-hand the advance one’s career, obtain more research funds, or gain fame for
enormous benefits of scientific advancement through research. oneself, the aims of science are not served by unethical behavior.
Cantilena’s research unit is funded largely by federal institutions According to Cantilena, the main effect of
such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National unethical practices in medical research is the loss
Institute of Health (NIH), and the U.S. Army. The research unit is of trust. A scientist who commits fraud risks losing
responsible for using taxpayers’ dollars wisely and ethically and for the trust of his or her colleagues, those funding
maintaining the trust of the public. Cantilena knows that ethics the research project, the subjects or patients
plays a crucial role in any scientist’s work. involved, and the general public. This type of
incident can also result in the loss of an entire set
What Does Ethics Mean? of data. For example, when the FDA finds fraud in
a clinical trial, all the results from the research unit
Ethics can be defined as where the fraud originated will be discounted.
“standards of conduct that
enable a person to determine Even when research leads to undesired results, it is imperative
what behavior is right or wrong to tell the truth about those results. In fact, negative results can
in a given situation.” Since lead to important discoveries. At one time, Cantilena’s team was
medical research involves the use asked to test a drug that was being developed for the treatment
of human subjects and its results of cocaine abuse. Their research found the drug to be dangerous
can be used to either harm or to the heart and development was stopped. While it can be
help the human population, the considered unfortunate not to have developed such a treatment,
application of ethics is vital. future patients were spared potential heart problems and taxpayers’
money was saved.
SC.912.N.1.2–Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.

SC.912.N.1.5–Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in many parts of the world result in the same outcome.
SC.912.N.1.7–Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods and correlations.
SOCIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 3
Problems and Progress The U.S. Army isolated an active ingredient in a Chinese herb and
made it into an intravenous drug called artesunate. They asked
The findings of medical research may Cantilena’s team to test it on volunteers. Their research found
not always be popular, but they can artesunate to be safe and well tolerated. It is now being tested on
save lives. In the 1990s, Cantilena’s malaria-infected patients in Africa and they hope it will be approved
team found a problem with a widely soon by the FDA. Imagine the worldwide implications if this drug is
prescribed antihistamine, Seldane. approved and made available!
In 1990, Seldane ranked fifth in new prescriptions dispensed in
the United States. It was used to treat allergy symptoms without Cantilena’s team is guided not only by their internal understanding
inducing drowsiness. Cantilena was asked to consult on a case of a of ethics but by the many external oversights that are in place
patient taking Seldane who had an unusual heart rhythm associated in the scientific community. For example, Cantilena’s research
with unexplained fainting. Doctors suspected that the interaction unit is regularly subjected to audits of their data. In addition, the
between Seldane and another drug might be the cause of the Institutional Review Board from their university also monitors how
symptoms. Cantilena’s research team began a study on Seldane, the researchers explain the risks of a clinical trial to their volunteers
funded by the FDA, to learn more about this interaction. Their before they sign an agreement to participate. Cantilena says that
research confirmed a connection between the drug interaction while these sorts of oversights may sometimes feel cumbersome,
and potentially fatal changes in heart rhythms. As a result, the FDA they can be used as a resource to improve the research process and
took Seldane off the market in 1997. Cantilena’s discovery was very to do self-assessment.
important, and not only regarding Seldane; it led to similar studies
on heart rhythm problems due to other drug interactions. While his work requires personal and professional standards of
an exacting nature, Cantilena is more than willing to maintain his
Cantilena’s work also ethical responsibilities as a medical researcher. It is work that he
benefits the global enjoys. After all, as he puts it, he gets to “see science as it is
community. His team just being discovered.”
finished an important
study for the U.S. Army on Questions:
a drug for the treatment
of malaria. Malaria is a 1. Define ethics.
disease that kills worldwide, 2. Name three types of ethical misconduct in scientific research.
claiming many children as
its victims. One problem 3. You are part of a research group studying the effectiveness
in treating malaria is of a new drug. Your team found that the drug doesn’t work
that there is only one any better than a sugar pill and your team hasn’t found any
intravenous drug that can undesirable side effects. A team member wants to alter the
be used to treat severe results so that the drug appears to be effective. That way,
cases. Unfortunately, this your research will continue to receive funding. What would
Of the patients waiting at the outpatient department particular drug can damage
of Apac Hospital in Northern Uganda, the majority are
you say to your group? Why?
mothers of children under five years old with malaria.
the patient’s heart. A safer
Dr. Cantilena photo courtesy of Leslie A.H. Sheen.
treatment is needed.
Apac Hospital photo by Toshihiro Horii, Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research
Institute for Microbial Diseases, University of Osaka, Osaka, Japan.
Licensing: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/

SC.912.N.1.5–Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in many parts of the world result in the same outcome.
Vocabulary Section 3.2
9. When you run an experiment multiple times, you conduct
several ____(s).
control variable experimental variable prototype
deduce hypothesis repeatable
10. The thing you are testing (changing) in an experiment is the
____.
engineer inquiry scientific method
engineering cycle natural laws technology 11. Something you keep the same from trial to trial in an
experiment objective theory experiment is called the ____.
experimental technique procedure trial 12. A step-by-step account of all that you do when conducting a
Section 3.1 particular experiment is called the ____.
1. To ____ is to figure something out from known facts using 13. The way you release a car on a ramp while conducting an
logical evidence. experiment is an example of ____.
2. A scientific explanation supported by lots of evidence 14. A(n) ____ is a situation specifically set up to investigate
collected over a long period of time is a(n) ____. relationships between variables.
3. Scientific evidence that is ____ can be seen by others if they Section 3.3
repeat the same experiment. 15. A(n) ____ is a working model of a design that can be tested to
4. Learning by asking questions and seeking the answers is see if it works.
called ____. 16. A process used to build devices that solve technical problems
5. A(n) ____ is a possible scientific explanation that can be is the ____.
tested by comparison with scientific evidence. 17. ____ is the application of science to meet human needs and
6. ____ evidence documents only what actually happened in an solve problems.
experiment as exactly as possible. 18. A professional who uses scientific knowledge to create or
7. Scientists believe the universe follows a set of “rules” known improve technology is a(n) ____.
as ____.
8. The ____ is a process of learning that begins with a
Concepts
hypothesis and proceeds to collect evidence to confirm or Section 3.1
disprove the hypothesis. 1. Explain the difference between a theory and a hypothesis.
74
2. For each example, write whether it could be considered Section 3.2
scientific evidence (S) or not (N). 2. Monique wants to see what happens when she drops a
a. _____ an artist’s watercolor painting of an oak leaf marble from different heights into a baking tray that has a
b. _____ the time for a car to drive once around a track thick layer of very soft modeling dough pressed inside. She
c. _____ the number of each different color of candy-coated predicts that the closer the marble is to the dough when she
chocolate in a bag of candy drops it, the deeper the marble’s indentation will be.
3. Indicate which of the following hypotheses are testable and a. What is Monique’s hypothesis?
scientific (S) and which are not (N). b. What is the experimental variable?
a. _____ Your brain produces undetectable energy waves. c. What are two control variables?
b. _____ Life forms do not exist in other galaxies. d. What evidence will be collected?
c. _____ Earth completes 1 rotation every 24 hours. e. Write a step-by-step procedure for the experiment.
f. Do you think the data Monique collects will confirm or
Section 3.2
disprove her hypothesis? Explain your reasoning.
4. Explain the difference between experimental variables and
Section 3.3
control variables.
3. You have an idea for making a homemade shoe that will
5. What is the difference between experimental technique and allow you to walk on open egg cartons without crushing any
procedure? Give an example to support your explanation. eggs. How could you use the engineering cycle to design it?
Section 3.3
6. Science and technology are related, but they are not the
same. What is the difference? Write a caption for this
illustration and include
7. Scientist and engineer are two different career options. How
one or more vocabulary
does their work differ?
terms from the chapter
that best describe the
Problems illustration. Then, make a
Section 3.1
detailed and labeled
sketch that shows what
1. Suppose you turn on your digital music player and it doesn’t this progression of design
work. Describe how you could use the scientific method to might look like in the year
figure out what’s wrong. 3000. Write a paragraph
justifying one of your
design features.
LA.910.2.2.3-The student will organize information to show understanding or relationships among facts, ideas, and events. 75
Unit 2
Motion and Force
CHAPTER 4 Motion
CHAPTER 5 Forces
CHAPTER 6 Laws of Motion
Find a toy car, a piece of cardboard, and three to five

books that are nearly the same thickness. Make a
ramp for the car by tilting the cardboard against one
of the books. Set this up on a flat surface. Let the car roll down the ramp and
see how far it goes once it leaves the ramp. Now, put a second book on top
of the first to make the ramp steeper. See how far the car goes once it
leaves the ramp. Using a ruler or measuring tape, record the distance the
car travels. Continue stacking the books to make the ramp steeper. Does
the car go farther each time? Why or why not?
Chapter 4
Motion
How long can you stand perfectly still? Ten seconds? A minute? Even if
you stand still, things inside your body are moving, like your heart and
lungs. And, even fast asleep your body is not really at rest with respect to the universe!
The 24-hour rotation of Earth is carrying you around at several hundred miles per hour. Every
365 days Earth completes a 584-million-mile orbit around the Sun. To make this trip, Earth
(with you on its surface) is rushing through space at the astounding speed of 67,000 miles per
hour! To understand nature we need to think about motion. How do we describe going from here
to there? Whether it is a toy car rolling along a track or Earth rushing through space, the ideas in
this chapter apply to all motion. Position, speed, and acceleration are basic ideas we need in order
to understand the physical world.
How do we accurately describe our position?

How do we show motion on a graph?
What is special about
the motion of falling objects?
Earth photo courtesy of NASA.

Chapter 4 MOTION
4.1 Position, Speed, and Velocity

Where are you right now? How fast are you moving? To answer these questions precisely, you position - a variable that tells
need to use the concepts of position, speed, and velocity. These ideas apply to ordinary objects, location relative to an origin.
such as cars, bicycles, and people. They also apply to microscopic objects the size of atoms and to origin - a place where the position
enormous objects like planets and stars. Let’s begin our discussion of motion with the concept of has been given a value of zero.
position.
The position variable

Position as a You may do an experiment in your class that uses a car on a track. How do
variable you tell someone exactly where the car is at any given moment? The answer
is by measuring its position. Position is a variable. The position of the car
describes where the car is relative to the track. In the diagram below, the
position of the car is 50 centimeters (cm). That means the center of the car is
at the 50 cm mark on the track.
Position and Position and distance are similar but not the same. Both use units of length.
distance However, position is given relative to an origin. The origin is the place Figure 4.1: If the car moves 20 cm to
where position equals 0 (near the left end of the track above). Here’s an the right, its position will be 70 cm.
example of the difference between position and distance. Assume the track is
1 meter long. Suppose the car moves a distance of 20 cm away from the 50
cm mark. Where is it now? You know a distance (20 cm) but you still don’t
know where the car is. It could have moved 20 cm to the right or 20 cm to
the left. Saying the car is at a position of 70 cm tells you where the car is. A
position is a unique location relative to an origin (Figure 4.1).
78 SC.912.P.12.2-Analyze the motion of an object in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration (with respect to a frame of reference) as functions of time.
MOTION Chapter 4
Speed
Speed is a motion The variable speed describes how quickly something moves. To calculate the
speed - describes how quickly an
variable speed of a moving object, you divide the distance it moves by the time it object moves, calculated by dividing
takes to move. For example, if you drive 120 miles (the distance) and it takes the distance traveled by the time it
you 2 hours (the time) your speed is 60 miles per hour (60 mph = 120 miles ÷ takes.
2 hours). The lower case letter v is used to represent speed. average speed - the total distance
divided by the total time for a trip.
instantaneous speed - the actual
speed of a moving object at any
moment.
Units for speed The units for speed are distance units over time units. If distance is in
kilometers and time in hours, then speed is in kilometers per hour (km/h).
Other metric units for speed are cm per second (cm/s) and meters per second
(m/s). Your family’s car probably shows speed in miles per hour (mph).
Table 4.1 shows different units commonly used for speed.
Table 4.1: Common Units for Speed

Distance Time Speed Abbreviation
meters seconds meters per second m/s
kilometers hours kilometers per hour km/h
centimeters seconds centimeters per second cm/s
miles hours miles per hour mph
Average speed and When you divide the total distance of a trip by the time taken, you get the
instantaneous speed average speed. Figure 4.2 shows an average speed of 100 km/h. But, think
about actually driving though Chicago. On a real trip, your car will slow Figure 4.2: A driving trip with an
down and speed up. Sometimes your speed will be higher than 100 km/h, and average speed of 100 km/h.
sometimes lower (even 0 km/h!) The speedometer shows you the car’s
instantaneous speed. The instantaneous speed is the actual speed an object
has at any moment.
SC.912.P.12.2-Analyze the motion of an object in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration (with respect to a frame of reference) as functions of time.
Chapter 4 MOTION
Solving Problems: Speed

The Speed Limit of the Universe
How far will you go if you drive for 2 hours at a speed of 100 km/h?
1. Looking for: You are asked for a distance.

2. Given: You are given the speed and the time.
3. Relationships: distance = speed × time The fastest speed in the universe is
the speed of light. Light moves at
4. Solution: distance = (100 km/h) × (2 h) = 200 km 300 million meters per second
(3 x 108 m/s). If you could make light
travel in a circle, it would go around
Your turn... the Earth 7.5 times in one second!
Scientists believe the speed of light is
a. You travel at an average speed of 20 km/h in a straight line to get to your the ultimate speed limit in the
grandmother’s house. It takes you 3 hours to get to her house. How far universe.
away is her house from where you started?
b. What is the speed of a snake that moves 20 meters in 5 seconds?
c. A train is moving at a speed of 50 km/h. How many hours will it take the
train to travel 600 kilometers?
a. Your grandmother’s house is
60 km away from where you
started.
b. The snake’s speed is 4 m/s.
c. It will take the train 12 hours to
travel 600 kilometers.
80
MOTION Chapter 4
Vectors and velocity

Telling “in front” How can you tell the difference between one meter in front of you and one
vector - a variable that gives
from “behind” meter behind you? The variable of distance is not the answer. The distance direction information included in its
between two points can only be positive (or zero). You can’t have a negative value.
distance. For example, the distances between the ants in Figure 4.3 are either velocity - a variable that tells you
positive or zero. Likewise, one meter in front of you and one meter behind both speed and direction.
you both have the same distance: 1 meter.
Using positive and The answer is to use position and allow positive and negative numbers. In the
negative numbers diagram below, positive numbers describe positions to the right (in front) of
the origin. Negative numbers are to the left (or behind) the origin.
Vectors Position is an example of a kind of variable called a vector. A vector is a

variable that tells you a direction as well as an amount. Positive and negative
numbers are enough information for a variable when the only directions are Figure 4.3: Distance is always a
forward and backward. When up−down and right−left are also possible positive value or zero.
directions, vectors get more complicated.
Velocity Like position, motion can go right, left, forward or backward. We use the term
velocity to mean speed with direction. Velocity is positive when moving to
the right, or forward. Velocity is negative when moving to the left, or
backward (Figure 4.4).
The difference Velocity is a vector, speed is not. In regular conversation you might use the
between velocity two words to mean the same thing. In science, they are related but different.
and speed Speed can have only a positive value (or zero) that tells you how far you
move per unit of time (like meters per second). Velocity is speed and
direction. If the motion is in a straight line, the direction can be shown with a
positive or negative sign. The sign tells whether you are going forward or Figure 4.4: Velocity can be a positive
or a negative value.
backward and the quantity (speed) tells you how quickly you are moving.
SC.912.P.12.2-Analyze the motion of an object in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration (with respect to a frame of reference) as functions of time. 81
Chapter 4 MOTION
Keeping track of where you are

A robot uses vectors Pathfinder is a small robot sent to explore Mars (Figure 4.5). As it moved,
Pathfinder needed to keep track of its position. How did Pathfinder know
where it was? It used its velocity vector and a clock to calculate every move
it made.
Figure 4.5: Pathfinder is a robot

explorer which landed on Mars in 1997
(NASA/JPL).
Use two variables to Any formula that involves speed can also be used for velocity. For example,
find the third one you move 2 meters if your speed is 0.2 m/s and you keep going for
10 seconds. But did you move forward or backward? You move −2 meters
(backwards) if you move with a velocity of −0.2 m/s for 10 seconds. Using
the formula with velocity gives you the position instead of distance.
Figure 4.6: The change in position or

distance is the velocity multiplied by the
time.
Forward and Suppose Pathfinder moves forward at 0.2 m/s for 10 seconds. Its velocity is
backward movement +0.2 m/s. In 10 seconds, its position changes by +2 meters.
Now, suppose Pathfinder goes backward at 0.2 m/s for 4 seconds. This time
the velocity is −0.2 m/s. The change in position is −0.8 meters. A change in
position is velocity × time (Figure 4.6).
Adding up a series The computer in Pathfinder adds up +2 m and −0.8 m to get +1.2 m. After
of movements these two moves, Pathfinder’s position is 1.2 meters in front of where it was.
Figure 4.7: Each change in position
Pathfinder knows where it is by keeping track of each move it makes. It adds is added up using positive and negative
up each change in position using positive and negative numbers to come up numbers.
with a final position (Figure 4.7).
MOTION Chapter 4
Maps and coordinates

Two dimensions If Pathfinder was crawling on a straight board, it would have only two choices
axis - one of two (or more) number
for direction. Positive is forward and negative is backward. Out on the surface lines that form a graph.
of Mars, Pathfinder has more choices. It can turn and go sideways! The
coordinates - values that give a
possible directions include north, east, south, west, and anything in between. position relative to an origin.
A flat surface is an example of two dimensions. We say two because it takes
two number lines to describe every point (Figure 4.8).
North, south, east, One way to describe two dimensions is to use north−south as one number
and west line, or axis. Positive positions are north of the origin. Negative positions are
south of the origin. The other axis goes east−west. Positive positions on this
axis are east of the origin. Negative positions are west of the origin.
Coordinates Pathfinder’s exact position can be
describe position described with two numbers. These
numbers are called coordinates. The
graph at the left shows Pathfinder at the
coordinates of (4, 2) m. The first
number (or coordinate) gives the
position on the east−axis. Pathfinder is Figure 4.8: A flat surface has two
4 m east of the origin. The second perpendicular dimensions: north−south
and east−west. Each dimension has
number gives the position on the north−
positive and negative directions.
south axis. Pathfinder is 2 m north of
the origin.
Maps A graph using north−south and east−west axes can accurately show where
Pathfinder is. The graph can also show any path Pathfinder takes, curved or
straight. This kind of graph is called a map. Many street maps use letters on
the north−south axis and numbers for the east−west axis. For example, the
Figure 4.9: Street maps often use
coordinates F-4 identify the square that is in row F, column 4 of the map letters and numbers for coordinates.
shown in Figure 4.9.
Chapter 4 MOTION
Vectors on a map
A trip with a turn Suppose you run east for 10 seconds at a speed of 2 m/s. Then you turn and
run south at the same speed for 10 more seconds (Figure 4.10). Where are
you compared to where you started? To get the answer, you figure out your
east−west changes and your north−south changes separately.
Figure each Your first movement has a velocity vector of +2 m/s on the east−west axis.
direction separately After 10 seconds your change in position is +20 meters (east). There are no
more east−west changes because your second movement is north−south
only. Your second movement has a velocity vector of −2 m/s north−south. In
10 seconds you moved −20 meters. The negative sign means you moved
south.
Figure 4.10: A running trip with a

turn.
Captain Vector’s Hidden Treasure

Use these velocity vectors to
determine the location of Captain
Vector’s hidden pirate treasure. Your
starting place is (0, 0).
1. Walk at a velocity of 1 m/s south for
10 seconds.
2. Then, jog at a velocity of 3 m/s east
for 5 seconds.
3. Run at a velocity of 5 m/s north for
Figuring your final Now add up any east−west changes to get your final east−west position. 2 seconds.
position Do the same for your north−south position. Your new position is 4. Then walk backward south at a
(+20 m, −20 m). velocity of 0.5 m/s for 2 seconds.
Where is the treasure relative to your
starting place?
MOTION Chapter 4
Solving Problems: Velocity

Fast Trains!
The Bullet train of Japan was the
A train travels at 100 km/h heading east to reach a town in 4 hours. The train world’s first high-speed train. When it
then reverses and heads west at 50 km/h for 4 hours. What is the train’s came into use in 1964, it went
210 km/h.
position now?
Research today’s high-speed trains of
the world. How fast they go?
1. Looking for: You are asked for position.
Research to find out why the United
2. Given: You are given two velocity vectors and the times for each. States lags behind in having high-
speed trains. Find out the advantages
3. Relationships: change in position = velocity × time and disadvantages of having high-
speed trains in the U.S.
4. Solution: The first change in position is (+100 km/h) × (4 h) = +400 km
The second change in position is (−50 km/h) × (4 h) = −200 km
.
The final position is (+400 km) + (−200 km) = +200 km. The train is 200 km
east of where it started.
Your turn...
a. You are walking around your town. First you walk north from your starting
position and walk for 2 hours at 1 km/h. Then, you walk west for 1 hour at
1 km/h. Finally, you walk south for 1 hour at 2 km/h. What is your new
position relative to your starting place?
b. A ship needs to sail to an island that is 1,000 km south of where the ship
starts. If the captain sails south at a steady velocity of 30 km/h for 30 a. Your new position is
hours, will the ship make it? 1 kilometer west of where you
started.
b. No, because
30 km/h × 30 h = 900 km.
The island is still 100 km away.
85
Chapter 4 MOTION
Section 4.1 Review

1. What is the difference between distance and position? Look at the graphic below and answer
the following questions.
2. From an origin you walk 3 meters east, 7 meters west, and then 6 meters
east. Where are you now relative to the origin? 1. How fast is each cyclist going in units
of meters per second*?
3. What is your average speed if you walk 2 kilometers in 20 minutes?
2. Which cyclist is going faster? How
4. Give an example where instantaneous speed is different from average much faster is this cyclist going
speed. compared to the other one?
5. A weather report says winds blow at 5 km/h from the northeast. Is this
description of the wind a speed or velocity? Explain your answer.
6. What velocity vector will move you 200 miles east in 4 hours traveling
at a constant speed?
7. Give an example of a situation in which you would describe an object’s
position in:
a. one dimension
b. two dimensions
c. three dimensions
8. A movie theater is 4 kilometers east and 2 kilometers south of your
house.
a. Give the coordinates of the movie theater. Your house is the origin.
b. After leaving the movie theater, you drive 5 kilometers west and
3 kilometers north to a restaurant. What are the coordinates of the
restaurant? Use your house as the origin.
*The word per means “for every” or “for
each.” Saying “5 kilometers per hour” is
the same as saying “5 kilometers for
each hour.” You can also think of per as
meaning “divided by.” The quantity
before the word per is divided by the
quantity after it.
86
MOTION Chapter 4
4.2 Graphs of Motion

Consider the phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words.” A graph is a special kind of picture that constant speed - speed that
can quickly give meaning to a lot of data (numbers). You can easily spot relationships on a graph. It stays the same and does not
is much more difficult to see these same relationships in columns of numbers. Compare the table of change.
numbers to the graph in Figure 4.11 and see if you agree!
The position vs. time graph

Recording data Imagine you are helping a runner who is training for a track meet. She wants
to know if she is running at a constant speed. Constant speed means the
speed stays the same. You mark the track every 50 meters. Then you measure
her time at each mark as she runs. The data for your experiment is shown in
Figure 4.11. This is position vs. time data because it tells you the runner’s
position at different points in time. She is at 50 meters after 10 seconds,
100 meters after 20 seconds, and so on.
Graphing data To graph the data, you put position on the vertical (y) axis and time on the
horizontal (x) axis. Each row of the data table makes one point on the graph.
Notice the graph goes over to the right 10 seconds and up 50 meters between
each point. This makes the points fall exactly in a straight line. The straight
line tells you the runner moves the same distance during each equal time
period. An object moving at a constant speed always creates a straight line on
a position vs. time graph.
Calculating speed The data shows that the runner took 10 seconds to run each 50-meter segment.
Because the time and distance was the same for each segment, you know her
speed was the same for each segment. You can use the formula v = d/t to Figure 4.11: A data table and a
calculate the speed. Dividing 50 meters by 10 seconds tells you her constant position vs. time graph for a runner.
speed was 5 meters per second.
87
Chapter 4 MOTION
Graphs show relationships between variables

Relationships Think about rolling a toy car down a ramp. You theorize that steeper angles
between variables on the ramp will make the car go faster. How do you find out if your theory
is correct? You need to know the relationship between the variables angle
and speed.
Patterns on a graph A good way to show a relationship between two variables is to use a graph.
show relationships A graph shows one variable on the vertical (or y) axis and the second
variable on the horizontal (or x) axis. Each axis is marked with the range of
values the variable has. In Figure 4.12, the x-axis (angle) has values between
0 and 60 degrees. The y-axis (time) has average speed values between 0 and
300 cm/s. You can tell there is a relationship because all the points on the
graph follow the same curve that slopes up and to the right. The curve tells
you instantly that the average speed increases as the ramp gets steeper.
Recognizing a The relationship between variables may be strong, weak, or there may be no
relationship from a relationship at all. In a strong relationship, large changes in one variable
graph make similarly large changes in the other variable, like in Figure 4.12. In a
weak relationship, large changes in one variable cause only small changes in
the other. The graph on the right (below) shows a weak relationship. When
there is no relationship, the graph looks like scattered dots (below left). The
dots do not make an obvious pattern (a line or curve).
Figure 4.12: This graph shows that

the average speed between A and B
increases as the angle of the track
increases.
MOTION Chapter 4
Slope
Comparing speeds You can use position vs. time graphs to quickly compare speeds. Figure 4.13
slope - the ratio of the rise (vertical
shows a position vs. time graph for two people running along a jogging path. change) to the run (horizontal change)
Both runners start at the beginning of the path (the origin) at the same time. of a line on a graph.
Runner A (blue) takes 100 seconds to run 600 meters. Runner B (red) takes
150 seconds to go the same distance. Runner A’s speed is 6 m/s (600 ÷ 100)
and runner B’s speed is 4 m/s (600 ÷ 150). Notice that the line for runner A is
steeper than the line for runner B. A steeper line on a position vs. time graph
means a faster speed.
A steeper line on a position vs. time graph means a
faster speed.
Calculating slope The “steepness” of a line is called its slope. The slope is the ratio of the rise
(vertical change) divided by run (horizontal change). The diagram below
shows how to calculate the slope of a line. Visualize a triangle with the slope
as the hypotenuse. The rise is the height of the triangle. The run is the length
along the base. Here, the x-axis is time and the y-axis is position. The slope of
the graph is therefore the distance traveled divided by the time it takes, or the
speed. The units are the units for the rise (meters) divided by the units for the
run (seconds), meters per second, or m/s.
Figure 4.13: A position vs. time
graph for two runners.
89
Chapter 4 MOTION
Speed vs. time graphs

Constant speed on a The speed vs. time graph has speed on the y-axis and time on the x-axis. The
speed vs. time graph bottom graph in Figure 4.14 shows the speed vs. time for the runner. The top
graph shows the position vs. time. Can you see the relationship between the
two graphs? The blue runner has a speed of 5 m/s. The speed vs. time graph
shows a horizontal line at 5 m/s for the entire time. On a speed vs. time
graph, constant speed is shown with a straight horizontal line. At any point in
time between 0 and 60 seconds the line tells you the speed is 5 m/s.
Another example The red runner’s line on the position vs. time graph has a less steep slope.
That means her speed is slower. You can see this immediately on the speed
vs. time graph. The red runner shows a line at 4 m/s for the whole time.
Calculating distance A speed vs. time graph can also be used to find the distance the object has
traveled. Remember, distance is equal to speed multiplied by time. Suppose
we draw a rectangle on the speed vs. time graph between the x-axis and the
line showing the speed. The area of the rectangle (shown below) is equal to
its length times its height. On the graph, the length is equal to the time and
the height is equal to the speed. Therefore, the area of the graph is the speed
multiplied by the time. This is the distance the runner traveled.
Figure 4.14: The position vs. time

graph (top) shows the exact same motion
as the speed vs. time graph (bottom).
90 graphs; histograms; box and whisker plots; scatter plots; and cumulative frequency graphs.
MOTION Chapter 4
Section 4.2 Review

1. On a graph of position vs. time, what do the x-values represent? What do
the y-values represent?
2. Explain why time is an independent variable and position is a dependent
variable in a position versus time graph.
3. What does the slope of the line on a position vs. time graph tell you about
an object’s speed?
4. The graph in Figure 4.15 shows the position and time for two runners in a
race. Who has the faster speed, Robin or Joel? Explain how to answer this
question without doing calculations.
5. Calculate the speed of each runner from the graph in Figure 4.15.
6. The runners in Figure 4.15 are racing. Predict which runner will get to the
finish line of the race first.
7. Maria walks at a constant speed of 2 m/s for 8 seconds. Figure 4.15: Questions 4, 5, and 6.
a. Draw a speed vs. time graph for Maria’s motion.
b. How far does she walk?
8. Which of the three graphs below corresponds to the position vs. time
graph in Figure 4.16?
9. Between which times is the speed zero for the motion shown on the
position vs. time graph in Figure 4.16?
Figure 4.16: Questions 8 and 9.
MA.912.S.3.2-Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle 91
Chapter 4 MOTION
4.3 Acceleration
Constant speed is easy to understand. However, almost nothing moves with constant speed for acceleration - the rate at which
long. When a driver steps on the gas pedal, the speed of the car increases. When the driver brakes, velocity changes.
the speed decreases. Even while using cruise control, the speed goes up and down as the car’s
engine adjusts for hills. Another important concept in physics is acceleration. Acceleration, an
important concept in physics, is how we describe changes in speed or velocity.
An example of acceleration
Definition of What happens if you coast down a long hill on a bicycle? At the top of the
acceleration hill, you move slowly. As you go down the hill, you move faster and faster—
you accelerate. Acceleration is the rate at which your speed
(or velocity) changes. If your speed increases by 1 meter per second (m/s)
each second, then your acceleration is 1 m/s per second.
Acceleration can Your acceleration depends on the steepness of the hill. If the hill is a gradual
change incline, you have a small acceleration, such as 1 m/s each second. If the hill
is steeper, your acceleration is greater, perhaps 2 m/s per second.
Acceleration on a Acceleration is easy to spot on a speed vs. time graph. If the speed changes
speed vs. time graph over time then there is acceleration. Acceleration causes the line to slope up
on a speed vs. time graph (Figure 4.17). The graph on the top shows constant
speed. There is zero acceleration at constant speed because the speed does
Figure 4.17: Speed vs. time graphs
not change. showing constant speed (top) and
acceleration (middle and bottom).
MOTION Chapter 4
Speed and acceleration

The difference Speed and acceleration are not the same thing. You can be moving (non-zero
between speed and speed) and have no acceleration (think cruise control). You can also be
acceleration accelerating and not moving! But if the brakes are applied and the car slows
down, it is accelerating because the speed is now changing (faster to slower).
Example: Acceleration describes how quickly speed changes. More precisely,
Acceleration in cars acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the change in time. For
example, suppose a powerful sports car changes its speed from zero to
60 mph in 5 seconds. In English units the acceleration is 60 mph ÷ 5 seconds
= 12 mph/second. In SI units, 60 mph is about the same as 100 km/h. The
acceleration is 100 km/h ÷ 5 seconds, or 20 km/h/s (Figure 4.18). A formula
you can use to calculate acceleration is shown below.
Figure 4.18: The acceleration of a

sports car.
Acceleration in To calculate acceleration, you divide the change in velocity by the amount of
metric units time it takes for the change to happen. If the change in speed is in kilometers
per hour, and the time is in seconds, then the acceleration is in km/h/s or
kilometers per hour per second. An acceleration of 20 km/h/s means that the
speed increases by 20 km/h every second.
What does “units of The time units for acceleration are often written as seconds squared or s2. For
seconds squared” example, acceleration might be 50 meters per second squared or 50 m/s2. The
mean? steps in Figure 4.19 show how to simplify the fraction m/s/s to get m/s2.
Saying seconds squared is just a math-shorthand way of talking. It is better to
think about acceleration in units of speed change per second (that is, meters
per second per second).
Figure 4.19: How do we get m/s2?
Chapter 4 MOTION
Solving Problems: Acceleration
A sailboat moves at 1 m/s. A strong wind increases its speed to 4 m/s in

3 seconds (Figure 4.20). Calculate the acceleration.
1. Looking for: You are asked for the acceleration in m/s2.

2. Given: You are given the initial speed in m/s (v1), final speed in m/s (v2), and the
time in seconds.
v −v
3. Relationships: Use the formula for acceleration: a = 2 1
t
4. Solution:
4 m/s − 1 m/s 3 m/s
a= = = 1 m/s 2
3s 3s
Figure 4.20: An acceleration
example.
Your turn...
a. Calculate the acceleration of an airplane that starts at rest and reaches a
speed of 45 m/s in 9 seconds.
b. Calculate the acceleration of a car that slows from 50 m/s to 30 m/s in
10 seconds.
a. 5 m/s2
b. −2 m/s2
94
MOTION Chapter 4
Acceleration on motion graphs

Acceleration on a A speed vs. time graph is useful for showing how the speed of a moving
speed vs. time graph object changes over time. Think about a car moving on a straight road. If the
line on the graph is horizontal, then the car is moving at a constant speed (top
of Figure 4.21). The upward slope in the middle graph shows increasing
speed. The downward slope of the bottom graph tells you the speed is
decreasing. The word acceleration is used for any change in speed, up or
down.
Positive and Acceleration can be positive or negative. Positive acceleration in one
negative direction adds more speed each second. Things get faster. Negative
acceleration acceleration in one direction subtracts some speed each second, Things get
slower. People sometimes use the word deceleration to describe slowing
down.
Acceleration on a The position vs. time graph is a curve when there is acceleration. Think about
position vs. time a car that is accelerating (speeding up). Its speed increases each second. That
graph means it covers more distance each second. The position vs. time graph gets
steeper each second. The opposite happens when a car is slowing down. The
speed decreases so the car covers less distance each second. The position vs.
time graph gets shallower with time, becoming flat when the car is stopped.
Figure 4.21: Three examples of

motion showing constant speed (top)
and acceleration (middle, bottom).
95
Chapter 4 MOTION
Free fall
The definition of free An object is in free fall if it is accelerating due to the force of gravity and no
free fall - accelerated motion that
fall other forces are acting on it. A dropped ball is almost in free fall from the happens when an object falls with
instant it leaves your hand until it reaches the ground. The “almost” is only the force of gravity acting on it.
because there is a little bit of air friction that does make an additional force acceleration due to gravity - the
on the ball. A ball thrown upward is also in free fall after it leaves your hand. value of 9.8 m/s2, which is the
Even going up, the ball is in free fall because gravity is the only significant acceleration in free fall at Earth’s
force acting on it. surface, usually represented by the
small letter g.
The acceleration of If air friction is ignored, objects in
gravity free fall on Earth accelerate
downward, increasing their speed
by 9.8 m/s every second. The value
9.8 m/s2 is called the acceleration
due to gravity. The small letter g
is used to represent its value. When
you see the lowercase letter g in a
physics question, you can
substitute the value 9.8 m/s2.
Figure 4.22: A dropped ball

Constant The speed vs. time graph in Figure 4.22 is for a ball in free fall. Because the increases its speed by 9.8 m/s each
acceleration graph is a straight line, the speed increases by the same amount each second. second, so its constant acceleration is
9.8 m/s2.
This means the ball has a constant acceleration. Make sure you do not
confuse constant speed with constant acceleration! Constant acceleration
means an object’s speed changes by the same amount each second.
MOTION Chapter 4
Acceleration and direction

A change in If an object’s acceleration is zero, the object can only move at a constant
direction is speed in a straight line (or be stopped). A car driving around a curve at a
acceleration constant speed is accelerating (in the “physics sense”) because its direction is
changing (Figure 4.23). Acceleration occurs whenever there is a change in
speed, direction, or both.
What “change in What do we mean by “change in direction”? Consider a car traveling east. Its
direction” means velocity is drawn as an arrow pointing east. Now suppose the car turns
southward a little. Its velocity vector has a new direction.
Drawing vectors When drawing velocity arrows, the length represents the speed. A 2 cm arrow
stands for 10 m/s (22 mph). A 4 cm arrow is 20 m/s, and so on. At this scale,
each centimeter stands for 5 m/s. You can now find the change in velocity by
measuring the length of the arrow that goes from the old velocity vector to the
new one.
Figure 4.23: A car can change its

velocity by speeding up, slowing down,
or turning. The car is accelerating in
each of these cases.
Turns are caused by The small red arrow in the graphic above represents the difference in velocity
sideways before and after the turn. The change vector is 1 centimeter long, which
accelerations equals 5 m/s. Notice the speed is the same before and after the turn! However,
the change in direction is a sideways change of velocity. This change is
caused by a sideways acceleration.
Chapter 4 MOTION
Curved motion
Acceleration and Like velocity, acceleration has direction and is a vector. Curved motion is
projectile - an object moving
curved motion caused by sideways accelerations. Sideways accelerations cause velocity to through space and affected only by
change direction, which results in turning. Turns create curved motion. gravity.
An example of As an example of curved motion, imagine a soccer ball kicked into the air.
curved motion The ball starts with a velocity vector at an upward angle (Figure 4.24). The
acceleration of gravity bends the path of the velocity vector more toward the
ground during each second the ball is in the air. Therefore, gravity
accelerates the ball downward as it moves through the air. Near the end of
the motion, the direction of the ball’s velocity vector is angled down toward
the ground. The path of the ball makes a bowl-shaped curve called a
parabola.
Projectiles A soccer ball is an example of a projectile. A projectile is an object moving
under the influence of only gravity. The action of gravity is to constantly turn
the velocity vector more and more downward. Flying objects such as
airplanes and birds are not projectiles, because they are affected by forces
generated from their own power.
Circular motion Circular motion is another type of curved motion.
An object in circular motion has a velocity vector
that constantly changes direction. Imagine
whirling a ball around your head on a string. You Figure 4.24: A soccer ball in the air
have to pull the string to keep the ball moving in a is a projectile. The path of the ball is a
circle. Your pull accelerates the ball toward you. bowl-shaped curve called a parabola.
That acceleration is what bends the ball’s velocity
into a circle with you at the center. Circular
motion always has an acceleration that points
toward the center of the circle. In fact, the
direction of the acceleration changes constantly
so it always stays pointed toward the center of the
circle.
MOTION Chapter 4
Section 4.3 Review

1. Nearly all physics problems will use the unit m/s2 for acceleration.
Explain why the seconds are squared. Why isn’t the unit given as m/s, as
it is for speed?
2. Suppose you are moving left (negative) with a velocity of -10 m/s. What
happens to your speed if you have a negative acceleration? Do you speed
up or slow down?
3. A rabbit starts from a resting position and moves at 6 m/s after 3 seconds.
What is the acceleration of the rabbit? (Figure 4.25)
4. You are running a race and you speed up from 3 m/s to 5 m/s in 4 seconds.
Figure 4.25: Question 3.
a. What is your change in speed?
b. What is your acceleration?
5. Does a car accelerate when it goes around a corner at a constant speed?
Explain your answer.
6. A sailboat increases its speed from 1 m/s to 4 m/s in 3 seconds. What will
the speed of the sailboat be at 6 seconds if the acceleration stays the
same? (Figure 4.26)
7. The graph at the right shows the speed of a person
riding a bicycle through a city. Which point (A, B,
or C) on the graph is a place where the bicycle has
speed but no acceleration? How do you know?
8. What happens to the speed of an object that is
dropped in free fall?
9. A ball is in free fall after being dropped. What will
the speed of the ball be after 2 seconds of free fall?
10. What happens when velocity and acceleration are not in the same Figure 4.26: Question 6.
direction? What kind of motion occurs?
11. The Earth moves in a nearly perfect circle around the Sun. Assume the
speed stays constant. Is the Earth accelerating or not?
99
BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 4
High Tech The tag records information including the time, date, dive depth, dive
duration, and amount of time at the surface over the last six hours.
Animal
When the seal surfaces, the tag transmits this data to satellites orbiting
Earth. Sometimes there are no satellites overhead when the animal
surfaces, so data isn’t received every day.
Trackers
When data is received, instruments on the satellite record the location
of the tag and relay the data to processing computers back on
Earth. Organizations such as WhaleNet (;Internet keyword search:
whalenet) make this information available online, where it is used
by marine scientists, government and conservation organizations,
April 22, 2007—A young harp seal was found stranded on a beach in and students.
Virginia’s Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge. He appeared slightly thin
with some superficial injuries. Park rangers, optimistic that he would heal The Seal’s Journey: Position, Time, and Speed
on his own, placed him under observation. Unfortunately, park visitors WhaleNet’s Satellite Tagging Observation Program (STOP) provided
didn’t heed requests to keep a respectful distance from the seal. the following information about the seal’s journey.
Date Time (GMT) Time Elapsed Latitude Longitude Distance Traveled
For the seal’s and the public’s safety, he was captured and sent to since previous from previous point
the Virginia Aquarium Stranding Center. Veterinarians treated him point (h:min)
with antibiotics, and soon he was consuming 10 pounds of herring a
05/19/07 10:06 0 36.850 N 76.283 W 0 km
day. In less than a month, the seal grew from 35 to 66 pounds. (This is the release
location–First Landing
State Park, Virginia).
During that time, a 13-year-old girl asked her birthday party guests
to bring donations to the Aquarium’s Stranding Response Program 05/30/07 04:45 258:39 42.195 N 65.554 W 1096 km
instead of gifts. With the money she collected, the aquarium 06/03/07 07:27 98:42 44.317 N 63.137 W 307 km
purchased a satellite tag to track the seal’s movements. 06/05/07 19:20 59:53 45.294 N 60.812 W 214 km
06/11/07 03:11 127:51 45.749 N 59.440 W 119 km
On May 19, 2007, the tag was attached and the healthy seal was 06/16/07 20:16 137:05 47.669 N 58.009 W 240 km
released back to the ocean.
06/19/07 08:11 59:55 46.594 N 56.125 W 186 km
06/25/07 13:17 149:06 48.523 N 51.069 W 437 km
What Is a 06/28/07 06:25 65:08 50.412 N 51.192 W 210 km
Satellite Tag? 07/03/07 08:46 122:21 54.127 N 54.070 W 458 km
A satellite tag is a palm- 07/05/07 00:40 39:54 54.889 N 55.558 W 128 km

sized, salt-water-resistant 07/09/07 19:08 114:28 56.665 N 59.970 W 340 km
data collector with an
antenna attached. It This information can be used to determine the seal’s average speed on
is glued to the fur of a each leg of his journey. To calculate his average speed on the first leg:
seal’s upper back, where 1. Convert elapsed time from h:min to hours.
it remains until the seal 258 hours 39 minutes = 258 39/60 hours = 258.65 hours
With the satellite tag attached to his back, the seal
molts and the tag falls off. 2. Plug the values into the speed formula: speed = distance time.
moves toward the ocean.
Speed = 1096 km / 258.65 h = 4.237 km/h
SC.912.L.17.15–Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.

100 SC.912.N.4.2–Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental.
BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 4
New Insights, Sea ice formed late and broke up early for
Improved Coexistence seven of the eleven years between 1996
and 2007. Satellite tagging data helps us
Knowing the seal’s average speed at monitor how animals respond to these
various points on his journey can help changing conditions. Some seals travel
us gain insight into his behavior. For further north. Others have tried to adapt
example, between June 5 and June 11, to new habitats—for example, seals have
his average speed slowed significantly. given birth on land instead of ice.
During that time, he remained in a There the pups face new predators like
small area just off the coast of Cape foxes, wolves, and domestic and wild
Breton Island. The satellite data dogs—animals that don’t hunt on ice.
suggests that this area may be a
“critical habitat” for the harp seal. Marine scientists share information
What was he doing there? Resting? about seal population activity with
Feeding? Finding answers to these government agencies that monitor seal
questions can help us make better hunting and fishing industries. If the seal
decisions about how and when we population declines, new regulations
humans use this coastal region. could be enacted to restrict hunts and/or
protect the seal’s food sources and critical
J. Michael Williamson, WhaleNet’s habitat areas, while areas with abundant
founder and director, explains, “Similar resources can be opened to the fishing
data from tagging right whales has led industry. The more we learn about how
to changes in shipping lanes around animals interact with their environments,
the whale’s feeding areas and slowed the better decisions we can make about
shipping traffic through areas where how we as humans use the oceans.
whale calves are born. Satellite tagging
research studies have led to many new Satellite Tracking Map of the seal’s journey.
laws and guidelines governing human
activities around endangered species.”
Questions:
What’s Nice about Sea Ice? 1. What was the seal’s average speed between June 5 and
Satellite tagging data can help us understand more about how June 11, 2007?
animals adapt to changes in their environment. For example, marine
2. Name two ways satellite tagging can help humans
scientists are paying careful attention to how far up the Davis Strait
make better decisions about how we use the oceans.
harp seals travel. Harp seals stop their northward journey when they
run into sea ice, rather than swimming under it, since they need to 3. Research: Using an Internet keyword search for
breathe air like we do. WhaleNet, find out what marine animal species are
currently tagged. Use the website resources to create
Harp seals rest, mate, molt, and grow new coats on the sea ice. They
your own map of one animal’s journey. Compare your
also give birth and nurse their pups on the ice. If the ice breaks up
animal’s top speed to the harp seal’s. What questions
before the pups are weaned, the pups may drown or be crushed
between large chunks of ice. do you have about your animal’s travels?

SC.912.N.4.2–Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental. 101
Chapter 4 MOTION
Vocabulary 12. The variable usually represented on the y-axis of a graph is
the ____.
Section 4.3
position projectile origin
average speed speed vector
13. The rate at which velocity changes is defined as ____.
graph velocity axis 14. An object moving in a curved path and affected only by
independent variable coordinates slope gravity is called a(n) ____.
dependent variable constant speed free fall 15. An object accelerating under only the force of gravity is said
acceleration due to gravity acceleration to be in ____.
Section 4.1 16. An object in free fall will accelerate toward Earth at
1. Speed with direction is called ____. 9.8 m/s2, the ____.
2. A variable that is described using both a number and a

direction is called a ____. Concepts
3. The ____ is the place where position equals zero. Section 4.1
1. What is the speed of an object that is standing still?
4. The ____ of an object is given relative to an origin.
2. Name three common units for measuring speed.
5. The formula for ____ is distance divided by time.
3. Write the form of the speed equation that you would see in
6. ____ is speed that does not change over time and ____ is the
each of the following scenarios.
total distance divided by the total time of a trip.
Let v = speed, t = time, and d = distance.
7. The ____ of the origin of a graph are (0, 0).
a. You know distance and speed and want to find the time.
8. The x-____ is horizontal on a graph. b. You know time and distance and want to find the speed.
Section 4.2 c. You know speed and time and want to find the distance.
9. A mathematical diagram using two axes to represent the 4. How are the variables speed and velocity different? How are
relationship between variables is a(n) ____. they similar?
10. The ____ of a line is the ratio of rise to run.
11. The variable usually represented on the x-axis of a graph is
the ____.
102
MOTION Chapter 4
5. Are the following directions usually considered positive 9. Which of the graphs below shows an object that is stopped?
or negative? Write + for positive or − for negative.
a. ____ up e.____ north
b. ____ down f.____ south
c. ____ left g.____ east
d. ____ right h.____ west
6. If you are given x-y axes coordinates of (4, 9), which axis is
represented by the number 9? 10. Which of the graphs above shows an object moving at a
Section 4.2 constant speed?
7. You do an experiment to find out how much light is needed Section 4.3
to make house plants grow taller. The two variables in this 11. How would it be possible for an object to be traveling with
experiment are amount of light and the height of the plants. constant speed and still be accelerating?
Which variable is the dependent variable and which is the
independent variable? Explain your answer. 12. Can an object have a speed of zero while it has an
acceleration that is not zero? Explain.
8. Look at the graph below and answer the following questions.
13. Which of these graphs show acceleration occurring
a. What is the speed of runner B at 100 seconds?
b. For how many seconds has runner A run at the 300-
meter position?
c. Make a sketch of
this graph in your
notebook. Add a
line to the graph
that represents a
third runner who Problems
has a speed that is Section 4.1
slower than the
1. Your starting place on a track is 30 centimeters. What is
speeds of runner A
your new position if you move 10 centimeters to the left of
and B. This new
this position?
line should begin
at the origin of the 2. A high-speed train travels at 300 km/h. How long (in hours)
graph. would it take the train to travel 1,500 km at this speed?
103
Chapter 4 MOTION
3. Lance Armstrong’s teammate, George Hincapie, averaged a 10. Look at the graph below and give the coordinates for each
speed of 33.6 km/h in the 15th stage of the Tour de France, point.
which took 4.00 hours. How far (in kilometers) did he travel
in the race?
4. It takes Brooke 10 minutes to run 1 mile. What is her speed
in miles per minute?
5. You are traveling on the interstate highway at a speed of
65 mph. What is your speed in km/h? The conversion factor
is: 1.0 mph = 1.6 km/h.
6. Use the speed equation to complete the following chart.
distance (m) speed (m/s) time (s)
10 6
45 5 11. A train travels 50 km/h south for 2 hours. Then the train
100 2 travels north at 75 km/h for 5 hours. Where is the train now
relative to its starting position?
7. A pelican flies at a speed of 52 km/h for 0.25 hours. How
many miles does the pelican travel? The conversion factor is: 12. You want to arrive at your friend’s house by 5 p.m. Her
1.6 km/h = 1.0 mph. house is 240 kilometers away. If your average speed will be
80 km/h on the trip, when do you need to leave your house in
8. A snail crawls 300 cm in 1 hour. Calculate the snail’s speed
order to get to her house in time?
in each of the following units.
a. centimeters per hour (cm/h) 13. Starting from school, you bicycle 2 km north, then 6 km
east, then 2 km south.
b. centimeters per minute (cm/min)
a. How far did you cycle?
c. meters per hour (m/h) b. What is your final position compared to your school?
9. If it takes 500 seconds for the light from the Sun to reach c. How far and in what direction must you travel to return
Earth, what is the distance to the Sun in meters? (The speed to school?
of light is 300,000,000 meters/second.)
14. If you walk 8 blocks north and then 3 blocks south from your
home, what is your position compared to your home? What
distance did you walk?
15. You use an x-y plane to represent your position. Starting at
(+150 m, −50 m), you walk 20 meters west and 30 meters
north. What are your new coordinates?
104
MOTION Chapter 4
16. A bird flies from its nest going north for 2 hours at a speed of 21. When a ball is first dropped off a cliff in free fall, it has an
20 km/h and then goes west for 3 hours at 15 km/h. What acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. What is its acceleration as it gets
are the distance coordinates for the bird relative to its nest? closer to the ground? Assume no air friction.
Section 4.2 22. Why is the position vs. time graph for an object in free fall a
17. Draw the position vs. time graph for a person walking at a curve?
constant speed of 1 m/s for 10 seconds. On the same axes, 23. Draw a speed vs. time graph for an object accelerating from
draw the graph for a person running at a constant speed of rest at 2 m/s2.
4 m/s.
24. Draw a speed vs. time graph for a car that starts at rest and
18. Calculate the speed represented by each position vs. time steadily accelerates until it is moving at 40 m/s after
graph below. 20 seconds. Then answer the following questions.
8 8
a. What is the car’s acceleration?
b. What distance did the car travel during the 20 seconds?
Position (m)
Position (m)
6 6
25. Draw a speed vs. time graph for each of the following
4 4
situations.
2 2
a. A person walks along a trail at a constant speed.
0
0 1 2 3 4
0
0 1 2 3 4 b. A ball is rolling up a hill and gradually slows down.
Time (s) Time (s) c. A car starts out at rest at a red light and gradually
19. Draw the speed vs. time graph that shows the same motion speeds up.
as each position vs. time graph above.
Section 4.3 Applying Your Knowledge
20. A loaded garbage truck has low acceleration. It takes Section 4.1
10 seconds to go from 0 km/h to 100 km/h. What is the 1. If you take a one hour drive at an average speed of 65 mph,
acceleration of the garbage truck? How much slower is the is it possible for another car with an average speed of
acceleration of the garbage truck compared to the 55 mph to pass you? Explain your answer.
acceleration of the sports car in Figure 4.18?
2. Make up your own problem! You want to end up 3 meters
south of a starting point. Write a 5-step velocity vector
problem that will get you to this point. You must travel in at
least three directions before you get to your end point.
Chapter 4 MOTION
3. Answer the following questions. Section 4.3

a. A herd of wild animals moves in the following directions 5. Look at the graph below and make up a story involving
from a starting point in search of water: 10 km north, 3 motion that would create a graph shaped like the one below.
km east, 7 km west, 20 km south, and 4 km east. Where
does the herd end up relative to its starting point?
b. A watering hole is 2 km west and 2 km south of the
starting point. Does the herd make it to the watering
hole? If not, write down the directions the herd would
need to follow to get to the watering hole from their end
position.
Section 4.2
4. Oliver is warming up for a track meet. First he walks 1 m/s
for 100 seconds. Then he runs at 3 m/s for 200 seconds. His
shoe comes untied, so he stops for 20 seconds to tie it.
Finally he runs at 4 m/s for 200 seconds.
a. Draw a position vs. time graph of Oliver’s motion. Hint:
Use the table below to calculate Oliver’s position during
each part during his warm up. 6. Now draw a speed vs. time graph that shows the same
motion as the position vs. time graph above.
b. Draw a speed vs. time graph of Oliver’s motion.
c. What is the total distance that Oliver travels?
d. What is Oliver's average speed during his 520 second
warm-up?
speed (m/s) x time (s) = position (m)
106
Chapter 5
Forces
Every year there are competitions that require strength and a knowledge of
force. Athletes compete in events with names like the Giant Log Lift, the
Pillars of Hercules, the Atlas Stones, and the Plane Pull. As you might imagine, moving a giant
log or a plane requires a tremendous amount of force. How can these athletes achieve these
amazing feats? There is a good chance that during their training they thought about how best to
apply force so that they could lift a giant log or pull a plane or lift a 160-kilogram Atlas Stone.
Forces are created and applied every time something moves. Forces such as weight are even
present when things are not moving. Your body uses forces even when you heart is beating or
when you are walking upstairs. And force is necessary when you want to pick up or move
something that is very heavy. Understanding forces is
fundamental to understanding how tasks are best
accomplished in nature and by people. Read this chapter
to learn more about how forces are created, measured,
described, and used in daily life.
How are you affected by forces right now?

What is friction and is it useful?
What happens when an object
experiences net force?
Chapter 5 FORCES
5.1 Forces
Force is a very important concept in physics and in everyday life. In this chapter, you will learn force- a push or pull, or any action
where forces come from, how they are measured, and how they are added and subtracted. that involves the interaction of objects
and has the ability to change motion.
The cause of forces
What are forces? A force is a push or pull. Technically, force is the action that has the ability
to change motion. You need force to start an object moving. You also need
force to change an object’s motion if it is already moving. Forces can
increase or decrease the speed of a moving object. Forces can also change
the direction in which an object is moving.
How are forces Forces are created in many ways. For example, your muscles create force
created? when you swing a tennis racket. On a windy day, the movement of air can
create forces. Earth’s gravity creates a force called weight that pulls on
everything around you. Each of these actions creates forces and through
those forces, each can change an object’s motion.
The four elementary All of the forces we know of in the universe come from four elementary Figure 5.1: All forces in the universe
come from only four elementary forces.
forces forces. Figure 5.1 describes the four elementary forces. If you study physics
or chemistry you may need to know about the strong or weak force. These
forces are only important inside the atom and in certain kinds of
radioactivity. However, the electromagnetic force and gravity are important
in almost all areas of human life and technology.
108 SC.912.P.10.10-Compare the magnitude and range of the four fundamental forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear).
FORCES Chapter 5
Units of force
Pounds Imagine mailing a package at the post office. How does the postal clerk know
pound - the English unit of force
how much you should pay? You are charged a certain amount for every pound equal to 4.448 newtons.
of weight. The pound (lb) is a unit of force commonly used in the United
newton - the metric unit of force,
States. When you measure weight in pounds on a scale, you are measuring the equal to the force needed to make a
force of gravity acting on an object (Figure 5.2). For smaller amounts, pounds 1 kg object accelerate at 1 m/s2.
are divided into ounces (oz). There are 16 ounces in 1 pound.
The origin of the The pound is based on the Roman unit libra, which means “balance.” This is
pound why the abbreviation for pound is “lb.” The word pound comes from the Latin
pondus, meaning “weight.” The definition of a pound has varied over time
and from country to country.
Newtons Although we use pounds all the time in our everyday life, scientists prefer to
measure forces in newtons. The newton (N) is a metric unit of force. The
newton is defined by how much a force can change the motion of an object. A
force of 1 newton is the exact amount of force needed to cause a mass of
1 kilogram to speed up (or slow down) by 1 m/s each second (Figure 5.2).
We call the SI unit of force the newton because force is defined by Newton’s
laws. The newton is a useful way to measure force because it connects force
directly to its effect on motion.
Unit conversions The newton is a smaller unit of force than the pound. One pound of force equals
4.448 newtons. That makes the newton a little less than a quarter of a pound.
This is about the weight of a stick of butter. As another example, a 100-pound
person weighs 444.8 newtons. In SI units, the mass of a 100-pound person (on Figure 5.2: The definitions of the
newton and pound.
Earth) is about 45 kilograms. If you do the math (444.8 ÷ 45) you will find that
1 kg of mass has a weight of 9.8 newtons of force.
Chapter 5 FORCES
The force vector

Force is a vector The direction of a force makes a big difference in what the force does. That
means force is a vector, like velocity or position. To predict the effect of a
force, you need to know both its strength and its direction. Strength is
usually measured in newtons. Direction may be given in words, such as
5 newtons down, or in diagrams. Arrows are often used to show the direction
of forces in diagrams (Figure 5.3).
Using positive and Forces may be assigned positive and negative values to tell their directions.
negative numbers For example, suppose a person pushes with a force of 10 newtons to the right
(Figure 5.3). The force vector is +10 N. A person pushing with the same Figure 5.3: Positive and negative
force to the left would create a force vector of −10 N. The negative sign numbers are used to indicate the
indicates that the −10 N force is in the opposite direction from the +10 N direction of force vectors.
force. We usually choose positive values to represent forces directed up, to
the right, to the north, or to the east.
Drawing a force It is sometimes helpful to show both the strength and direction of a force
vector vector as an arrow on a graph. The length of the arrow represents the strength
of the force. The arrow points in the direction of the force. The x- and y-axes
show the strength of the force in the x and y directions.
Scale When drawing a force vector to show its strength, you must choose a scale.
For example, suppose you want to draw a force of 5 N pointing straight up
(y-direction). You might use a scale of 1 cm = 1 N. At this scale, the force
vector is a 5-cm long arrow pointing up, along the y-axis on your graph
(Figure 5.4). A 5 N horizontal force would be drawn along the x-axis with a
5-cm long arrow pointing to the right.
Figure 5.4: You must use a scale

when drawing a vector.
110
FORCES Chapter 5
How forces act

Contact forces There are two ways that objects can affect each other through forces. One way
is the result of direct contact. The force between two people pulling on a rope
is a good example of a force that occurs through direct contact (Figure 5.5). A
contact force is transmitted by matter directly touching other matter. The wind
acting to slow a parachute is also a contact force because air is matter. The
force comes from air contacting the parachute. In the next section, you will
learn about friction, another contact force.
Forces that act Now think about Earth and the Moon. If Earth were to disappear, the Moon
through space would sail off into space by itself. The Moon doesn’t fly off because a force
exists between Earth and the Moon. That force is called gravity. Gravity
provides the force that keeps Earth and the Moon together in orbit. But,
exactly how does “gravity” get from Earth to the Moon? Space is empty of
Figure 5.5: Contact forces and a
matter so the force cannot be a contact force. force that acts through a force field.
Some examples The force of gravity between Earth and the Moon appears to be what people
once called “action-at-a-distance.” The force between two magnets is another
force that acts at a distance; so is the force that causes electricity. Table 5.1 STUDY SKILLS
summarizes the two kinds of forces. Using Force to Define Forces
Table 5.1: Types of Forces Pick a term that is listed in Table 5.1
but is not described on this page—
Contact Forces “At-a-distance” Forces friction, normal force, or spring force.
friction gravity Find out what the term means. You
might ask someone who is
normal force electricity knowledgeable or complete research
tension, air resistance, spring magnetism and find the answer on your own.
The force field Today, we know that a true “action-at-a-distance” force is impossible. The
force of gravity actually acts in two steps. First, the mass of Earth creates a
gravitational field that fills the space around Earth with potential energy.
Second, the gravitational field of Earth creates the force on the Moon. The
gravitational force is carried from Earth to the Moon by a force field. In fact,
if Earth were to vanish instantly, the Moon would be affected by Earth’s
gravity for a few seconds! This is because the force field “flows” between
Earth and the Moon quickly, but not instantly.
SC.912.N.2.1-Identify what is science, what clearly is not science, and what superficially resembles science (but fails to meet the criteria for science). 111
Chapter 5 FORCES
Contact forces from ropes and springs

Two ways contact Ropes and springs are often used to make and apply forces. Ropes are used
tension - a pulling force that acts in
forces occur to transfer forces or change their direction. Springs are used to make and a rope, string, or other object.
control forces.
extension - a “stretch” or increase
Tension The pulling force carried by a rope in size.
is called tension. Tension always compression - a “squeeze” or
acts along the direction of the rope. decrease in size.
A rope carrying a tension force is
stretched tight and pulls with equal
strength on either end. For example,
the two people in the diagram at the Springs
left are each pulling on the rope with Two of the
a force of 100 newtons. The tension many kinds of
springs are
in the rope is 100 newtons. Ropes
extension
do not carry pushing forces. This is springs and
obvious if you have ever tried compression
pushing a rope! springs.
Extension
Spring forces Springs are used to make or control springs are
forces. A spring creates a force when designed to be
you stretch it or squeeze it away stretched.
from its resting shape. The force They often
from a spring always acts to return have loops on
either end. Compression springs are
the spring to its resting shape. If you
designed to be squeezed. They are
stretch a spring (extension), the usually flat on both ends. Can you find
spring acts to make itself shorter, both types in springs in your
pulling back on your hand. If you classroom?
squeeze a spring (compression), 1. What is the spring used for?
the spring tries to get longer again 2. What would happen if the spring
and pushes back on your hand. broke?
Spring forces vary in The force created by a spring is proportional to the ratio of the extended or
strength compressed length divided by the original (resting) length. If you stretch a
spring twice as much, it makes a force that is twice as strong.
112
FORCES Chapter 5
Gravity
Gravitational force The force of gravity on an object is called weight. At Earth’s surface, gravity
depends on mass exerts a force of 9.8 N on every kilogram of mass. Therefore, on Earth, the
weight of any object is its mass multiplied by 9.8 N/kg. For example, a
1-kilogram mass has a weight of 9.8 N, a 2-kilogram mass has a weight of
19.6 N, and so on. Because weight is a force, it is measured in units of force
such as newtons and pounds.
Weight vs. mass In Chapter 2, you learned that weight and mass are not the same. Mass is a
fundamental property of matter measured in kilograms (kg). Weight is a force
measured in newtons (N). Weight depends on mass and gravity. For example,
how much you weigh depends on your mass and the strength of gravity at your
location. It is easy to confuse mass and weight because they seem similar.
Heavy objects (more weight) have lots of mass and light objects (less weight)
have little mass. But, always remember the difference when doing physics.
Figure 5.6: A 10-kilogram rock
weighs 98 newtons on Earth but only
Weight is a force that depends on mass 16 newtons on the Moon.
and gravity.
Weight is less on the A 10-kilogram rock has the same mass no matter where it is in the universe.
Moon The rock’s weight, however, depends on where it is located. On Earth, the
rock weighs 98 newtons. But on the Moon, it weighs only 16 newtons
(Figure 5.6). The rock weighs six times less on the Moon because gravity is
six times less on the Moon.
SC.912.P.12.4-Describe how the gravitational force between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them. 113
Chapter 5 FORCES
Calculating weight STUDY SKILLS

The weight formula The weight formula lets you calculate the weight of an object if you know Different Ways to Show “Divided
the object’s mass and the strength of gravity at the object’s location. Three By”
forms of the weight formula are given in Table 5.2. Use the appropriate form Below are three different ways to
to find weight, mass, or the strength of gravity if you know any two of the show the equation “mass equals
three values. weight divided by gravity.” Notice the
different ways to show “divided by.”
You should familiarize yourself with all
three versions.
“g” the symbol for The strength of gravity at Earth’s surface is so important to our everyday life
gravity that we give it a special symbol, the lowercase letter “g”. When you see a “g” Some Notes about Drawing Force
in a formula you can usually substitute the value g = 9.8 N/kg. Of course, Vectors
that assumes the formula is being applied at the surface of Earth! Elsewhere 1. Force vectors should always be
in the universe “g” has different values. You sometimes see “g” written with drawn in the direction of the force
units of m/s2, for example, g = 9.8 m/s2. This is really the same “g” they represent.
expressed as the acceleration of a 1 kg mass under the influence of gravity. 2. Force vectors should be drawn to
scale if possible, with length
Table 5.2: Different Forms of the Weight Formula proportional to strength.
3. A force on a surface can be shown
Use. . . if you want to find. . . and you know. . . as pointing toward the surface or
away from it. What matters is that
the direction is clear so you know
W = mg weight (W) mass (m) and strength of gravity (g) what the net force is in a certain
direction.
m = W/g mass (m) weight (W) and strength of gravity (g)
g = W/m strength of gravity (g) weight (W) and mass (m)
SC.912.P.12.4-Describe how the gravitational force between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them.
FORCES Chapter 5
Solving Problems: Weight and Mass
Calculate the weight of a 60-kilogram person (in newtons) on Earth and on

Mars
(g = 3.7 N/kg on Mars) (Figure 5.7).
1. Looking for: You are asked for a person’s weight on Earth and Mars.
2. Given: You are given the person’s mass and the value of g on Mars.
3. Relationships: W = mg
Figure 5.7: How does the weight of a
4. Solution: For the person on Earth: person on Earth compare to the weight
W = mg of the same person on Mars?
W = (60 kg)(9.8 N/kg) = 588 newtons
For the person on Mars:

W = mg
W = (60 kg)(3.7 N/kg) = 222 newtons
Notice that while the masses are the same, the weight is much less on Mars.
Your turn...
a. Calculate the mass of a car that weighs 19,600 N on Earth. a. 2,000 kg
b. A 70-kg person travels to a planet where he weighs 1,750 N. What is the b. 25 N/kg
value of g on that planet?
SC.912.P.12.4-Describe how the gravitational force between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them. 115
Chapter 5 FORCES
Section 5.1 Review

1. Name three situations in which force is created. Describe the cause of the Calculating Mass from Weight
force in each situation. Solve the following problems.
2. Which of the following are units of force? 1. What is the mass of an object with a
a. kilograms and pounds weight of 35 newtons? Assume the
b. newtons and pounds object is on Earth’s surface.
c. kilograms and newtons 2. Which is greater: A force of 100 N

or the weight of 50 kilograms on
3. Which is greater: a force of 10 N or a force of 5 lbs? Earth’s surface?
4. A rope is used to apply a force to a box. Which drawing shows the force 3. The mass of a bag of potatoes is
vector drawn correctly? 0.5 kg. Calculate the weight of the
potatoes in newtons.
5. What is the difference between contact forces and forces that act through Contact forces are actually acting
a force field? through force fields too! When you
6. A spring is stretched as shown. Which drawing shows the force exerted push a box, the atoms in your hand
by the spring? (Hint: Not the force on the spring.) are electrically repelling the atoms in
the box. The force is carried between
the atoms of your hand and the atoms
of the box by trillions of tiny electrical
force fields. In reality, ALL forces act
7. If the strength of gravity is 9.8 newtons per kilogram, that means: through force fields once you get to
the size of atoms! We don’t notice
a. each newton of force equals 9.8 pounds. because atoms are so small.
b. each pound of force equals 9.8 newtons.
c. each newton of mass weighs 9.8 kilograms
d. each kilogram of mass weighs 9.8 newtons.
8. An astronaut in a spacesuit has a mass of 100 kilograms. What is the
weight of this astronaut on the surface of the Moon where the strength of
gravity is approximately 1/6 that of Earth?
9. What is the weight (in newtons) of a bowling ball that has a mass of
3 kilograms?
116 SC.912.P.12.4-Describe how the gravitational force between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them.
FORCES Chapter 5
5.2 Friction
Friction is a force that resists motion. Friction is found everywhere in our world. You feel the friction - a force that resists motion.
effects of friction when you swim, ride in a car, walk, and even when you sit in a chair. Friction can
act when an object is moving or when it is at rest. Many kinds of friction exist. Figure 5.8 shows
No Force
some common examples. motion
Some causes of friction Static
friction
The cause of friction Imagine looking through a microscope at
two smooth surfaces touching each other. Sliding
You would see tiny hills and valleys on motion
both sides. As surfaces slide (or try to Sliding
friction
slide) across each other, the hills and
valleys grind against each other and this is
Rolling Force
a cause of friction. The tiny hills may
motion
change shape or wear away. If you rub
sandpaper on a piece of wood, friction affects the wood’s surface and makes it Rolling
friction
either smoother (hills wear away) or rougher (hills change shape).
Two surfaces are Friction depends on both of the surfaces that are in contact. The force of Motion
involved friction on a rubber hockey puck is very small when it is sliding on ice. But through
air
the same hockey puck sliding on a piece of sandpaper experiences a large
friction force. When the hockey puck slides on ice, a thin layer of water
between the rubber and the ice allows the puck to slide easily. Water and other
liquids, such as oil, can greatly reduce the friction between surfaces.
Motion
through
water
Viscous
friction
Figure 5.8: There are many types of

friction.
Chapter 5 FORCES
Identifying friction forces

Direction of the We think of friction as a force, measured in newtons just like any other force.
sliding friction - the friction force
friction force You draw the force of friction with a force vector. To figure out the direction that resists the motion of an object
of the vector, always remember that friction resists motion between surfaces. moving across a surface.
The force of friction acting on a surface always points opposite the direction static friction - the friction force
of the motion of that surface. Imagine pushing a heavy box across the floor that resists the motion between two
(Figure 5.9). If the box is moving to the right, then friction acts to the left surfaces that are not moving.
against the surface of the box touching the floor. If the box were moving to
the left instead, the force of friction would point to the right. This is what we
mean when we say friction resists motion.
Sliding friction Sliding friction is a force that resists dry sliding motion between any two
surfaces. If you push a box across the floor toward the right, sliding friction
acts toward the left, slowing down the motion of the box. The friction force
acts between the floor and the bottom surface of the box. Let’s say you stop
pushing the box, but it keeps moving. Sliding friction continues to work and
eventually slows the box to a stop.
Static friction Static friction keeps an object that is standing still (at rest) from starting to
move. Imagine trying to push a heavy box with a small force. The box stays
at rest because the static friction force acts against your force and cancels it
out. As you increase the strength of your push, the static friction also
increases. Eventually your force becomes strong enough to overcome static
friction and the box starts to move (Figure 5.9). The force of static friction
balances your force up to a limit. The limit of the static friction force
depends on the types of surfaces and the weight of the object you are
pushing.
Comparing sliding How does sliding friction compare with static friction? If you have ever tried
and static friction to move a heavy sofa or refrigerator, you probably know the answer. It is Figure 5.9: The direction of the force
harder to get something moving than it is to keep it moving. This is because of friction is opposite the direction the
static friction is almost always greater than sliding friction at slow speeds. box is pushed.
FORCES Chapter 5
A model for friction

Different amounts of The amount of friction generated when a box is pushed across a smooth floor
friction is very different from when it is pushed across a carpet. This is because
friction depends on materials, roughness, how clean the surfaces are, and
other factors. Even the friction between two identical surfaces changes as the
surfaces are polished by sliding motion. No single formula can accurately
describe all types of friction.
An example An easy experiment to measure friction is to pull a piece of paper across a
table with a force scale. The paper slides smoothly, and the scale measures
almost no force. Now put a brick on the piece of paper (Figure 5.10). Friction
increases and you must pull with a greater force to move the paper.
Friction depends on Why does the brick have an effect on friction? The two surfaces in contact are
the force between still the paper and the tabletop. The brick causes the paper to press harder into
surfaces the table’s surface. The tiny hills and valleys in the paper and in the tabletop
are pressed together with a much greater force, so the friction increases. The
same is true of most dry sliding friction. Increasing the force that pushes
surfaces together increases the amount of friction.
The greater the force squeezing two surfaces
Figure 5.10: Friction increases
together, the greater the friction force. greatly when a brick is placed on
Why sliding friction The friction force between two smooth, hard surfaces is approximately the paper.
increases with proportional to the force squeezing the surfaces against each other. Consider
weight sliding a heavy box across a floor. The force between the bottom of the box
and the floor is the weight of the box. Therefore, the force of friction is
proportional to the weight of the box. If the weight doubles, the force of
friction also doubles.
Other kinds of This rule is NOT true if one or both surfaces are wet, or if they are soft.
friction act Rubber is soft compared to pavement. The friction between rubber and
differently pavement also depends on how much rubber is contacting the road. Wide tires
have more friction (traction) than narrow tires.
SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods. 119
Chapter 5 FORCES
Reducing the force of friction

All surfaces Unless a force is constantly applied, friction will slow all motion to a stop
experience some eventually. For example, bicycles have low friction, but even the best bicycle
friction slows down as you coast on a level road. It is impossible to completely
eliminate friction. However, many clever inventions have been devised to
reduce friction. You use them every day.
Lubricants reduce Putting a liquid such as oil between two sliding surfaces keeps them from
friction in machines touching each other. The tiny hills and valleys don’t become locked together,
so there is less friction. The liquid also keeps the surfaces from wearing
away as quickly. You add oil to a car’s engine so that the moving parts slide
or turn with less friction. Even water can be used to reduce friction between
objects if they are not too hot.
Ball bearings Ball bearings reduce friction in rotating motion
Figure 5.11: The friction between a
(Figure 5.11). Ball bearings change sliding motion shaft (the long pole in the picture) and
into rolling motion, which has much less friction. the inner surface of the hole produces a
For example, a metal shaft rotating in a hole rubs lot of heat. Friction can be reduced by
and generates a lot of friction. Ball bearings that go placing ball bearings between the shaft
between the shaft and the inside surface of the hole and the hole surface.
allow the shaft to spin more easily. The shaft rolls
on the bearings instead of rubbing against the walls
of the hole. Well-oiled bearings rotate easily and
greatly reduce friction.
Magnetic levitation Another method of decreasing friction is to separate the two surfaces with a
cushion of air. A hovercraft floats on a cushion of air created by a large fan.
Magnetic forces can also be used to separate surfaces. A magnetically
levitated (or maglev) train uses magnets that run on electricity to float on the
track once the train is moving (Figure 5.12). There is no contact between
train and track, so there is far less friction than with a standard train on
tracks. The ride is smoother, so maglev trains can move at very fast speeds.
Maglev trains are not widely used yet because they are much more expensive Figure 5.12: With a maglev train,
to build than regular trains. They may become more popular in the future. there is no contact between the moving
train and the rail—and thus there is
little friction.
FORCES Chapter 5
Using friction
Friction is useful for There are many occasions when friction is
brakes and tires very useful. For example, the brakes on a
bicycle create friction between the brake
pads and the rim of the wheel. Friction
makes the bicycle slow down or stop.
Friction is also needed to make a bicycle
move. Without friction, the bicycle’s tires
would not grip the road.
Tires designed for Friction is also important to anyone driving a car. Tires are specially designed
bad weather to maintain friction on pavement in rain or snow. Tire treads have grooves that
allow space for water to be channeled away where the tire touches the road Figure 5.13: Grooved tire treads
(Figure 5.13). This allows good contact between the rubber and the road allow space for water to be channeled
away from the road−tire contact point,
surface. Special groove patterns along with tiny slits are used on snow tires to allowing for more friction in wet
increase traction in snow. These grooves and slits keep snow from getting conditions.
packed into the treads.
Nails Friction keeps nails in place (Figure 5.14). When a nail is hammered into
wood, the wood pushes against the nail on all sides. The force of the wood
against the nail surface creates a lot of friction. Each hit of the hammer pushes
the nail deeper into the wood. The deeper the nail goes, the more surface there
is for friction to grab onto.
Cleated shoes Shoes are designed to increase the friction
between your foot and the ground. Many
athletes, including football and soccer
players, wear shoes with cleats. Cleats are
like teeth on the bottom of the shoe that dig
into the ground. Players wearing cleats can
apply much greater force against the ground
to help them move and to keep them from
slipping. Figure 5.14: Friction is what makes
nails hard to pull out, and what gives
nails the strength to hold things
together.
SC.912.N.4.1-Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based perspective to inform society's decision making. 121
Chapter 5 FORCES
Friction and energy

Friction changes Earlier we learned that energy moves
energy of motion through the action of forces. Energy also Heat and Machines
into heat changes into different forms. Friction Every machine releases heat from
changes energy of motion into heat energy. friction. The faster the parts move,
You may have noticed that rubbing your and the larger the forces inside the
machine, the more heat is released.
hands together quickly can make them Electronic machines, like computers,
warmer. You are feeling the effect of are no exception, even though they
friction changing energy of motion into may have no moving parts! Electricity
heat. moving through wires also creates
friction.
Heat in machines Friction is always present in any machine with moving parts. In small
If a machine gets too hot, parts can
machines, the forces are low and the amount of heat produced by friction melt and the machine may stop
may be small. A sewing machine is an example of a small machine. Larger working. Because of this, many
machines have more problems with heat. In many machines, oil is pumped machines have special systems,
around moving parts. The oil does two important things. First, oil reduces parts, and designs to get rid of
friction so less heat is generated. Second, the oil absorbs the heat and carries unwanted heat energy.
it away from the moving parts. Without the flow of cooling oil, moving parts Here are three
in an engine would heat up too much and melt. machines you
probably see
Friction causes wear Another way friction changes energy is by every day.
wearing away moving parts. You have How is excess
probably noticed that objects that slide heat removed
against each other often get rounded or from each
one?
smoothed. Each time two moving surfaces
touch each other, tiny bits of material are
broken off by friction. Breaking off bits of
material uses energy. Sharp corners and
edges are rounded off and flat surfaces may
be scratched or even polished smooth and
shiny. This is why water flowing over stones
in a stream causes the stones to be rounded
and smooth.
FORCES Chapter 5
Section 5.2 Review

1. It is a common practice to put oil in a car and to change the car’s oil once You Can Count on Friction!
in a while. Why do cars need oil? Friction is a part of your daily life.
2. Which TWO of the following statements are true? Write a paragraph telling how the
a. Sliding friction is typically greater than static friction. events of your day would not have
been possible without friction.
b. Static friction is typically greater than sliding friction.
c. Sliding friction occurs at rest and static friction occurs in motion. Then, imagine the world suddenly had
much more friction than normal. Write
d. Static friction occurs at rest and sliding friction occurs in motion. a paragraph telling how your day
3. If the force squeezing two surfaces together is decreased, the force of dry would have been affected.
sliding friction between the two surfaces will most likely:
a. increase
b. decrease Design a New Shoe!
c. stay about the same If it weren’t for friction it would be hard
4. Name three devices or inventions that are designed to decrease friction. to walk! We need to be able to place
5. Name three devices or inventions that are designed to increase friction. our feet on a hard surface and push off
from it to move forward.
6. True or false? A well-oiled machine has no friction. Explain your answer.
Invent a new shoe that would be
7. A box is sliding across the floor from left to right. Which diagram suitable for an environment of your
correctly shows the force of friction acting on the box? choice. For example, you might want to
design a shoe for mountain climbing or
for walking on the Moon!
Make a sketch of your shoe and write
an explanation about the research you
did to develop the best design.
8. True or false? Friction makes energy vanish. Explain your answer.

9. True of false? Electronic machines with no moving parts experience
friction and get hot because electricity is moving through the wires.
10. Water is useful for reducing friction between objects. However, you also
learned that (due to friction) moving water causes rough rocks to become
smooth. How can this be?
123
Chapter 5 FORCES
5.3 Forces and Equilibrium

We almost never feel only one force. For example, while walking, friction and weight are two net force - the sum of all forces
forces that both act on you at the same time. As you might expect, it is the total of all forces acting acting on an object.
on your body that determines how you move. This section is about how forces can be added and balanced forces - combined
subtracted. forces that result in a zero net force
on an object.
Adding forces
An example The sum of all the forces on an object is called the net force. The word net
means total. Net force also means that the direction of each force is
considered when multiple forces are added. Consider a flying airplane
(Figure 5.15). Four forces act on the plane: weight, drag (air friction), the
thrust of the engines, and the lift force caused by the flow of air over the
wings. For a plane to fly at a constant speed on a level path, the forces must
all balance. Balanced forces result in a net force of zero.
A pilot must always be aware of
these four forces and know how to
change them in order to speed up,
slow down, lift off, and land. For
example, to speed up there must be
a net force in the forward direction.
The thrust must be greater than the Figure 5.15: Four forces act on a
plane as it flies.
drag. To climb, there must be an
upward net force. The lift force
must be greater than the weight.
Adding x-y To calculate the net force on an object, you must add the forces in each
components direction separately. Remember to define positive and negative directions for
both the x-direction and y-direction. In the diagram above, +x is to the right
and +y is up. The net force in the x-direction is zero because the +20,000 N
and −20,000 N add up to zero. The net force in the y-direction is +5,000 N
(+55,000 N − 50,000 N). The plane climbs because there is a positive
(upward) net force.
FORCES Chapter 5
Equilibrium
Net force can be When many forces act on the same object either:
equilibrium - the state in which the
zero or not zero net force on an object is zero.
The net force is zero, or
The net force is NOT zero.
Definition of When the net force on an object is zero, we say the object is in equilibrium.
equilibrium Equilibrium does NOT mean there are no forces! Equilibrium means all
forces cancel each other out leaving zero net force. For example, when the net
force is zero, an object at rest will stay at rest. Interestingly, an object can be
in motion at constant speed and still be in equilibrium. This happens when a
pushing force and a friction force are equal but opposite in direction so the
object does not speed up or slow down (Figure 5.16).
Using equilibrium to The idea of equilibrium is often used in reverse. Instead of thinking “an object Figure 5.16: Objects are in
find unknown forces in equilibrium stays at rest” we think “an object at rest must be in equilibrium when the net force is zero.
equilibrium.” If an object is at rest, the net force on it must be zero. This fact
often allows us to find the strength and direction of forces that must be there
even if we don’t directly cause them.
When net force is If the net force is NOT zero, then the motion of an object will change. An
not zero object at rest will start moving. An object that is moving may change its
velocity. In other words, unbalanced forces cause acceleration.
Chapter 5 FORCES
Normal forces
Definition of normal Imagine a book sitting on a table (Figure 5.17). Gravity pulls the book
force downward with the force of the book’s weight. The book is at rest, so the net normal force - the perpendicular
force that a surface exerts on an
force must be zero. But what force balances the weight? The table exerts an object that is pressing on it.
upward force on the book called the normal force. The word normal here
has a different meaning from what you might expect. In mathematics,
normal means “perpendicular.” The force that the table exerts is
perpendicular to the table’s surface. The normal force is also sometimes
called the support force.
When normal force A normal force is created whenever an object is in contact with a surface.
is created The normal force has equal strength to the force pressing the object into the
surface, which is often the object’s weight. The normal force has opposite
direction to the force pressing the object into the surface. For example, the
weight of a book presses down on the table’s surface. The normal force is
equal in strength to the book’s weight but acts upward on the book, in the
opposite direction from the weight. Figure 5.17: The normal force and
the weight are equal in strength and
What normal force The normal force acts on the object pressing into the surface. That means, in opposite in direction.
acts on this example, the normal force acts on the book. The normal force is created
by the book acting on the table.
Strength of the What happens to the normal force if you put a brick on top of the book? The
normal force brick makes the book press harder into the table. The book does not move, so
the normal force must be the same strength as the total weight of the book
and the brick (Figure 5.18). The normal force acting on the book increases to
keep the book in balance.
How the normal How does a table “know” how much normal force to supply? The answer is
force is created that normal force is very similar to the force exerted by a spring. When a
book sits on a table, it squeezes the atoms in the table together by a tiny
amount. The atoms resist this squeezing and try to return the table to its
natural thickness. The greater the table is compressed, the larger the normal
force it creates. The matter in the table acts like a bunch of very stiff springs. Figure 5.18: The normal force is
You don’t see the table compress because the amount of compression is greater if a brick is placed on the book.
very small.
126 SC.912.N.1.3-Recognize that the strength or usefulness of a scientific claim is evaluated through scientific argumentation, which depends on critical and logical thinking, and the active consideration of
FORCES Chapter 5
The free-body diagram

Forces on a free- How can you keep track of many forces with different directions? The answer
free-body diagram - a diagram
body diagram is to draw a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram contains only a single showing all the forces acting on an
object, like a book or a table. All connections or supports are taken away and object.
replaced by the forces they exert on the object. An accurate free-body
diagram includes every force acting on an object, including weight, friction,
and normal forces.
An example As an example of a free-body diagram, consider a stack of books weighing
30 newtons resting on a table that weighs 200 newtons. The books are on one
corner of the table so that their entire weight is supported by one table leg.
Figure 5.19 shows a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the table.
Finding the forces Because the table is in equilibrium, the net force on it must be zero. The
weight of the books acts on the table making a 30 N force. The weight of the
table acts on the floor. At every point where the table touches the floor
(each leg) a normal force is created. The correct free-body diagram shows six
forces. The normal force at each of three legs is one-quarter the weight of the
table (50 newtons). The leg beneath the book also supports the weight of the
book (50 N + 30 N = 80 N).
The purpose of a By separating an object from its physical connections, a free-body diagram
free-body diagram helps you identify all forces and where they act. A normal force is usually
present at any point an object is in contact with another object or surface.
Forces due to weight may be assumed to act directly on an object, often at its
center.
Positive and There are two ways to handle positive and negative directions in a free-body
negative forces diagram. One way is to make all upward forces positive and all downward
forces negative. The second way is to draw all the forces in the direction you
believe they act on the object. When you solve the problem, if you have
chosen correctly, all the values for each force are positive. If one comes out Figure 5.19: A free-body diagram
showing the forces acting on a table that
negative, it means the force points in the opposite direction from what you has a stack of books resting on one
guessed. corner.
127
Chapter 5 FORCES
\\ Solving Problems: Equilibrium

600 N ?
Two chains are used to support a small boat weighing 1,500 newtons. One
chain has a tension of 600 newtons (Figure 5.20). What is the force exerted
by the other chain?
1,500 N
1. Looking for: You are asked for an unknown tension in a chain.
Figure 5.20: What is the force
2. Given: You are given the boat’s weight in newtons and the exerted by the other chain that is
tension in one chain in newtons. supporting the boat?
3. Relationships: The net force on the boat is zero.

4. Solution: Draw a free-body diagram.
The force of the two chains must balance the boat’s weight.
600 N + Fchain2 = 1,500 N Fchain2 = 900 N
Your turn...
a. A person with a weight of 400 N is sitting motionless on a swing
(Figure 5.21). For the swing to be in equilibrium, what is the tension force
in each rope holding up the swing?
b. A heavy box weighing 1,000 N sits on the floor. You press down on the
box with a force of 450 N. What is the normal force on the box?
Figure 5.21: What is the tension
c. A cat weighing 40 N stands on a chair. If the normal force on each of the force in each rope holding up the swing?
cat’s back paws is 12 N, what is the normal force on each front paw? (You
can assume the force is the same on each front paw.)
(a) The upward force from both ropes

must be 400 N, so the force in each rope is
200 N. (b) 1,450 N; (c) 8 N
128
FORCES Chapter 5
Section 5.3 Review

1. What is the relationship between net force and balanced forces?
2. Make two diagrams. The first diagram should show a net force of zero on
an object, and the other diagram should show a net force that is not zero.
3. If an object is accelerating, can the net force acting on it ever be zero?
4. If you push down on a table with a force of 5 newtons, what is the normal
force pushing back on you?
5. The diagram in Figure 5.22 shows three forces acting on a pencil. What is
the net force acting on the pencil?
6. If an object is in equilibrium,
a. the net force on the object is zero.
b. the object has zero total mass.
c. no forces are acting on the object.
d. only normal forces are acting on the object.
7. A train is climbing a gradual hill. The weight of the train creates a
downhill force of 150,000 newtons. Friction creates an additional force of
25,000 newtons acting in the same direction (downhill) (Figure 5.23).
How much force does the train’s engine need to create so the train is in
equilibrium (going uphill at constant speed)?
8. Draw a free body diagram of your own body sitting on a chair. Include all
forces acting on your body.
9. If a force has a negative value, such as −100 N, that means the force
a. is less than 100 N in strength. Figure 5.23: Question 7.
b. acts in the opposite direction from a +100 N force.
c. is a normal force.
10. A child weighing 200 newtons is sitting in the center of a swing. The
swing is supported evenly by two ropes, one on each side. What is the
tension force in one of the ropes?
129
Physics8CONNECTION
Chapter 5
Astronauts in orbit around Earth feel weightless for the same
Parabolic reason. An orbiting spacecraft has a horizontal speed, but as

it moves sideways, gravity causes it to fall around the Earth.
Astronauts float because the spacecraft is falling as fast as they are.
Flights Parabolic Flights

Before going on missions,
Have you ever seen video footage of astronauts floating in a spacecraft? astronauts must practice
The term weightlessness is used to describe this experience, but did you working in an environment
know that you can achieve this feeling even while Earth’s gravity is in which they feel
weightless.
pulling on you?
This training is done on
airplanes that fly in a
Weightlessness path called a parabola. A
Every object with mass exerts gravitational force (also called weight) parabola is the curved path
on every other object. As objects move farther apart, this force an object follows when it is
weakens. To be truly weightless, you would have to go to a location launched from the ground. If
infinitely far away from every planet, star, moon, and other piece of you kick
mass in the universe. However, you feel weightless when the force a soccer ball up at an angle,
of gravity is the only force on you, and no other force is acting to its path is a parabola.
balance your weight.
When flying in a parabola,
For example, suppose you weigh the pilot maneuvers the
500 newtons. You are standing on plane so its path matches
the ground. Gravity pulls you down the path the passengers
with a force of 500 newtons, and the would follow if they were
floor pushes you up with a force of launched at an angle into
500 newtons. You are aware of your the air at the speed of the
weight because you feel the ground plane. The passengers float
pushing up on your feet. around and feel weightless NASA conducts parabolic flights to train astronauts.
because the plane does not
Now imagine you are in an elevator exert any forces on them.
when the cable snaps. The elevator Each parabola lasts approximately 30 seconds, and a plane makes up
and your body experience free fall. to 50 parabolas during a flight.
You do not feel the force of the floor
pushing up on your feet because the NASA has been conducting parabolic flights since the 1950s to
elevator is falling at the same rate as train astronauts. Scientists and college students have also gone on
your body. Gravity is still pulling on parabolic flights to perform a wide variety of chemistry, biology, and
you, but you feel weightless! physics experiments. They have studied how weightlessness affects
muscles, bones, blood circulation, digestion, and respiration. This
research helps NASA learn how long missions may affect astronauts.
130 SC.912.P.12.4–Describe how the gravitational force between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them.
Physics8CONNECTION
Chapter 5
ZERO-G When the plane begins a parabola, it accelerates upward at a
45-degree angle. While lying on the floor, passengers feel like
Before 2004, thrill they are almost twice as heavy as on Earth. The engine thrust is
seekers weren’t able then decreased so the plane begins to decelerate. Passengers feel
to take a ride on the force of the floor on their bodies decrease. They can float, do
a parabolic flight flips, and try to catch floating water droplets squirted from the
simply for fun. Now, instructors’ water bottles. Once the plane flies over the top of the
non astronauts can parabola, it begins a descent toward Earth.
have the experience
of floating, spinning, 34,000
Altitude (thousands of feet)

and flying through
32,000
the air with the Zero
Gravity Corporation 30,000
(ZERO-G). The 28,000
company uses a 26,000
specially modified 24,000 45º Weightless 30º
Boeing 727-200 plane nose high feeling nose low
called the G-FORCE-
0 20 45 65 85
ONE to take people
Time (seconds)
on parabolic flights.
After approximately 25 seconds, passengers are alerted with the
Passengers attend warning, “Feet down! Coming out!” Without the feeling of gravity
a training session Now, non astronauts can have the experience of floating, spinning,
pulling toward the bottom of the plane, it’s impossible to tell up
so they know what and flying through the air.
from down. As the plane begins to level out, the passengers slowly
to expect in flight. fall to the floor. Then the ride starts all over again, for a total of 15
The plane is obviously not a typical jet. The rear third of the plane fun-filled parabolas.
contains 35 seats. The front two-thirds is an open area called the
Floating Zone. It is 90 feet long, with a padded floor and walls. Questions:
During take-off, passengers remain in their seats.
1. Why does a person in a freely falling elevator
Once the plane reaches an elevation of approximately 25,000 feet, feel weightless?
passengers move to the Floating Zone and lie on the floor. ZERO-G
flights contain three types of parabolas: Martian gravity (1/3 Earth 2. Are astronauts in orbit around Earth truly weightless?
gravity), Lunar gravity (1/6 Earth gravity), and zero gravity. The Explain.
Martian and Lunar parabolas are not as steep as the zero gravity
3. List some ways parabolic flights are used.
parabolas, so the floor of the plane provides some support force
to the passengers. The effect is a feeling of being lighter than on 4. Describe an experiment you could do on a parabolic flight
Earth, making it possible to do one-handed push-ups and flips in the to demonstrate one of Newton’s laws. Explain which law
air. Martian and Lunar parabolas are done first to help passengers the experiment demonstrates.
get used to the feeling of reduced gravity.
Astronaut training photo courtesy of NASA. Zero-G photo courtesy of www.gozerog.com.
MA.912.S.3.2–Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs; line graphs; stem and leaf plots; circle 131
Chapter 5 FORCES
Vocabulary 11. When all forces on an object are balanced, the object is in
____.
12. The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object
balanced compression equilibrium
pressing against it is called the ____.
free-body diagram friction net force
newton normal force pound 13. A diagram representing all forces acting on an object is
sliding friction static friction tension
called a ____.
weight force 14. The sum of all forces acting on an object is called the ____.
Section 5.1
1. A ____ is an action that can change an object’s speed,
Concepts
direction, or both. Section 5.1
2. The English unit of force equal to 4.448 newtons is the ____. 1. Describe one situation in which forces are created.
3. The metric unit of force needed to accelerate a 1-kg mass at 2. Name the four fundamental forces of nature, the forces from
1 m/s2 is the ____. which all others are derived.
4. A force that comes from the action of Earth’s gravity is 3. Why is weight considered a force?
called ____. 4. Forces cause changes to the motion of objects. Name a force
5. Squeezing creates ____ in a spring. and describe two changes it makes.
6. A pulling force carried by a rope is called ____. 5. What two pieces of information do you need to describe a
force?
Section 5.2
6. Draw the following force vectors on a piece of paper and
7. ______ is a force that always resists the relative motion of
show the scale you use.
objects or surfaces.
a. 20 N west
8. A frictional force that occurs when one surface slides over
another is called ____. b. 4 N southeast
9. _____ is a frictional force between two non-moving surfaces. 7. Name one contact force and one force that acts through a
force field.
Section 5.3
8. What happens to a spring’s force if you stretch it more?
10. We sometimes say forces are ____ when they add up to make
zero net force. 9. Compare and contrast tension, compression, and extension.
132
FORCES Chapter 5
10. Which of the following is most often used to change the 21. Standing on Earth, gravity exerts a downward force on you,
direction of a force, but not the strength of the force? yet you don’t fall toward the center of the planet.
a. Name the other force that acts on you and keeps you in
a. a ball bearing c. a spring equilibrium.
b. a rope d. a parachute
b. What is the direction of the other force?
11. You know the relationship between weight and mass at the c. What do you know about the strength of this other
surface of the Earth. Describe this relationship on the Moon. force?
22. Describe the motion of the race
12. Identify which of the following are units of force (F) and
car shown in the graphic to the
which are units of mass (M).
right. Is it speeding up or
a. ____ kilogram c. ____ pound slowing down?
b. ____ newton d. ____ gram
23. What are the four main forces
Section 5.2 acting on an airplane in flight?
13. Give a reasonable explanation for why the friction is so low If the plane accelerates forward, which two forces must be
between an ice skate blade and the ice. out of balance? To fly on a level path, which two forces must
be in balance?
14. Does it require more force to start an object sliding or to
keep it sliding? Explain your answer. 24. Which of the following diagrams correctly shows the normal
force on the block of wood sliding down the incline?
15. Why is it much easier to slide a cardboard box when it is
empty compared to when it is full of heavy books?
16. Explain two ways friction can be reduced.
17. Explain how friction keeps a nail in place in a block of wood.
If you try to pull out the nail, which way does the friction
act?
25. Draw a free-body diagram for the
18. Name two types of energy generated by friction and give an
forces acting on the parachutist
example of each.
shown. Don’t forget about air
19. Is friction something we always want to reduce? Explain. friction!
Section 5.3
20. If the net force on an object is zero, can the object be moving?
Explain.
133
Chapter 5 FORCES
Problems c. In both cases above, what is the net force on the rope if
neither person is moving, and the tree stays put?
Section 5.1
Section 5.2
1. Calculate the weight of a 66-newton bowling ball in pounds.
11. Thomas pushes a 250-N box across a wooden floor using
2. A frozen turkey bought in Canada is labeled “5.0 kilograms.” 75 N of force. If a second box of the same weight is stacked
This is a measurement of its mass. What is its weight in on top of the first, how much force would Thomas need to
newtons? push the two boxes across the same floor?
3. What is the mass, in kilograms, of a large dog that weighs 12. Your backpack weighs 50 N. You pull it across a table at a
441 newtons? constant speed by exerting a force of 20 N to the right. Draw
4. How much does a 40-kg student weigh on Earth in newtons? a free-body diagram showing all four forces on the backpack.
5. How much mass, in kilograms, does a 50,000-N truck have? State the strength of each.
6. An astronaut has a mass of 70 kilograms on Earth. What 13. You exert a 50-N force to the right on a 300-N box that is on
would her mass be on Mars? What would her weight be on a table. However, the box does not move. Draw a free-body
Mars? The value of gravity (g) on Mars is 3.7 m/s2. diagram for the box. Label all the forces and state their
strengths. Explain why the box doesn’t move.
7. Using a scale of 1 cm = 5 N, draw force vectors representing
Section 5.3
a +20 N force and a –10 N force.
14. Find the net force on each box.
8. A spring is stretched 15 cm by a 45-N force. How far would
the spring be stretched if a 60-N force were applied?
9. You and your friend pull on opposite ends of a rope. You
each pull with a force of 10 newtons. What is the tension in
the rope?
10. Two friends decide to build their strength by having a tug of
war each day. They each pull with a force of 200 N.
15. A 20-kilogram monkey hangs from a tree limb by both arms.
a. How much tension is in the rope? Draw a free-body diagram showing the forces on the
b. One day, one of the friends is sick and cannot work out. monkey. Hint: 20 kilograms is not a force!
The other friend decides to build strength by tying the 16. The weight of a book resting on a stationary table is 9 N.
rope around a tree and pulling on the rope. How much How much is the normal force on the book? What would you
must the single friend pull in order to get the same need to do to increase the normal force on the book?
workout as he normally does? What is the tension on
the rope? Explain. 17. Is it possible to arrange three forces of 100 N, 200 N, and
300 N so they are in equilibrium? If so, draw a diagram.
134
FORCES Chapter 5
18. You weigh a bear by making him stand on four scales as c. Is gravitational force related to how far a planet is from
shown. Draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces the Sun?
acting on the bear. If his weight is 1,500 newtons, what is d. Now, come up with your own question and answer it
the reading on the fourth scale? using the data in the table.
Section 5.2
3. When an ice skater is on ice, a small amount of melting
occurs under the blades of the skates. How does this help
the skater glide? Your answer should discuss at least one
kind of friction.
4. Joints like knees and elbows are designed to move freely.
Find out how friction is reduced in a joint.
5. When on a mission, astronauts experience weightlessness.
a. Research weightlessness. What is it in terms of the
Section 5.1 forces experienced by an astronaut?
1. What is the weight of your favorite animal at different b. Research the effects of weightlessness on people and
places in the universe? what astronauts do to counter those effects.
a. First, find your favorite animal’s mass in kilograms. Section 5.3
(1 pound = 0.454 kilogram; 2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram)
6. Use this diagram to
b. Then, find the values of gravitational force (g) on five answer the following
different planets or moons. The next page has values for questions.
g for the planets in our solar system in units of N/kg.
a. Is the object
c. Make a table that lists g for each planet or moon and shown at the right
your animal’s weight on each of these. in equilibrium?
2. Use the data in the table on the next page to answer the Why or why not?
following questions. b. Redraw this free-
a. You know that mass is related to the strength of an body diagram in a
object’s gravitational force. Does the data in the table way that shows
support this statement? Support your answer with an that the box will move to the right.
explanation. c. Redraw this free-body diagram so that the box moves
b. Is gravitational force related to the number of moons downward.
that a planet has?
Chapter 5 FORCES
136
Chapter 6
Laws of Motion
In January 1993, the 53rd space shuttle mission crew brought some
toys on board. During the flight, crew members played with the toys to
see how they would work in “microgravity.” Can you imagine trying to shoot a ball through a
hoop while floating around in the space shuttle? Would a toy car be able to race around a loop
track in space? You can learn how the toys behaved in space by doing an Internet search on
“toys in space.” But by reading this chapter first, you may be able to predict how toys might
work in space. This chapter presents the laws of motion as stated by Sir Isaac Newton
(1642–1727). Newton discovered answers to many questions about motion. Many historians
believe Newton’s ideas about motion were the beginning of modern science. Read this chapter
and you will know all about motion too!
Why is a bowling ball harder

to move than a golf ball?
How is acceleration related

to force and mass?
What would happen if Sir Isaac Newton had

a skateboard contest with an elephant?
Photo courtesy of NASA.

Chapter 6 LAWS OF MOTION
6.1 Newton’s First Law

People who study science consider Sir Isaac Newton one of the most brilliant scientists who has
ever lived. The three laws of motion are probably the most widely used natural laws in all of
science. Newtons laws are not complicated math equations. They are brilliantly simple rules that
show us an elegant way to make sense of how our world works.
Force changes motion

Force changes an When playing miniature golf, what do you do to move the golf ball toward
object’s motion the hole? Do you tell the ball to move? Of course not! You hit the ball with
the golf club to get it rolling. In physics, “hit the ball” means the golf club
applies a force to the ball. This force is what changes the ball from being at
rest to being in motion (Figure 6.1). Motion can change only through the
action of a force. This statement is the beginning of Newton’s first law.
Why do things stop Once moving, the ball rolls some, slows down, and eventually stops. For a
moving after awhile? long time, scientists thought the natural state of all things was to be at rest
(stopped). They believed force had to be applied to keep an object moving Figure 6.1: Force has the ability to
and that constant motion required a constant force. They were wrong! change the motion of an object.
The real explanation The golf ball stops because the force of friction keeps acting on it until there
is no longer any motion. Suppose the golf course were perfectly level and
had no friction. After being hit with the golf club, the ball would keep
moving in a straight line at a constant speed forever. The ball would neither
slow down nor change direction unless another force acted on it. Being
stopped or moving with constant speed and direction are both natural states
of motion and neither one requires any force to sustain it.
Net force When you hit a golf ball, the force from the club is not the only force that
acts on the ball (Figure 6.2). The ball’s weight, the normal force from the
ground, and friction are also acting. The ball moves according to the net
force acting on the ball. The golf club causes the ball to move to the right
because it’s force overcomes the friction force keeping the ball in place. Figure 6.2: Four forces act on a
Newton’s first law is written in terms of the net force because that is what golf ball. The net force determines how
affects motion. it moves.
LAWS OF MOTION Chapter 6
The first law: The law of inertia

Newton’s first law Newton’s first law says objects continue the motion they already have
Newton’s first law - a law of
unless they are acted on by a net force (the sum of all forces acting on an motion that states that an object at
object at any given time). When the net force is zero, objects at rest stay at rest will stay at rest and an object in
rest, and objects that are moving keep moving in the same direction with the motion will stay in motion with the
same speed. same velocity unless acted on by an
unbalanced force.
When the net force is zero, objects at rest stay at rest unbalanced forces - forces that
and objects in motion keep moving with the same result in a net force on an object and
can cause changes in motion.
speed and direction. inertia - the property of an object
Force is required to The first law says there can be no change in motion without a net force. That that resists changes in its motion.
change motion includes slowing down! It takes a net force (often friction) to make things
slow down. If forces are truly balanced, a moving object will keep moving
forever with the same speed, in the same direction.
Balanced and Changes in motion come from unbalanced forces. Forces are “unbalanced”
unbalanced forces when the net force is NOT exactly zero. A rolling golf ball on a grassy golf
course is not in equilibrium because friction is an unbalanced force. In the
opposite situation, forces are “balanced” when they add up to zero net force.
Forces are always balanced in equilibrium.
Inertia The first law is often called the “law of inertia” because inertia is the
property of an object that resists changes in motion. Inertia comes from mass.
Objects with more mass have more inertia. To understand inertia, imagine
moving a bowling ball and a golf ball which are at rest (Figure 6.3). A golf
ball has a mass of 0.05 kilogram, and suppose the bowling ball has a mass of Figure 6.3: A bowling ball has more
5 kilograms. The bowling ball has 100 times more mass than the golf ball, so mass than a golf ball. The bowling ball
it has 100 times more inertia too. Now ask yourself which needs more force to is harder to move because it has more
start moving? If you push for the same distance, the bowling ball takes inertia.
MUCH more force to get it moving the same speed as the golf ball. The
bowling ball needs more force because a bowling ball has more inertia than a
golf ball. The greater an object’s inertia, the greater the force needed to
change its motion.
SC.912.N.3.3-Explain that scientific laws are descriptions of specific relationships under given conditions in nature, but do not offer explanations for those relationships.
139
SC.912.P.12.3-Interpret and apply Newton's three laws of motion.
Solving Problems: Net Force and the First Law
A car drives along the highway at constant velocity. Find the car’s weight
and the friction force if the engine produces a force of 2,000 newtons
between the tires and the road and the normal force on the car is 12,000 N.
1. Looking for: You are asked for the car’s weight and the friction force.
2. Given: You are given the normal force and engine force. The normal force is
12,000 N and the engine force is 2,000 N. The car is moving at a constant
velocity. Figure 6.4: The forces on the car.
3. Relationships: Newton’s first law states that if the car is moving at a constant velocity, the
net force must be zero.
4. Solution: The weight of the car balances the normal force. Therefore, the weight of the
car is a downward force: 12,000 N. The forward engine force balances the
friction force so the friction force is 2,000 N opposite the direction of the a. When stopped, the car
car’s motion. experiences a normal force of
12,000 N and its weight of
12,000 N.
Your turn...
b. The net force is 500 N. No,
a. Identify the forces on the same car if it is stopped at a red light on level while the wind is blowing, it is
ground. not moving at constant velocity
b. While the car is moving forward a gust of wind gives it a big push from since it is experiencing a net
the back. Since most of the friction on a car (at highway speeds) is from force.
the air, the friction force is reduced from 2,000 N to 1,500 N. What is the c. The normal force would be
net force on the car if the engine force remains at 2,000 N? Does it still 13,000 N.
move at constant velocity?
d. The normal force of the
c. What is normal force on the car if 1,000 N of luggage is added. floorboard on your feet is 50 N.
d. As you sit on the passenger seat of the car, the seat exerts a normal force
of 550 N on you. If you weigh 600 N, what is the normal force of the car’s
floorboard on your feet?
Section 6.1 Review

1. For each of the following situations, identify what creates one of the Mass Transportation
forces that creates the motion described (there may be many). Cars and planes with more inertia
a. A flag flaps back and forth at the top of a flagpole. take more force to accelerate. Since
inertia is related to mass, in order to
b. A soccer ball is passed from one player to another. reduce inertia you must reduce mass.
c. A large piece of hail falls toward the ground. The mass of a car or plane is a trade-
d. The ocean tide goes from high to low at the seashore (you might have off between inertia and the strength of
to do a little research to get this one if you don’t know already). materials of the car or plane. You
want strong materials, but you don’t
2. Which has more inertia—a shopping cart full of groceries or an empty want them so heavy that it takes too
shopping cart? much energy (fuel) just to get the car
3. In the following situation, which diagram (A, B, C, or D) best illustrates or plane moving!
the net force experienced by the cart when the weight pulls downward? 1. Research how cars or planes
have been designed to have less
mass.
2. How is the balance between
strength and mass resolved when
designing cars or planes?
4. Forces contribute to the net force on a car rolling down a ramp.

a. Which force supports the car’s weight?
b. Which force accelerates the car down the ramp?
c. Which force acts against the motion of the car?
5. Imagine whirling a ball on a string over your head. Suppose the knot
holding the ball comes loose and the ball is instantly released from the
string. What path does the ball take after leaving the string? Use Newton’s
first law to explain your answer.
SC.912.N.3.3-Explain that scientific laws are descriptions of specific relationships under given conditions in nature, but do not offer explanations for those relationships. 141
6.2 Newton’s Second Law

What kind of change happens when forces are not balanced? The answer is acceleration.
Acceleration is a change in velocity (speed or direction). Newton’s second law describes how
acceleration depends on both force and mass.
The three main ideas of the second law

What is the second Newton’s first law tells us that motion cannot change without a net force.
law about? The second law tells us exactly what kind of change is caused by unbalanced
forces. The second law answers questions like: “How much force does it take
to change the speed of a 1,000 kg car from 0 to 80 km/h?” Anyone who does
anything involving motion needs to understand the second law.
The three main ideas Here are three big ideas in the second law.
1. Acceleration is the result of unbalanced forces.
2. A larger force makes a proportionally larger acceleration.
3. Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass.
Unbalanced forces The first law tells us things in motion can continue to move even without any
cause acceleration net force. This is true as long as the motion is at a constant speed and in a
straight line. The second law says that any unbalanced force results in
acceleration. We know that acceleration causes changes in velocity (speed or
direction). Putting these two ideas together tells us two things about force Figure 6.5: The newton, a unit of
and motion: (1) Unbalanced forces cause changes in speed, direction, or force, is defined in terms of the
both; and (2) any time there is a change in speed or direction, there must be acceleration it can create.
an unbalanced force acting.
Force and motion The second law is the connection between force, mass, and motion. The
connect through connection occurs through acceleration, which results in changes in speed
acceleration and/or direction. In fact, the unit of force (newton) is defined by the second
law (Figure 6.5).
Acceleration and force

Acceleration is The second law says that acceleration is proportional to force. What does that
proportional to force mean? It means that all other things being equal, if the force doubles, the
acceleration also doubles. If the force is reduced by half, the acceleration is
also reduced by half (Figure 6.6).
Example: A robot Here is an example. Two engineers are each asked to design an battery-
mail cart operated motor for a robot mail cart. The cart is supposed to drive around to
people’s offices and stop so they can collect their mail. One engineer chooses
a motor that produces a force of 50 newtons. The other chooses a motor that
produces a force of 100 newtons.
The acceleration of The robot with the smaller motor goes from rest to a top speed of 4 m/s in
the mail cart 4 seconds. The acceleration is 1 m/s2. The robot with the larger motor
accelerates to the same top speed in 2 seconds. Its acceleration is 2 m/s2. Both
robots reach the same top speed. The one with the bigger motor accelerates to
its top speed twice as fast because it uses twice as much force. Of course, the
one with the bigger motor drains its batteries faster too. There is also a Figure 6.6: “Acceleration is
trade-off between acceleration and energy! proportional to force” means that if force
Acceleration is in the Another important factor of the second law is that the acceleration is is increased or decreased, acceleration
will be increased or decreased by the
direction of the net always in the same direction as the net force. A force in the positive direction
same factor.
force causes acceleration in the positive direction. A force in the negative direction
causes acceleration in the negative direction. A sideways net force causes a STUDY SKILLS
sideways acceleration. Reviewing the Newton
One newton is the force needed to
change the speed of one kilogram by
1 m/s in one second. This means that:
1 N = 1 kg · m/s2
Or you can say one newton equals
one kilogram-meter per second
squared.
143
Acceleration and mass

Mass and The greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration for a given force
Newton’s second law - a law of
acceleration (Figure 6.7). That means acceleration is inversely proportional to mass. motion that states that acceleration is
When the forces stay the same, increasing mass decreases the acceleration. force divided by mass.
For example, an object with twice the mass will have half the acceleration if
the same force is applied. An object with half the mass will have twice the
acceleration.
Why mass reduces Acceleration decreases with mass because mass creates inertia. Remember,
acceleration inertia is the property of matter that resists changes in motion (acceleration).
More mass means more inertia, and therefore more resistance to
acceleration.
Newton’s second Force causes acceleration and mass resists acceleration. Newton’s second
law law relates the force on an object, the mass of the object, and the object’s
acceleration.
The acceleration caused by a net force is
proportional to force and inversely proportional to Figure 6.7: How acceleration is
affected by mass.
mass.
The formula for the The relationships between force, mass, and acceleration are combined in the
second law formula for Newton’s second law.
Answer these questions to test your
understanding of Newton’s second
law.
1. Force is tripled but mass stays the
same. What happens to
acceleration?
2. Acceleration decreases but the
force is the same. What must have
happened to the mass?
Summarizing the second law

Writing the second You can use Newton’s second law to calculate force, mass, or acceleration if
Newton vs. Einstein
law two of the three values are known. As you solve problems, keep in mind the
concepts shown below. Larger force leads to larger acceleration. Larger mass In 2005, The Royal Society of London
took a poll of scientists and members
leads to smaller acceleration. of the public to see whether Sir Isaac
Newton or Albert Einstein contributed
more to science and humankind. The
results were close in this heated
debate! But, Sir Isaac Newton came
out the winner! Here are the results:
Net force and the Newton’s second law explains the effect of the net force on motion. You must
second law consider all the forces that are acting and add them up to find the net force. Now take your own poll to find out
what people think about Newton and
Then you use the net force to calculate any acceleration. You can also use the Einstein and their impact on science
second law to work in the other direction, calculating net force from a given and our world.
mass and acceleration.
To use Newton’s second law properly, keep the following important ideas in
mind.
1. The net force is what causes acceleration.
2. If there is no acceleration, the net force must be zero.
3. If there is acceleration, there must also be a net force.
4. The force unit of newtons is based on kilograms, meters, and seconds.
145
Solving Problems: Newton’s Second Law

Race car design
A car has a mass of 1,000 kilograms. If a net force of 2,000 N is exerted on

the car, what is its acceleration?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the car’s acceleration. Race cars are designed to have
2. Given: You are given mass (kg) and net force (N). strong engines which produce large
forces between the car and the road.
3. Relationships: acceleration = force ÷ mass They are also designed to be light-
weight. Why is this combination of
4. Solution: acceleration = (2,000 N) ÷ (1,000 kg) = 2 m/s2 high forces and low mass useful for
the design of a race car? Use
Newton’s second law to explain.
Your turn...
a. As you coast down a hill on your bicycle, you accelerate at 0.5 m/s2. If the
total mass of your body and the bicycle is 80 kilograms what is the net
force pulling you down the hill (gravity - friction)?
b. What is the mass of an object that is experiencing a net applied force of
200 N and an acceleration of 500 m/s2.
c. Recall that speed = distance ÷ time. The
ratio of distance ÷ time is the same as the a. 40 N
slope of a distance vs. time graph. That
means speed is the slope of the distance vs. b. 0.40 kilogram
time graph. Acceleration is speed ÷ time. c. 10 m/s2
Use this graph of speed vs. time to find
acceleration (the slope of this graph).
Section 6.2 Review

1. What are the three main ideas associated with Newton’s second law of
motion? List these in your own words.
2. What conditions are necessary for acceleration to occur?
3. One kilogram-meter per second squared is also equal to what unit?
4. How much force would you need to cause a 20-kilogram object to
accelerate in a straight line to 20 m/s2?
5. Different forces are applied to cars of different masses. The acceleration
is measured for each combination of force and mass. Graph the data and
determine the acceleration. Force goes on the y-axis and mass goes on the Figure 6.8: Question 6.
x-axis. Be sure to label each axis and give your graph a title.
Force (N) mass (kg)

5 1
10 2
15 3
20 4
6. A 2-kilogram rabbit starts from rest and is moving at 6 m/s after

3 seconds. What net force must be exerted on the rabbit (by the ground) to
cause this change in speed? (Figure 6.8)
7. Explain how changing force or mass affects the acceleration of an object.
Provide one example to support your answer.
8. A tow truck pulls a 1,500-kilogram car with a net force of 4,000 newtons.
What is the acceleration of the car?
9. A potato launcher uses a spring that can apply a force of 20 newtons to
potatoes. A physics student launched a 100-gram potato, a 150-gram
potato, and a 200-gram potato with the launcher. Which potato had the
greatest acceleration?
10. An experiment measures the speed of a 250-kilogram motorcycle every
2 seconds (Figure 6.9). The motorcycle moves in a straight line. What is
the net force acting on the motorcycle?
6.3 Newton’s Third Law and Momentum

Newton’s first and second laws apply to the motion of an individual object. Newton’s third law
applies to forces between interacting objects. Think about throwing a basketball (Figure 6.10).
You feel the ball push back against your hand as you throw it. You apply a force to the ball to
make it move. Where does the force against your hand come from? Can you predict your hand’s
motion and the basketball’s motion after the throw?
Forces always come in matched pairs

An imaginary Imagine a skateboard contest between Isaac Newton and an elephant. They
skateboard contest can push against each other, but not against the ground. The one whose Figure 6.10: You experience
skateboard moves the fastest wins. The elephant is much stronger and pushes Newton’s third law (action-reaction)
whenever you apply force to any object,
off Newton with a huge force thinking he will surely win. But will he?
such as a basketball.
Think of three examples of action-

reaction pairs that you experienced
before class today. Write each one
down and identify the action and
reaction forces. Also write down what
object each force acted on. Hint: the
action and reaction forces never act
The winner Newton flies away with a great speed and the puzzled elephant moves on the same object.
backward with a much smaller speed. Newton wins—and will always win
this contest against the elephant. No matter how hard the elephant pushes,
Newton will always move away faster. Why?
Forces always come It takes force to make both Newton and the elephant move. Newton wins
in pairs because forces always come in pairs. The elephant pushes against Newton
and that action force pushes Newton away. The elephant’s force against
Newton creates a reaction force against the elephant. The action and reaction
forces are equal in strength. Newton has much less mass so he has much
more acceleration, therefore his speed is always greater.
The third law: Action and reaction

The first and second The first two laws of motion apply to individual objects. The first law says an
Newton’s third law - a law of
laws object will remain at rest or in motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon motion that states that for every
by a net force. The second law states that acceleration equals the force on an action force there is a reaction force
object divided by the mass of the object. equal in strength and opposite in
direction.
The third law The third law of motion deals with pairs of objects. This is because all forces
come in pairs. Newton’s third law states that every action force creates a
reaction force that is equal in strength and opposite in direction.
Every action force creates a
reaction force that is equal in strength and opposite
in direction.
Force pairs There can never be a single force acting alone, without its action-reaction
partner. Forces only come in action-reaction pairs. In the skateboard contest,
the net force is the difference between the force created by the elephant in one
direction and the force created by Newton in the opposite direction. The Figure 6.11: It doesn’t matter which
action of this force acts on Newton and moves Newton. The reaction of the force you call the action and which you
same force acts on the elephant and moves the elephant. The combined call the reaction.
strength of Newton and the elephant create two equal and opposite forces, an
action and a reaction.
The labels action The words action and reaction are just labels. It does not matter which force
and reaction is called action and which is called reaction. You simply choose one to call
the action and then call the other one the reaction (Figure 6.11). ACTION REACTION
force on ball force on hand
Why action and Why don’t action and reaction forces cancel each other out? The reason is
reaction forces do action and reaction forces act on different objects. For example, think again
not cancel each about throwing a ball. When you throw a ball, you apply the action force to
other out the ball, creating the ball’s acceleration. The reaction is the ball pushing back
against your hand. The action acts on the ball and the reaction acts on your Figure 6.12: Action and reaction
hand. The forces do not cancel each other out because they act on different forces do not cancel each other out. One
objects. You can only cancel out forces acting on the same object force acts on the ball, and the other force
(Figure 6.12). acts on the hand.
149
Action and reaction forces

A skateboard Think carefully about propelling a skateboard with your foot. Your foot
example presses backward against the ground (Figure 6.13). The force acts on the
ground. However, you move, so a force must act on you, too. Why do you
move? What force acts on you? You move because the action force of your
foot against the ground creates a reaction force of the ground against your
foot. You “feel” the ground because you sense the reaction force pressing on
your foot. The reaction force is what makes you move because it acts on you.
Draw diagrams When sorting out action and reaction forces, it is helpful to draw diagrams.
Draw each object apart from the other. Represent each force as an arrow in
the appropriate direction. The illustration in Figure 6.13 is a good example of
a diagram that shows a pair of action and reaction forces. The Solve It! box
in the sidebar gives you an opportunity to think of your own example and Figure 6.13: You move forward
because of the reaction force of the
draw a diagram. ground on your foot.
Action and reaction Here are some guidelines to help you sort out action and reaction forces:
guidelines
Think of an action-reaction pair

situation. Then, draw a diagram
illustrating the action-reaction pair.
Use the tips in the text for drawing
your diagram.
150 alternative scientific explanations to explain the data present.
Solving Problems: Action and Reaction
A woman with a weight of 500 newtons is sitting on a chair (Figure 6.14).

Describe one action-reaction pair of forces in this situation.
1. Looking for: You are asked for a pair of action and reaction forces.
2. Given: You are given an action force—the woman’s force on the chair. Her force is
500 N.
Figure 6.14: An action is sitting on a
3. Relationships: Action-reaction forces are equal and opposite and act on different objects. chair.
4. Solution: The downward force of 500 N exerted by the woman on the chair is an action.
Therefore, the chair acting on the woman provides an upward force of 500 N
and is a reaction. a. 540 newtons
b. The weight of the chair is 90 N.
Your turn... Action-reaction pairs include
a. A cat jumps up and sits on the lap of the woman who is sitting in the chair the cat-woman’s lap, the
in Figure 6.14. The cat’s weight is 40 newtons. What is the reaction force woman-chair, the chair-
provided by the chair now? strongman, and the strongman-
ground.
b. A strong man now picks up the chair with the woman and the cat and holds
them all above his head. If the upward force from the strong man is c. The force of the bat on the ball
630 newton, what is the weight of the chair in newtons? Describe the (action) accelerates the ball.
different action-reaction pairs in this scenario. The force of the ball on the bat
(reaction) slows down the
c. A baseball player hits a ball with a bat. Describe an action-reaction pair of swinging bat.
forces in this situation.
d. Earth attracts the Moon (action)
d. Earth and the Moon are linked by what action-reaction pair? and the Moon attracts Earth
(reaction) in an action-reaction
pair. Both action and reaction
are due to gravity.
Collisions and momentum

The effect of forces Newton’s third law tells us that when two objects collide, they exert equal
momentum - the mass of an object
and opposite forces on each other. However, the effect of the force is not times its velocity.
always the same. Imagine two hockey players moving at the same speed
law of conservation of
toward each other, one with twice the mass of the other. The force on each momentum - a law that states that
during the collision is the same strength, but they do not have the same as long as interacting objects are not
change in motion after the collision. influenced by outside forces, the total
amount of momentum is constant.
Calculate: Use the momentum

formula to find the momentum of each
hockey player before they collide.
Momentum When studying motion related to collisions, we can predict how two
colliding objects might move using Newton’s third law of motion and Player 1: m = 80 kg; v = 2 m/s
momentum. Momentum is the mass of a object times its velocity. The units Player 2: m = 40 kg; v = 3 m/s
for momentum are kilogram-meter per second (kg·m/s). Predict: Let’s say the motion of
Player 1 is in the positive direction
and the motion of Player 2 is in the
negative direction. Based on your
momentum calculations, in which
direction do you think the two
combined players will move after
the collision?
The law of Using this information, we can determine the momentum of each player in
conservation of the example above. The law of conservation of momentum states that as
momentum long as the interacting objects are not influenced by outside forces (like
friction) the total amount of momentum is constant (does not change). This
means that the total amount of momentum for the colliding hockey players
before the collision equals the total amount of momentum afterward. Also,
any momentum lost by one player is gained by the other one.
Understanding the law of conservation of momentum

Using positive and The forces on each player or any two interacting objects are always equal and
negative opposite. Similarly, the momentum of two interacting objects are equal and
opposite. Therefore, it makes sense to use positive and negative values to tell
the direction of motion (Figure 6.15). Momentum can be positive (moving to
the right) or negative (moving to the left) (Figure 6.15).
A ball example Let’s say a skateboarder is standing on a skateboard and has a ball. Before he
throws the ball, his velocity (and the ball’s) is zero. Since momentum is mass
times velocity, the total momentum is also zero. The law of conservation of
momentum says that after the ball is thrown, the total momentum still has to
be zero. Here’s where positive and negative values help us. Figure 6.15: The direction is
important when using the law of
Conservation of If the ball has a mass of 1 kilogram and the skateboarder throws it at a conservation of momentum. We use
momentum velocity of –20 m/s to the left, the ball takes away –20 kg · m/s of momentum. positive and negative numbers to
To make the total momentum zero, the skateboarder must take away represent opposite directions.
+20 kg · m/s of momentum. If his mass is 40 kilogram and you ignore
friction, then his speed is +0.5 m/sec to the right (Figure 6.16).
More mass results in Because of his greater mass, the skateboarder will have a smaller velocity
less acceleration after he throws the ball. The ball which has less mass has the greater velocity.
They each have equal and opposite momentum after the throw. The two
objects, the skateboarder and the ball, have different velocities because they
have different masses, not because the forces are different!
Jet planes and Rockets and jet planes use the law of conservation of momentum to move. In
rockets a process called jet propulsion, a jet moves forward when the engine pushes
exhaust air at very high speed out of the back of the engine. The momentum Figure 6.16: The result of a
lost by the air going backward is compensated by the momentum gained by skateboarder throwing a 1-kg ball at a
the jet moving forward. Similarly, a rocket accelerates in space because it speed of –20 m/s is that he and the
pushes mass at high speed out the end of the engine in the form of exhaust skateboard with a total mass of 40 kg
move backward at a speed of +0.5 m/s if
gases from burning fuel. The forward momentum of a rocket equals the
you ignore friction. If you account for
momentum of the escaping mass ejected from the end of the engine. friction, would the calculation for
velocity of the skateboarder on the
skateboard end up being less or more
than 0.5 m/s?

153
Solving Problems: Conservation of Momentum
An astronaut in space throws a 2-kilogram wrench away from her at a speed

of -10 m/s. If the astronaut’s mass is 100 kilograms, at what speed does the
astronaut move backward after throwing the wrench?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the astronaut’s speed. Since the astronaut is in space, we
can ignore friction.
2. Given: You are given the mass and speed of the wrench and the mass of the
astronaut.
3. Relationships: This is enough information to apply the law of Figure 6.17: Your turn question b.
conservation of momentum. The momentum of the
wrench (m1v1) and the momentum of the astronaut
(m2v2) add up to zero BEFORE the wrench is thrown.
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = 0
4. Solution: The momentum of the wrench and the astronaut also add up to zero AFTER a. The two hockey players move
the wrench is thrown. in the positive direction (or to
[2 kg × (–10 m/s)] + [(100 kg) × v2] = 0; v2 = +20 ÷ 100 = +0.2 m/s the right). Their momentum
after the collision is
The astronaut moves backward to the right at a speed of +0.2 m/s. +200 kg · m/s.
b. The car has less mass and
Your turn... therefore less inertia, so it
a. Two hockey players have a total momentum of +200 kg · m/s before a accelerates more and may
collision (+ is to the right). After their collision, the move together. In become more damaged than the
what direction do they move and what is their momentum? truck in this collision.
b. When a large truck hits a small car, the forces are equal (Figure 6.17).
However, the small car experiences a much greater change in velocity
than the big truck. Explain why.
154 SC.912.P.12.3-Interpret and apply Newton's three laws of motion.

Section 6.3 Review

1. Emilio tries to jump to a nearby dock from a canoe that is floating in the
water. Instead of landing on the dock, he falls into the water beside the
canoe. Use Newton’s third law to explain why this happened. Hint: First Squid Science
identify the action-reaction pair in this example.
2. You push backward against the ground to move a skateboard forward.
The force you make acts against the ground. What force acts against you
to move you forward?
3. Explain why action-reaction forces do not cancel each other out, resulting
in zero net force.
4. The momentum of an object depends on what two factors?
5. The engine of a jet airplane pushes exhaust gases from burning fuel
backward. What pushes the jet forward? Airplanes are not the only example of
jet propulsion. Several animals have
adapted jet propulsion in order to get
around. A squid takes water into its
body chamber and rapidly pushes it
out of a backward-facing tube. The
water squirts backward and the squid
jets forward. What are the action-
6. A small rubber ball is thrown at a heavier, reaction forces in this example? Draw
larger basketball that is still. The small ball a diagram to go with your answer.
bounces off the basketball. Assume there Most species of squid are small, but
are no outside forces acting on the balls. Architeuthis, the giant squid, is not! In
September 2004, Japanese scientists
a. How does the force on the small ball took over 500 photos of a giant squid.
compare to the force on the basketball? The animal was nearly 25 feet long!
b. Compare the total momentum of the This was the first record of a live giant
two balls before and after the collision. squid in the wild. Conduct an Internet
search using the key phrase “giant
c. The mass of the basketball is 600 grams and its velocity before the squid” to find more information and
small ball hits is 0 m/s. The mass of the small ball is 100 grams and its photos.
velocity is +5 m/s before the collision and –4 m/s afterward. What is
the velocity of the basketball after the collision?
SC.912.P.12.3-Interpret and apply Newton's three laws of motion. 155

Career8CONNECTION
Chapter 6
Forensic
John Kwasnoski has been a forensic engineer and physics professor
for more than thirty years. He is often asked to testify in court when
collisions result in criminal charges. Many of his cases involve a driver
(often alcohol-impaired) losing control of a vehicle and colliding
Engineering with another vehicle or pedestrians. In other cases, a driver may

have hit a telephone pole, concrete barrier, or some other stationary
object, resulting in injury to passengers in the vehicle.
A Two Part Science Professor Kwasnoski explains, “As an investigator at the scene of
a crash, I’m most often looking for evidence of the transfer of
We usually think of engineering as a science focused on designing and energy. Before the crash, the vehicle has a certain amount of kinetic
constructing things—like bridges, computers, automobiles, or sneakers. energy. The police find the car at rest. The law of conservation of
energy tells us the vehicle’s kinetic energy had to be transferred
However, there is one branch of engineering that focuses on how things
somewhere. Often it’s found in damage to roadside obstacles or the
fail, collapse, or crash. It’s called forensic engineering.
roadway itself, and in change to the vehicle’s shape.”
Forensic engineers are like time travelers, rewinding the clock to “I investigated the
a point just before a bridge collapses or a car crashes. Their job crash of the car in
is to gather and analyze information from the scene so they can the photo [at the
reconstruct the event step by step. A forensic engineer’s work is right]. This car hit a
often used in court as evidence in personal injury or product liability utility pole when the
cases. Forensic engineers must play two roles in their work: that of teenage driver lost
a detective, gathering clues and evidence; and that of an engineer, control on a rural
using this evidence to analyze the event. road. The front seat
passenger was injured
Gathering Information: The Detective Role in the crash. The
passenger was not
One task of a forensic engineer is
wearing a seat belt
to reconstruct automobile crashes.
that probably would
Working with law enforcement
have prevented her
officials, forensic engineers act
from striking This car hit a utility pole when the teenage driver lost control
as detectives looking for clues on a rural road.
the windshield.”
about how the collision occurred.
The vehicle or vehicles involved in After photographing the scene and making careful measurements
the crash are the most important of the damage to vehicles, the length of skid marks, and other
pieces of evidence. They can give evidence of transfer of energy, forensic engineers like Professor
the forensic engineer an idea of Kwasnoski head back to the lab.
angle of impact, speeds involved,
and seat belt usage.
SC.912.N.1.1–Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science.
SC.912.N.1.3–Recognize that the strength or usefulness of a scientific claim is evaluated through scientific argumentation, which depends on critical and logical thinking, and the active consider-
ation of alternative scientific explanations to explain the data present.
156 phenomena and describe that competing interpretations (explanations).
Career8CONNECTION
Chapter 6
Analyzing the Information: The Engineering Role “I point out to them that if you calculate acceleration due to gravity,
35 miles per hour is the speed you would be going when you hit
The next step, explains Kwasnoski, is to figure out how much energy the ground after falling off a four-story building. I ask, ‘Would you
it took to cause the damage he observed. He looks at the results rather be strapped into a padded steel cage or just hurtling through
of crash tests where vehicles are crashed into concrete barriers at the air on your own in a fall like that?’”
various speeds. The amount of damage depends on the specific
properties (like stiffness) of the materials used to build the car, so “We also talk about Newton’s first law of motion—objects in
it is important to analyze crash test records of the specific make motion stay in motion, unless acted on by a force. So if a car is
and model of the vehicle involved in the crash. By comparing traveling at 35 miles per hour and crashes, an unbelted occupant
measurements of the vehicle’s damage to the crash test records, the will collide with the interior of the car at 35 miles per hour. There
speed of the vehicle at the time of the collision can be inferred. This are also secondary crashes—your organs collide with your rib cage,
information is often a crucial piece of evidence in a criminal trial. and your brain collides with your skull at 35 miles per hour.”
The study of how vehicles moved before, While seat belts can’t prevent every
during, and after a collision is called internal injury, Kwasnoski points out that
vehicular kinematics. Another important all of the significant automobile safety
part of a forensic engineer’s job is to advances in the past 50 years—air bags,
analyze how the passengers moved before, padded dashboards, stronger frames—
during, and after the collision. This is are designed to protect people who stay
called occupant kinematics. From crash test in the car. After investigating over 650
data, the forensic engineer can calculate collisions, Kwasnoski concludes, “You just
peak accelerations of an occupant. These accelerations, especially do not want to be ejected from a vehicle in a crash.” Human bodies
those of the head and neck, can be greater than the vehicle’s peak are not designed to handle the impact of crashing into a stationary
acceleration. Calculating an occupant’s peak acceleration can help object after traveling through space at the speed of a car.
determine the cause of his or her injuries.
Questions:
Crash Prevention through Physics Lessons 1. What two roles do forensic engineers play?
Investigating crashes has convinced Professor Kwasnoski that if 2. How does a forensic engineer use the law of conservation
people understood the physics of force and motion, they would be of energy in a crash investigation?
better equipped to make good decisions about driving and seat
belt use. So, he often speaks to high school and community groups 3. Explain the difference between vehicular kinematics and
about crash prevention. occupant kinematics.
Sometimes audience members will comment that they don’t think 4. Project idea: Design a poster that uses a physics principle
it’s important to wear seat belts when they are driving in town, to encourage seat belt usage.
where the speed limit is 35 miles per hour. To learn more about Professor Kwasnoski’s work, try this ; Internet keyword search:
Kwasnoski + “legal sciences” - Car photo courtesy of John Kwasnoski.
LA.910.4.2.2–The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing
sources of information.
SC.912.N.1.3–Recognize that the strength or usefulness of a scientific claim is evaluated through scientific argumentation, which depends on critical and logical thinking, and the active consider-
ation of alternative scientific explanations to explain the data present.
SC.912.P.12.2–Analyze the motion of an object in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration (with respect to a frame of reference) as functions of time. 157
Vocabulary 2. Two identical-looking, large, round balls are placed in front
of you. One is filled with feathers and the other is filled with
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. sand. Without lifting the balls, how could you use Newton’s
Newton’s first law unbalanced forces inertia first law to distinguish between them?
momentum Newton’s second law Newton’s third law 3. What are the natural states of motion? List all correct
Section 6.1 answers.
1. ____ says that objects continue the motion they already have a. Being stopped
unless they are acted on by an unbalanced force. b. Moving with constant direction
c. Moving with changing speed
2. If the net force acting on an object is not zero, then the forces
d. Moving with constant velocity
acting on the object are ____.
4. What happens to the inertia of an object if its mass is
3. Objects with more mass have more ____.
decreased?
Section 6.2
5. Identify whether the following scenarios involve balanced
4. The relationship between the force on an object, the mass of (B) or unbalanced (U) forces.
the object, and its acceleration is described by ____.
a. ____ A car stopped at a red light.
Section 6.3
b. ____ A ball rolling down a hill.
5. ____ states that every action force creates a reaction force
c. ____ An airplane flying at constant speed at the same
that is equal in strength and opposite in direction.
altitude in one direction.
6. The law of conservation of ____ can be used to predict
d. ____ An airplane taking off.
motion of interacting objects after they collide.
e. ____ A person sitting motionless on a chair.
Concepts f. ____ A person running at constant speed around a
circular track.
Section 6.1
Section 6.2
1. Newton’s first law states that no force is required to
6. What is a newton?
maintain motion in a straight line at constant speed. If
Newton’s first law is true, why must you continue to pedal a a. The time it takes to move 1 kilogram.
bicycle on a level surface to keep moving? b. The force it takes to change the speed of 1 kilogram by
1 m/s in 1 second.
c. The speed it takes to move a 1 kilogram mass in one hour.
158
7. Explain the difference between “directly proportional” and Problems
“inversely proportional”.
Section 6.1
8. What does it mean to say that the “net force” determines an
1. While an object is moving at a constant 20 m/s, a 5 N force
object’s acceleration?
pushes the object to the left. At the same time, a 5 N force is
9. Describe three ways you could cause an acceleration of a pushing the object to the right. What will the object's
moving car. velocity be after 10 seconds?
10. If you are applying the brakes on your bicycle, and you are 2. A bowling ball has a mass of 6 kilograms. A tennis ball has a
slowing down, are you accelerating? Why or why not? mass of 0.06 kilogram. How much inertia does the bowling
11. What is the formula that summarizes Newton’s second law? ball have compared to the tennis ball?
12. Which of the following is the equivalent unit to a newton? 3. A rider and motorcycle with a combined mass of
a. m/s2 b.m/s c. kg· m/s2 250 kilograms are driving down the road at a constant speed
of 55 mph. The motorcycle’s engine is producing a force of
Section 6.3
1,700 newtons between the tires and the road.
13. Are these statements correct or incorrect? If incorrect,
a. Find the weight of the motorcycle and rider in newtons.
rewrite the sentence so that it is correct.
b. Find the normal force of the road on the motorcycle and
a. In an action-reaction pair the forces work on the same rider.
object. c. Find the frictional force of the road and air on the
b. Every action force creates a reaction force and the two motorcycle and rider.
forces are different in strength but act in the same
direction. 4. What is the net force on the refrigerator shown to the right?
14. A brick is sitting on a table. The force of gravity pushes

down on the brick. What prevents the brick from
accelerating downward and falling through the table?
15. When a bug traveling west collides with the windshield of a
car traveling east, what can be said about the collision?
a. The bug feels a stronger force than the car.
b. The bug and the car feel the same size force.
5. Make a free-body diagram of someone pushing a refrigerator
c. The car accelerates more than the bug.
that shows:
d. The bug does not accelerate due to the force.
a. A net force of 100 N with the refrigerator being pushed
16. Give an example of the law of conservation of momentum to the right.
from everyday life. b. The refrigerator in equilibrium.
159

6. Copy the following table and fill it in based on Newton’s 13. Jane has a mass of 40 kg. She pushes on a 50-kg rock with a
second law: force of 100 N. What force does the rock exert on Jane?
14. Look at the picture below.
Acceleration
Force (N) Mass (kg) a. Identify at least three action-reaction pairs.
(m/s2)
b. Why might it be hard for the firefighter to hold the hose
20 10
steady when the water gushes out of the hose? Think
50 10
about the law of conservation of momentum.
10 2
10 5
100 2
100 5
7. What force is needed to accelerate a 1,000-kg car from a stop

to 5 m/s2?
8. What is the acceleration of a truck with a mass of 2,000 kg
when its brakes apply a force of 10,000 N?
9. A 20 N force accelerates a baseball at 140 m/s2 (briefly). 15. A 3,000-kg car bumps into a stationary, 5,000-kg truck. The
What is the mass of the baseball? velocity of the car before the collision was +4 m/s and
-1 m/s after the collision. What is the velocity of the truck
10. Gina is pushing a 10-kilogram box with 50 N of force toward
after the collision?
the east. Dani is pushing the same box at the same time
with 100 N of force toward the west. Assuming there is no
friction, what is the acceleration of the box? Applying Your Knowledge
11. A cheetah can accelerate at 7 m/s2, and the average cheetah Section 6.1
has a mass of 40 kg. With what average force does the 1. The work of Sir Isaac Newton made this chapter on motion
cheetah push against the ground? possible. You may already know about Newton because he is
12. A car speeds up from 5 m/s to 29 m/s over 4 seconds. such a well-known scientist. Do some research to learn
something you did not know about Newton. Write a
a. What is the car’s acceleration?
paragraph describing your findings.
b. If the car had started at 29 m/s and ended at 5 m/s after
4 seconds, what would its acceleration be? How is this
different from the answer above?
LA.910.4.2.2-The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing sources
160 of information.
SC.912.N.1.4-Identify sources of information and assess their reliability according to the strict standards of scientific investigation.
2. You are watching a magic show. For one trick the magician 5. Describe the design features you would incorporate into a
rolls a ball down a hill. Suddenly the ball stops moving down battery-operated motor for a robot mail cart for the following
the hill. It is as if the ball is defying gravity! Come up with situations. The design features to consider are: the mass of
an explanation for how the magician might have the motor, rate of acceleration, and speed.
accomplished his trick. Hint: Think of all the forces that a. A robot mail cart is needed to collect mail from offices
might be acting on the ball. located in a large warehouse. The warehouse has a lot of
3. Answer the following motion questions for a hot-air balloon. open space.
a. List all the forces that are act on a hot-air balloon to b. A robot mail cart is needed in a small office space that
keep it on the ground. has many offices that are close together.
b. List all the forces that act on a hot-air balloon when it is c. A robot mail cart is needed in an elementary school that
in the sky. has long hallways and many offices. However, many
c. Sketch a free-body diagram for a hot-air balloon that is children are often in the hallways.
rising straight off the ground. Indicate the magnitude of Section 6.3
forces with the length of the force vectors. 6. You are playing a game of soccer. Describe as many action-
d. Sketch a free-body diagram for a hot-air balloon that is reaction pairs in this situation as you can think of.
in a neutral position in the sky (neither rising or
7. At the beginning of the chapter, you read about astronauts
sinking) but being blown eastward by the wind. Indicate
investigating how toys work in space. Describe how you
the magnitude of forces with the length of the force
think the following toys would work in space based on what
vectors. What force might be opposing the wind?
you have learned in this chapter.
Section 6.2
a. A ball that can be throw through a hoop
4. The text stated that anyone who does anything involving b. Building blocks
motion needs to understand Newton’s second law. Think c. A board game with game pieces for each player
about a job or career that might involve using and d. A deck of cards
understanding motion and answer the following.
8. Auto manufactures design cars to withstand collisions.
a. Name the job or career. Describe the types of motion-
Research design features that allow a car and the people
related tasks that are involved in this job or career.
inside the car to survive a crash. Write a paragraph about
b. Pick one task listed in your answer for a and explain
one design feature that interests you.
how understanding Newton's laws of motion might help
accomplish task better. 9. If you push a very large object like a building it doesn’t move
c. Extension: Research and/or interview someone who before or after the interaction. Explain why.
has this career. Find out how they use their 10. For fun: Which one of the laws of motion is your favorite?
understanding of motion in their job. Write a paragraph Pick one and make a brochure explaining why it is your
about your findings. favorite law of motion.
LA.910.4.2.2-The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing sources of
information. 161
Unit
Work and Energy
3
CHAPTER 7 Energy
CHAPTER 8 Work and Power
CHAPTER 9 Simple Machines
Tie a string between two chairs. Now tie another string to

the first so it hangs straight down. Tie something heavy
to the second string, like a small toy action figure or a
metal washer. You created a pendulum! Pull the object back so it is parallel with
the floor and release it, but don’t move your hand. Does the object swing back and
hit your hand? Why or why not? How many times does the object swing before it
stops moving? Why doesn’t it go on forever? What would you have to do to make
it go again? Write down your observations and ideas in a paragraph.
Chapter 7
Energy
Look around you. Do you see any changes taking place? When the lights
came on in your classroom, for example, the light bulbs gave off light and
heat. Outside the Sun may be shining and causing changes in plants. And right now your eyes
are moving across the page while you read this introduction. Energy is at the heart of all these
events. When an object falls toward Earth, when you play a sport or a musical instrument, when
your alarm clock wakes you up in the morning, and when a bird flies through the air, changes
are taking place thanks to the presence of energy.
Energy is everywhere! As you read this chapter, think about how energy is responsible
for the changes that take place around you and even inside your body! For starters,
can you identify the different forms of energy in the picture on this page?
What is energy?
What does it mean to conserve energy?
How is heat related to the motion

of a bicycle or a car?
Chapter 7 ENERGY
7.1 What Is Energy?

Unlike matter, pure energy cannot be smelled, tasted, touched, seen, or heard. However, energy energy - a quantity that describes
does appear in many forms, such as motion and heat. Energy can also travel in different ways, the ability of an object to change or
such as in light and as electricity. Without energy, nothing could ever change. In fact, the workings cause changes.
of the entire universe (including all of our technology) depend on energy flowing and changing joule (J) - a unit of energy. One joule
back and forth from one form to another. is enough energy to push with a force
of 1 newton for a distance of 1 meter.
Defining energy
What is energy? Energy describes the ability of things to change themselves or to cause
change in other things. What types of changes are we talking about? Some
examples are changes in temperature, speed, position, pressure, or any other
physical variable. Energy can also cause changes in materials, such as when
burning wood changes into ashes and smoke.
What has energy? The list below describes objects that have energy. Read through this list and
notice how many different forms of energy exist. We will talk more about
these different forms in this chapter.
• A gust of wind has energy because it can move objects in its path.
• A piece of wood burning in a fireplace has energy because it can produce Figure 7.1: Pushing a 1-kilogram
object with a force of 1 newton for a
heat and light. distance of 1 meter uses 1 joule of
• You have energy because you can change the motion of your body. energy.
• Batteries have energy; they can be used in a radio to make sound.
• Gasoline has energy; it can be burned in an engine to move a car.
• A ball at the top of a hill has energy because it can roll down the hill and
Units Related to the Joule
move objects in its path.
1 joule = 1 newton-meter
Measuring energy A joule (J) is the unit of measurement for energy. One joule is the energy
1 newton = 1 kg-m/s2
needed to push with a force of 1 newton for a distance of 1 meter
(Figure 7.1). So, 1 joule is equivalent to 1 newton multiplied by 1 meter (or therefore...
1 newton-meter). If you push a toy car forward with a force of 1 newton over 1 joule = 1 kg-m2/s2
a distance of 1 meter, you have applied 1 joule of energy to the car. One joule
is a pretty small amount of energy. An ordinary 100-watt electric light bulb
uses 100 joules of energy every second!
164 SC.912.P.10.1-Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be transformed from one form to others.
ENERGY Chapter 7
Some forms of energy

Understanding One way to understand energy is to think of it as nature’s money. Energy can
mechanical energy - a form of
energy be spent and saved in a number of different ways. It takes energy to “buy” energy that is related to motion or
changes like going faster, moving higher, or getting hotter. These three position. Potential and kinetic energy
changes use energy. The opposite changes, such as slowing down, falling, or are examples.
cooling off, release energy. Just like a checkbook, nature keeps perfect track chemical energy - a form of
of energy. What you “spend” diminishes what you have left. You can only potential energy that is stored in
“buy” as much change as you have energy to “pay for.” molecules.
Mechanical energy Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion or
its position. This means potential energy and kinetic energy are both forms of
mechanical energy.
Chemical energy Chemical energy is a form of energy
stored in molecules. Batteries are really STUDY SKILLS
storage devices for chemical energy. For
Keeping Track of Energy
example, the chemical energy in a battery
changes to electrical energy when you In this section, you will learn about
different forms of energy. Keep track
connect wires and a light bulb to the battery.
of these in a table. List the name of
Your body also uses chemical energy when each form of energy and write down
it converts food into energy so that you can any information you learn about it.
walk or think. A car and many other types
of machines use chemical energy when they
burn fuel to operate.
Electrical energy Electrical energy comes from electric charge, which is one of the fundamental
properties of all matter. You will learn more about electricity and electric
charge in Unit 7. The electrical energy we use in our homes is transformed
from other forms of energy, such as the chemical energy released by burning
oil and gas, or the mechanical energy released by falling water in a
hydroelectric dam or power plant.
Pressure energy Pressure in gases and liquids is also a form of energy. An inflated bicycle tire
has more energy than a flat tire. An inflated tire can hold up a bicycle (with
you on it) against the force of gravity while a flat tire cannot.
SC.912.P.10.1-Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be transformed from one form to others. 165
Chapter 7 ENERGY
More forms of energy

Elastic energy Elastic energy is energy that is stored or released when an object changes
nuclear energy - a form of energy
shape (or deforms). For example you use energy to stretch a rubber band. that is stored in the nuclei of atoms.
Some of the energy from your muscles is stored as elastic energy in the
radiant energy - a form of energy
stretched (changed) shape of the rubber band. The energy is released again that is represented by the
when the rubber band changes back to its original (unstretched) shape. electromagnetic spectrum.
Objects that are commonly used to store and release elastic energy include
rubber bands, springs, and archery bows (Figure 7.2).
Nuclear energy and Every second, about 5 million tons of mass is converted to energy through
radiant energy nuclear reactions in the core of the Sun. In the Sun, nuclear energy is
transformed to heat that eventually escapes the Sun as radiant energy.
Nuclear energy is a form of energy stored in the nuclei of atoms (particles
of matter). You will read more about nuclear energy and nuclear reactions in
Chapter 18. Radiant energy is energy that is carried by electromagnetic
waves. Light is one form of radiant energy, and so are radio waves that carry
music through the air.
The electromagnetic Light and radio waves are a traveling form of pure energy. In fact, they are
spectrum only two of a whole family of energy waves called the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum includes infrared radiation (heat),
visible light (what we see), and ultraviolet light. In other words, light energy
and heat energy are included in the electromagnetic spectrum. You will
recognize other components of the spectrum as well. You have listened to
radio waves, may have cooked with microwaves, and maybe you have had
an image made of a part of your body with X-rays.
Figure 7.2: A stretched bowstring on

a bent bow has elastic energy, so it is
able to create change in itself and in the
arrow.
ENERGY Chapter 7
The Sun and gravity

The Sun and energy Both living creatures and human technology derive virtually all of their
energy from the Sun. Without the Sun’s energy, Earth would be a cold, icy
place with a temperature of –273 degrees Celsius. The Sun’s energy not only
warms the planet, it also drives the entire food chain (Figure 7.3). Plants store
the energy as carbohydrates, like sugar. Animals eat the plants to get energy.
Other animals eat those animals for their energy. It all starts with the Sun.
Life on Mars and A very important question in science today
other planets is whether there is life on other planets such
as Mars. Mars is farther from the Sun than
Earth. For this reason, Mars receives less
energy from the Sun than does Earth. In
fact, the average temperature on Mars is
well below the freezing point of water. Can
life exist on Mars? Recent research suggests
that it may be possible. Scientists have
Figure 7.3: The flow of energy from
found bacteria in the Antarctic ice living at the Sun supports all living things on
a temperature colder than the average Earth.
temperature of Mars.
The planet Venus is closer to the Sun

than Earth. Should this make Venus
warmer or colder than Earth?
Gravity and energy A falling rock gains speed as it falls. Energy must be supplied to increase
Research your answer to see what
speed. The falling water that turns a hydroelectric turbine must also have
scientists think Venus is like on its
energy, otherwise no electrical energy could be produced. Where does this surface.
energy come from?
The answer has to do with Earth’s gravity. If an object, or any matter, is lifted
against gravity, energy is stored. This stored energy is transformed into
energy of motion, such as the object falling back down. Many forms of human
technology, including roller coasters, swings, water wheels, hydroelectric
power plants, and even a kind of medieval catapult called a trebuchet, rely
on gravity.
SC.912.P.10.1-Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be transformed from one form to others.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Energy and work

What work means In physics, the word work has a very specific meaning. Work is the transfer of
in physics energy that results from applying a force over a distance. Work is a product of
the force applied times the distance traveled (work = force × distance). For
example, if you push a block with a force of 1 newton for a distance of
1 meter, you do 1 joule of work. Both work and energy are measured in the
same units (joules) because work is a form of energy.
Work and Doing work always means transferring energy. The energy may be
potential energy transferred to the object to which force is applied, or it may go somewhere
else. For example, you can increase the energy of a rubber band by exerting a
force that stretches it. The work you do stretching the rubber band is stored
as elastic potential energy by the rubber band. The rubber band can then use
that stored energy to do work on a paper airplane, giving it energy
(Figure 7.4).
Work is done When thinking about work, you should always be clear about which force is
on objects doing the work on which object. Work is done on objects. If you lift a block
1 meter with a force of 1 newton, you have done 1 joule of work on the
block.
Energy is needed An object that has energy is able to do work; without energy, it is impossible
to do work to do work. In fact, energy can sometimes be thought of as stored work. As
the block you lifted earlier falls, it has energy that can be used to do work. If
the block hits a ball, it will do work on the ball and change the ball’s motion.
Some of the block’s energy is transferred to the ball during the collision
(left). You will learn more about the concept of work in the next chapter.
Figure 7.4: You can do work to
increase an object’s energy. Then that
energy can do work on another object,
giving it energy.
SC.912.P.10.3-Compare and contrast work and power qualitatively and quantitatively.
ENERGY Chapter 7
Potential energy
What is potential Potential energy is energy due to position. The word potential means that
potential energy - energy due to
energy? something is capable of becoming active. Systems or objects with potential
position.
energy are able to exert forces (exchange energy) as they change to other
arrangements. For example, a stretched spring has potential energy. If
released, the spring will use this energy to move itself (and anything attached
to it) back to its original length.
Gravitational A block suspended above a table has potential energy. If released, the force of
potential energy gravity moves the block down to a position of lower energy. The term
gravitational potential energy describes the energy of an elevated object. The
term is often shortened to just potential energy because the most common
type of potential energy in physics problems is gravitational. Unless
otherwise stated, you can assume potential energy means gravitational
potential energy.
How to calculate How much potential energy does a raised block have? The block’s potential
potential energy energy is exactly the amount of work it can do as it goes down. Work is force
multiplied by distance. The force is the weight (mg) of the block in newtons.
The distance the block can move down is its height (h) in meters. Multiplying
the weight by the distance gives you the block’s potential energy at any given
height (Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5: The potential energy of

the block is equal to the product of its
mass, the strength of gravity, and the
height from which the block can fall.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is Objects that are moving also have the ability to cause change. Energy of
kinetic energy - energy of
energy of motion motion is called kinetic energy. A moving billiard ball has kinetic energy
motion.
because it can hit another ball and change its motion. Kinetic energy can
easily be converted into potential energy. The kinetic energy of a basketball
tossed upward converts into potential energy as the height increases.
Kinetic energy The amount of kinetic energy an object has equals the amount of work the
can do work object can do by exerting force as it stops. Consider a moving skateboard and
rider (Figure 7.6). Suppose it takes a force of 500 newtons applied over a
distance of 10 meters to slow the skateboard down to a stop (500 N × 10 m =
5,000 joules). The kinetic energy of the skateboard and rider is 5,000 joules
since that is the amount of work it takes to stop the skateboard.
Kinetic energy If you had started with twice the mass—say, two skateboarders—you would
depends on mass have to do twice as much work to stop them both. Kinetic energy increases
and speed with mass. If the skateboard and rider are moving faster, it also takes more
work to bring them to a stop. This means kinetic energy also increases with
speed. Kinetic energy is related to both an object’s speed and its mass.
The formula for The kinetic energy of a moving object is equal to one half its mass multiplied
kinetic energy by the square of its speed. This formula comes from a combination of
relationships, including Newton’s second law, the distance equation for
acceleration (d = 1/2at2), and the calculation of energy as the product of force
and distance.
Figure 7.6: The amount of kinetic

energy the skateboard has is equal to the
amount of work that must be done to
stop the skateboard.
ENERGY Chapter 7
Solving Problems: Potential and Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy and Speed
Kinetic energy increases as the square
A 2 kilogram rock is at the edge of a cliff 20 meters above a lake. The rock of the speed. This means that if you go
becomes loose and falls toward the water below. Calculate its potential and twice as fast, your energy increases by
kinetic energy when it is at the top and when it is halfway down. Its speed is four times (22 = 4). If your speed is
14 m/s at the halfway point. three times as fast, your energy is nine
times bigger (32 = 9). A car moving at a
1. Looking for: You are asked for the potential and kinetic energy at two locations. speed of 100 km/h (62 mph) has four
times the kinetic energy it had when
2. Given: You are given the mass in kilograms, the height at each location in meters, going 50 km/h (31 mph). At a speed of
and the speed halfway down in m/s. You can assume the initial speed is 150 km/h (93 mph), it has nine times as
0 m/s because the rock starts from rest. much energy as it did at 50 km/h.
The stopping distance of a car is
1
3. Relationships: E p = mgh and Ek = mv 2 proportional to its kinetic energy. A car
2 going twice as fast has four times the
4. Solution: Potential energy at the top: m = 2 kg, g = 9.8 N/kg, and h = 20 m kinetic energy and needs four times the
Ep = (2 kg)(9.8 N/kg)(20 m) = 392 J stopping distance. This is why driving
at high speeds is so dangerous.
Potential energy halfway down: m = 2 kg, g = 9.8 N/kg, and h = 10 m
Ep = (2 kg)(9.8 N/kg)(10 m) = 196 J
Kinetic energy at the top: m = 2 kg and v = 0 m/s

Ek = (1/2)(2 kg)(02) = 0 J
Kinetic energy halfway down: m = 2 kg and v = 14 m/s

Ek = (1/2)(2 kg)(14 m/s)2 = 196 J
Your turn...
a. Calculate the potential energy of a 4-kilogram cat crouched 3 meters off
the ground. a. 117.6 J
b. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 4-kilogram cat running at 5 m/s. b. 50 J
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Section 7.1 Review

1. Imagine you are holding an apple.
a. Does this apple have energy? How do you know?
b. How could you increase the potential energy of this apple?
c. How could you increase the kinetic energy of this apple?
2. Do a stretched spring and a box on a high shelf both have potential
energy? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
3. A book on a 2-meter high shelf has 20 joules of potential energy. What is Energy from Food
the mass of this book?
4. A 1-kilogram ball has 8 joules of kinetic energy. What is its speed?
5. If the speed of a ball increased from 1 m/s to 4 m/s, by how much would
kinetic energy increase?
6. Which of these graphs illustrates the relationship between speed and the
amount of kinetic energy for a 1-kilogram object?
We get energy from eating food. The

Calorie is a unit of energy often used
for food. One food Calorie is equal to
4,187 joules. One calorie (lowercase
“c”) equals 4.187 joules.
1. If you push a box a distance of
2,000 meters with a force of
1 newton, how many Calories
7. List two forms of mechanical energy. have you used?
8. Does a rubber band have more or less elastic energy when it is stretched? 2. If you push a box for a distance of
9. Name a form of energy that is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. 1 meter with a force of 4.187
newtons, how many calories have
been used?
ENERGY Chapter 7
7.2 Energy Transformations

Systems change as energy flows and changes from one part of the system to another. Parts of the
system may speed up or slow down, get warmer or colder, or change in other measurable ways.
Each change transfers energy or transforms energy from one form to another.
Transforming energy
An example of An example of a flow of energy is illustrated below. This example involves
energy flow transforming chemical energy into electrical energy. The chemical energy
(a fuel) is a gas called methane. It is burned in a chemical reaction and heat
energy is released. The heat energy makes hot steam. The steam turns a
device called a turbine, making mechanical energy. Finally, the turbine turns
an electric generator, producing electrical energy. You can obtain this
electrical energy by “plugging in” to an electrical outlet!
From high to How can we predict how energy will flow? One thing we can always be sure
low energy of is that systems tend to move from higher to lower energy. For example, at
the top of a roller coaster hill, the car has more potential energy (Figure 7.7). Figure 7.7: This roller coaster car
The potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy as the car rolls down the illustrates how systems go from high to
hill. Once it reaches the bottom, the car has less potential energy and is more low energy to become more stable.
Potential energy decreases as the car
stable. rolls down the hill. Kinetic energy
Friction and the At the bottom of a hill, a roller coaster car has more kinetic energy. Without eventually decreases due to friction
law of conservation friction, due to Newton’s first law of motion, the car would roll on a straight along the track and is transformed to
of energy path forever. However, on a straight path, the kinetic energy of the car heat and the wear of the wheels.
eventually decreases due to friction slowing it down. Friction transforms

energy of motion to energy of heat or to the wearing away of the material of
the wheels. The energy converted to heat or wear is no longer available as
potential energy or kinetic energy, but it was not destroyed!
SC.912.P.10.2-Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open, closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a conserved quantity.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Following an energy transformation

An example Suppose you are skating and you come to a steep hill. You know skating
of energy up the hill requires energy. From your mass and the height of the hill you can
transformation calculate how much more potential energy you will have on the top
(Figure 7.8, top). You need at least this much energy, plus some additional
energy, to overcome friction.
Chemical energy to The energy you use to climb the hill comes from food. The chemical
potential energy potential energy stored in the food you ate is converted into simple sugars
that are burned as your muscles work against gravity as you climb the hill.
Upon reaching the top of the hill, some of the energy you spent is now stored
as potential energy because your position is higher than when you began.
Some of the energy was also converted by your body into heat. Can you
think of any other places the energy might have gone?
How does potential Once you get over the top of the hill and start to coast down the other side,
energy get used? your speed increases. An increase in speed implies an increase in kinetic
energy that comes from the potential energy gained from climbing up the
hill. Energy was saved and used to “purchase” greater speed as you descend
down the other side of the hill (Figure 7.8, bottom).
Figure 7.8: How to calculate
Kinetic energy If you are not careful, stored up potential energy can generate too much potential energy needed, and speed on
is used up in speed! Assuming you want to make it down the hill with no injuries, some of the way down.
the brakes the kinetic energy must change into some other form. Brakes on your skates
slow you down and use up the extra kinetic energy. Brakes convert kinetic
energy into heat and the wearing away of the brake pads. As you slow to a
stop at the bottom of the hill, you should notice that your brakes are very hot,
and some of the rubber is worn away.
The flow of energy During the trip up and down the hill, energy flowed through many forms.
Starting with chemical energy, some energy appeared in the form of potential
energy, kinetic energy, heat, air friction, sound, evaporation, and more.
During all these transformations, no energy was lost because energy can
never be created or destroyed. All the energy you started with went Figure 7.9: A few of the forms the
energy goes through during the skating
somewhere (Figure 7.9). trip.
ENERGY Chapter 7
Energy in your life

Common units of A joule is a tiny amount of energy compared to what you use every day. One
energy joule is just enough energy to lift a pint of ice cream 21 centimeters off the
table. That same pint of ice cream releases 3 million times as much energy
when it is digested by your body! Some units of energy that are more
appropriate for everyday use are the kilowatt-hour (kWh), food Calorie, and
British thermal unit (Btu) (Figure 7.10).
Daily energy use The table below gives some average values for the energy used by humans in
daily activities.
Table 7.1: Daily energy use in different energy units
Gallons
Activity kWh Joules
of gas
Climb a flight of stairs
0.017 60,000 0.0005
Use an electric light

for 1 hour 0.1 360,000 0.003
Cook an average meal

1 3,600,000 0.03
Cut the grass

18 65,000,000 0.5
Drive 30 miles to the

mall and back in a 36 130,000,000 1
small, efficient car Figure 7.10: Energy units you might
use in daily life.
Drive 30 miles to the
mall and back in 72 260,000,000 2
a large SUV
SC.912.L.17.11-Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests. 175
SC.912.L.17.15-Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.
SC.912.N.4.2-Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Section 7.2 Review

1. When you rub your hands together, you produce a little heat. Describe At the end of a ride up a steep hill, Ken
the flow of energy that causes the heat to be produced. Use the terms was at an elevation of 1,600 meters
chemical energy, kinetic energy, friction, and heat in your answer. above where he started. He figured out
that he and his bicycle had stored
2. Arrange the four energy units from largest to smallest.
1,000,000 joules of energy. If Ken has
a. joule (J) a mass of 54 kg, what is the mass of
b. kilowatt-hour (kWh) Ken’s bicycle?
c. British thermal unit (Btu) (Hint: g = 9.8 m/s2)
d. Calorie (kcal or C)
3. Martha wakes up at 5:30 a.m. and eats a bowl of corn flakes. It’s a nice
day, so she decides to ride her bicycle to work, which is uphill from her
house. It is still dark outside. Martha’s bike has a small electric
generator that runs from the front wheel. She flips on the generator so
that her headlight comes on when she starts to pedal. She then rides her
bike to work. Draw a diagram that shows the energy transformations
that occur in this situation.
176
ENERGY Chapter 7
7.3 Conservation and Forms of Energy

What happens when you throw a ball straight up in the air (Figure 7.11)? The ball leaves your hand law of conservation of energy -
with kinetic energy it gained while your hand accelerated it from rest. As the ball goes higher, it energy can never be created or
gains potential energy. However, the ball slows down as it rises so its kinetic energy decreases. The destroyed, only transformed into
another form. The total amount of
increase in potential energy is exactly equal to the decrease in kinetic energy. The kinetic energy
energy in the universe is constant.
converts into potential energy, and the ball’s total energy stays the same!
The law of conservation of energy

Law of conservation The idea that energy transforms from one form into another without a change
of energy in the total amount is called the law of conservation of energy. The law
states that energy can never be created or destroyed, just transformed from
one form into another. The law of conservation of energy is one of the most
important laws in physics. It applies to not only kinetic and potential energy,
but to all forms of energy.
Energy can never be created or destroyed, just
transformed from one form into another.
Using energy The law of conservation of energy explains how a ball’s launch speed affects
conservation its motion. As the ball in Figure 7.11 moves upward, it slows down and loses
kinetic energy. Eventually, it reaches a point where all the kinetic energy has
been converted to potential energy. The ball has moved as high as it will go
and its upward speed has been reduced to zero. If the ball had been launched
with a greater speed, it would have started with more kinetic energy. It would
have had to climb higher for all of the kinetic energy to be converted into
potential energy. If the exact launch speed is given, the law of conservation of
energy can be used to predict the height the ball reaches.
Energy converts The ball’s conversion energy on the way down is opposite what it was on the
from kinetic to way up. As the ball falls, its speed increases and its height decreases. The
potential potential energy decreases as it converts into kinetic energy. If gravity is the Figure 7.11: When you throw a ball
in the air, the energy transforms from
only force acting on the ball, it returns to your hand with exactly the same kinetic to potential and then back to
speed and kinetic energy it started with—except that now it moves in the kinetic.
opposite direction.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Using energy conservation to solve problems

How to use energy Energy conservation is a direct way to find out what happens before and after
conservation a change from one form of energy into another (Figure 7.12). The law of
energy conservation says the total energy before the change equals the total
energy after it. In many cases (with falling objects, for instance), you need
not worry about force or acceleration. Applying energy conservation allows
you to find speeds and heights easily. Figure 7.12: Applying energy
conservation.
Solving Problems: Energy Conservation

A 2-kg car moving with a speed of 2 m/s starts up a hill. How high does the
car roll before it stops (Figure 7.13)?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the height.
2. Given: You are given the mass in kg, and starting speed in m/s.
3. Relationships: EK = 12 mv 2 , EP = mgh
4. Solution: Find the kinetic energy at the start:

EK = (1/2)(2 kg)(2 m/s) 2 = 4 J Figure 7.13: How high does the car
Use the potential energy to find the height: roll before it stops?
mgh = 4 J; therefore:
h = (4 J) ÷ (2 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
= 0.2 m
The car rolls upward to a height of 0.2 m above where it started.
a. 147,000 J
Your turn...
a. A 500.-kg roller coaster car starts from rest at the top of a 60.0-meter hill. b. 20 m
Find its potential energy when it is halfway to the bottom.
b. A 1-kg ball is tossed straight up with a kinetic energy of 196 J. How high
does it go?
178 SC.912.P.10.2-Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open, closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a conserved quantity.
ENERGY Chapter 7
“Using” and “conserving” energy in the everyday sense

“Conserving” Almost everyone has heard that it is good to “conserve energy” and not waste
Switch to Fluorescent Bulbs
energy it. This is useful advice because energy from gasoline or electricity costs
money and uses resources. But what does it mean to “use energy” in the
everyday sense? If energy can never be created or destroyed, how can it be
“used up”? Why do people worry about “running out” of energy?
“Using” energy When you “use” energy by turning on a light, you are really converting
energy from one form (electricity) to other forms (light and heat). What gets
“used up” is the amount of energy in the form of electricity. Electricity is a
valuable form of energy because it is easy to move over long distances
(through wires). In the “physics” sense, the energy is not “used up” but
converted into other forms. The total amount of energy stays constant.
Power plants Electric power plants don’t make electrical energy. Energy cannot be created. There are about 300,000,000 people
in the United States. If an average
What power plants do is convert other forms of energy (chemical, solar, house has 4 light bulbs per person, it
nuclear) into electrical energy. When someone asks you to turn out the lights adds up to 1,200,000,000 light bulbs.
to conserve energy, they are asking you to use less electrical energy. If people One kWh of electrical energy will light
used less electrical energy, power plants would burn less oil, gas, or other a bulb for 10 hours. Multiplying by
fuels in “producing” the electrical energy they sell. 4 bulbs per person totals 120,000,000
kWh every hour just for light bulbs!
“Running out” Many people are concerned about “running out” of energy. What they worry
An average electric power plant puts
of energy about is running out of certain forms of energy that are easy to use, such as out 1,000,000 kWh of electrical
fossil fuels like oil and gas. It took millions of years to accumulate these fuels energy per hour. That means
because they are derived from decaying, ancient plants that obtained their 120 power plants are burning up
energy from the Sun when they were alive. Because it took a long time for resources each hour just to run light
these plants to grow, decay, and become oil and gas, fossil fuels are a limited bulbs! Regular (incandescent) light
bulbs convert only 10 percent of
resource. electrical energy to light. Fluorescent
Transitioning to When you use gas in a car, the chemical energy in the gasoline mostly bulbs make the same amount of light
new resources becomes heat energy. It is impractical to put the energy back into the form of with one quarter the electrical energy.
If everyone switched from
gasoline, so we say the energy has been “used up,” even though the energy incandescent bulbs to fluorescent
itself is still there, only in a different form. Other forms of energy, such as bulbs we would save 75 percent of the
flowing water, wind, and solar energy are not as limited. They don’t get used electricity currently used for lighting!
up. Many scientists hope our society will make a transition to these forms of
energy over the next 100 years.
SC.912.L.17.11-Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests. 179
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Energy and running

Humans have high You know that you cannot run as fast as a dog or many other animals, like
Speed vs. Endurance
endurance the cheetah. Human beings get tired and have to rest after running fast.
Although humans are not the best sprinters on the planet, they are the best The top speed of a cheetah is 30 m/s
and the top speed of a human is
runners in terms of endurance. Scientists are learning that the human body is
10 m/s. A human cannot outrun a
ideal for running long distances. cheetah over a short distance.
Heat production Machines, including the human body, always lose some of the converted However, a human could win a long
distance race. Because the furry body
energy to heat. Car engines and computers all produce heat that can cause
of a cheetah does not effectively
damage unless it is removed. This is why cars have radiators and computers release heat, it gets overheated
have fans. quickly and is exhausted after a high-
speed sprint. Humans, on the other
Humans keep cool The human body works a little like a radiator by directing blood toward the
hand, constantly release heat from the
skin’s surface. Blood flowing near the surface can lose some heat to the skin’s surface by sweating and have
relatively cooler air. A more effective way of removing heat is sweating. As greater endurance as a result.
sweat leaves the body, it evaporates from the skin and carries away heat.
This one mechanism—sweating—makes it possible for human beings to run
for long periods of time. Humans can continuously cool down while
performing strenuous exercise like running. Animals with fur, like cheetahs,
quickly get overheated and need to rest (see sidebar at the right). Scientists
believe that sweating has allowed mankind to be successful at hunting large
game throughout human history.
Energy conservation The Achilles tendon is a good example of energy conversion between kinetic
and the and potential energy (Figure 7.14). When the heel is down, the Achilles
Achilles tendon tendon stretches like a rubber band and potential energy is stored. Let’s say
100 units of energy are stored. As the foot moves through the running stride,
the tendon shortens and pulls up the heel using about 90 units of this stored
energy. In effect, the energy transformation by the Achilles tendon and the
associated muscles in the foot is 90 percent. Only 10 percent of the stored
energy is lost as heat!
Figure 7.14: The Achilles tendon
illustrates energy conversion.
ENERGY Chapter 7
Section 7.3 Review

1. Explain what it means to say that energy is conserved.
2. Imagine you are the teacher of a science class. A student brings in a
newspaper article that claims the world will run out of energy by the year
2050 because all the oil will be pumped out of the planet. The student is Energy Projects
confused because she has learned in your class that energy can never be Conduct Internet research on energy
created or destroyed. How would you explain to her what “running out of conservation. Use your favorite
energy” means in the article? search engine and the following
keywords to help you find
3. Explain what it means to say that energy is conserved as a ball falls information: green communities,
toward the ground. energy conservation local, and local
4. Challenge: Some but not all of the gasoline used by a car’s engine is electricity costs. The United States
transformed into kinetic energy. Where might some of the energy go in Environmental Protection Agency is
another good resource
this system? (www.epa.gov).
5. A 0.5 kg ball moving at a speed of 3 m/s rolls up a hill. How high does the
1. Research what is going on in your
ball roll before it stops? community regarding energy
6. Explain in your own words why energy is considered to be “nature’s conservation. Write about a
money.” Give an example to support your explanation. project designed to save energy
that is being planned or is already
7. The table below lists normal and abnormal events. Explain why some
implemented. How much energy
events would never happen normally. has been or might be saved?
2. Every month your family pays an
Normal evens Abnormal events electric bill for energy you have
A ball rolls downhill A ball at rest begins to roll uphill used. Research the cost of
electricity in your area. How much
An apple falls off a tree and lands An apple on the ground flies up does it cost for 1 million joules?
on the ground into the tree This is the amount of energy used
A stretched rubber band snaps A rubber band fully stretches on its by a single electric light bulb in
back to its original shape own 3 hours.
SC.912.N.1.4-Identify sources of information and assess their reliability according to the strict standards of scientific investigation. 181
ENERGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 7
A Matter of
frequent enemy target, making the battery supply runs dangerous
as well as expensive.
Survival
Seeking Solutions
In 2005, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
launched its Very High Efficiency Solar Cell (VHESC) program.
Solar Cells Make Soldiers’ Lives Safer The goal of the program is to develop solar cells that would operate
at or above 50 percent efficiency. This means that at least 50 percent
of the Sun’s energy that hits the cell will be converted to electricity.
Dusk falls. A weary, sweat-soaked This is three times the efficiency of the best solar cells currently used
American soldier sets down his to power military equipment.
60-pound backpack next to his cot. He’s
The new solar cells can’t be more than one centimeter thick so they
just spent twelve hours searching the can fit into the smallest devices, and they have to be durable, since a
dry, dusty Afghanistan hillside. soldier’s life can depend on properly functioning equipment.
In addition to the heavy body armor These solar cells would be placed in a small recharging device
he wears in the 40°C (104°F) heat, strapped to the soldier’s pack. While one set of batteries was in
the soldier carries his weapon, use, another set would be recharged by the Sun as the soldier
ammunition, clothing, meals, and went about her work. The 20 pounds of spare batteries could
plenty of water. His pack also be reduced to just 10 pounds, and the need for weekly resupply
contains electronic gadgets such as a virtually eliminated.
radio, GPS, night vision goggles, and
20 pounds of spare batteries to keep
them running.
Creativity and Collaboration
DARPA awarded a research
The soldier’s gear helps keep him and development contract
safe, but ironically, the size and to a group called Portable
The total weight a soldier carries can exceed weight of this load can make his
120 pounds. Solar Power Consortium. Drs.
job more dangerous. The total Allen Barnett and Christiana
weight a soldier carries can exceed Honsberg are co-principal
120 pounds. Can you imagine how much faster and easier his investigators in photovoltaic
movement would be if he could lighten this load? development for the program.
A group of university, government, and industry scientists The group includes top scientists
are working together to do just that. Their goal is to invent from 14 institutions throughout
high-efficiency solar cells to recharge the soldiers’ batteries. the United States.
Currently, a soldier’s battery supply lasts three to seven days and How do these scientists
then needs to be replaced. Fresh batteries have to be flown in to University of Delaware researchers Dr. Christiana work as a team despite their
an airfield and then delivered by supply convoys. The convoys are a Honsberg and Dr. Allen Barnett
geographic separation?
SC.912.L.17.11–Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests.
ENERGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 7
Dr. Allen Barnett explains, “What we’ve done is create a virtual High-energy light is first absorbed in one type of photovoltaic
lab by having all of these [institutions] in the consortium. material, medium-energy light in a second type, and low-energy
This has given us access to a broad range of . . . expertise and light in a third kind of photovoltaic material. Each of these materials
equipment. The program was divided into three areas: optics, is especially good at converting the kind of light that falls on it
high performance solar cells, and low cost approaches. There is into electricity.
an active communications stream including weekly web-based
teleconferences in key performance areas, monthly and quarterly The group says that as many as six light-sensitive materials could be
meetings in other areas, and meetings of the whole program on a used in their cell. Less expensive materials could be swapped in to
four-to-six-month basis.” reduce cost in devices where efficiency wasn’t as great a concern.
This flexibility is one of the design’s greatest assets.
By July 2007, this group had developed a revolutionary design which
could theoretically achieve a record solar module efficiency. The Next Steps
Dr. Honsberg comments, “Solar electricity is such an important On the basis of this early success, DARPA increased the group’s
problem, with so many ramifications—from mitigating climate funding so that they can manufacture enough of the experimental
change to improving the quality of life in developing countries, to cells to create modules that can be tested in the field.
more specific applications like the military ones developed for this
project. The key feature of this project is that it demonstrates the If the project is successful, these new high efficiency solar cells are
power of ‘outside the box’ solutions in engineering. High efficiency likely to find their way into the daily lives of ordinary citizens as well
solar cells have been gradually increasing by a few percentage as soldiers in the next decade.
points over the last decade. To achieve a potential two percentage Imagine a cell phone that you never
point increase in only one and a half years demonstrates the power have to plug into a charger, or even
of creative solutions in technological advances.” a highly efficient rooftop solar panel
generating electricity to power your
The New Design home appliances on sunny days.
The group’s design uses
a concentrator lens
that gathers sunlight
Questions:
and focuses it onto the
solar cell at 20 times 1. Name two advantages of rechargeable solar cell batteries
its natural intensity. over the batteries that soldiers currently carry.
If you have ever used
a magnifying glass to 2. How has teamwork been important to the solar cell project?
focus sunlight on a dry 3. Research: Many high-tech devices that ordinary people use
leaf (careful—it will
every day were first invented for military purposes.
burn!), you have used a
Can you name two others?
similar process.
In the VHESC program’s experimental solar cells, incoming light Dr. Honsberg and Dr. Barnett photo by Carlos Alejandro
The beam of sunlight is concentrated 20 times. The light passes through a high-energy
is then split into three absorbing material (light blue) to a mirror that splits and redirects
different energy levels. medium- (green) and low- (red) energy light to other materials.
Chapter 7 ENERGY
Vocabulary a. An ocean wave at the beach knocks over a sand castle.
b. Your houseplant grows better when it is placed in
sunlight.
law of conservation of energy kinetic energy energy c. When you eat breakfast in the morning, you have more
potential energy chemical energy radiant energy energy for your school day.
mechanical energy nuclear energy joule d. When you drop a plate it breaks into pieces.
Calorie e. Your hair dryer works when you plug it into an
Section 7.1 electrical outlet.
1. This energy is related to Earth’s gravity: ____. 3. In the chapter, you learned that you can increase the
pressure energy of a tire by blowing it up. Give another
2. Energy that is due to motion is called ____.
example of an object that has pressure energy.
3. The ____ is the SI unit of energy.
4. What provides and has always provided most of Earth’s
4. A fossil fuel is a good example of this kind of energy: ____ energy for living things and technology?
5. Potential energy and kinetic are types of this kind of energy: 5. Explain how work and energy are related.
____
6. Describe the difference between potential and kinetic
6. ____ from the Sun depends on this kind of energy: ____ energy.
Section 7.2 7. Copy the following table onto a piece of paper and fill it in
7. This unit is often use to measure the amount of energy in based on your understanding of potential and kinetic
food: ____ energy.
Section 7.3 Potential Kinetic
8. The ____ states that in a closed system the total amount of Energy Energy
energy does not change over time. What’s the formula?
What happens to energy when the mass of
an object increases?
Concepts What happens when the object is lifted to
Section 7.1 a higher height (without a change in
speed)?
1. What does energy give objects the ability to do?
What happens when the speed of an
2. Identify at least one way that energy is involved in these object increases (without a change in
situations: height)?
184 SC.912.N.4.2-Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental.
ENERGY Chapter 7
8. Which of the following is equivalent to 2 joules? 13. What is the difference between a resource that is limited
a. 2 newtons and one that is not limited? Give an example of each.
b. 2 kg-m2/s2
c. 2 kilograms Problems
d. 2 meters Section 7.1
Section 7.2 1. What is the minimum energy required to lift an object
9. Give an example of how energy flows in a system. Come up weighing 200 newtons to a height of 20 meters?
with an example that was not explained in the text. 2. Three hundred joules of energy are used to push an object
10. A sled going down a hill covered in snow eventually comes to with a force of 75 newtons. What is the maximum distance
a stop. Explain why this happens in terms of energy. Use the object can move?
the terms potential energy, kinetic energy, and friction. 3. Calculate the potential energy of a bird sitting on a tree
Section 7.3 limb. The mass of the bird is 0.1 kilogram and it is 5 meters
11. A roller coaster track is a good example of the law of off the ground.
conservation of energy. Use this law to explain these facts 4. How high is a 0.1-kilogram bird from the ground when its
about a roller coaster track. potential energy is 3 joules?
a. The largest hill for a roller coaster track is the first hill 5. What is the kinetic energy of a 2,000 kg car that is traveling
on the track. The hills after the first are smaller and 10 m/s?
smaller.
Section 7.2
b. To get to the top of the first (highest) hill, a motor pulls
the cars up to the top. After the top of the first hill, a 6. On a typical day, let’s say you do the following: cook three
motor is not needed to keep the cars going. average meals, climb two flights of stairs, use an electric
light for six hours, and ride in a small, efficient car for
c. The roller coaster car moves really fast at the bottom of
15 miles. What is the total amount of energy that has been
a hill on the track but slows down as it moves up a hill
used in these activities? Record your answer in kilowatt-
(not including the first hill).
hours, joules, and gallons of gas.
12. Describe the relative amounts of potential and kinetic
Section 7.3
energy for a book in the following situations.
7. A 2 kg ball is released from rest at the top of a track and
a. The book on a high shelf which is 2 meters off the
reaches a speed of 10 m/s at the bottom.
ground.
b. The book after it has fallen off the 2-meter shelf and is a. How much kinetic energy does the ball have?
now 1 meter off the ground. b. How much potential energy did it have at the top of the
c. The book just before it hits the ground. hill (assuming no energy was lost)?
c. What was the height of the hill?
SC.912.N.4.2-Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental. 185
Chapter 7 ENERGY
8. An 80-kilogram cliff diver is standing on a cliff that is Section 7.2

30 meters high. 4. The images below show what happens when a child rides a
a. What it the potential energy of the cliff diver? swing. Match the following descriptions to the images.
b. The diver makes his dive. What is his potential energy
when he is 10 meters above the water surface?
c. What is the kinetic energy of the diver when he is
traveling at 19.6 m/s during his dive?
d. What is the potential energy of the diver when he is
traveling at 19.6 m/s?
Applying Your Knowledge a. High potential energy

b. High kinetic energy
Section 7.1
c. Equal amounts of potential and kinetic energy
1. Solar energy and hydroelectric energy are important sources
Section 7.3
of energy. Find out more about either one of these forms of
energy. What is being done to make it a more efficient 5. Here is some data for kinetic energy versus speed for a
source of energy, and where it is being used in the United moving object. Make a graph of this data and answer the
States. following questions. Place kinetic energy on the y-axis and
speed on the x-axis.
2. Gas and oil are nonrenewable resources. Make a list of
renewable resources (e.g., solar and hydroelectric energy). Speed (m/s) Kinetic Energy (joules)
Find data that indicates how much nonrenewable resources
12 720
are used in the U.S.
24 2,880
3. Nuclear energy is a controversial energy resource. Find out 48 11,520
why. List two pros and two cons for this form of energy. 60 18,000
a. What is the mass of the object represented by this data set?

b. Use your graph to find the kinetic energy at 30 m/s. Then
use the kinetic energy formula to check yourself.
c. In the Section 7.1 review you saw two graphs. One could be
described as linear and the other could be described as
exponential. Find out which is which. Identify which of
these terms describes the relationship of kinetic energy
versus speed.
LA.910.2.2.3-The student will organize information to show understanding or relationships among facts, ideas, and events.
186 SC.912.L.17.11-Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests.
Chapter 8
Work and Power
We all have our ideas about what the word work means. Sometimes we
really want to work on something we enjoy—like learning how to play
guitar. Other times, we would like to be lazy and do no work. You may also have ideas about the
words efficiency and power. In science, work, efficiency, and power have special meanings.
Work means that something is moved by a force. Look at the excavator on this page. What is
being moved? What force is involved? Machines like excavators have a lot of power because
they help people move more dirt faster. However, is this machine as efficient at moving dirt as
the human body machine? Think about these questions as you get to work reading this chapter!
Are you really doing work when you

do your science homework?
What is the relationship between

work and power?
How can you produce more

power than an excavator?
Chapter 8 WORK AND POWER
8.1 Work
Energy is a measure of an object’s ability to do work. If you have energy, then you can do work. work - a form of energy that comes
That means you can make forces that act to move things. Suppose you lift your book over your from force applied over distance. A
head. Your arm muscles make forces, and those forces cause the book to move, therefore you do force of 1 newton does 1 joule of work
when the force causes 1 meter of
work. Now, suppose you lift your book fast, then lift it again slowly. The work is the same because
motion in the direction of the force.
the force it takes to lift the book (its weight) is the same, and the distance (height) is the same. But
it feels different to do the work fast or slow. The difference between doing work fast or slow is
described by power. Power is the rate at which energy flows or at which work is done. This
section is about work and power.
Reviewing the definition of work

What work means In the last chapter you learned that work has a very specific meaning in
in physics physical science. Work is the transfer of energy that results from applying a
force over a distance (Figure 8.1). If you push a box with a force of 1 newton
for a distance of 1 meter, you do 1 joule of work. Both work and energy are
measured in the same units (joules) because work is a form of energy.
Work is done by When thinking about work, remember that work is done by forces that cause
forces that cause movement. If nothing moves (distance is zero), then no work is done, even if
movement a huge force is applied. For example, in the scientific sense, you don’t do any
work if you push a box that stays glued to the table. However, if you push the Figure 8.1: Work is a form of energy
box 1 meter with a force of 1 newton, you have done 1 joule of work. you either use or get when a force is
applied over a distance.
STUDY SKILLS
When studying, remember that the
definition for a joule, the unit of
energy, is the same as the definition
for work!
188 SC.912.N.2.2-Identify which questions can be answered through science and which questions are outside the boundaries of scientific investigation, such as questions addressed by other ways of
knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion.
WORK AND POWER Chapter 8
Reviewing work and energy

Energy is needed Recall that energy is always needed to do work. An object that has energy is
to do work able to do work; without energy, it is impossible to do work. The more energy
you have, the more work you can do. For example, a ball rolling across a table
has kinetic energy that can be used to do work. If the ball collides with a toy
car, it will do work on the car and change its motion. Some of the ball’s
kinetic energy is transferred to the car. Collision is a common method of
doing work.
Work and Doing work always means transferring energy. The energy may be
energy transfer transferred to the object to which the force is applied to, or it may go
somewhere else. For example, you can increase the potential energy of a
rubber band by exerting a force that stretches it. The work you do stretching
the rubber band is stored as elastic energy in the rubber band. In this case, the
work you do stretching the rubber band is partially transferred to the rubber
band itself. The rubber band can then use the elastic energy to do work on a
toy car, giving it kinetic energy (Figure 8.2).
Work may not The exact amount of energy used to do work is always transferred
increase the energy somewhere. But not all work is transformed to the kind of energy you might
Figure 8.2: You can do work to increase
of an object initially think about. For example, you can do work on a block by sliding it an object’s potential energy. Then the
across a level table. In this example, the work you do does not increase the potential energy can be converted to kinetic
energy of the block. Because the block will not slide back all by itself, it does energy.
not gain the ability to do work itself, therefore it gains no energy. Your work is
done to overcome friction and eventually becomes heat and wear.
Work done against gravity STUDY SKILLS

What is the most Work is only done by the part of a Summarizing Work and Energy
effective force force that acts in the same direction
to do work? Work
as the resulting motion. Force A in
the diagram does no work at all Measured in joules.
because it does not cause the block The action of making things change.
to move sideways. Force B is Energy
applied at an angle to the direction Measured in joules.
of motion of the block. Only part of
The ability to make things change.
force B (in the direction the block
moves) does work. The most Energy moves through the action
effective force is force C. All of of work.
force C does work because force C Example: When you push a cart
acts in the same direction the block up a ramp, some of the energy is
transferred to the cart by doing work
moves.
on it. Your energy decreases by the
Lifting force Many situations involve work done by or against the force of gravity. To lift amount of work done. The energy of
equals the weight something off the floor, you must apply an upward force with a strength the cart increases by the same
amount of work (if there is no friction).
equal to the object’s weight. The work done while lifting an object is equal to Whenever work is done, energy
its change in potential energy. It does not matter whether you lift the object moves from the system doing the
straight up or you carry it up the stairs in a zig-zag pattern. The work is the work to the system on which the work
same in either case. is being done.
For you to do: Make a diagram that
Work done against gravity is equal to weight illustrates what happens to your
multiplied by the change in height. energy and the cart’s energy as you
do work on the cart by pushing it up
Why the path The reason the path does not matter is because work is only done by the part a hill.
does not matter of a force that acts in the direction of the motion. Gravity acts vertically so
only vertical motion counts towards work. If you move an object on a
diagonal, only the vertical distance matters, because the force of gravity is
vertical. It is much easier to climb stairs or go up a ramp but the work done
against gravity is the same as if you jumped straight up. Stairs and ramps are
easier because you need less force. But you have to apply the force over a
longer distance. In the end, the total work done against gravity is the same,
no matter what path you take.
190 SC.912.P.10.3-Compare and contrast work and power qualitatively and quantitatively.
Solving Problems: Work
How much work is done by a person who pushes a cart with a force of
50 newtons if the cart moves 20 meters in the direction of the force
(Figure 8.3)?
1. Looking for: You are asked for work.

2. Given: You are given values for force and distance. Figure 8.3: How much work is this
person doing by pushing the cart?
3. Relationships: Work = force × distance.
4. Solution: The work done is: 50 N × 20 m = 1,000 J.
Your turn...
a. How far does a 100-newton force have to move to do 1,000 joules
of work?
b. An electric hoist does 500 joules of work lifting a crate 2 meters. How a. 10 meters
much force does the hoist use?
b. 250 newtons
c. An athlete does one push-up. In the
process, she moves half of her body c. 50 joules
weight, 250 newtons, a distance of d. You didn’t do any work because
20 centimeters. This distance is the the wall did not move.
distance her center of gravity moves
when she fully extends her arms. How
much work did she do after one push-up?
d. You decide to push on a brick wall with all your might for 5 minutes. You
push so hard that you begin to sweat. However, the wall does not move.
If you end up pushing with a force of 500 newtons, how much work did
you do?
191
Section 8.1 Review

1. What is the best way to define work?
a. applying force for a period of time
b. moving a certain distance
c. applying a force over a distance
d. applying force at a given speed
2. Push a box across a table with a force of 5 newtons and the box moves
0.5 meters. How much work has been accomplished?
3. If you do 200 joules of work using a force of 50 newtons, over what
distance was the force applied?
4. A cart was pulled for a distance of 1 kilometer and the amount of work
accomplished equaled 40,000 joules. With what force was the work
accomplished?
5. In which of these cases is a waiter doing work on the object (Figure 8.4)?
Situation 1: The waiter is carrying a tray of glasses across a room.
Situation 2: The waiter is pushing a cart across a room. Figure 8.4: Question 5.
6. When you climb a flight of stairs, you are moving your body weight (a
force) up a certain distance (the vertical height from the bottom to the
top stair). In which case does the amount of work you do increase?
Design Your Own Work Problem
a. You run up 10 stairs then you run up 50 stairs.
b. You walk slowly up 10 stairs and then you run up 10 stairs really fast. To design your work problem,
describe a situation involving work
7. How is work related to potential and kinetic energy? and provide the force and distance
8. A 2-kilogram object falls 3 meters. values. Solve the problem to find the
a. How much potential energy did the object have before it fell? correct answer.
b. How much work was accomplished by the fall? Then, give your problem to a friend
and have them solve it. Check and
9. It takes 300 newtons of force and a distance of 20 meters for a moving see if they got the right answer.
cart to come to a stop.
a. How much work is done on the cart?
b. How much kinetic energy did this cart have?
192
8.2 Efficiency and Power

a)
One day your science teacher declares, “Today we are going to do our work with greater efficiency work input - the work that is done
and greater power.” That sounds like a good idea, but what does your teacher mean? Read on and on an object.
you will find out! work output - the work that an
object does as a result of work input.
Work input and output
Input work and Every process that transforms energy can be
output work thought of as a machine. Work or energy
goes in one end and work or energy comes
out the other end. The “machine” may be a Input work
rs
2 meters
ete
toaster heating bread which transforms × 5 newtons
2m
electrical energy into heat, or even a human consuming food in order to have = 10 joules
the energy to exercise. Using this concept, the work input is the work or
energy supplied to the process (or machine). The work output is the work or 5N
energy that comes out of the process (or machine).
A rope and As an example, consider using a rope and pulley machine to lift a load
pulley example weighing 10 newtons (Figure 8.5). If you lift the load a distance of 1 meter,
the machine has done 10 joules of work and the work output is 10 joules. For
Output work
this particular machine, you only need to pull with a force of 5 newtons, but 1 meter
1 meter
you need to pull the rope a distance of 2 meters. Your work input is × 10 newtons
5 newtons × 2 meters or 10 joules. = 10 joules
How work input and The example of a rope and pulley machine illustrates a rule that is true for all
output are related machines and all processes that transform energy. The total energy of work
output can never be greater than the total energy of work input. Figure 8.5: The work input of the
rope and pulley machine is the same as
The energy output of a process or machine can the work output.
never exceed the energy input.
You may recognize this statement as just another way of saying the law of
conservation of energy. You are right! If you carefully account for all the
work and energy in any process, you find that the total work and energy
output of the process is exactly equal to the total work and energy input.
SC.912.P.10.3-Compare and contrast work and power qualitatively and quantitatively. 193
Efficiency
Real machines Suppose you measure the forces on an actual rope and pulley machine.
efficiency - the ratio of usable
Figure 8.6 shows what you find. Notice that the work input is a little more output work divided by total input
than the work output! It took 11 joules of input work applied to the rope to work. Efficiency is often expressed as
produce 10 joules of output work lifting the weight. This kind of behavior is a percent, with a perfect machine
true of all real machines. The work output is less because some work is having 100 percent efficiency.
always converted to heat and other kinds of energy by friction.
Everyday machines The diagram at the left shows how the
chemical energy (input) released by
burning gasoline is used in a typical
car. Only 13 percent of the energy in a
gallon of gas is transformed into
output work! Car engines in use get
hot. That’s because 65 percent of the
energy in gasoline is converted to
heat. As far as moving the car goes,
this heat energy is “lost.” The energy
doesn’t vanish, it just does not appear
as useful output work.
Efficiency Now we can talk about efficiency. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio
of usable output work divided by total input work. Efficiency is usually
expressed in percent. The car in the diagram has an efficiency of 13 percent.
That means 13 joules go to making the car move out of every 100 joules
released from gasoline. A “perfect” car would have an efficiency of
100 percent. Since all real machines have some friction, perfect machines are
technically impossible. Figure 8.6: If the input work is
11 joules, and the output work is 10
Calculating You calculate efficiency by dividing the usable output work by the total input joules, then the efficiency is 91 percent.
efficiency work. The rope and pulley machine in Figure 8.6 has an efficiency of
91 percent. That means that 1 joule out of every 11 (9 percent) is “lost” to
friction. The work isn’t really “lost,” but converted to heat and other forms of
energy that are not useful in doing the job the rope and pulley machine is
designed to do.
SC.912.L.17.11-Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests.
194 SC.912.L.17.20-Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability.
Efficiency in natural systems

The meaning of Energy drives all the
efficiency processes in nature, from
winds in the atmosphere to
nuclear reactions occurring
in the cores of stars. In the
environment, efficiency is
interpreted as the fraction
of incoming energy that
goes into a process. For
example, Earth receives Figure 8.7: Dust and clouds reflect
energy from the sun. Earth light back into space, decreasing the
efficiency with which Earth absorbs
absorbs this solar energy
energy from the sun.
with an average efficiency of 78 percent. The energy that is not absorbed is
reflected back into space.
Earth’s temperature Earth’s efficiency at absorbing solar energy is critical to living things. If the
efficiency decreased by a few percent, Earth’s surface would become too cold
for life. Some scientists believe that many volcanic eruptions or nuclear war
could decrease the absorption efficiency by spreading dust in the atmosphere.
Dust reflects solar energy (Figure 8.7). On the other hand, if the efficiency
increased by a few percent, it would get too hot to sustain life. Too much
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases absorption efficiency (Figure 8.8).
Scientists are concerned that the average annual temperature of Earth has
already warmed 1°C degree since the 1880s as a result of carbon dioxide
released by human technology.
Figure 8.8: Carbon dioxide and
Conservation of In any system, all of the energy goes somewhere. Another way to say this is other greenhouse gases in the
energy that energy is conserved. For example, rivers flow downhill. Most of the atmosphere absorb some energy that
potential energy lost by water moving downhill becomes kinetic energy in otherwise would have been radiated
motion of the water. Erosion takes some of the energy and slowly changes the back into space. This increases the
land by wearing away rocks and dirt. Friction takes some of the energy and efficiency with which Earth absorbs
energy from the sun.
heats up the water. If you could add up the efficiencies for every single
process in which water is involved, that total would be 100 percent.

SC.912.L.17.16-Discuss the large-scale environmental impacts resulting from human activity, including waste spills, oil spills, runoff, greenhouse gases... 195
Solving Problems: Efficiency

A Most Efficient Machine
The bicycle is the most efficient
You see a newspaper advertisement for a new, highly efficient machine. The machine ever invented for turning the
machine claims to produce 2,000 joules of output work for every work of human muscles into motion.
Its efficiency is more than 95 percent!
2,100 joules of input work. What is the efficiency of this machine? Is it as
efficient as a bicycle (see sidebar)? Do you believe the advertisement’s James Starley of the Coventry Sewing
claim? Why or why not? Machine Company in Britain is
credited with building the first modern
two-wheel bicycle in 1885.
1. Looking for: You are asked to calculate efficiency.
The bicycle played a part in the
2. Given: You are given the input work and output work. development of another important
invention, the airplane. Wilbur and
3. Relationships: Efficiency is calculated by dividing output work by input work and then Orville Wright were bicycle mechanics
multiplying by 100 to get a percentage. and inventors. They used their
Output work expertise in racing and building
Efficiency = ------------------------------ × 100 lightweight bicycles to create the first
Input work successful powered airplane in 1903.
2,000 J
4. Solution: Efficiency = ----------------- × 100 = 95%
2,100 J
The efficiency of the machine is 95 percent, which is as efficient as a bicycle.
Since a bicycle is the most efficient machine ever invented, I won’t believe
the advertisement until I see actual scientific data that proves its amazing
efficiency.
a. 80 joules
Your turn...
b. About 78 percent
a. Suppose 1,000 joules of input work were applied to a machine with only
8 percent efficiency. What would be its output work?
b. You do 32 joules of work using a pair of scissors. The scissors do
25 joules of work cutting a piece of fabric. What is the efficiency of the
scissors?
196
Power
Energy vs. power If you lift a book over your head, the book gets potential energy from your
power - the rate of doing work or
action. Even if you lift the book faster, it has the same amount of potential moving energy. Power is equal to
energy. This is because the height is the same. But it feels different to transfer energy (or work) divided by time.
the energy to the book at different speeds. Power describes how fast energy is watt (W) - a unit of power equal to
transferred to an object. 1 joule per second.
What is power? Power is the rate at which work is done. Here’s an example. Suppose horsepower (hp) - a unit of power
Michael and Jim each lift a barbell weighing 100 newtons from the ground to equal to 746 watts.
a height of 2 meters (Figure 8.9). Michael lifts quickly and Jim lifts slowly.
Michael and Jim do the same amount of work (100 N × 2 m = 200 joules of
work). However, Michael’s power is greater because he gets the work done in
less time!
Watts and Power is calculated in watts. One watt (W) is equal to 1 joule of work per
horsepower second. A kilowatt, which you may have heard of, equals 1,000 watts. The
watt was named after James Watt, the Scottish engineer who invented the
steam engine. Another unit of power is the horsepower. Watt expressed the
power of his engines as the number of horses an engine could replace. One
horsepower equals 746 watts or 746 joules of work per second!
Calculating power Now, let’s calculate and compare the power output of Michael and Jim.
Michael’s power is 200 joules divided by 1 seconds, or 200 watts. Jim’s
power is 200 joules divided by 10 seconds, or 20 watts. Jim takes 10 times as
long to lift the barbell, so his power is one-tenth as much. The maximum
power output of an average person is a few hundred watts.
Figure 8.9: Michael and Jim do the
same amount of work but do not have
the same power.
Solving Problems: Power
Allen lifts his weight (500 newtons) up a staircase that is 5 meters high in
30 seconds. How much power does he use? How does his power compare Weight
500 newtons
with a 100-watt light bulb?
5
1. Looking for: You are asked to calculate Allen’s power. meters
2. Given: You know force, distance, and time.

3. Relationships: Relationships that apply include the formulas for work and power.
Work = Force × distance Power = Work ÷ time
4. Solution: Solve for power by replacing the value for “work” in this formula with
“force × distance.”
Figure 8.10: How much power does
P = (F × d) ÷ t this 500-newton person use?
Now, plug in the numbers. Remember: 1 joule = 1 N · m, and

1 watt = 1 N-m/s
P = (500 N × 5 m) ÷ 30 s = 2,500 N · m ÷ 30 s = 83 watts
Allen’s power is less than a 100-watt light bulb. Most human activities use
less power than a light bulb.
Your turn... a. He would need to climb the

a. Let’s say that Allen did the same amount of work as in the problem above, stairs in 25 seconds. To answer
but he wanted to have the same amount of power as a 100-watt light bulb. this question, you need to
How fast would he have to climb the stairs? divide work by power (work ÷
power = time).
b. What is the minimum time needed to lift a 2,000-newton weight
10 meters using a motor with a maximum power rating of 8,000 watts? b. 2.5 seconds
Section 8.2 Review

1. You read about a rope and pulley machine that was able to produce equal
amounts of output work and input work. Was this a realistic example?
Why or why not? Are You Really Doing Work When
2. What do you need to do to calculate the efficiency of any machine? You Do Your Homework?
3. A car’s efficiency is only 13 percent. This question was posed at the
beginning of the chapter. Answer it in
a. If the input work for a car is 200 joules, what is the output work? your own words based on what you
b. List two things that car manufacturers do to improve a car’s efficiency. know about work.
4. A simple machine produces 25 joules of output work for every 50 joules Think about this question from
of input work. What is the efficiency of this machine? different angles before you answer it!
5. How is work related to power?
6. If you know the power for a machine and the time it takes to produce that
power, what value can you calculate?
7. How does 1 horsepower compare to 1 watt of power? Energy-Efficient Technologies
8. A gallon of gasoline contains about 36 kilowatt-hours of energy. Suppose Engineers are always trying to
a gallon of gas cost $4.00 and a kilowatt-hour of electricity costs 8 cents. improve efficiency of the machines
Which form of energy is less expensive? we use every day. Do an Internet
9. A 100-newton object is lifted 100 meters in 100 seconds. What is the search using the key phrase “energy
efficient technologies” and see what
power generated in this situation? you find. Or, you might want to go
10. Which situation would produce 200 watts of power? directly to the U.S. government Web
site, www.energystar.gov. Pick a topic
a. 100 J of work done in 2 s c. 2,000 J of work done in 5 s and present your findings to your
b. 400 J of work done in 2 s d. 2 J of work done in 100 s class.
Extension: Be a roving reporter
11. An average car engine can produce about 100 horsepower. How many within your home and see how many
energy-efficient appliances you can
100-watt light bulbs does it take to use the same amount of power?
find.
12. A half-cup of ice cream contains about 200 food Calories. How much
power can be produced if the energy in a cup of ice cream is expended
over a period of 10 minutes (600 seconds)? Each food Calorie is equal to
4,184 joules. Write your answer in watts and then in horsepower.
199
MEDICAL8CONNECTION
Chapter 9
Designing a Better Prosthetic Leg

Prosthetics In many prosthetic leg designs, the knee is
the component that controls how the device
operates. In the past, most designs were
in Action! basic and relied on the user learning how

to walk properly. This effort required up
to 80 percent more energy than a normal
gait and often made walking with an older
prosthetic leg quite a work out!
The knee joint in those older designs was

The human leg is a complex and versatile machine. Designing a prosthetic often a hinge that let the lower leg swing
(artificial) device to match the leg’s capabilities is a serious challenge. Teams back and forth. The hinge could also lock in
of scientists, engineers, and designers around the world use different place to keep the leg straight and support
the user’s weight to make standing easier.
approaches and technologies to develop prosthetic legs that help the user
This type of system worked relatively well
regain a normal, active lifestyle. on level surfaces, but could be difficult to
use on inclines, stairs, irregular terrain (like
Studying the Human Gait Cycle a hiking trail), or slippery surfaces.
Each person has a unique way of walking. But studying the way Current prosthetic legs have improved
humans walk has revealed that some basic mechanics hold true for upon old designs by employing hydraulics,
just about everyone. Scientists analyze how we walk by looking at carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors,
our “gait cycle.” The gait cycle consists of two consecutive strides computer microprocessors, and innovative
while walking, one foot and then the other. By breaking the cycle combinations of these technologies to give
down into phases and figuring out where in the sequence prosthetic more control to the user. For example, in
devices could be improved, designers have added features and some designs, a device called a damper helps
materials that let users walk safely and comfortably with their own to control how fast the lower leg can swing
natural gait. back and forth while walking. The damper
accomplishes this by changing the knee’s
resistance to movement as needed.
New knee designs allow users to walk, jog, and

with some models, even run with a more natural
gait. In fact, in 2003, Marlon Shirley became the
first above-the-knee amputee in the world to
break the 11-second barrier in the 100-meter
dash with a time of 10.97 seconds! He
accomplished this feat with the aid
of a special prosthetic leg designed
specifically for sprinting.
SC.912.L.16.10–Evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including medical and ethical issues.
SC.912.N.2.2–Identify which questions can be answered through science and which questions are outside the boundaries of scientific investigation, such as questions addressed by other ways of
220 knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion.
MEDICAL8CONNECTION
Chapter 9
Designs that Learn A Rock-Climbing Inventor
By continuously monitoring the velocities of the upper and lower Hugh Herr, Ph.D., a physicist and
leg, the angle of the bend of the knee, changes in the terrain, engineer at the Harvard-MIT Division
and other data, computer microprocessors in the knee calculate of Health Sciences and Technology
and make adjustments to changing conditions in milliseconds. This (Boston, Massachusetts), studies
makes the prosthetic leg more stable and efficient, allowing the biomechanics and prosthetic
knee, ankle, and foot to work together as a unit. Some designs have technology. In addition to holding
built-in memory systems that store information from sensors about several patents in this field, he has
how the user walks. These designs “learn” how to make fine tuned developed highly specialized feet for
adjustments based on the user’s particular gait pattern. rock climbing that are small and
thin—ideal for providing support
New Foot Designs on small ledges. Being both an
accomplished climber and an amputee
New foot designs also reduce the energy required to walk with allows Herr to field test his own
prosthetic leg systems. They also smooth out the user’s stride. Using inventions. While rock climbing, he
composite materials, these designs allow the foot to flex in different gains important insights into the
ways during the gait cycle. Both the heel and the effectiveness and durability of
Hugh Herr is once again a world-class
front part of the foot act like springs to store and rock climber, using prosthetic legs which each design.
then release energy. When the foot first strikes the he developed.
ground, the heel flexes and absorbs some of the
energy, reducing the impact. Weight gets shifted
toward the front of the foot as the walker moves
through the stride.
Questions:
As this happens, the heel springs back into shape and
the energy released helps to flex the front part of 1. What are some technologies used by designers of prosthetic
the foot, once again storing energy. When the foot legs to improve their designs?
leaves the ground in the next part of the gait cycle, 2. How are computers used to improve the function of
the flexed front part of the foot releases its stored prosthetic devices?
energy and helps to push the foot forward into the
next stride. 3. Explain how new foot designs reduce the amount of energy
required to walk with a prosthetic leg.
Designers have realized the advantage of making highly
specialized feet that match and sometimes exceed 4. Research the field of biomechanics. In a paragraph:
the capabilities of human feet. Distance running (1) describe what the term biomechanics means; and
and sprinting feet are built to different
specifications to efficiently deal with (2) write about a biomechanics topic that interests you.
the forces and demands related
to these activities. Photo of Dr. Herr by Tony Herr
knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion. 221
Vocabulary 3. Copy the table below
onto a piece of paper.
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. Then, use the graphic
work work output work input to fill it in. In the
efficiency horsepower power Work Done? column,
watt write yes, no, or some.
Section 8.1 and Section 8.2
In the Motion of the
Block column, describe
1. The rate at which work is done is called ____. how the block would
2. In physics, _____ is the product of the force applied and the move under each force.
distance moved in the direction of the force.
3. A unit of power equal to 746 watts is a(n) ____.
4. The unit for one joule per second is one ____. Force Work Done? Motion of the Block
5. You calculate the ____ of a machine by dividing its ____ by A

its work input and multiplying by 100. B
C
6. The work output of a machine can never be less than the
____. 4. It’s moving day and you need to move boxes and furniture
from your old second-floor apartment on Main Street to your
Concepts new fifth-floor apartment on Harmony Street. You have to
take the stairs to move your furniture down from the old
Section 8.1
apartment. But, you can use the elevator to get up to your
1. For each situation, explain whether work (W) is done or not new apartment on the fifth floor.
(N) done. a. Describe one way in which your muscles DO do work
a. ____ standing still while holding a box of heavy books while moving your boxes and furniture down from the
b. ____ hitting a baseball with a bat second floor.
c. ____ picking up a suitcase b. Describe one way in which your muscles DON’T do work
d. ____ pushing hard against a stationary stone wall for an while moving your boxes and furniture down from the
hour second floor.
e. ____ falling toward Earth while sky diving c. Does the elevator do work moving your boxes and
2. Why are energy and work measured using the same units? furniture up to the fifth-floor apartment?
202
d. Which involves more work in the scientific sense: 2. A 2-kilogram object falls a distance of 5 meters. How much
moving the boxes and furniture down from the second potential energy does this object have before it falls? How
floor or up to the fifth floor. Explain your reasoning. much work is done on it by gravity as it falls?
e. You take one box up to the fifth floor by taking the 3. Sara’s mother gets a flat tire on her car while driving Sara
stairs. If the elevator had taken the same box up to the to school. They use a jack to change the tire. It exerts a force
fifth floor, would it have done more, less, or the same of 5,000 newtons to lift the car 0.25 meters. How much work
amount of work as you? Explain your reasoning. is done by the jack?
Section 8.2 4. How far does Isabella lift a 50-N box if she does 40 joules of
5. Your lab partner shows you results from an experiment with work in lifting the box from the floor to a shelf?
a simple machine. The output work is 10 joules and the
5. A man pushes a television crate across the floor with a force
input work is 8 joules. She asks, “Does this data look
of 200 newtons. How much work does he do if the crate
correct?” What would be your response and why?
moves 20 meters in the same direction as the force?
6. A bicycle is considered to be one of the most efficient human-
6. A bottle rocket is a toy
powered machines. Explain why.
that is made from an
7. At the beginning of the chapter, there was the question: empty soda bottle. A
How can you produce more power than an excavator? bicycle pump is used to
Answer this question using your understanding of work and pump air into the bottle.
power. Give a example that illustrates your answer. The rocket shoots upward
8. Mikhail lifts a 500-newton weight 2 meters in 2 seconds. when it is released from
Tobias lifts the same 500-newton weight 2 meters in 4 seconds. the launcher, allowing
the high-pressure air to
a. Which boy does more work?
come out.
b. Which boy uses greater power?
a. Work is done as the
c. The human body is only 8 percent efficient. To obtain
pump is pushed,
the amount of work accomplished by Mikhail or Tobias,
forcing air into the
how much input work was required?
bottle. What happens to this work? Does it just disappear?
b. Suppose a person does 2,000 joules of work using the
Problems pump. What is the maximum kinetic energy the rocket
Section 8.1 can have after it is launched?
1. How much work can be done with 10 joules of energy? c. Do you think the rocket could actually have this much
kinetic energy? Explain why or why not.
203

7. A certain battery contains 20 joules of energy. The battery is 2. A water-powered turbine makes electricity using the energy
connected to a perfect motor which uses 100 percent of the of falling water. At the location of one turbine,
energy to make force. 100 kilograms of water falls every second from a height of
a. Suppose the motor made a 2-newton force. Over how 20 meters.
much distance could this force be applied? a. How much potential energy does 100 kilograms of water
b. How large a force can be sustained for 5 meters? have at a height of 20 meters?
c. If the battery was 80 percent efficient, what would the b. How much power in watts could you get out of the
answers be for questions a and b? turbine if it was perfectly efficient?
8. A machine is used to lift an object a distance of 2 meters. If c. Research the efficiency of modern water-powered
the power of the machine is increased, what happens to the turbines. How efficient are these devices?
time it takes for the object to be lifted 2 meters? 3. In this chapter, you learned the scientific meanings of work,
9. During construction, a crane lifts a 2,000-newton weight to efficiency, and power. Create a superhero cartoon character
the top of a 50-meter-tall building. How much power must and draw a comic strip story that illustrates the scientific
the crane have to perform this task in 5 seconds? Give your meanings of these words.
answer in watts, kilowatts, and horsepower.
4. Choose an appliance in your house that you use on a regular
10. What is the minimum time needed to lift a 1,000-newton basis. It may be a television, stereo, fan, or other device.
weight 20 meters using a motor with a maximum power a. The power of an appliance is a measure of the number of
rating of 8,000 watts? joules of electrical energy it converts into other forms of
energy each second. What type or types of energy are
Applying Your Knowledge converted from electrical energy by your appliance?
Section 8.1 b. There should be a label on the appliance that indicates
1. Spend one day recording a variety of tasks that you do that its power in watts. Record the power. Then, estimate
involve doing work in the scientific sense. Also record the the amount of time you use the appliance in an average
machines that allow you do certain tasks. Then, spend the day. Convert this time to seconds. Now, calculate the
next day doing one or two of these tasks without using the number of joules of energy used by the appliance in a
machine. Answer the following questions. day.
a. Was more or less work done using the machine? How do
you know?
b. Was the power output more or less with the machine?
How do you know?
c. What are your thoughts about using machines to
accomplish work?
SC.912.L.17.20-Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability.
Chapter 9
Simple Machines
The Great Pyramid of Egypt, built around 2570 B.C., and originally 147
meters tall, is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Wind and
weather over thousands of years have eroded the height of the pyramid. Yet, the Great Pyramid
is still considered one of the largest structures ever built. You might be amazed to find out that
simple machines and not engines powered by fossil fuels were used to construct the pyramid.
What are simple machines? Common items like a sea-saw, a bottle opener, and a broom are all
simple machines called levers. A screw is a type of simple machine. More complex machines
such as bicycles are arrangements of simple machines. Surprisingly, your arms, legs, and other
parts of your body are simple machines.
Simply put, simple machines are key parts of daily life and have been for thousands of
years. In this chapter, you will learn why they are so useful.
Is it possible to get through a day without

using simple machines?
What is mechanical advantage?
What kind of simple machine is

at work when you bite an apple?
Chapter 9 SIMPLE MACHINES
9.1 Types of Simple Machines

How do you move something that is too heavy to carry? How do you pry open a tight lid? How do machine - a device with moving
you transfer pedaling motion to the wheels on a bicycle? The answer to each of these questions is parts that work together to
“use a simple machine.” In this section, you will learn how simple machines multiply forces to accomplish a task.
accomplish tasks. input - forces, energy, or power
supplied to make a machine
Using machines accomplish a task.
output - forces, energy, or power
What technology Machines allow us to do incredible things. Moving huge steel beams, provided by the machine.
allows us to do digging tunnels that connect two islands, and building 100-story skyscrapers
are examples. What makes these things possible? Do we have super powers?
What is a machine? In a way, we do have super powers. Our powers come from the clever human
invention of machines. A machine is a device, like a bicycle, with moving
parts that work together to accomplish a task (Figure 9.1). All the parts of a
bicycle work together to transform forces from your muscles into motion. A
bicycle allows you to travel at faster speeds and for greater distances than
you could on foot.
The concepts of In Chapter 8, you learned that a machine accomplishes output work when
input and output input work is applied to it. For the machines in this chapter, the input Figure 9.1: A bicycle is a machine
that allows you to travel faster than you
includes everything you do to make the machine accomplish a task, like can on foot.
pushing on the bicycle pedals. The output is what the machine does for you,
like going fast or climbing a steep hill. In other words, the input and output
may be force, energy, or power.
SIMPLE MACHINES Chapter 9
Simple machines
The beginning of The development of cars, airplanes, and other modern machines began with
simple machine - an unpowered
technology the invention of simple machines like levers. A simple machine is an mechanical device that accomplishes
unpowered mechanical device that accomplishes a task with only one a task with only one movement.
movement. For example, a lever allows you to open a paint can, sweep the lever - a stiff structure that rotates
floor, or move a heavy rock (Figure 9.2). The variety of simple machines is around a fixed point called a fulcrum.
shown below.
gear - a rotating wheel with teeth that
transfers motion and forces to other
gears or objects.
Input force and Simple machines work with forces. The input force is the force you apply to
output force the machine. The output force is the force the machine applies to what you are
Figure 9.2: Levers accomplish a task
trying to move. Figure 9.3 shows how a lever is arranged to create a large with one motion.
output force from a small input force. A lever is a stiff structure that rotates
around a fixed point called a fulcrum.
Machines within Most of the machines we use today are made up of combinations of different
machines types of simple machines. For example, a bicycle is a complex machine made
up of simple machines. A bicycle uses wheels and axles, levers (the pedals
and kickstand), and gears. A gear is a rotating wheel with teeth that receives
or transfers motion and forces to other gears or objects. If you take apart a
complex machine such as a clock, a food processor or blender, or a car
engine, you will find it is made of simple machines like gears. Figure 9.3: If arranged like this, a
lever can create a large output force.
207
What do simple machines do for us?

A review In Chapter 8, you learned about work, efficiency, and power. Let’s review Input work
r
ete
these concepts because they illustrate why simple machines are so useful. 1 meter
× 5 newtons
1m
= 5 joules
Machines do work A simple machine does work because it applies a force over a distance. If
you are using the machine, you also do work, because you apply force to the 5N
machine to make it move. By definition, a simple machine has no source of
energy except the immediate forces you apply. That means the only way to
get output work from a simple machine is to do input work on the machine.
Output and Remember, the output work done by a simple machine can never exceed the
input work input work done on the machine. In a perfect machine the output work Output work
exactly equals the input work. Of course, there are no perfect machines.
1/2 meter
1/2 meter
Friction always converts some of the input work to heat and wear, so the × 10 newtons
= 5 joules
output work is always less than the input work. However, for some
machines, the effect of friction is so small that we can often assume input
and output work are approximately equal.
MACHINE Figure 9.4: This rope and pulley
system illustrates that in order to
Input work multiply force in the output work, you
Output work need to compensate by applying the
input force over a greater distance. In
Energy lost to friction this example, friction is ignored.
Machines have The efficiency of a machine equals output work divided by input work multiplied
efficiency and power by 100. For a perfect machine, efficiency is 100 percent. A bicycle is a highly
efficient machine at 95 percent, but the human body is relatively inefficient at
Solve the following for the rope and
8 percent. Power is how quickly work is accomplished (work ÷ time). pulley system in Figure 9.4.
Machines multiply A rope and pulley system, for example, allows you to lift more weight (force) a. What is the efficiency of this
forces than you could lift on your own without a machine. In other words, the rope and machine? Is this possible? Why
pulley system multiplies force. To compensate for multiplying force, you need to or why not?
apply it over a greater distance than when the output work is done. For example, b. If the output work was
Figure 9.4 shows that to multiply force from 5 newtons to 10 newtons and to lift accomplished in 2 seconds what
the weight by 1/2 meter, you need to pull the rope twice as far as the weight is is the power of this machine?
lifted—you need to pull 1 meter of rope.
208 SC.912.N.2.1-Identify what is science, what clearly is not science, and what superficially resembles science (but fails to meet the criteria for science).
Section 9.1 Review

1. In your own words, explain the difference between a simple machine and
a complex machine.
2. List two reasons from the section that explain why a simple machine is a
useful device.
3. In order to get work output from a machine, what do you need to do?
4. You have learned that a bicycle is a very efficient machine. Fill in the
table with the words that explain how each factor compares as you use
this machine. Input is applied to the pedals of the bicycle and output is
what the wheels do for you. Words to use: similar, smaller, or larger.
Some words are filled in for you.
Comparing Input and Output for a Bicycle Why Use Simple Machines?
Input In the introduction of the chapter
Work
Output you were asked: Is is possible to
Input get through a day without using
Force simple machines?
Output Smaller
Input Smaller Write your answer to this question as
Distance a paragraph or short essay.
Output
Extension: You need to educate
others that simple machines are part
5. The arrangement of the lever in
of our lives. Write a television ad or
Figure 9.5 is similar to the arrangement design a magazine advertisement
you need to pry open the lid of a paint that illustrates how and why we use
can. For the diagram to the right, label simple machines every day.
each part as fulcrum, output force, or
input force.
6. You have a rope and pulley system
for lifting objects. You need to lift a
20-newton object a distance of
3 meters. If you provide an input force of 10 newtons to pull on the
rope, what length of rope would you need to pull before you
accomplished this task?
209
9.2 Mechanical Advantage

The human body is a machine, but is it capable of building a huge skyscraper on its own? mechanical advantage - the
Probably not. It would be impossible for a single person to lift and carry all the materials needed ratio of output force divided by input
to build a tall building. We need machines to do this job. Machines help us lift more than we can force.
lift on our own. This section continues our discussion about why simple machines are so useful
and introduces the concept of mechanical advantage.
What is mechanical advantage?

Multiplying forces Another way to say machines help us lift more than we can lift is to say
“machines multiply forces.” Remember that a force is an action that has the
ability to change motion, like a push or a pull. Figure 9.6 illustrates how a
rope and pulley system can multiply forces. You apply the input force to the
rope and the output force is applied to the load you are lifting. A load is the
amount of force or weight that a machine lifts or moves. One person could
lift an elephant—quite a heavy load—with a properly designed system of
ropes and pulleys!
Mechanical Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force to input force. If the
advantage mechanical advantage is greater than 1, the output force is bigger than the
input force (Figure 9.6). A mechanical advantage less than 1 means the
output force is smaller than the input force. What does it mean when
mechanical advantage equals 1? In this case, the output force equals the
input force. On the next pages you will use this definition of mechanical Figure 9.6: A rope and pulley system
can multiply forces.
advantage and discover that there are other ways to calculate this important
value.
STUDY SKILLS
If Mechanical Advantage Is...
> 1, then output force is > input force
< 1, then output force is < input force
= 1, then output force is = input force
210
Levers
Parts of All levers include a stiff structure that
the lever rotates around a fulcrum. For example,
you can make a lever by balancing a
board on a log. The log is the fulcrum.
The side of the lever where the input
force is applied is called the input arm.
The output arm is the end of the lever
that applies the output force.
Mechanical Levers are useful because you can
advantage arrange the fulcrum and the input and
output arms to adjust the mechanical
advantage of the lever. By changing the
position of the fulcrum, you can alter
the amount of input force needed
compared to output force desired. The length of the lever arm is indirectly
related to the corresponding force. For example, if the input arm is 3 times
longer than the output arm, the output force is 3 times greater than the input
force. This lever has a mechanical advantage of 3. Using the length of the
lever arms, mechanical advantage can also be calculated by dividing the
length of the input arm by the length of the output arm.
The three classes Pliers, a wheelbarrow, and your arm represent each of three classes of levers.
of levers These objects look different from each other, so how are they similar? For
starters, they accomplish a task with one movement. They also each operate
using a fulcrum and lever arms. Each class of levers is defined by the location
of the input and output forces relative to the fulcrum (Figure 9.7).
Class of
Fulcrum Force Length of Arms
Lever
1st Between input and output forces Vary in magnitude Vary in length
Figure 9.7: These diagrams show
the three classes of levers. What is the
2nd One end of lever Output > input Input > output mechanical advantage of each of these
3rd One end of lever Input > output Output > input levers: 1, > 1, or < 1?
211
Gears
Gears transfer Gears can transfer motion and force when the teeth of one gear press on the
gear ratio - the ratio of output turns
motion and force teeth of another gear as each gear rotates around a shaft (Figure 9.8). to input turns for a pair of gears.
Connected in this way, the two gears turn in different directions. You can
think of a gear as a rotating lever. The tip of a tooth of a gear is like the end
of a lever and the shaft of the gear is like the fulcrum. This means that forces
are applied where the teeth press against each other.
Gears change force Gears can also multiply forces and change rotating speeds. Like other simple
and speed machines, gears have an input and an output. The input gear is the one you
turn, or apply forces to. The output gear is the one that is connected to the
output of the machine. Force is multiplied when the input gear in a pair is
smaller and has fewer teeth than the output gear. Speed is increased when the
input gear is larger than the output gear. Because gear teeth fit together, large
forces can be efficiently transferred at high rotating speeds without slipping.
How gears work You can predict how force and speed are affected when gears turn by
knowing the number of teeth for each gear. Because the teeth don’t slip,
moving 36 teeth on one gear means that 36 teeth have to move on any
connected gear. If the output gear has 36 teeth, it turns once to move 36 teeth.
If the input gear has only 12 teeth, it has to turn 3 times to move 36 teeth
(3 × 12 = 36). In this example, the output gear is larger so force is multiplied.
Gear ratio and The gear ratio is the ratio of output turns to input turns. The gear ratio can
mechanical also be calculated as the ratio of the number of teeth on the input gear versus
advantage the number on the output gear. The mechanical advantage of a pair of gears Figure 9.8: A gear rotates around a
is the inverse of the gear ratio. shaft. Force is applied between the teeth
of two gears. What is the mechanical
advantage of this gear combination?
Answer: Greater than 1 and force is
multiplied. Do you see why?
212
Rope and pulley systems

A B C
Tension in ropes Ropes and strings carry tension forces along their length. The tension is the
and strings same at every point in a rope. If the rope is not moving, its tension is equal to
the force pulling on each end (below). Ropes or strings do not carry pushing
forces.
The person and the weight each 5N 5N 5N
pull with 50 newtons, so the
Tension = 100 N
tension is 50 newtons.
100 N 100 N 50 N Tension =

50 newtons 5N N
Each person pulls with 10 1250
N
a force of 100 newtons,
N
so the tension is 50 5 N (2×)
5N 5 N (3×)
100 newtons.
The forces in a rope Figure 9.9 shows three different configurations of rope and pulley systems.
and pulley system Imagine pulling with an input force of 5 newtons. In case A, the load feels a
force equal to your input force. In case B, there are two strands of rope
supporting the load, so the load feels two times your input force. In case C, 5N 10
N
there are three strands, so the output force is three times your input force. 15
N
Mechanical The mechanical advantage of a pulley system depends on the number of

advantage strands of rope directly supporting the load. In case C, three strands directly A B C
support the load, so the output force is three times the input force. The Input force 5N 5N 5N
mechanical advantage is 3. To make a rope and pulley system with a greater Output force 5N 10 N 15 N
mechanical advantage, you can increase the number of strands directly Mechanical
supporting the load. advantage
1 2 3
Work To raise the load 1 meter in case C, the input end of the rope must be pulled
Figure 9.9: A rope and pulley system
for 3 meters. This is because each of the three supporting strands must shorten can be arranged to have different
by 1 meter. The mechanical advantage is 3, but the input force must be mechanical advantages.
applied for three times the distance as the output force. In other words, to
compensate for multiplying force, you need to apply the input force over a
greater distance than when the output work is done.
Ramps, wedges, and wheels

Ramps The mechanical advantage of a ramp is the ramp length divided by the height
of the ramp. A ramp is a simple machine that allows you to raise a heavy
object, such as a wheeled cart, with less force than you would need to lift it
straight up (Figure 9.10). Ramps reduce the input force by increasing the
distance over which the input force acts. For example, suppose a 10-meter
ramp is used to lift a cart 1 meter. The input distance is 10 times the output
distance. If the ramp were frictionless, the input force would therefore be
1/10 the output force. The mechanical advantage would be 10.
A screw is a A screw is a simple machine that turns rotating motion into linear motion
type of ramp (Figure 9.11). A screw works just like a ramp that curves as it gets higher.
The “ramp” on a screw is called a thread. Imagine unwrapping one turn of a Figure 9.10: A ramp allows you to
thread to make a straight ramp. Each turn of the screw advances the nut the raise a heavy object with less force than
you would need if you lifted it upwards.
same distance it would have gone sliding up the ramp. The lead of a screw is
the distance it advances in one turn. A screw with a lead of 1.2 millimeters
advances 1.2 mm for each turn. You find the mechanical advantage of a
screw by dividing its circumference by the lead.
Wedge A wedge is like a ramp that can work while in motion (a ramp is always
stationary). A wedge has a side that slopes down to a thin edge. The
mechanical advantage for a wedge is inversely related to the size of the
wedge angle. For example, sharp wedges (small angles) produce large
forces. The head of an axe is a wedge that is used to split wood. When the
surface of the wedge is rough (producing high friction), a wedge provides a
large holding or stopping force thus preventing other objects from moving.
Wheel and axle A wheel rotates around a rod called an axle. The wheel and axle move
together to move or lift loads. The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle
is the ratio of the radius of the wheel to the radius of the axle. By applying a
force to the wheel to turn the axle, output force is increased. In this case,
distance and speed are decreased. If you want to increase distance and speed,
you apply a force to the axle in order to turn the wheel. In this case, force
output is decreased. Cars, bicycles, and household devices like a rolling pin Figure 9.11: A screw is a rotating
and a door knob are wheel-and-axle machines. ramp.
214
Solving Problems: Mechanical Advantage
A crowbar is a type of lever that you use to pull a nail out of a piece of wood.
If the handle of a crowbar is 40 centimeters and the foot is 2 centimeters, what
is its mechanical advantage (Figure 9.12)?
1. Looking for: You are asked to find the mechanical advantage of a lever.
2. Given: The point between the foot and handle of the crowbar is the fulcrum. The
input arm is 40 centimeters long and the output arm is 2 centimeters. Figure 9.12: What is the mechanical
advantage of this crowbar?
3. Relationships:
Length of input arm-
Mechanical advantage = --------------------------------------------------
Length of output arm
The formula above illustrates one way to calculate the mechanical advantage
of a lever using the length of the arms.
4. Solution: Mechanical advantage = 40 cm = 20

--------------
2 cm
The mechanical advantage of the crowbar is 20.
a. The output force would be
Your turn... 100 newtons.
a. What is the output force of the crowbar if the input force is 5 newtons b. The mechanical advantage is
(Figure 9.12)? 1/4 or 0.25. Speed is multiplied.
b. An output gear has 10 teeth and an input gear has 40 teeth. What is the c. The output gear turns 6 times.
mechanical advantage of this gear combination? Is force or speed The mechanical advantage is
multiplied in this example? 1/3.
c. An input gear turns twice. How many times will the output gear turn if the d. You need to pull 4 m of rope.
gear ratio is 3? What is the mechanical advantage?
d. The mechanical advantage of a rope and pulley system is 2. The input
force is 6 N and the output force is 12 N. If a 12 N object is lifted 2 m by
the system, what length of rope do you need to pull?
215
Section 9.2 Review

1. If you know the lengths of the lever arms for a lever, can you calculate
its mechanical advantage? If so, what is the formula?
2. Describe the term mechanical advantage. Why is it an important value to
know when working with machines?
3. For a wheelbarrow, the output force is usually greater than the input
force. Therefore, what can you say about the mechanical advantage of
a wheelbarrow?
4. You might be surprised to learn that a broom is a lever. What kind of
lever is it: first, second, or third class? Explain your answer. Figure 9.13: Question 5.
5. A input gear with 24 teeth is connected to an output gear with 12 teeth
(Figure 9.13).
a. If the output gear turns twice, how many times does the input gear
turn? What is the gear ratio? What is the mechanical advantage?
b. What is being multiplied in this gear combination, force or speed?
6. Jane designed a rope and pulley system to lift a log. The log weighs
2,000 newtons. If she pulls 10 meters of rope to lift the log 2 meters, Look Out for Simple Machines
what force does she apply to the rope? You may assume a perfect Write a list of all the simple machines,
machine (no friction). What is the mechanical advantage of this system? you see in a day. When you use a
7. You can predict the mechanical advantage of a rope and pulley system: simple machine write down why you
are using that particular machine. Are
a. by looking at the size of the load you multiplying force or speed? How
c. by weighing the whole system. many simple machines do you use in
being lifted by the system.
one day?
b. by seeing how fast you can lift a d. by counting the number of
load with the system. supporting strands in the system.
8. What is the mechanical advantage of a 15-meter ramp that rises

3 meters?
9. A screw is similar to another simple machine. Name that machine and
explain why a screw resembles it.
10. How is force multiplied in a machine that uses a wheel and axle?
11. What is the difference between a wedge and a ramp?
216
9.3 Levers in the Human Body

In this section, we will look at how the human body system uses levers. Here’s one reason why you
need simple machines each day—you use the simple machines of your body on a daily basis!
Levers in your arms and legs

The human The human body is a complex machine that includes a number of simple
body machine machines—levers. Levers provide the body with the ability to accomplish
tasks. Your arms and legs, for example, work as levers to move and lift
objects. In the last section, you learned that there are three classes of levers.
Your limbs are examples of third class levers. What does this mean for the
ability of the arms and legs to accomplish tasks?
The usefulness of A classic example of a third class lever is your
third class levers forearm. Consider the act of lifting a book with
your hand. Your forearm is a lever that rotates
around a fulcrum at the elbow. The biceps muscle
provides the input force. Notice that the input
force is closer to the fulcrum than the output force. Figure 9.14: Human arms and legs
are all examples of third class levers.
In fact, the ratio of lengths is about 12 to 1. That
means your biceps muscle has to make 12 N of
force for every 1 N of force exerted by your hand.
But it also means your hand can move 12 times as
far as the end of your biceps muscle! That's a good
thing because the biceps muscle can only contract
a few centimeters. Imagine how limited you
would be if your hand could only move up or
down a few centimeters!
Your arms and legs Figure 9.14 illustrates the locations of some of the levers of the human body.
Human arms and legs are examples of third class levers because the input
forces are between a fulcrum and the output force. The output force is what
you accomplish with your hands and feet (Figure 9.15). For the human body,
Figure 9.15: The output force for
your skeleton is the stiff structure that pivots or rotates around a fulcrum. arms and legs is what you accomplish
Joints act as fulcrums. The input force is provided by your muscles. with your hands and feet.
Levers from head to foot

Your neck is a lever Stop reading for a moment. Relax your neck so that your head drops slowly
forward. At about 4.5 kilograms, the head is a heavy object. Your head drops
forward when you relax your neck because your head and neck work like a
first class lever (Figure 9.16). The fulcrum is at the top of the neck. The
muscles in the neck provide an input force that allows you to raise your head.
When you relax these muscles, gravity causes your head to fall forward.
Your lower jaw At the beginning of this chapter, you were asked to name a simple machine
is a lever that you use to bite an apple. Like your arms and legs, your lower jaw is a
lever. However, the lower jaw can work both as a second class and as a third
class lever.
Figure 9.16: The neck is an example

of a first class lever.
Chewing with a Whether you are chewing gum or your lunch, you are using a second class
second class lever lever. Think about this for a moment. Where is the fulcrum? Where is the
input force? Where is the output force? The fulcrum is the hinge of your jaw.
The output force is the piece of gum or food that you are chewing with your
molars. The input force is provided by your jaw muscles.
Biting with a When you take a bite out of an apple, your lower jaw becomes a third class
third class lever lever. The hinge of your jaw, the fulcrum, doesn’t change. However, the
location of the output force does. You use your jaw muscles as input force, to
provide an output force for biting with your front teeth.
Your foot is a lever When you stand on your toes, the feet act as second class levers
(Figure 9.17). Your toes are the fulcrum. The input force is provided by Figure 9.17: The foot is an example
your calf muscles. The output force is the weight of your foot being lifted. of a second class lever.
218 SC.912.N.4.1-Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based perspective to inform society's decision making.
Section 9.3 Review

1. The human body is often called a machine because of the way the bones Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
and muscles work together. Is the body a “simple” machine? Why or A long time ago,
why not? Giovanni Alfonso
Borelli, an Italian
2. Which of the following are levers in your body? To justify your answer,
physicist and
identify the output force, input force, and fulcrum for your choices. Also, mathematician,
describe a task that each lever accomplishes. understood that our
bodies work using
a. your knee cap c. your brain mechanical forces.
b. your lower leg d. the top of your foot He a wrote a book about this—On
the Movement of Animals—in the
17th century. This book is considered
3. Identify which kind of lever is represented in the following scenarios. to be the first book on the subject
a. A girl bites into a sandwich. of biomechanics.
b. A baseball pitcher throws a fastball with his arm. As the name suggests, biomechanics
c. A swimmer does a flutter kick while swimming the length of a pool. is the study of mechanics as applied
to biological systems. Scientists who
d. Once you take a bite of food, you need to chew it well with your study biomechanics ask questions
molars. such as: How do insect wings work?
e. I knew James was a asleep because his head nodded forward. and How do animals living on
4. The mechanical advantage of a lower jaw when it is used as a third class coastlines withstand the battering of
ocean waves? Biomechanics is also
lever is 0.7. beneficial for understanding and
a. Does this mean the jaw multiplies force or speed? preventing sports injuries.
b. If the input force is 500 newtons, what would the output force be for In writing his book, Borelli led the way
the jaw used in this way? for recognizing that arms and legs
c. Why do you think is it more useful to have the jaw act as a third class work as levers. He used the scientific
method in his work and supported his
lever for biting versus a second class lever?
theories with mathematics.
5. The mechanical advantage of a jaw when it is used as a second class lever
is 1.4.
a. If the input force is 100 newtons. What is the output force?
b. How does the input lever arm compare to the output lever arm when
the jaw is used as a second class lever? Draw a diagram to illustrate
your answer.
219
MEDICAL8CONNECTION
Chapter 9
Designing a Better Prosthetic Leg

Prosthetics In many prosthetic leg designs, the knee is
the component that controls how the device
operates. In the past, most designs were
in Action! basic and relied on the user learning how

to walk properly. This effort required up
to 80 percent more energy than a normal
gait and often made walking with an older
prosthetic leg quite a work out!
The knee joint in those older designs was

The human leg is a complex and versatile machine. Designing a prosthetic often a hinge that let the lower leg swing
(artificial) device to match the leg’s capabilities is a serious challenge. Teams back and forth. The hinge could also lock in
of scientists, engineers, and designers around the world use different place to keep the leg straight and support
the user’s weight to make standing easier.
approaches and technologies to develop prosthetic legs that help the user
This type of system worked relatively well
regain a normal, active lifestyle. on level surfaces, but could be difficult to
use on inclines, stairs, irregular terrain (like
Studying the Human Gait Cycle a hiking trail), or slippery surfaces.
Each person has a unique way of walking. But studying the way Current prosthetic legs have improved
humans walk has revealed that some basic mechanics hold true for upon old designs by employing hydraulics,
just about everyone. Scientists analyze how we walk by looking at carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors,
our “gait cycle.” The gait cycle consists of two consecutive strides computer microprocessors, and innovative
while walking, one foot and then the other. By breaking the cycle combinations of these technologies to give
down into phases and figuring out where in the sequence prosthetic more control to the user. For example, in
devices could be improved, designers have added features and some designs, a device called a damper helps
materials that let users walk safely and comfortably with their own to control how fast the lower leg can swing
natural gait. back and forth while walking. The damper
accomplishes this by changing the knee’s
resistance to movement as needed.
New knee designs allow users to walk, jog, and

with some models, even run with a more natural
gait. In fact, in 2003, Marlon Shirley became the
first above-the-knee amputee in the world to
break the 11-second barrier in the 100-meter
dash with a time of 10.97 seconds! He
accomplished this feat with the aid
of a special prosthetic leg designed
specifically for sprinting.
220 knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion.
MEDICAL8CONNECTION
Chapter 9
Designs that Learn A Rock-Climbing Inventor
By continuously monitoring the velocities of the upper and lower Hugh Herr, Ph.D., a physicist and
leg, the angle of the bend of the knee, changes in the terrain, engineer at the Harvard-MIT Division
and other data, computer microprocessors in the knee calculate of Health Sciences and Technology
and make adjustments to changing conditions in milliseconds. This (Boston, Massachusetts), studies
makes the prosthetic leg more stable and efficient, allowing the biomechanics and prosthetic
knee, ankle, and foot to work together as a unit. Some designs have technology. In addition to holding
built-in memory systems that store information from sensors about several patents in this field, he has
how the user walks. These designs “learn” how to make fine tuned developed highly specialized feet for
adjustments based on the user’s particular gait pattern. rock climbing that are small and
thin—ideal for providing support
New Foot Designs on small ledges. Being both an
accomplished climber and an amputee
New foot designs also reduce the energy required to walk with allows Herr to field test his own
prosthetic leg systems. They also smooth out the user’s stride. Using inventions. While rock climbing, he
composite materials, these designs allow the foot to flex in different gains important insights into the
ways during the gait cycle. Both the heel and the effectiveness and durability of
Hugh Herr is once again a world-class
front part of the foot act like springs to store and rock climber, using prosthetic legs which each design.
then release energy. When the foot first strikes the he developed.
ground, the heel flexes and absorbs some of the
energy, reducing the impact. Weight gets shifted
toward the front of the foot as the walker moves
through the stride.
Questions:
As this happens, the heel springs back into shape and
the energy released helps to flex the front part of 1. What are some technologies used by designers of prosthetic
the foot, once again storing energy. When the foot legs to improve their designs?
leaves the ground in the next part of the gait cycle, 2. How are computers used to improve the function of
the flexed front part of the foot releases its stored prosthetic devices?
energy and helps to push the foot forward into the
next stride. 3. Explain how new foot designs reduce the amount of energy
required to walk with a prosthetic leg.
Designers have realized the advantage of making highly
specialized feet that match and sometimes exceed 4. Research the field of biomechanics. In a paragraph:
the capabilities of human feet. Distance running (1) describe what the term biomechanics means; and
and sprinting feet are built to different
specifications to efficiently deal with (2) write about a biomechanics topic that interests you.
the forces and demands related
to these activities. Photo of Dr. Herr by Tony Herr
knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion. 221
Vocabulary 3. Is a gas-powered lawn mower a simple machine? Explain
why or why not.
4. An inventor claims to have created a new unpowered
gear ratio simple machine machine
machine. He says the machine can push with an output
output lever input
force of 100 newtons for 1 meter if you apply an input force
mechanical advantage gear of 50 newtons for 0.5 meter. Could this machine work?
Section 9.1 and Section 9.2 Explain why or why not.
1. A(n) ____ is a stiff structure that pivots on a fulcrum. 5. List the simple machines that you have learned about and
2. If the output force is 2 newtons and the input force is provide an everyday example of each. Think of an example
1 newton, the ____ for a machine is 2. that was not mentioned in the text.
3. A(n) ____ is wheel with teeth that transfers motion or force. Section 9.2
6. Correct or incorrect? Explain your answer in each case.
4. A rope and pulley system or a lever is an example of a(n)
____. a. You know the input arm length and the output arm
length of a lever. Therefore, you can calculate the
5. To travel 150 kilometers in less than 2 hours, I need a(n)
mechanical advantage.
____, a device that has moving parts that work together to
b. You know the input arm length, output arm length, and
help me travel that far in that amount of time.
the output force for a lever. Therefore, you can
6. The force you use when you pedal a bicycle is the ____ and determine the input force.
the motion of the wheels and distance traveled is the ____.
7. Explain how mechanical advantage is calculated for each
7. The number of turns of an output gear divided by the simple machine:
number of turns of the input gear is called the ____.
a. a pair of gears b. a lever
There are no vocabulary terms in Section 9.3.
8. How does the mechanical advantage of a second class lever
compare to the mechanical advantage of a third class lever?
Concepts
9. Identify whether the items in this list are first, second, or
Section 9.1
third class levers when they are in use: a nutcracker, a
1. Name two simple machines that are found on a bicycle. baseball bat, a golf club, a hammer used to hit a nail, a pair
2. Explain the difference between input work and output work of scissors.
for a machine.
222
10. Two people are pulling on opposite ends of a rope so that it 14. Pick an animal and name one motion that this animal does.
has a tension of 150 newtons. If the rope is not moving, with State whether or not the motion represents the motion of a
what pulling force is each of the two people pulling? lever. If a lever is represented, explain whether it is a first,
11. A wheeled cart is used to bring a large load of luggage up a second, or third class lever. Justify your answer.
ramp onto a cruise ship. What simple machines are being
used in this situation? Why are they being used? Include the Problems
term mechanical advantage in your answer. Section 9.1
Section 9.3 1. If you lift a 200-newton box 1 meter with a rope and pulley
12. Which classes of levers are represented in the human body? system and you apply 20 newtons to lift this box, what is the
mechanical advantage of the system? How far do you have to
a. first and second class only c. all three classes pull the rope when you are applying the input force? If you
b. third class only d. second and third class only do this work in 5 seconds, what is the power?
Section 9.2
13. Look at this diagram of a
sweeping broom. 2. Look at the diagrams at the
right. They show three first
a. Label the parts of this
class levers, each arranged
diagram using these
in a different way. For each,
terms: input force,
answer the following
output force, input arm,
questions.
output arm, fulcrum,
and wide range of a. Is the input arm larger,
motion. smaller, or the same as
the output arm?
b. What kind of lever is a
broom? b. Is the input force
larger, smaller, or the
c. What are the
same as the output
advantages to using
force?
this kind of lever to
sweep a floor? c. Is the mechanical
advantage greater than,
d. If you had to move large
less than, or equal to 1?
rocks in your yard,
would you still want to use a broom? Why or why not? If 3. A lever has an input arm that is 2 meters long and an
not, what kind of lever might you use? output arm that is 3 meters long. What is the mechanical
advantage? Does this lever multiply force? Why or why not?
223
4. Betsy wants to use her own weight to lift a 1,500-newton 10. Use the input and output forces listed in the table below to
box. She weighs 500 newtons. Suggest input and output arm calculate the mechanical advantage.
lengths that would allow Betsy to lift the box with a lever. Input Force (N) Output Force (N) Mechanical Advantage
Draw a lever and label the input and output arms with the
10 100
lengths and forces.
30 30
5. You need a wheelbarrow to transport
500 1,350
some soil for your garden. The
wheelbarrow you have gives you a 625 200
mechanical advantage of 3.5. If you use
65 newtons of force to lift the 11. One of the examples in the table in problem 10 has a very
wheelbarrow so that you can roll it, how low mechanical advantage. Identify this example and
much soil can you carry with this explain why you might or might not want to use this
wheelbarrow? Give the weight of the soil machine to lift something that weighs 200 newtons.
in newtons and be sure to show your work. Section 9.3
6. An output gear has 12 teeth and an input gear has 48 teeth. 12. Using the diagrams below, answer the following questions
What is the mechanical advantage of this gear combination? (on the next page).
Is force or speed multiplied in this example?
7. An input gear turns four times. How many times will the
output gear turn if the gear ratio is 0.5? Does the input gear
have more or fewer teeth than the output gear?
8. You plan to use a rope and pulley system to lift a 100-newton
box. How much input force is needed if the pulley has:
a. 1 supporting string? c. 5 supporting strings?

b. 2 supporting strings? d. 10 supporting strings?
9. The block and tackle machine (a rope and pulley system) on

a sailboat can help a sailor raise her mainsail. She needs
500 newtons of force to raise the sail. If the block and tackle
gives her a mechanical advantage of 5, how much input
force must be applied to raise the sail?
224
a. Using the distances shown in the diagrams on the 4. Here is a table with sample data for lifting (input) force
previous page, calculate the mechanical advantage of versus the number of supporting strings in a rope and pulley
the jaw and arm. Which is larger? system. Use the data to answer the following questions.
b. Suppose the jaw and biceps muscle produce equal input
forces of 800 N. Calculate and compare the output forces
in biting (jaw) and lifting (arm). Which is larger?
c. Suppose you need an output force of 500 N. Calculate
and compare the input forces of the jaw and biceps
muscle required to produce 500 N of output force.

Section 9.1
1. Think about a task that you need to do. Now, invent and
design a complex machine to do this task. Be sure to include a. Describe the relationship between the lifting (input)
two or more simple machines in your design. On a separate force and the number of supporting strings in the
piece of paper, make a sketch of your design and describe pulley.
how it works. b. Make a graph that shows the relationship between
Extension: Present your complex machine to your class. lifting (input) force and the number of supporting
Can you convince your classmates that your machine will strings. Which variable is dependent and which is
work? Why or why not? independent?
Section 9.2 c. Calculate the mechanical advantage for each number of
2. Does mechanical advantage have units? Why or why not? supporting strings.
Section 9.3
3. Write a mechanical advantage question for each of the
following simple machines. Be sure to work out the answers 5. In the text, you learned about the scientific field of
to the questions. Share your questions with a classmate and biomechanics. Find out more about this fascinating field.
then check his or her work. What do biomechanics scientists do? What kind of research
questions do they ask? Do they work indoors or outdoors or
a. ramp c. wedge both? Write an essay that describes your findings.
b. screw d. wheel and axle
Unit 4
Matter and Energy
CHAPTER 10 Matter and
Temperature
CHAPTER 11 Heat
CHAPTER 12 Properties of Matter
CHAPTER 13 The Behavior

of Gases
Get a metal spoon and a plastic spoon, a cup, some ice,

and water. Fill the cup with ice and then add water
until the cup is about half full with water. Place both
spoons in the cup and wait for two minutes. Touch the metal spoon and then
the plastic spoon. Record your observations on a piece of paper. Which spoon
feels colder? Warmer? Why do the spoons feel like they do? Write a paragraph
about what you felt and why you think that happened.
Chapter 10
Matter and Temperature
Have you ever imagined what it would be like to live in an atom-sized world?
You may have seen movies where the characters are suddenly shrunk to the
size of a flea or an even tinier animal. If you were that small, what would the matter around you
look like? What if you were even smaller, say the size of an atom? In this world, even the air
around you could be dangerous. Everywhere you looked, you would see atoms and molecules
whizzing around at amazingly fast speeds and occasionally colliding with one another. Watch
out! One of those particles might collide with you!
If you were the size of an atom, you would notice that the particles that make up everything are
in constant motion. In liquids, the particles slide over and around each other. In solids, the
particles vibrate in place. In gases, the particles move around freely. Ordinary air would look
like a crazy, three-dimensional bumper-car ride where you are
bombarded from all sides by giant beach balls. It will be helpful to
imagine life as an atom as you study this chapter.
What is the smallest particle of sugar that is

still sugar?
What does temperature measure?

What happens at the molecular level when
water melts, freezes, and boils?
Chapter 10 MATTER AND TEMPERATURE
10.1 The Nature of Matter

From a distance, a sugar cube looks like a single piece of matter. But up close, you can see it is
made up of tiny, individual crystals of sugar fused together. Can those sugar crystals be broken
into even smaller particles? What is the smallest particle of sugar that is still sugar (Figure 10.1)?
Matter is made of tiny particles in constant motion

The idea of atoms Matter is a term used to describe anything that has mass and takes up space.
The idea that matter is made of tiny particles goes back to 430 BCE. The
Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus proposed that matter is made
of tiny particles called atoms. For 2,300 years few people believed this
theory. In 1803, John Dalton revived the idea of atoms, but he lacked proof. Figure 10.1: What is the smallest
particle of sugar that is still sugar?
Brownian motion In 1827, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, was looking through a
provides evidence microscope at tiny grains of pollen in water. He saw that the grains moved in
for particles an irregular, jerky manner. After observing the same motion in tiny dust
particles, he theorized that all tiny particles move in the same way. The
irregular, jerky motion was named Brownian motion in Brown’s honor.
A human-sized Imagine throwing marbles at a tire tube floating in the water. The impact of
comparison any single marble is too small to make the tire tube move. If you throw
enough marbles, the tube will start moving slowly. The motion of the tire
tube will appear smooth because the mass of a single marble is tiny
compared to the mass of the tire tube (Figure 10.2).
Why Brownian Now imagine throwing marbles at a foam cup floating in water. The motion
motion is jerky, not is jerky, and the impact of individual marbles can be seen. The mass of the
smooth cup is not huge compared to the mass of a marble. A pollen grain in water
moves around in a jerky manner much like the foam cup. That motion is
caused by the impact of individual water molecules on the pollen grain. Like
the cup, the mass of the pollen grain, while larger than a water molecule, is Figure 10.2: Throwing marbles at a
tire tube moves the tube smoothly.
not so much larger that impacts are completely smoothed out. Throwing the same marbles at a foam
Matter is made of In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that Brownian motion is caused by cup moves the cup in a jerky manner,
atoms collisions between visible particles like pollen grains, and smaller, invisible like Brownian motion.
particles. This was strong evidence that matter was indeed made of atoms.
SC.912.N.3.2-Describe the role consensus plays in the historical development of a theory in any one of the disciplines of science.
MATTER AND TEMPERATURE Chapter 10
Atoms and elements

Elements An element is defined as a pure substance that cannot be broken down into
element - a pure substance that
simpler substances by physical or chemical means. For example, water is cannot be broken down into simpler
made from the elements hydrogen and oxygen. If you add energy, you can substances by physical or chemical
break water down into hydrogen and oxygen, but you cannot break the means.
hydrogen and oxygen down into simpler substances (Figure 10.3). atom - the smallest particle of an
Defining atoms A single atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical element that retains the chemical
identity of the element. For example, you can keep cutting a piece of the identity of the element.
element gold into smaller and smaller pieces until you cannot cut it any more.
That smallest particle you can divide it into is one atom. A single atom of gold
is the smallest piece of gold you can have. If you split the atom, it will no
longer be gold.
How small are A single atom has a diameter of about 10–10 meters. This means that you can
atoms? fit 10,000,000,000 (1010) atoms side-by-side in a one-meter length. You may
think a sheet of aluminum foil is thin, but it is actually more than
200,000 atoms thick!
Atoms of an element Each element has a unique type of atom. Sodium atoms are different from
are similar to each carbon atoms, carbon atoms are different from aluminum atoms, etc. But all
other atoms of a given element are similar to each other. If you could examine a
million atoms of carbon, you would find them all to be similar. You will learn
much more about atoms in Chapter 14.
Figure 10.3: You can break water
down into oxygen and hydrogen by
adding energy.
SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these particles in 229
terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within.
Compounds contain two or more elements

Compounds Sometimes elements are found in their pure form, but more often they are
compound - a substance that
combined with other elements. Most substances contain several elements contains two or more different
combined together. A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically joined and has
different elements chemically joined and has the same composition the same composition throughout.
throughout. For example, water is a compound that is made from the molecule - a group of two or more
elements hydrogen and oxygen. Figure 10.4 shows some familiar atoms joined together by chemical
compounds. bonds.
Molecules If you could magnify a sample of pure
water so you could see its atoms, you
would notice that the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms are joined together in
groups of two hydrogen atoms to one
oxygen atom. These groups are called
molecules. A molecule is a group of
two or more atoms joined together by
chemical bonds. A compound is made
up of only one type of molecule.
Some compounds, like table salt
(sodium chloride), are made of equal
combinations of different atoms
instead of individual molecules.
Mixtures Most of the things you see and use in everyday life are mixtures. A mixture
contains more than one kind of atom, molecule, or compound. Figure 10.4: Examples of
compounds.
230 SC.912.P.8.7-Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of composition and structure.
Classifying matter
Pure substances Matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances and mixtures. A
pure substance - matter that
pure substance cannot be separated into different kinds of matter by cannot be separated into other types
physical means such as sorting, filtering, heating, or cooling. Elements and of matter by physical means. Includes
compounds are pure substances. Examples include water, table salt, gold, and all elements and compounds.
oxygen. mixture - matter that contains a
Mixtures contain A mixture contains a combination of different elements and/or compounds. combination of different elements and/
or compounds and can be separated
more than one kind All mixtures share one common property: They can be separated into
by physical means.
of matter different types of matter by physical means such as sorting, filtering, heating,
homogeneous mixture - a
or cooling. For example, cola is a mixture that can be separated into
mixture that is the same throughout.
carbonated water, corn syrup, caramel color, phosphoric acid, natural flavors, All samples of a homogeneous
and caffeine. mixture are the same.
Homogeneous A homogeneous mixture is the same heterogeneous mixture - a
mixture is the same throughout. In other words, all samples of a mixture in which different samples are
throughout homogeneous mixture are the same. For not necessarily made up of the same
example, an unopened can of cola is a proportions of matter.
homogeneous mixture. The cola in the top of
the unopened can is the same as the cola at the
bottom. Once you open the can, however,
carbon dioxide will escape from the cola
making the first sip a little different from your
last sip. Brass is another example of a
homogeneous mixture. It is made of 70 percent copper and 30 percent zinc. If
you cut a brass candlestick into 10 pieces, each piece would contain the same
percentage of copper and zinc.
Two samples of a A heterogeneous mixture is one in which different samples are not
heterogeneous necessarily made up of exactly the same proportions of matter. One common
mixture could be heterogeneous mixture is chicken noodle soup (Figure 10.5). One spoonful Figure 10.5: Chicken soup is a
different heterogeneous mixture.
might contain broth, noodles, and chicken, while another contains only broth.
Can you think of a way to separate this mixture?
SC.912.P.8.2-Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical changes of matter. 231
Summary
Keep track of all of the matter you use
in one day. List each item and classify
it according to the diagram to the left.
You may need to do some research
for some of your items. Make a poster
showing how the matter you used is
classified. Use pictures from the
Internet or magazines.
STUDY SKILLS
A graphic organizer is a chart that
shows how ideas and topics are
related. Draw a graphic organizer that
depicts the diagram to the left.
SC.912.P.8.2-Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical changes of matter.
Section 10.1 Review

1. Explain why Brownian motion provides evidence for the existence of Edouard Benedictus
atoms and molecules. In 1903, a French chemist named
2. Describe the difference between elements, compounds, and mixtures. Edouard Benedictus dropped a glass
flask in the lab. The flask was full of
3. Which would be easier to separate, a mixture or a compound? Explain cracks, but surprisingly, the pieces did
your answer. not scatter across the floor. The shape
4. Give an example of each: element, compound, and mixture. of the flask remained intact. The flask
5. Identify each of the following as element, compound, homogeneous had been used to store a compound
called cellulose nitrate. Although the
mixture, or heterogeneous mixture. Explain your reasoning for each. chemical had evaporated, it left a
a. milk plastic film on the inside of the glass.
b. iron nail Initially, Benedictus tried to sell his
shatter-resistant glass to automobile
c. glass manufacturers but they weren’t
d. sugar interested. During World War I, he
e. bottled spring water sold it for use in gas mask lenses.
Soon after the war, the auto industry
f. distilled water began using his glass.
g. air
h. alloy bicycle frame
i. propane
j. baking soda
6. Most things you use every day are:
a. compounds
b. elements
c. mixtures
7. Your teacher has mixed salt, pepper, and water. Describe a procedure that
you could use to separate this mixture. Be sure to list all of the materials
you would need, your set up, and your expected results.
233
10.2 Temperature
You have probably used a thermometer. However, did you ever stop to think about how it works? Fahrenheit - a temperature scale in
In this section, you will learn what temperature is, how it is measured, and how the devices we use which water freezes at 32 degrees
to measure temperature work. and boils at 212 degrees.
Celsius - a temperature scale in
Temperature scales which water freezes at 0 degrees and
boils at 100 degrees.
Fahrenheit There are two common temperature scales. On the Fahrenheit scale, water
freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees (Figure 10.6). There are
180 Fahrenheit degrees between the freezing point and the boiling point of
water. Temperature in the United States is commonly measured in
Fahrenheit; 72°F (72 degrees Fahrenheit) is a comfortable room temperature.
212º water boils 100º
Celsius The Celsius scale divides the interval between the freezing and boiling
points of water into 100 degrees (instead of 180). Water freezes at 0°C
(0 degrees Celsius) and boils at 100°C. Most scientists and engineers use
Celsius because 0 and 100 are easier to work with than 32 and 212.
Converting between A weather report of 21°C in London, England predicts a pleasant day, good 98.6º
normal human
body temp. 37º
the scales for shorts and a T-shirt. A weather report of 21°F in Minneapolis, Minnesota,
means a heavy winter coat, gloves, and a hat will be needed. Because the 68º comfortable 20º
room temp.
U.S. is one of only a few countries that use the Fahrenheit scale, it is useful 32º water freezes 0º
to know how to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius.
CONVERTING BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS

FAHRENHEIT CELSIUS
9 5
T = Fahrenheit 5 T + 32 T =
Celsius Celsius 9 (T – 32)
Fahrenheit
Figure 10.6: The Fahrenheit and
Celsius temperature scales.
234 SC.912.P.10.5-Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy.

Solving Problems: Temperature Conversions
A friend in Paris sends you a recipe for a cake. The French recipe says to bake
the cake at a temperature of 200°C for 45 minutes. At what temperature
should you set your oven, which uses the Fahrenheit scale (Figure 10.7)?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Given: You are given the temperature in degrees Celsius.
3. Relationships: Use the conversion formula: TF = 9/5 TC + 32.
4. Solution: TF = (9/5)(200) + 32 = 392°F
Figure 10.7: A French recipe says to

Your turn... bake a cake at 200°C, at what
temperature would you set the oven in
a. You are planning a trip to Iceland where the average July temperature is degrees Fahrenheit?
11.2°C. What is this temperature in Fahrenheit?
b. You are doing a science experiment with a Fahrenheit thermometer. Your
data must be in degrees Celsius. If you measure a temperature of 125°F,
what is this temperature in degrees Celsius?
c. The temperature on the Moon
varies from –230°C, at night, to
120°C during the day. What is the
range in temperatures on the a. 52.2°F
Moon in degrees Fahrenheit? b. 51.7°C
c. –382°F to 248°F
235
Defining temperature
Atoms are always in Imagine you had a microscope powerful enough to see individual molecules
thermal energy - energy due to
motion in a compound (or atoms in the case of an element). You would see that the
temperature.
molecules are in constant motion, even in a solid object. In a solid, the
molecules are not fixed in place, but act like they are connected by springs temperature - a quantity that
measures the kinetic energy per
(Figure 10.8). Each molecule stays in the same average place, but constantly
molecule due to random motion.
jiggles back and forth in all directions. As you might guess, the “jiggling”
means motion and motion means energy. The back-and-forth jiggling of
molecules is caused by thermal energy, which is a kind of kinetic energy.
Temperature and Thermal energy is proportional to temperature. When the temperature goes
energy up, the energy of motion increases. That means the molecules jiggle around
more vigorously. The higher the temperature, the more thermal energy
molecules have and the faster they move around. Temperature measures a
particular kind of kinetic energy per molecule.
Temperature measures the kinetic energy per
molecule due to random motion.
Random versus If you throw a rock, the rock gets more kinetic energy, but the temperature of
average motion the rock does not go up. How can temperature measure kinetic energy then?
The answer is the difference between random motion of the molecules, and Figure 10.8: Molecules in a solid are
average motion of the object. For a collection of many molecules (like a connected by bonds that act like springs.
rock), the kinetic energy has two parts. The kinetic energy of the thrown rock
comes from the average motion of the whole collection; the whole rock. This
kinetic energy is not what temperature measures.
Random motion Each molecule in the rock is also jiggling back and forth independently of
the other molecules in the rock. This jiggling motion is random motion.
Random motion is motion that is scattered equally in all directions. On
average, there are as many molecules moving one way as there are moving
the opposite way. Temperature measures the kinetic energy of the random
motion. Temperature is not affected by any kinetic energy associated with Figure 10.9: A collection of
molecules can have both average motion
average motion. That is why throwing a rock does not make it hotter
and random motion. That is why a rock
(Figure 10.9). has both a velocity and a temperature.

Thermometers
Thermometers If you touch an object, you can sense whether it is hot or cold, but you cannot
thermometer - an instrument that
tell the exact temperature. A thermometer is an instrument that measures
measures temperature.
the exact temperature. The most common thermometers contain either a red
fluid, which is alcohol containing a small amount of red dye, or a silvery
fluid, which is mercury. You may have also used a thermometer with a
digital readout.
Using a liquid to Thermometers can detect the physical changes in materials due to change in
sense the temperature. Different types of thermometers measure different physical
temperature changes. In a thermometer that uses a liquid to sense temperature, the
expansion of the liquid is directly proportional to increase in temperature. As
the temperature increases, the liquid expands and rises up a long, thin tube
(Figure 10.10). You tell the temperature by the height the liquid rises. The
tube is long and thin so a small change in volume makes a large change in
the height.
Digital thermometers Another physical property that changes with temperature is electrical
resistance. The resistance of a metal wire will increase with temperature.
Since the metal is hotter, and the metal atoms are shaking more, there is more
resistance to electrons passing through the wire. A thermistor is a device that
changes its electrical resistance as the temperature changes. Some digital
thermometers sense temperature by measuring the resistance of a thermistor.
Liquid-crystal Some thermometers, often used on the outside of aquariums, contain liquid
thermometers crystals that change color based on temperature. As temperature increases, the Figure 10.10: How a thermometer
molecules of the liquid crystal bump into each other more and more. This works.
causes a change in the structure of the crystals, which in turn affects their
color. These thermometers are able to accurately determine the temperature
between 65°F and 85°F.
237
Absolute zero and the Kelvin temperature scale

Absolute zero There is a limit to how cold matter can get. As the temperature is reduced,
absolute zero - lowest possible
molecules move more and more slowly. When the temperature gets down to temperature, at which thermal energy
absolute zero, molecules have the lowest energy they can have and the is as close to zero as it can be,
temperature cannot get any lower. You can think of absolute zero as the approximately –273°C.
temperature where molecules are completely frozen, with no motion. Kelvin scale - a temperature scale
Technically, molecules never become absolutely motionless, but the kinetic that starts at absolute zero and has
energy is so small it might as well be zero. Absolute zero occurs at minus units the same as Celsius degrees.
273°C (–459°F).
You cannot have a temperature lower than
absolute zero.
The Kelvin scale A temperature in Celsius measures only relative thermal energy, relative to
zero Celsius. The Kelvin scale is useful in science because it starts at
absolute zero. A temperature in Kelvins measures the actual energy of
molecules relative to zero energy.
Converting to Kelvin The Kelvin (K) unit of temperature is the same size as the Celsius degree.
However, water freezes at 273K and boils at 373K. Most of the outer planets
and moons have temperatures closer to absolute zero than to the freezing
point of water (Figure 10.11). To convert from Celsius to Kelvins you add
273 to the temperature in Celsius. For example, a temperature of 21°C is
equal to 294K (21 + 273).
High temperatures While absolute zero is the lower limit for temperature, there is no practical
upper limit. Temperature can go up almost indefinitely. As the temperature
increases, exotic forms of matter appear. For example, at 10,000°C, atoms
start to come apart and become a plasma. In a plasma, atoms are broken
Figure 10.11: The average surface
apart into separate positive ions and negative electrons. Plasma conducts temperature of Saturn’s largest moon
electricity and is formed in lightning and inside stars. You’ll read more about Titan is 93K.
plasma in the next section.

Section 10.2 Review

1. People in the United States know that water boils at 212°F. In Europe,
people know that water boils at 100°C. Is the water in the U.S. different
than the water in Europe? What explains the two different temperatures?
2. A comfortable room temperature is 20°C. What is this temperature in What is absolute zero in degrees
degrees Fahrenheit? Fahrenheit?
3. Which is colder, 0°C or 20°F?
4. Explain the scientific meaning of the word random.
5. Temperature measures:
a. the kinetic energy of the random motion of molecules in an object.
b. the kinetic energy of the average motion of molecules in an object.
c. the potential energy of an object.
d. the motion of an object.
6. A thermometer that uses a liquid to measure temperature works because:
a. the electrical resistance in the liquid changes with temperature.
b. the liquid changes color as temperature changes.
c. the expansion of the liquid is directly proportional to increase in
temperature.
7. Which statement best describes the relationship between temperature and
thermal energy?
a. Temperature is inversely related to thermal energy.
b. Temperature is directly proportional to thermal energy.
c. As temperature goes up, thermal energy goes down.
d. Thermal energy is not related to temperature.
8. Would thermal energy be greater at 0°C or 48°F? Explain your answer.
9. Why can’t there be a temperature lower than absolute zero?
SC.912.N.1.5-Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in many parts of the world result in the same outcome. 239
10.3 The Phases of Matter

You will notice that on a hot day, a glass of iced tea (or any cold beverage) has liquid water on the
outside (Figure 10.12). The water does not come from inside the glass. The ice (the solid form of
water) and cold liquid inside make the outside of the glass cold, too. This “outside” cold
temperature causes water vapor in the air—a gas—to condense into liquid water on the exterior of
the glass. What is happening at the level of atoms and molecules? Why can water take the form of
solid, liquid, or gas?
Solid, liquid, and gas

Phases of matter On Earth, pure substances are usually found as solids,
liquids, or gases. These are called phases of matter.
Another phase of matter called plasma is discussed
later in the section.
Solids A solid holds its shape and does not flow. The Figure 10.12: Why can water take
molecules in a solid vibrate in place, but, on average, the form of solid, liquid, and gas?
don’t move far from their places.
Liquids A liquid holds its volume, but does not hold its
shape—it flows. The molecules in a liquid are about solid - a phase of matter that holds
its shape and does not flow.
as close together as they are in a solid. But they have
enough energy to change positions with their liquid - a phase of matter that holds
its volume, does not hold its shape,
neighbors. Liquids flow because the molecules can and flows.
move around.
gas - a phase of matter that flows,
Gases A gas flows like a liquid, but can also expand or does not hold its volume, and can
contract to fill a container. A gas does not hold its expand or contract to fill a container.
volume. The molecules in a gas have enough energy
to completely break away from each other and are
much farther apart than molecules in a liquid or
a solid.
240 SC.912.P.8.1-Differentiate among the four states of matter.

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular When they are close together, molecules are attracted through
intermolecular forces - forces
forces intermolecular forces. These forces are not as strong as the chemical bonds
between atoms or molecules in a
between atoms, but are strong enough to attach neighboring molecules to each substance that determine the phase of
other. Intermolecular forces have different strengths in different elements and matter.
compounds. Iron is a solid at room temperature. Water is a liquid at room
temperature. This tells you that the intermolecular forces between iron atoms
are stronger than those between water molecules.
Temperature vs. Within all matter, there is a constant competition between temperature and
intermolecular intermolecular forces. The kinetic energy from temperature tends to push
forces atoms and molecules apart. When temperature wins the competition,
molecules break away from each other and you have a gas. Intermolecular
forces tend to bring molecules together. When intermolecular forces win the Figure 10.13: The relationship
competition, molecules clump tightly together and you have a solid. Liquid is between temperature, intermolecular
forces, and phase of matter.
somewhere in the middle. Molecules in a liquid are not stuck firmly together,
nor can they escape and break away from each other (Figure 10.13).
SC.912.P.10.5-Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy. 241

Changing phase
Melting and freezing The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from
melting point - the temperature at
solid to liquid (melting) or from liquid to solid (freezing). Different which a substance changes from solid
substances have different melting points because intermolecular forces vary. to liquid (melting) or liquid to solid
When these forces are strong, it takes more energy to separate molecules (freezing).
from each other. Water melts at 0°C. Iron melts at a much higher boiling point - the temperature at
temperature, about 1,500°C. The difference in melting points tells us the which a substance changes from
intermolecular forces between iron atoms are stronger than between liquid to gas (boiling) or from gas to
water molecules. liquid (condensation).
Boiling and When enough energy is added, the
condensing intermolecular forces are completely
pulled apart and a liquid becomes a
gas. The boiling point is the
temperature at which a substance
changes from liquid to gas (boiling)
or from gas to liquid (condensation).
When water boils, you can easily see
the change within the liquid as
bubbles of water vapor (gas) form and rise to the surface. The bubbles in
boiling water are not air, they are water vapor.
Changes in phase It takes energy to break the intermolecular forces between particles. This
require energy explains a peculiar thing that happens when you heat an ice cube. As you add
heat energy, the temperature increases. Once it reaches 0°C, the temperature
stops increasing as ice starts to melt and form liquid water (Figure 10.14).
As you add more heat energy, more ice becomes liquid but the temperature
stays the same. This is because the energy you are adding is being used to
break the intermolecular forces and change solid into liquid. Once all the ice
has become liquid, the temperature starts to rise again as more energy is
added. Figure 10.14 shows the temperature change in an experiment. When
heat energy is added or subtracted from matter, either the temperature
changes, or the phase changes, but usually not both at the same time. Figure 10.14: Note how the
temperature stays constant as the
ice is melting into water.
242 SC.912.P.10.4-Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter.
SC.912.P.12.11-Describe phase transitions in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Melting and boiling points, sublimation, and plasmas

Melting Boiling
Substance
All substances can On Earth, elements and compounds are usually found as solids, liquids, or point point
exist as a solid, gases. Each substance can exist in each of the three phases, and each helium –272°C –269°C
liquid, or gas substance has a characteristic temperature and pressure at which it will
oxygen –218°C –183°C
undergo a phase change. Figure 10.15 lists some examples.
mercury –39°C 357°C
Sublimation and Sometimes a solid can change directly to a gas with no liquid phase when heat water 0°C 100°C
deposition energy is added. This process is called sublimation. Solid iodine is a lead 327°C 1749°C
substance that readily undergoes sublimation at room temperature. This is aluminum 660°C 2519°C
evident by the formation of a purple cloud above the crystals (Figure 10.16).
A more common example is the shrinking of ice cubes (solid water) over time Figure 10.15: The melting and
boiling points of some common
in the freezer. The opposite of sublimation is called deposition. One example substances.
of deposition is when water vapor
changes directly into a solid—such
as frost on a window on a cold
winter night.
Plasma is a fourth At temperatures greater than
phase of matter 10,000°C, the atoms in a gas start to
break apart. In the plasma phase,
matter becomes ionized as electrons
are broken loose from atoms. Because
the electrons are free to move
independently, plasma can conduct
electricity. The Sun is made of plasma, Figure 10.16: Solid iodine readily
undergoes sublimation at room
as is most of the universe, including temperature.
the Orion nebula (shown right).
Where else do you A type of plasma is used to make neon and fluorescent lights. Instead of
find plasma? heating the gases to an extremely high temperature, an electrical current is plasma - a phase of matter in which
passed through them. The current strips the electrons off the atoms, producing the matter is heated to such a high
plasma. You also see plasma every time you see lightning! temperature that some of the atoms
begin to break apart.
SC.912.P.10.4-Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter. 243
Summarizing the phases of matter
Evaporation
If you leave a pan of water in a room,
eventually it drys out. Why does this
happen? Evaporation occurs when
molecules go from liquid to gas at
temperatures below the boiling point.
Remember, temperature measures
the average random kinetic energy of
molecules. Some molecules have
energy above the average and some
below the average. Some of the
highest-energy molecules have
enough energy to over come the
intermolecular forces with their
neighbors and become a gas if they
are near the surface of the liquid.
Molecules with higher than average
energy are the source of evaporation.
Evaporation takes energy away from
a liquid. The molecules that escape
are the ones with the most energy.
The average energy of the molecules
left behind is lowered. Evaporation
cools the surface of a liquid because
the fastest molecules escape and
carry energy away. This is how your
body cools off on a hot day. The
evaporation of sweat from your skin
cools your body.

Section 10.3 Review

1. Identify the phase or phases of matter (solids, liquids, and gases) that
apply to each statement. More than one phase of matter may apply to each
statement.
a. Molecules do not move around, but vibrate in place
b. Has volume but no particular shape
c. Flows
One of the ways to make car engines
d. Molecules break free of intermolecular forces
more efficient is to let them reach
e. Does not have a volume or shape higher temperatures. Unfortunately,
f. Molecules can move around and switch places, but remain close steel melts at about 1,500°C. Steel
together gets soft before it melts, so engines
typically can’t operate at temperatures
2. Explain why particles in a gas are free to move far away from each other. even close to the melting point. Some
3. Explain why liquids flow but solids do not. new engine technologies use
4. Would you expect a substance to be a solid, liquid, or gas at absolute cylinders and pistons made of
ceramic. Ceramic stays hard and
zero? Explain your answer.
strong at a much higher temperature
5. Describe what happens, at the molecular level, during melting. than steel.
6. Describe what happens, at the molecular level, when a substance boils.
7. What is the most common phase of matter in the universe?
8. What is plasma? Where can you find plasma? 50
9. Matter has four phases that we experience. List the four phases in order of 40
Temperature (ºC)
D E
increasing temperature (lowest to highest). 30
10. Put the following terms in order from greatest intermolecular forces, to
20
weakest intermolecular forces: liquid, gas, solid. B C
10
11. Which would you expect to have stronger intermolecular forces: A
a. Hydrogen, which exists as a gas at room temperature 0

1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Iron, which exists as a solid at room temperature Time (min)
12. Identify the segment of the graph (A to B, B to C, C to D, D to E) in Figure 10.17: Use this graph to
Figure 10.17 where a phase change is occurring. There could be more answer question 12.
than one place. Explain your reasoning.
245
Technology8CONNECTION
Chapter 10
Basic Technology
Television If you understand the basic principles

of how a CRT (cathode ray tube)
television works, then you can begin
Technology to understand how plasma and LCD
television works. A CRT is a cone-shaped
glass tube with an energy source at the
In the past, if you wanted a large-screen television, you probably would smaller end and a phosphorus-coated
have needed to sacrifice half of your living room space to find a place for screen at the wider end. In between,
it. Now, flat-screen plasma and LCD (liquid crystal display) televisions are rays of electrons are focused on the
replacing the older, bulky, cathode ray tube television technology. phosphorous screen to produce light. Each
ray hits and lights up the phosphorous screen in a small point called
Let’s compare these two new types of television technology. That way, if a “pixel.” Each pixel is made up of the three primary colors of light:
you win the lottery, you’ll have your homework done and will be ready to red, blue, and green. These colors can be combined to make up all
make an informed decision about which to buy! the colors you see when viewing a television image.
There are hundreds of thousands of pixels on a typical CRT screen.

Stars, Lightning, and Televisions The rays are directed by magnetic fields that can move the beams
in many directions. To make a larger CRT screen, the television also
What do stars, lightning, and
must be “thicker” from front to back so that more pixels can be
televisions all have in common?
projected on the screen. Large-screen CRT televisions are heavy,
PLASMA! All three contain this state
bulky, and very big!
of matter, where gaseous atoms
break apart into positive ions and
free-flowing electrons. Believe it Plasma Technology
or not, plasma is the most A plasma television is made up of two flat glass panels with many
abundant state of matter in the tiny chambers (or cells) sandwiched between them. Each cell is filled
universe. Lightning is probably the with xenon or neon gas. Electrons in a cell are excited by electrodes
natural plasma with which you are running alongside the
most familiar. chambers. The energy of
However, the plasma used in the electrodes can vary as
television screens isn’t natural a computer instructs
plasma. It’s synthetic plasma, more or less voltage to be
produced when an inert gas is applied to the cell. This is
heated by an electric current and how the intensity of the
stripped of its electrons. These display is controlled.
electrons are free-flowing, so the When the electrons in
gas becomes a plasma. a cell are excited, they
But how is this synthetic plasma
used to create images on a television?
246 SC.912.P.8.1–Differentiate among the four states of matter.

Chapter 10
break away from the xenon Which to Choose?
or neon atoms and are able to
So, why would you choose one technology over the other? Both
flow freely through the cell,
plasma and LCD televisions are expensive. Both types are basically
striking each other frequently.
thin panels, so they don’t need a lot of space. Finally, both
As collisions occur, particles are
technologies provide high resolution. But, there are differences.
bumped to higher energy levels
and then fall back to their lower Because plasma televisions contain tiny cells that produce their own
levels, releasing ultraviolet (UV) light, it doesn’t matter where you are in a room while viewing a
energy. The UV energy reacts program. The images look good from any angle. Some drawbacks
with the phosphorous layer (see to plasma televisions are that the panels weigh more than their
the diagram at right), generating LCD counterparts and they aren’t necessarily energy efficient. In
photons of light. The light is addition, some viewers have reported that watching the same
projected and pixels are lit station too often produce a “burn through” of logos and such.
up, just as in the CRT. The
difference is that there are LCD displays provide better viewing in a well-lit room, but can have
up to 16 million colors, a slow response time when changing images. Because LCDs are
instead of only hundreds of Cell “backlit,” meaning they have one single light source for the entire
thousands, as in Phosphorous area of the display screen, blacks tend to be fainter and sometimes
the CRT! layer there is a “bleed through” of light within the screen. LCD televisions
Pixel
are being manufactured with wider screens now, which makes them
Liquid Crystal
Glass panel
more appealing to consumers.
Display Technology
Glass panel
Now that you understand

two types of television Questions:
technology, you are on your
way to being TV tech-savvy! 1. What is a basic difference between plasma and
The third major type of television LCD technology?
technology is the liquid crystal
2. Compare the advantages and disadvantages
display (LCD). This technology begins with
liquid crystal, a form of matter that can flow like a liquid, but that
of plasma television vs. LCD television.
also has an order to the molecule arrangement in one direction, like 3. Research: What is HD-TV and how does it relate to
a crystalline solid. There are many types of liquid crystals, and one in plasma and LCD television?
particular responds to an electric charge by twisting itself. In an LCD
display, polarized sheets are placed within the display panels and
light is projected through the back of the display, traveling through
the first polarized film and encountering the liquid crystal material.
The liquid crystal material responds to a voltage applied, and twists
itself to either partially or, in the case of a black pixel, totally block
the light from passing through. Once the light is projected and
variably blocked, pixels on the display screen are lit (or not) to create
the images. The light intensity is controlled by varying the voltage
applied to the material.
SC.912.P.10.1–Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be transformed from one form to others.
SC.912.N.4.1–Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based perspective to inform society’s decision making. 247
Vocabulary 10. ____ is a scale in which water freezes at 0 degrees.
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. 11. Energy due to temperature is called ____.
atom Fahrenheit heterogeneous mixture 12. You measure temperature with a(n) ____.
Celsius absolute zero element 13. The lowest possible temperature is called ____.
gas plasma intermolecular forces
14. The ____ is a temperature scale that starts with absolute
compound pure substance solid zero.
melting point thermal energy thermometer
Section 10.3
homogeneous mixture liquid mixture
Kelvin scale boiling point molecule 15. A(n) ____ holds its shape.
Section 10.1 16. A(n) ____ does not hold its shape but has a volume.
1. A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler 17. A(n) ____ does not hold its shape and takes on the volume of
substances by physical or chemical means is a(n) ____. its container.
2. The smallest particle of an element is a(n) ____. 18. The forces that determine the phase of matter are known
as ____.
3. A(n) ____ is a substance that contains two or more elements
that are chemically joined. 19. The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to
liquid is called ____.
4. A(n) ____ is a group of two or more atoms joined together by
chemical bonds. 20. The temperature at which a substance changes from liquid
to gas is called ____.
5. A(n) ____ cannot be separated into other types of matter by
physical means. 21. ____ is a phase of matter in which some of the atoms begin
to break apart.
6. Matter that contains a combination of different elements
and/or compounds and can be separated by physical means
is called a(n) ____. Concepts
7. A(n) ____ is a mixture that is the same throughout. Section 10.1
1. What is Brownian motion? How does it provide evidence
8. A(n) ____ is a mixture that is not the same throughout.
that matter is made of atoms and molecules?
Section 10.2
2. Explain the differences between elements and compounds.
9. ____ is a temperature scale in which water freezes at
32 degrees. 3. What are the two major categories of matter?
248
4. Name three foods that would be classified as heterogeneous 15. Name one similarity between gases and liquids.
mixtures, and three foods that are homogeneous mixtures. 16. Identify the phase represented by each diagram below and
5. Explain the difference between the two kinds of substances. describe its basic properties.
6. Explain the difference between an atom and a molecule.
Section 10.2
7. Compare the Celsius temperature scale with the Fahrenheit
scale by answering the following questions:
a. Which is the larger change in temperature, 1°C or 1°F? (A) (B) (C)
b. What are the freezing points and boiling points of water 17. What is sublimation?
on each scale?
18. Explain how a liquid can enter the gas phase without
c. Why are two different scales used?
reaching its boiling point.
8. How can the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales be converted
19. Which has more thermal energy: gas, plasma, or liquid?
from one to another?
20. What is the most common phase of matter in the universe?
9. Since it is fairly easy to tell when the temperature is high or
low, why do we need thermometers, thermistors, and other
devices for measuring temperature? Problems
10. Compare the Celsius temperature scale with the Kelvin Section 10.1
scale by answering the following questions: 1. Describe a method you would use to separate chicken soup
a. Which is the larger change in temperature, 1K or 1°C? into other forms of matter from which it is made.
b. What are the freezing points and boiling points of water 2. Describe a method you would use to separate a mixture of
on each scale? sugar and water.
c. Why are two different scales used? Section 10.2
11. What is the difference between 0° on the Celsius scale and 3. Calculate the average human body temperature, 98.6°F, on
absolute zero? the Celsius scale.
12. Absolute zero is considered the lowest possible temperature. 4. Convert −20°C to the Kelvin scale.
What is the highest possible temperature?
5. What is the Celsius equivalent of 100K?
Section 10.3
6. A pizza box says to bake the pizza at 450°F but your oven
13. A liquid takes the shape of its container, but why doesn’t a measures temperature in Celsius. At what temperature
liquid expand to fill the container completely? should you set the oven?
14. Why doesn’t a solid flow?
249
Section 10.3 2. Design a poster to illustrate the classification of matter.

7. The diagram to the right shows Provide examples of everyday materials that belong in
a graph of temperature vs. time each category.
for a material that starts as a 3. Air is a homogeneous mixture. Conduct research to find out
solid. Heat is added at a the gases found in air and the percentage of each. Make a
constant rate. Using the pie chart illustrating your findings.
diagram, answer the following
Section 10.2
questions:
4. If you keep lowering the temperature of a material, the
a. During which time interval
molecules vibrate less and less. If you could eventually reach
does the solid melt?
a low enough temperature, the molecules might not vibrate
b. During which time interval
at all. Is this possible, and what does it mean for the
is the material all liquid?
temperature scale? Is it possible to keep lowering the
c. What is the boiling point of the substance? temperature indefinitely?
d. Does it take more heat energy to melt the solid or boil
the liquid? 5. In the 1860s, English physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831−
1879) and Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844−
8. About 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. 1906) first gave a rigorous analysis of temperature in terms
There is water underground, and even in the atmosphere. of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a
What is water’s state at each of the following temperatures? substance. Explore their lives and their contributions to the
a. temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius development of the theory of temperature.
b. temperatures between 0 and 100 degrees Celsius Section 10.3
c. temperatures above 100 degrees Celsius
6. Design a poster or model to summarize for your classmates
the differences between a solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
7. Create a chart that illustrates the following phase changes:
Section 10.1 melting, boiling, freezing, evaporation, condensation,
1. Identify each of the following in your classroom, school and sublimation.
cafeteria, or home: 8. Plasmas, or ionized gases as they are sometimes called, are
a. five homogeneous mixtures of great interest both physically and technologically. Do
b. five heterogeneous mixtures some research to find out why plasmas are of great interest
c. three elements to scientists and manufacturers. Describe at least two
d. five compounds current uses of plasmas, and describe one way scientists and
engineers hope to use plasmas in the future.
SC.912.N.2.5-Describe instances in which scientists' varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural
Chapter 11
Heat
There is a new kind of farm that is unlike any other—it doesn’t produce food —it produces
energy from wind. These farms can help solve the energy crisis by generating electricity from
the powerful forces in wind. Most of Earth’s energy comes from thermal radiation from the Sun, called
solar radiation. A small fraction of that energy is used to drive Earth’s winds. Huge turbines that collect
wind energy are becoming a familiar sight, silhouetted against the skies. Wind power in Texas for
example, has more than quadrupled in recent years. Currently there are over 2,000 wind turbines in
West Texas alone, most of them on land leased from farmers and ranchers.
Not that long ago, most farms in the United States had a windmill. It was used to pump
water from a well. These days an electric motor pumps the water, and the old windmill
is gone or just admired as an antique. New windmills, however, are going strong.
Tower-mounted wind turbines that are far larger and more efficient have replaced the
old models. When these big turbines are grouped, they form a wind farm. They are
being built on land that is still used for farming. With support from industry and the
government, wind farms are sprouting across the country. In this chapter, you will
learn how winds are produced through solar radiation and the transfer of heat.
Why does chocolate melt in your hand?

Why does water help stabilize
Earth’s temperature?
What produces winds?

Chapter 11 HEAT
11.1 Heat and Thermal Energy

To change the temperature, you usually need to add or subtract energy. For example, when it’s heat - thermal energy that is moving
cold outside, you turn up the heat in your house or apartment and the temperature goes up. You or is capable of moving.
know that adding heat increases the temperature, but have you ever thought about exactly what
“heat” is? What does “heat” have to do with temperature?
Heat, temperature, and thermal energy

What is heat?
What makes What happens when you hold a chocolate bar in your
hand? Thermal energy flows from your hand to the
chocolate melt in
chocolate and it begins to melt. We call this flow of
your hand?
thermal energy heat. Heat is really just another
word for thermal energy that is moving. In the
scientific sense, heat flows any time there is a
difference in temperature. Heat flows naturally from
the warmer object (higher energy) to the cooler one
(lower energy). In the case of the melting chocolate
bar, the thermal energy lost by your hand is equal to the thermal energy Figure 11.1: It takes twice as much
energy to heat a 2,000-gram mass of
gained by the chocolate bar.
water compared to a 1,000-gram mass.
Heat flows naturally from the warmer object (higher
energy) to the cooler one (lower energy).
Thermal energy Heat and temperature are related, but they are not the same thing. The
depends on mass amount of thermal energy depends on the temperature but it also depends on
Like many words used in science, the
and temperature the amount of matter you have. Think about heating up two pots of water.
word heat has many other meanings
One pot contains 1,000 grams of water and the other contains 2,000 grams of besides the one above. Write down
water. Both pots are heated to the same final temperature (Figure 11.1). three sentences that use the word
Which takes more energy? Or, do both require the same amount of energy? heat. Try to have each sentence use
The pot holding 2,000 grams of water takes twice as much energy as the pot a different meaning of heat.
with 1,000 grams, even though both start and finish at the same temperature.
The two pots illustrate the difference between temperature and thermal
energy. The pot of water with more mass has more energy, even though both
are at the same temperature.
SC.912.P.10.5-Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy.
HEAT Chapter 11
Units of heat and thermal energy

The joule The metric unit for measuring heat is the joule. This is the same joule used to Unit Is Equal To
measure all forms of energy, not just heat. A joule is a small amount of heat. 1 calorie 4.186 joules
The average hair dryer puts out 1,200 joules of heat every second!
1 kilocalorie 1,000 calories
The calorie One calorie is the amount of energy (heat) needed to increase the temperature 1 Btu 1,055 joules
of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. One calorie is a little more than
1 Btu 252 calories
4 joules (Figure 11.2). You may have noticed that most food packages list
“Calories per serving.” The unit used for measuring the energy content of Figure 11.2: Conversion table for
the food we eat is the kilocalorie, which equals 1,000 calories. The kilocalorie units of heat.
is often written as Calorie (with a capital c). If a candy bar contains
210 Calories, it contains 210,000 calories, or 879,060 joules!
Heat and Work
The British thermal Still another unit of heat energy you may encounter is the British thermal unit,
unit or Btu. The Btu is often used to measure the heat produced by heating systems Work can be done whenever heat
or heat removed by air-conditioning systems. A Btu is the quantity of heat it flows from a higher temperature to a
lower temperature. Since heat flows
takes to increase the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit. from hot to cold, to get output work
One Btu is a little more than 1,000 joules. you need to maintain a temperature
difference. Many inventions use heat
to do work. The engine in your car
uses the heat released by the burning
of gasoline. In a car engine, the high
temperature is inside the engine and
comes from the burning gasoline. The
low temperature is the air around the
car. The output work produced by the
engine is extracted from the flow of
heat. Only a fraction of the heat is
converted to work, and that is why a
Why so many units? The calorie and Btu units were being used to measure heat well before running car gives off so much heat
scientists knew that heat was really energy. The calorie and Btu are still used, through the radiator and exhaust.
even 100 years after heat was shown to be energy, because people give up
familiar ways very slowly!
Chapter 11 HEAT
Specific heat
Temperature, mass, If you add heat to an object, how much will its temperature increase? It
specific heat - the amount of heat
and material depends in part on the mass of the object. If you double the mass of the needed to raise the temperature of
object, you need twice as much energy to get the same increase in one kilogram of a material by one
temperature. The temperature increase also depends on what material you degree Celsius.
are heating up. It takes different amounts of energy to raise the temperature
of different materials.
The temperature increase of an object depends on
its mass and the material from which it is made.
Temperature and You need to add 4,184 joules of heat to one kilogram of water to raise the
type of material temperature by 1°C (Figure 11.3). You only need to add 470 joules to raise
the temperature of one kilogram of steel by 1°C. It takes nine times more
energy to raise the temperature of water by 1°C than it does to raise the
temperature of the same mass of steel by 1°C.
Specific heat Specific heat is a property of a material that tells us how much heat is
needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram by one degree Celsius.
Specific heat is measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C).
A large specific heat means you have to put in a lot of energy for each degree Figure 11.3: Water and steel have
different specific heats.
of increase in temperature.
Uses for specific Knowing the specific heat tells you how quickly the temperature of a Specific heat
Material
heat material will change as it gains or loses energy. If the specific heat is low (J/kg°C)
(like steel), then temperature will change relatively quickly because each water 4,184
degree of temperature change takes less energy. If the specific heat is high wood 1,800
(like water), then the temperature will change relatively slowly because each aluminum 900
degree of temperature change takes more energy. Hot apple pie filling stays concrete 880
hot for a long time because it is mostly water, and therefore has a large
glass 800
specific heat. Pie crust has a much lower specific heat and cools much
steel 470
more rapidly. The table in Figure 11.4 lists the specific heat for some
common materials. Figure 11.4: Specific heat values of
some common materials.

HEAT Chapter 11
Why is specific heat different for different materials?

Why specific heat In general, materials made up of heavy particles (atoms or molecules) have
varies low specific heat compared with materials made up of lighter ones. This is
because temperature measures the average kinetic energy per particle.
Heavy particles mean fewer per kilogram. Energy that is divided between
fewer particles means more energy per particle, and therefore more
temperature change.
Water has a higher specific heat than

many other common materials. Its
specific heat is more than four times
greater than the specific heat of rocks
and soil. The high specific heat of
water is very important to our planet.
Water covers about 70 percent of
Earth’s surface. One of the
fundamental reasons our planet is
An example: silver Suppose you add 4,000 joules of energy to a kilogram of silver and habitable is that the huge amount of
and aluminum 4,000 joules to a kilogram of aluminum. Silver’s specific heat is 235 J/kg°C water on it helps regulate the
and 4,000 joules is enough to raise the temperature of the silver by 17°C. temperature. Land, because it has a
Aluminum’s specific heat is 900 J/kg°C. 4,000 joules only raises the low specific heat, experiences large
changes in temperature when it
temperature of the aluminum by 4.4°C. The silver has fewer atoms than absorbs heat from the Sun. Water
the aluminum because silver atoms are heavier than aluminum atoms. tends to have smaller changes in
When energy is added, each atom of silver gets more energy than each atom temperature when it absorbs the
of aluminum because there are fewer silver atoms in a kilogram. Because same amount of heat. During the day,
the energy per atom is greater, the temperature increase in the silver is oceans help keep Earth cool, while at
night, they keep Earth warm by
also greater.
slowing the rate at which heat is
emitted back into space.
SC.912.L.18.12-Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and 255
versatility as a solvent.
Chapter 11 HEAT
Calculating energy changes from heat

How could you figure out how much energy it would take to heat a swimming pool or boil a pot of Specific heat
water? The heat equation below tells you how much energy (E) it takes to change the temperature Material
(J/kg°C)
(T ) of a mass (m) of a substance with a specific heat value (Cp). Figure 11.5 shows the specific
water 4,184
heat values for some common materials.
wood 1,800
aluminum 900
concrete 880
glass 800
steel 470
silver 235
gold 129
Figure 11.5: Use these specific
heat values to solve the problems on
Solving Problems: Heat Equation this page.
How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of a 250-liter hot tub from
20°C to 40°C? (Hint: 1 liter of water has a mass of 1 kilogram.)
1. Looking for: You are looking for the amount of heat energy needed in joules.
2. Given: You are given the volume in liters, temperature change in °C, and specific
heat of water in J/kg°C. You are also given a conversion factor for volume to
mass of water.
3. Relationships: E = mCp(T2 – T1)
a. 35,200 J
4. Solution: E = (250L × 1kg/L) × 4,184 J/kg°C (40°C − 20°C) = 20,920,000 J
b. 116.1 J
Your turn...
a. How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 2.0 kg of
concrete from 10°C to 30°C?
b. How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 5.0 g of gold
from 20°C to 200°C?
256
HEAT Chapter 11
Section 11.1 Review

1. When you hold a piece of chocolate in your hand, why does the A fast food hamburger contains
870 kilocalories. Calculate the quantity
chocolate melt?
of energy in: calories, Btus, and joules.
2. Which is a larger unit of heat: calorie, kilocalorie, Btu, or joule?
3. Which of the following would require more energy to heat it from 10°C
to 20°C?
a. 200 kg of water
b. 200 kg of aluminum
c. 100 kg of steel STUDY SKILLS
4. What is the difference between temperature and heat? You have learned many terms
5. What conditions are necessary for heat to flow? associated with heat and temperature.
It is important to be able to distinguish
6. How much heat energy is required to raise the temperature of the meanings of each term. Make a
20 kilograms of water from 0°C to 35°C? set of flash cards with the terms
7. The temperature increase of an object depends on: (below). Write the term on one side
and the definition on the other. Also
a. its mass use the term in a sentence. Write the
b. its velocity sentence underneath the definition.
c. the material from which it is made Temperature
d. answers a and c Thermometer
e. none of the above Heat
8. On a night at the beach, which would you expect to cool faster: the ocean Thermal energy
water or the beach sand? Explain your answer.
Specific heat
9. Why is the high specific heat of water important to our planet?
10. Which material would have a higher specific heat:
a. a material made of heavier particles
b. a material made of lighter particles
c. the mass of the particles does not affect specific heat
257
Chapter 11 HEAT
11.2 Heat Transfer

Thermal energy flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. This process is called heat heat transfer - the flow of thermal
transfer. How is heat transferred from material to material, or from place to place? It turns out energy from higher temperature to
there are three ways heat flows: heat conduction, convection, and thermal radiation. lower temperature.
heat conduction - the transfer of
Heat conduction heat by the direct contact of particles
of matter.
What is conduction? Heat conduction is the transfer of heat by the direct contact of particles of
thermal equilibrium - when two
matter. If you have ever held a warm mug of hot cocoa, you have objects are at the same temperature
experienced heat conduction. Heat is transferred from the mug to your hand. and no heat flows.
Heat conduction only occurs between two materials at different temperatures
and when they are touching each other. In conduction, heat can also be
transferred through materials. If you stir hot cocoa with a metal spoon, heat
is transferred from the cocoa, through the spoon, and to your hand.
Heat conduction is the transfer of heat by the direct
contact of particles of matter.
How does Imagine placing a cold spoon into a mug of hot cocoa (Figure 11.6). The
conduction work? molecules in the cocoa have a higher average kinetic energy than those of the
spoon. The molecules in the spoon exchange energy with the molecules in
the cocoa through collisions. The molecules within the spoon itself spread
the energy up the stem of the spoon through the intermolecular forces
between them. Heat conduction works both through collisions and also
through intermolecular forces between molecules.
Thermal equilibrium As collisions continue, the molecules of the hotter material (the cocoa) lose
energy and the molecules of the cooler material (the spoon) gain energy. The
kinetic energy of the hotter material is transferred, one collision at a time, to
the cooler material. Eventually, both materials are at the same temperature.
When this happens, they are in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium
occurs when two objects have the same temperature. No heat flows in Figure 11.6: Heat flows by
thermal equilibrium because the temperatures are the same. conduction from the hot cocoa into,
and up, the spoon.
HEAT Chapter 11
Thermal conductors and insulators

Which state of Heat conduction can happen in solids, liquids, and gases. Solids make the best
matter conducts conductors of heat because their particles are packed closely together.
best? Because the particles in a gas are spread so far apart, relatively few collisions
occur, making air a poor conductor of heat. This explains why many materials
used to keep things warm, such as fiberglass insulation and down jackets,
contain air pockets (Figure 11.7).
Thermal conductors Materials that conduct heat easily are called thermal conductors and those
and insulators that conduct heat poorly are called thermal insulators. For example, metal is a
thermal conductor, and a foam cup is a thermal insulator. The words
conductor and insulator are also used to describe a material’s ability to
conduct electrical current. In general, good electrical conductors like silver,
copper, gold, and aluminum are also good thermal conductors. Figure 11.7: Because air is a poor
conductor of heat, a down jacket keeps
you warm in the cold of winter.
Heat conduction Heat conduction happens only if there are particles available to collide with
cannot occur one another. Heat conduction does not occur in the vacuum of space. One way
through a vacuum to create an excellent thermal insulator on Earth is to make a vacuum. A
vacuum is empty of everything, including air. A thermos bottle keeps liquids
hot for hours using a vacuum. A thermos is a container consisting of a bottle
surrounded by a slightly larger bottle. Air molecules have been removed from
the space between the bottles to create a vacuum (Figure 11.8).
Figure 11.8: A thermos bottle uses
a vacuum to prevent heat transfer by
conduction and convection.
SC.912.P.10.4-Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter. 259
Chapter 11 HEAT
Convection
What is convection? Have you ever watched water boil in a pot? Bubbles form on the bottom and
convection - the transfer of heat by
rise to the top. Hot water near the bottom of the pan circulates up, forcing the motion of matter, such as by
cooler water near the surface to sink. This circulation carries heat through the moving air or water.
water (Figure 11.9). This heat transfer process is called convection.
Convection is the transfer of heat through the motion of matter such as air
and water.
Natural convection Fluids expand when they heat up. Since expansion increases the volume but
not the mass, a warm fluid has a lower mass-to-volume ratio (called density)
than the surrounding cooler fluid. In a container, warmer fluid floats to the
top and cooler fluid sinks to the bottom. This is called natural convection.
Forced convection In many houses a boiler heats water and then pumps circulate the water to
rooms. Since the heat is being carried by a moving fluid, this is another
example of convection. However, since the fluid is forced to flow by the
pumps, this is called forced convection. Natural and forced convection often
occur at the same time. Forced convection transfers heat to a hot radiator.
The heat from the hot radiator then warms the room air by natural
convection. Convection is mainly what distributes heat throughout the room.
Figure 11.9: Convection currents in

water. The hot water at the bottom of
the pot rises to the top and replaces the
cold water.
HEAT Chapter 11
Thermal radiation
Definition of thermal If you stand in a sunny area on a cold, calm day, you will feel warmth from
thermal radiation -
radiation the Sun. Heat from the Sun is transferred to Earth by thermal radiation. electromagnetic waves produced by
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic waves (including light) produced by objects because of their temperature.
objects because of their temperature. All objects with a temperature above
absolute zero (–273°C or –459°F) emit thermal radiation. To emit means to
give off.
Thermal radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic
waves, including light.
Thermal radiation Thermal radiation comes from the thermal energy of atoms. The power in
comes from atoms thermal radiation increases with higher temperatures because the thermal
energy of atoms increases with temperature (Figure 11.10). Because the Sun
is extremely hot, its atoms emit lots of thermal radiation. Unlike conduction
or convection, thermal radiation can travel through the vacuum of space. All
the energy the Earth receives from the Sun comes from thermal radiation. Figure 11.10: The higher the
temperature of an object, the more
Objects emit and Thermal radiation is also absorbed by objects. Otherwise all objects would thermal radiation it emits.
absorb radiation eventually cool down to absolute zero by radiating their energy away. The
temperature of an object rises if more radiation is absorbed. The temperature
falls if more radiation is emitted. The temperature adjusts until there is a
balance between radiation absorbed and radiation emitted.
Some surfaces The amount of thermal radiation absorbed depends on the surface of a
absorb more energy material. Black surfaces absorb almost all the thermal radiation that falls on
than others them. For example, black asphalt pavement gets very hot in the summer sun
because it effectively absorbs thermal radiation. A silver mirror surface
reflects most thermal radiation, absorbing very little (Figure 11.11). You may
have seen someone put a silver screen across their windshield after parking
their car on a sunny day. This silver screen can reflect the Sun’s heat back out
the car window, helping the parked car stay cooler on a hot day. Figure 11.11: Dark surfaces absorb
most of the thermal radiation they
receive. Silver or mirrored surfaces
reflect thermal radiation.
SC.912.P.10.4-Describe heat as the energy transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation, and explain the connection of heat to change in temperature or states of matter.s 261
Chapter 11 HEAT
Heat transfer, winds, and currents

Thermals are small Have you ever seen a hawk soaring above a highway and wondered how it
convection currents could fly upward without flapping its wings? The hawk is riding a thermal—
in the atmosphere a convection current in the atmosphere (Figure 11.12). A thermal forms
when a surface like a blacktop highway absorbs solar radiation and emits
energy as heat. That heat warms the air near the surface. The warmed air
molecules gain kinetic energy and spread out. As a result, the heated air near
the highway becomes less dense than the colder air above it. The heated air
rises, forcing the colder air to move aside and sink toward the ground. Then
this colder air is warmed by the heat from the blacktop, and it rises. A
convection current is created.
Giant convection There are also giant convection currents in the atmosphere. These form as a Figure 11.12: Hawks ride
currents result of the temperature difference between the equator and the poles. Warm convection currents called thermals.
air at the equator tends to rise and flows toward the poles. Cooler, denser air
from the poles sinks and flows back toward the equator. When air flows
horizontally from an area of high density and pressure into an area of low
density and pressure, we call the flowing air wind.
Global wind cells While it might seem logical that air would flow in giant circles from the
equator to the poles and back, the reality is more complicated than that. The
warm air from the equator doesn’t make it all the way to the poles because of
Earth’s rotation. In fact, the combination of global convection and Earth’s
rotation sets up a series of wind patterns called global wind cells in each
hemisphere (Figure 11.13). These cells play a large role in shaping weather
patterns on Earth.
Ocean currents The global wind patterns and Earth’s rotation cause surface ocean currents to
move in large circular patterns. Ocean currents can also occur deep within
the ocean. These currents move slower than surface currents and are driven
by temperature and density differences in the ocean. Surface and deep
currents work together to move huge masses of water around the globe.
Ocean currents play a big role in heating and cooling some parts of Earth. Figure 11.13: These circular wind
patterns exist in both the northern and
southern hemispheres. We call them
global wind cells.
262 SC.912.L.18.12-Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and
HEAT Chapter 11
Section 11.2 Review

1. What is thermal equilibrium? Where Does Solar Radiation Go?
2. Which state of matter—solid, liquid, or gas—is the best at conducting
heat? Why?
3. Cooking pots are made of metal but often the handle of a cooking pot is
made of a type of plastic or rubber. Explain why this design makes sense.
4. A down jacket keeps your body warm mostly by reducing which form of
heat transfer?
a. conduction
b. convection
c. thermal radiation
5. What is the advantage of designing a thermos so that it has a vacuum
layer surrounding the area where hot liquids are stored? Most of Earth’s energy comes from
6. What is the difference between forced and natural convection? thermal radiation from the Sun—
called solar radiation. Of the total
7. Examine the scene below. Explain what types of heat transfer are
incoming solar radiation:
occurring in the scene and where each is occurring:
• 30% is returned to outer space.
• 47% is absorbed by Earth.
• 22.78% is used to drive the
hydrologic cycle.
• 0.2% drives the winds.
• 0.02% is absorbed by plants and
used in photosynthesis.
8. How does heat from the Sun get to Earth?

STUDY SKILLS
a. conduction
b. convection Create a graph with the data in the
Science Fact above. Think about the
c. thermal radiation best type of graph to use.
9. Explain the roles of density and temperature in convection.
10. A sailor on a sailboat depends on the process of convection. Explain why
this is so.
Chapter 11
The CBF Merrill Environmental Center uses both passive and active
Needed solar design to reduce energy consumption. Passive solar design

features include south-facing windows equipped with overhangs
or trellises.
Efficient Buildings Summer sun

The windows capture the
Sun’s rays in the winter when
Winter Distribution the Sun is low in the sky, and
The purpose of a building is to provide shelter from the weather and a sun
the overhangs and trellises
climate control system that keeps us comfortable. However, climate control Control
shade the building in the
takes energy. In the United States, buildings account for 39 percent of total Thermal summer when the Sun is high
energy use. Most of this energy comes from burning fossil fuels—a process mass in the sky. In addition, the
that many scientists believe contributes to global warming, pollution, and CBF Center has a mechanical
health problems. The need for energy-efficient building design is crucial. system to open windows and
allow for natural ventilation
during the year to keep the
What Makes a Building Green? Elements of passive solar design
building cooler.
“Green” building design is the term used to describe architecture
that is energy efficient and environmentally friendly. The LEED The center also uses active solar heating, which involves the use of
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building a solar collector positioned on the roof. Photovoltaic panels
Rating System is nationally accepted by federal agencies and state produce a portion of the building’s energy needs by converting the
governments as a means of evaluating green buildings. Sun’s rays to electricity. Solar hot-water heating further reduces
electricity demand.
To earn an LEED rating, a building project must satisfy a list of
requirements within five key areas. Buildings are rated on their Thermal Mass: Material Matters
indoor environmental quality, energy efficiency, water savings,
materials selection, and sustainable site development. A project is When the school district of North Clackamas, Oregon, decided
awarded a Certified, Silver, Gold, or Platinum rating depending on to focus on energy and resource efficiency, environmental
the credits it has earned in these five categories. responsibility, and high quality indoor living, they chose a green
building design for their new high school. Their energy study model
shows that when the building is operated as the model outlines
The CBF Merrill Environmental Center: A Platinum Rating (using a nine-month school year and utilizing daylight and natural
The Chesapeake Bay ventilation), the building is expected to achieve a 44 percent energy
Foundation Merrill savings over conventional high schools of similar size.
Environmental Center in
Annapolis, Maryland, received The design team integrated a total site and building energy analysis
the first Platinum rating—the in the design process. They established specific requirements for
highest LEED rating. It is orientation; the building envelope; heating, ventilating, and air
recognized as a pioneer in the conditioning (HVAC) systems; lighting; materials; and landscaping.
green building field, showing The architects used extensive modeling of daylight and ventilation
others it could be done without strategies. High school students assisted by building a full scale
View of the Chesapeake Bay Foundation Merrill
losing comfort or beauty. mock-up of a classroom for physical testing.
Environmental Center from the bay
SC.912.L.17.19–Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of use and renewal limit availability.
264 SC.912.L.17.15–Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.
Chapter 11
Daylighting decreases the amount home. If you have single-pane windows, the glass will feel very
of required electric lighting, which colddue to rapid heat conduction from your hand to the glass to the
in turn decreases the heat load outside air. To minimize this heat transfer, you can purchase plastic
and energy costs of electric lights. wrap at a hardware store and tape or shrink-wrap it to the window
Windows, skylights, and light frame, creating an insulating layer of air.
shelves provide natural light and
great views of the outside. Have you ever felt a cold draft flowing underneath a door?
Convection is to blame. Heated air from your radiators or vents
Designers incorporated natural is less dense than the surrounding air, so it rises. As the warm air
ventilation and cooling in all moves upward, denser cold air from the outside rushes underneath
classrooms, common areas, and your door to take its place. Seal a leaky door with weatherstripping
Clackamas High School uses concrete slabs
and concrete masonry walls as a thermal mass
the gymnasium using mechanically to eliminate this problem.
as well as a mechanically controlled system controlled dampers, louvers, and
operating louvers and air stacks to control air air stacks. For instance, if the Even in winter, you can maximize the
flow by convection. Photo by Michael Mathers monitoring system senses that benefit of the Sun’s radiation in your
interior temperatures are getting home. Keep south-facing windows
too warm, cooler air from outside is allowed to enter the rooms clean, and open curtains or shades
through louver openings. Airflow is increased through ventilation during daylight hours. Radiation
stacks on the roof, so that heat moves up and out of the building by passes easily through clean glass
natural convection. windows, and the energy is absorbed
by interior surfaces. Just be sure to
To help stabilize the building’s internal temperature, the designers close the shades again at night!
chose to use concrete slabs and concrete masonry walls. These dense
materials have a high specific heat. During the day, thermal energy In a warm climate, the goal is to prevent heat transfer into your
from the Sun streams through the large windows and is absorbed by home. Radiation passing through your windows is one of the main
the concrete. The concrete slabs and walls are known as a “thermal culprits here. White window shades will help reflect heat away from
mass” because they can store a great deal of thermal energy your house. Keep them closed on south- and west-facing windows
without a significant rise in temperature. At night, the walls slowly during the day.
release this thermal energy into the building, heating the air. As a
Understanding heat transfer can help you make simple changes that
result, the furnace doesn’t have to run as often.
reduce your home’s energy needs, your family’s heating or cooling
Not only does the school’s design achieve significant energy savings, bills, and your impact on the environment.
its light-filled spaces also provide an exciting atmosphere and great
spaces for learning. Questions:
1. How are radiation, convection, and conduction used in
Greening Your Own Home green building design?
You may not be able to design and build your own brand-new green 2. How does a thermal mass store energy?
home, but there are things you can do today to make your existing
home a little greener. 3. What is one practical thing you can do to make your own
home greener?
In a cold climate, the goal is to minimize heat transfer out of the Source: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Program, U.S. Department of Energy
building. On a winter day, place your hand on a window inside your CBF Merrill Environmental Center photos courtesy of The Chesapeake Bay Foundation/cbf.org
SC.912.L.17.15–Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality. 265
Chapter 11 HEAT
Vocabulary Concepts
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. Section 11.1
convection heat transfer thermal equilibrium 1. Distinguish between heat and thermal energy.
heat conduction thermal radiation 2. When you hold a cold glass of water in your warm hand,
specific heat heat which way does the heat flow?
Section 11.1 3. Thermal energy depends on what two factors?
1. Thermal energy that is moving or capable of moving is 4. Name three units for measuring heat.
called ____.
5. What is the relationship between the calorie used by
2. The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one scientists and the Calorie used by nutritionists?
kilogram of a material by one degree Celsius is called its
____. 6. Compare the size of a calorie to a joule.
Section 11.2 7. Why does specific heat vary for different substances?
3. ____ is the flow of thermal energy from higher temperature Section 11.2
to lower temperature. 8. Name the three methods by which heat can be transferred
4. Heat stops flowing when ____ is reached. and give an example of each.
5. The transfer of heat by the direct contact of particles of 9. A metal cup containing water at 100°F is placed in an
matter is called ____. aquarium containing water at 80°F.
a. Which way will heat flow? Why?
6. When heat is transferred by the motion of matter such as by
b. When will the flow of heat stop?
moving air or water, it is called ____.
c. What is it called when heat no longer flows?
7. Heat is transferred from the Sun to Earth by ____.
10. Why do thermos bottles keep cold beverages contained
inside them from getting warm?
11. Name three good thermal insulators.
12. How do we know that we receive heat from the Sun by
thermal radiation and not by conduction or convection?
13. Explain the difference between natural and forced
convection. Give an example of each.
266
HEAT Chapter 11
Problems 4. Two beakers each contain 1 kilogram of water at 0°C. One

kilogram of gold (specific heat = 129 J/kg°C) at 100°C is
Section 11.1
dropped into one beaker. One kilogram of aluminum
1. How much energy, in joules, does it take to raise the (specific heat = 900 J/kg°C) at 100°C is dropped into the
temperature of 1.5 kg of aluminum from 20°C to 40°C? other beaker.
2. Relative to 0°C, the amount of thermal energy in a quantity
of water is its mass × specific heat × temperature. The
specific heat of water is 4,184 J/kg°C.
a. How much thermal energy is in 100 grams of water at

50°C?
b. How much thermal energy is in 100 grams of water at
0°C?
c. How much energy is there when both quantities of
water are mixed together? a. Compare the amount of thermal energy contained in the
aluminum and gold.
d. How much mass is this energy spread out over (in the
mixture)? b. After each beaker has reached thermal equilibrium,
describe whether the temperatures are the same, or
e. What do you think the temperature of the mixture
should be? different. If they are different, describe which is warmer
and which is colder.
3. How much energy will it take to increase the temperature of
c. Explain your answer to part b. Use the concept of specific
200 milliliters of water by 12°C? (Hint: 1L of water = 1 kg).
heat in your explanation.
Section 11.2
5. You pour some hot water into a metal cup. After a minute,
you notice that the handle of the cup has become hot.
Explain, using your knowledge of heat transfer, why the
handle of the cup heats up. How would you design the cup so
that the handle does not heat up?
267
Chapter 11 HEAT
6. A computer CPU chip creates heat because of the electric Section 11.2
current it uses. The heat must be carried away, or the chip 3. In an automobile, water and antifreeze are pumped through
will melt. To keep the chip cool, a finned heat sink is used to the engine block as a coolant. The mixture is pumped back
transfer heat from the chip to the air. Which of the to the radiator where a fan blows air through the radiator.
materials below would make the BEST heat sink (transfer Explain, using conduction, convection, and radiation, how
the most heat)? Which would be the WORST material to this system works to transfer heat from the engine to
use? Note: Thermal conductivity is a measure of a material’s the air.
ability to conduct heat and is measured in units of watts per
4. In a home aquarium, regulating the temperature of the
meter Kelvin.
water is critical for the survival of the fish. To keep a fish
tank warm, a heating element with a thermostat is often
Thermal Conductivities of Materials (W/m·K)
placed on the bottom of the tank. Why is a heating element
Concrete = 1.7 Aluminum = 240 Asbestos = 0.1 placed on the bottom of the tank instead of at the top?
Glass = 0.8 Copper = 400 Gold = 310 5. A thermostat controls the switch on a furnace or air
Wood = 0.1 Rubber = 0.2 Silver = 430 conditioner by sensing the temperature of the room.
Explain, using conduction, convection, and radiation, where
you would place the thermostat in your science classroom.
Applying Your Knowledge Consider windows, inside and outside walls, and where the
Section 11.1 heating and cooling ducts are located. You can also sketch
1. The first settlers in Colorado were very concerned about your answer—draw your classroom, showing room features
fruits and vegetables freezing in their root cellars overnight. and placement of the thermostat.
They soon realized that if they placed a large tub of water in 6. Building materials such as plywood, insulation, and
the cellar, the food would not freeze. Explain why the food windows are rated with a number called the “R value.” The
would not freeze. R value has to do with the thermal conductivity of the
2. Scottish chemist Joseph Black developed the theories of material. Higher R values mean lower conductivity and
specific and latent heat. Research his life and how he made better insulation properties. Design a window with a high R
these discoveries. value. Sketch your window, and label its features and the
materials it is made from. Explain the reasons for each of
your design choices.
SC.912.L.17.19-Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of use and renewal limit availability.
Chapter 12
Properties of Matter
Would you believe that someone has made a solid material that has about
the same density as air? If someone put a chunk of it your hand, you
might not even notice. Silica aerogel is a foam that’s like solidified smoke. Aerogel is mostly air
and has remarkable thermal, optical and acoustical properties.
Aerogels are fantastic insulators. You could hold a flame under a chunk of the material and
touch the top without being burned. Aerogels have the potential to replace a variety of materials
in everyday life. If researchers could make a transparent version of an aerogel, it would
almost certainly be used in double pane windows to keep heat inside your house in the
winter and outside in the summer. Opaque aerogels are already being used as
insulators. Aerogels have been put to use by NASA in several projects, including
the Mars Pathfinder Soujourner Rover and the Stardust mission.
Read this chapter to find out more about matter and its properties.
What are some important properties

of solids?
What is a fluid and how are fluids

different than solids?
What is pressure?
Photos - courtesy of NASA

Chapter 12 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
12.1 Properties of Solids

All matter is made up of tiny atoms and molecules. In a solid, the atoms or molecules are closely physical properties -
packed, and they stay in place. This is why solids hold their shape. In this section, you will learn characteristics that you can observe
how the properties of solids are a result of the behavior of atoms and molecules. directly.
chemical properties -
Matter has physical and chemical properties characteristics that can only be
observed when one substance
Characteristics of Different kinds of matter have different characteristics. They melt and boil at changes into a different substance.
matter a wide range of temperatures. They might be different colors or have
different odors. Some can stretch without breaking, while others shatter
easily. These and other properties help us distinguish one substance from
another. These properties also help us choose which kind of material to use
for a specific purpose.
Physical properties Characteristics that can you observe directly are called physical
properties. Physical properties include color, texture, density, brittleness,
and state (solid, liquid, or gas). Substances can often be identified by their
physical properties. For example, water is a colorless, odorless substance
that exists as a liquid at room temperature. Gold is shiny, exists as a solid at
room temperature, and can be pounded into very thin sheets.
Physical changes A physical change is any change in the size, shape, or phase of matter in
which the identity of a substance does not change. For example, when water
is frozen, it changes from a liquid to a solid. This does not change the water
into a new substance. It is still water, only in solid form which we call ice.
The change can easily be reversed by melting the solid water. Bending a steel
bar causes another example of a physical change.
Chemical properties Properties that can only be observed when one substance changes into a
different substance are called chemical properties. For example, if you Figure 12.1: Physical and chemical
leave an iron nail outside, it will eventually rust. A chemical property of iron properties of iron.
is that it reacts with oxygen in the air to form iron oxide (rust). Any change
that transforms one substance into a different substance is called a chemical
change (Figure 12.1). Chemical changes are not easily reversible. Rusted
iron will not turn shiny again even if you remove it from oxygen in the air.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER Chapter 12
Reviewing density
Reviewing the In Chapter 2, you learned that density is the ratio of mass to volume.
definition of density Physicists and engineers use units of kilograms per cubic meter (m3) for
density. In classroom experiments, it is more convenient to use units of grams
per cubic centimeter (cm3). Earlier, you measured volume in milliliters (mL).
One milliliter is exactly equal to one cubic centimeter (1 mL = 1 cm3).
One milliliter (mL) is equal to
one cubic centimeter (cm3).
Solids have a wide Solids have a wide range of densities. One of the densest metals is platinum
range of density with a density of 21.5 g/cm3. Platinum is twice as dense as lead and almost
three times as dense as steel. A ring made of platinum has three times as much
mass as a ring of the exact same size made of steel. Rock has a lower density
than metals, between 2.2 and 2.7 g/cm3. As you might expect, the density of
wood is less than rock, ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 g/cm3.
Density of liquids The density of water is 1.0 g/cm3 and many common liquids have densities
and gases between 0.5 and 1.5 g/cm3. The density of air and other gases is much lower.
The air in your room has a density near 0.0001 g/cm3. Gases have low density
because the molecules in a gas are far away from each other.
Atoms have different The density of a solid material depends on two things. One is the individual
masses mass of each atom or molecule. The other is how closely the atoms or
molecules are packed together. Solid lead is a very dense metal compared to
solid aluminum. One atom of lead has 7.7 times more mass than one atom of
aluminum. Solid lead is denser than solid aluminum mostly because a single
lead atom has more mass than a single aluminum atom.
Atoms may be Density also depends on how tightly the atoms and molecules are “packed.”
“packed” loosely or Diamond is made of carbon atoms and has a density of 3.50 g/cm3. The
tightly carbon atoms in diamond are relatively closely packed together. Paraffin wax
Figure 12.2: The carbon atoms in
is also mostly carbon but the density of paraffin is only 0.87 g/cm3. The diamond are packed relatively tightly
density of paraffin is low because the carbon atoms are mixed with hydrogen while the carbon atoms in paraffin are
atoms in long molecules that take up a lot of space (Figure 12.2). part of long molecules that take up a lot
of space.
SC.912.P.8.1-Differentiate among the four states of matter. 271

The arrangement of atoms and molecules in solids

Crystalline and The atoms or molecules in a solid are arranged in two ways. If the particles
crystalline - an orderly, repeating
amorphous solids are arranged in an orderly, repeating pattern, the solid is called crystalline. arrangement of atoms or molecules in
Examples of crystalline solids include salts, minerals, and metals. If the a solid.
particles are arranged in a random way, the solid is amorphous. Examples amorphous - a random
of amorphous solids include rubber, wax, and glass. arrangement of atoms or molecules in
a solid.
Crystalline solids Most solids on Earth are crystalline.
Some materials, like salt, exist as
single crystals and you can see the
arrangement of atoms reflected in the
shape of the crystal. If you look at a
crystal of table salt under a
microscope, you’ll see that it’s cubic
in shape. If you could examine the
arrangement of atoms, you would see
that the shape of the crystal comes
from the cubic arrangement of sodium
and chlorine atoms. Metals are also
crystalline. They don’t look like
“crystals” because solid metal is made
from very tiny crystals fused together Figure 12.3: Metallic crystals in
in a jumble of different orientations (Figure 12.3). steel. Single crystals are very small.
This image was taken with an electron
Amorphous solids The word amorphous comes from the Greek for “without shape.” Unlike microscope at very high magnification.
crystals, amorphous solids do not have a repetitive pattern in the
arrangement of molecules or atoms. The atoms or molecules are randomly
arranged. While amorphous solids also hold their shape, they are often softer
and more elastic than crystalline solids. This is because a molecule in an
amorphous solid is not tightly connected to as many neighboring molecules
as it would be in a crystalline solid. Glass is a common amorphous solid.
Glass is hard and brittle because it is made from molten silica crystals that
are cooled quickly, before they have time to recrystallize. The rapid cooling
leaves the silica molecules in a random arrangement. Plastic is another useful
amorphous solid.

Mechanical properties of solids

The meaning of When you apply a force to an object,
strength - the ability to maintain
strength the object may change its size, shape under the application of force.
shape, or both. The concept of
tensile strength - a measure of
strength describes the ability of a how much stress from pulling, or
solid object to maintain its shape tension, a material can withstand
even when force is applied. The before breaking.
strength of an object can be hardness - a measure of a solid’s
determined based on the answers to resistance to scratching.
the two questions in the illustration elasticity - the ability to be
at the left. stretched or compressed and then
return to original size.
Tensile strength Tensile strength is a measure of how much stress from pulling, or tension, a brittleness - the tendency to crack
material can withstand before breaking (Figure 12.4). Strong materials like or break; the opposite of elasticity.
steel have high tensile strength. Weak materials like wax and rubber have low
tensile strength. Brittle materials also have low tensile strength.
Hardness Hardness measures a solid’s resistance to scratching. Diamond is the hardest
natural substance found on Earth. Geologists sometimes classify rocks based
on hardness. Given six different kinds of rock, how could you line them up in
order of increasing hardness?
Elasticity If you pull on a rubber band, its shape changes. If you let it go, the rubber
band returns to its original shape. Rubber bands can stretch many times their
original length before breaking, a property called elasticity. Elasticity
describes a solid’s ability to be stretched and then return to its original size.
This property also gives objects the ability to bounce and to withstand impact
without breaking.
Brittleness Brittleness is defined as the tendency of a solid to crack or break before Figure 12.4: Tensile strength
stretching very much. Glass is a good example of a brittle material. You measures how much pulling or tension a
material can withstand before breaking.
cannot stretch glass even one-tenth of a percent (0.001) before it breaks. To
stretch or shape glass you need to heat the glass until it is almost melted.
Heating causes molecules to move faster, temporarily breaking the forces that
hold them together.
SC.912.P.8.2-Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical changes of matter. 273
Ductility One of the most useful properties of metals is that they are ductile. A ductile
material can be bent a relatively large amount without breaking. For
example, a steel fork can be bent in half and the steel does not break. A ductility - the ability to bend without
plastic fork cracks when it is bent only a small amount. Steel’s high ductility breaking.
means steel can be formed into useful shapes by pulling, rolling, and malleability - the ability of a solid to
bending. These processes would destroy a brittle material like glass. The be pounded into thin sheets.
ductility of many metals, like copper, allow them to be formed into wire, like thermal expansion - the tendency
the copper wire shown below. of the atoms or molecules in a
substance (solid, liquid, or gas) to
What is malleability? Malleability measures a solid’s ability to be pounded into thin sheets.
take up more space as the
Aluminum is a highly malleable metal. Aluminum foil and beverage cans are temperature increases.
two good examples of how manufacturers take advantage of the malleability
of aluminum.
Thermal expansion As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy in the vibration of atoms and
molecules also increases. The increased vibration makes each particle take Figure 12.5: Bridges have expansion
joints to allow for thermal expansion
up a little more space, causing thermal expansion. Almost all solid of concrete.
materials expand as the temperature increases. Some materials (like plastic)
expand a great deal. Other materials (like glass) expand only a little. All
bridges longer than a certain size have special joints that allow the bridge
surface to expand and contract with changes in temperature (Figure 12.5).
The bridge surface would crack without these expansion joints.
274 SC.912.P.8.2-Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical changes of matter.

1. Name one example of a physical change and one example of a Physical Property Flashcards
chemical change. Make flash cards that will help you
remember the meanings of the
2. Name one example of a material for each set of properties.
physical properties discussed in
a. high elasticity and high tensile strength this section.
b. amorphous and brittle Write a property on one side of a card
c. crystalline and brittle with the meaning and an example on
d. amorphous and elastic the other side. For example, write
amorphous on one side of a card and
e. ductile and crystalline “random arrangement of molecules in
3. The strength of a material determines a solid” on the other side. In addition,
a. how dense the material is list some examples of amorphous
solids such as glass and wax.
b. how much force it can withstand before breaking
c. how good a thermal or electrical conductor it is
4. Latex is a soft, stretchy, rubber-like material. Would you expect latex to
be crystalline or amorphous?
5. Explain, from an atomic-level perspective, why expansion joints are used
in bridges.
6. Which property of a metal describes why it can be formed into wire?
7. When installing wood floors, it is often recommended that you leave a
half-inch of space between the flooring and the wall (Figure 12.6). Why
do you think this space would be recommended?
8. Aluminum can be made into foil because aluminum has high ____.
275
12.2 Properties of Fluids

A fluid is defined as any matter that flows when force is applied. Liquids like water are one kind of fluid - any matter that flows when
fluid. Gases, like air, are also fluids. You may notice cool air flowing into a room when a window force is applied.
is open, or the smell of someone’s perfume drifting your way. These examples provide evidence
that gases flow. What are some other properties of fluids?
Density of fluids
How could you find A piece of pure silver in the shape of a candle holder has the same density as
the density of liquid a pure silver ring (Figure 12.7). Size and shape do not change a material’s
silver? density. But what if you heated a silver ring until it completely melted?
Atoms in liquid form The density of a liquid is the ratio of mass to

tend to take up more volume, just like the density of a solid. The mass of
space the silver does not change when the ring is melted. Figure 12.7: The density of solid
silver is the same no matter what shape
The volume of the liquid silver, however, is greater it is formed into.
than the volume of the solid silver. The particles in
a solid, as you remember, are fixed in position.
Although the silver atoms in a ring are constantly
vibrating, they cannot switch places with other
atoms. They are neatly stacked in a repeating
pattern. The atoms in the liquid silver are less
rigidly organized. They can slide over and around
each other and they take up a little more space.
Temperature and The density of solids usually decreases slightly as temperature increases
solid density because solids expand when heated. As the temperature of the solid silver
increases, the volume increases slightly, even before the silver melts. This is
due to the increased vibration of the silver molecules.
Water is less dense Most materials are more dense in their solid phase than in their liquid phase.
in solid form Water is a notable exception. Ice is less dense than liquid water! When water
molecules freeze into ice crystals, they form a pattern that has an unusually Figure 12.8: Because of the spacing,
large amount of empty space (Figure 12.8). The molecules are more tightly ice forms hexagonal crystals which
packed in water’s liquid form! give us the beautiful six-pointed shapes
of snowflakes.
SC.912.P.8.1-Differentiate among the four states of matter.
Pressure
Forces in fluids When you push down on a bowling ball, what happens? Because the bowling
ball is a solid, the force is transmitted down in the same direction as the pressure - the amount of force
exerted per unit of area.
applied force. Think about what happens when you push down on an inflated
balloon. The downward force you apply creates forces that act sideways as
well as down. Because fluids change shape, forces in fluids are more
complicated than forces in solids.
Balloon Bowling ball Applied force
Solid
Transmitted force
Pressure A force applied to a fluid creates pressure. Pressure acts in all directions, not
just the direction of the applied force. When you inflate a car tire, you are
increasing the pressure in the tire. This force acts up, down, and sideways in
all directions inside the tire.
Units of pressure The units of pressure are force divided by
area (Figure 12.9). If your car tires are
inflated to 35 pounds per square inch
(35 psi), then a force of 35 pounds acts on
every square inch of area inside the tire
(left). The pressure on the bottom of the
tire is what holds up the car! The metric
unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). One
pascal is one newton of force per square
meter of area (N/m2). Figure 12.9: Comparing units of
pressure.
277
Pressure, energy, and force

The atomic level What causes pressure? On the atomic level, pressure comes from collisions
explanation between atoms and molecules. Look at Figure 12.10. Molecules move
around and bounce off each other and off the walls of the pitcher. It takes
force to make a molecule reverse its direction and bounce the other way. The
bouncing force is applied to the molecule by the inside surface of the pitcher.
According to Newton’s third law, an equal and opposite reaction force is
exerted by the molecule on the pitcher. The reaction force is what creates the
pressure acting on the inside surface of the pitcher. Trillions of molecules per
second are constantly bouncing against every square millimeter of the inner
surface of the pitcher. Pressure comes from the collisions of those many,
many molecules.
Pressure is Differences in pressure create potential energy in fluids just like differences
potential energy in height create potential energy from gravity. A pressure difference of one
newton per m2 is equivalent to a potential energy of one joule per m3. We get
useful work when we allow a fluid under pressure to expand. In a car engine,
high pressure is created by an exploding gasoline-air mixture. This pressure
pushes the cylinders of the engine down, doing work that moves the car. Figure 12.10: Pressure comes from
constant collisions of trillions of
molecules.
Car tires are usually inflated to a

pressure of 32–40 pounds per square
inch (psi). Racing bicycle tires are
inflated to much higher pressure,
100–110 psi. A bicycle and rider are
much lighter than a car. Why is the
pressure in a bicycle tire higher than
the pressure in a car tire?

Bernoulli’s principle
Bernoulli’s principle Everything obeys the law of energy conservation. But this law is more
Bernoulli’s principle - a
difficult to explain in a flowing fluid such as water coming out of a hole in relationship that describes energy
a bucket. In addition to potential and kinetic energy, the fluid also has conservation in a fluid.
pressure energy. If friction is neglected, the total energy stays constant
for any particular sample of fluid. This relationship is known as
Bernoulli’s principle.
Streamlines Streamlines are imaginary lines drawn to show the flow of fluid. We draw
streamlines so that they are always parallel to the direction of flow. If water is
coming out of a hole in a bucket, the streamlines look like the one shown in
Figure 12.11. Bernoulli’s principle tells us that the energy of any sample of
fluid moving along a streamline is constant.
Figure 12.11: Streamlines are

imaginary lines drawn to show the flow
of a fluid.
The three variables Bernoulli’s principle says the three variables of height, pressure, and speed
are related by energy conservation. Height is associated with potential energy,
speed with kinetic energy, and pressure with pressure energy. If one variable
increases along a streamline, at least one of the other two must decrease. For
example, if speed goes up, pressure goes down.
The airfoil An important application of Bernoulli’s principle is the airfoil shape of wings
on a plane (Figure 12.12). The shape of an airfoil causes air flowing along the
top (A) to move faster than air flowing along the bottom (B). According to
Bernoulli’s principle, if the speed goes up, the pressure goes down. When a
plane is moving, the pressure on the top surface of the wings is lower than the
pressure beneath the wings. The difference in pressure is what creates the lift Figure 12.12: Streamlines showing
force that supports the plane in the air. air moving from left to right around an
airfoil (wing).
279
Hydraulics and Pascal’s principle

Hydraulic devices Hydraulic lifts and other hydraulic devices use pressure to multiply forces
Pascal’s principle - the pressure
use pressure to and do work. The word hydraulic refers to anything that is operated by a
applied to an incompressible fluid
multiply forces fluid under pressure. Hydraulic devices operate on the basis of Pascal’s
in a closed container is transmitted
principle, named after Blaise Pascal. Pascal’s principle states that the equally in all parts of the fluid.
pressure applied to an incompressible fluid in a closed container is
transmitted equally in all parts of the fluid. An incompressible fluid does not
decrease in volume when pressure is increased.
Input and output Pressure is force divided by area (Figure 12.13). Suppose you have a small
forces and large cylinder connected by a tube. If you apply a small force (the input
force) to a piston at the small cylinder, you generate a given pressure.
According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure would be the same in the larger
cylinder. Since the larger cylinder has more area, the output force exerted by
the piston at the larger cylinder would be greater.
Figure 12.13: Pressure is
How a hydraulic lift To show this mathematically, rearrange P = F/A, to solve for force: described mathematically as force
multiplies force F = P × A (Figure 12.14). The pressure stays the same in the larger cylinder, divided by area.
but area increased, resulting in a larger output force exerted by the piston.
The greater the differences in the areas of the cylinders, the greater the
output force exerted by the piston at the larger cylinder.
Figure 12.14: You can calculate the

force exerted if you know the pressure
and area.
280 SC.912.P.10.2-Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open, closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a conserved quantity.
You can’t get In a hydraulic lift, a small input force produced a much larger output force.
something for Does this mean we get more work for less? Unfortunately, no. Like a lever,
nothing the hydraulic lift converts work (force × distance) at the smaller piston for the
same work at the larger one. In the example shown in Figure 12.15, a smaller
piston in a hydraulic lift moves a distance of 5 m and displaces 500 cm3 of
fluid. The amount displaced moves the piston in the larger cylinder only 1 m.
This means a smaller force and larger distance has been exchanged for a large
force through a smaller distance.
Solving Problems: Pressure and Force
On a hydraulic lift, 5 N of force is applied over an area of 0.125 m2. What is

the output force if the area of the larger cylinder is 5.0 m2?
1. Looking for: You are looking for output force.

2. Given: You are given the input force, input area, and output area.
3. Relationships: P = Finput ÷ A and Foutput = PA
Figure 12.15: Like all simple
4. Solution: First, calculate the pressure exerted: P = 5N ÷ 0.125 m2 = 40 N/m2. machines, in a hydraulic lift, you trade
force for distance.
Next, calculate the output force from the pressure:
Foutput = (40 N/m2) × (5.0 m2) = 200 N
Your turn... a. 70,000 Pa

a. A force of 35 N is exerted over a cylinder with an area of 5 cm2. What b. 50,000 N
pressure, in pascals, will be transmitted in the hydraulic system?
b. A force of 500 N is applied to a 5 cm2 cylinder. What output force will be
produced in the larger cylinder (500 cm2)?
281
Viscosity
What is viscosity? Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. High-viscosity fluids
viscosity - a measure of a fluid’s
take longer to pour from their containers than low-viscosity fluids. Ketchup, resistance to flow.
for example, has a high viscosity and water has a low viscosity.
Viscosity and motor Viscosity is an important property of motor oils. If an oil is too thick, it may
oils not flow quickly enough to parts of an engine. However, if an oil is too thin,
it may not provide enough “cushion” to protect the engine from the effects of
friction. A motor oil must function properly when the engine is started on a
bitterly cold day, and when the engine is operating at high temperatures (see
Science Fact on the next page).
Viscosity and Viscosity is determined in large part by the shape and size of the particles in
particles a liquid. If the particles are large and have bumpy surfaces, a great deal of
friction will be created as they slide past each other. For instance, corn oil is
made of large, chain-like molecules. Water is made of much smaller
molecules. As a result, corn oil has greater viscosity than water.
As a liquid gets As the temperature of a liquid is raised, the viscosity of the liquid decreases.
warmer, its viscosity In other words, warm liquids have less viscosity than cold liquids. Fudge
decreases topping, for example, is much easier to pour when it’s warm than when it’s
Figure 12.16: Heating fudge topping
chilled. Why is this? When temperature rises, the vibration of molecules decreases viscosity so it is much easier
increases. This allows molecules to slide past each other with greater ease. to pour.
As a result, the viscosity decreases (Figure 12.16).
Section 12.2 Review

1. Explain why liquid silver is less dense than solid silver. Motor Oil Numbers
2. The pressure at the bottom of Earth’s atmosphere is about 100,000 N/m2.
This means there is a force of 100,000 N acting on every square meter of
area! Your body has about 1.5 square meters of surface. Why aren’t you
crushed by the atmosphere?
3. The pressure at the bottom of the ocean is great enough to crush
submarines with steel walls that are 10 centimeters thick. Suppose a
submarine is at a depth of 1,000 meters. The weight of water above each
square meter of the submarine is 9,800,000 newtons.
Numbers on the label of a quart of

motor oil are based on a scale
established by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE). The first
a. What is the pressure? number indicates the lowest
temperature at which the oil will
b. How does this pressure compare with the air pressure we experience
work well (–10°F in this case). The
every day on Earth’s surface (100,000 N/m2)? “W” means the oil works well in
4. What does pressure have to do with how a car engine works? cold weather. The second number
5. Bernoulli’s principle relates the speed, height, and pressure in a fluid. is a grade for the oil: “50” is best
for hot-weather driving, “30” for
Suppose speed goes up and height stays the same. What happens to the
cold-weather driving, and “40” for mild
pressure? weather temperatures.
6. At the atomic level, what causes fudge topping to pour faster when it is
heated?
283
12.3 Buoyancy
If you drop a steel marble into a glass of water, it will sink to the bottom. The steel does not float buoyancy - the measure of the
because it has a greater density than the water. And yet many ships are made of steel. How does a upward force that a fluid exerts on an
steel ship float when a steel marble sinks? The answer has to do with gravity and weight. object that is submerged.
Weight and buoyancy

Weight and mass are We all tend to use the terms weight and mass interchangeably. In science
not the same however, weight and mass are not the same thing. Mass is a fundamental
property of matter. Weight is a force caused by gravity. It is easy to confuse
mass and weight because often heavy objects (more weight) have lots of
mass and light objects (less weight) have little mass.
Buoyancy is a force It is much easier to lift yourself in a swimming pool than to lift yourself on
land. This is because the water in the pool exerts an upward force on you that
acts in a direction opposite to your weight (Figure 12.17). We call this force
buoyancy. Buoyancy is a measure of the upward force that a fluid exerts on
an object that is submerged.
Pushing a ball The strength of
underwater the buoyant force Figure 12.17: The water in the pool
Weightt
Weight on an object in exerts an upward force on your body, so
Weight
water depends on the net force on you is lessened.
the volume of the
object that is
ronger
Stronger
buoyant underwater.
Buoyant force buoyant
Buoyant force force
force Suppose you have
a large beach ball
that you want to
submerge in a pool. As you keep pushing downward on the ball, you notice
the buoyant force getting stronger and stronger. The greater the part of the
ball you manage to push underwater, the stronger the force trying to push it
back up. The strength of the buoyant force is proportional to the volume of
the part of the ball that is submerged.
Archimedes’ principle
What is Archimedes’ In the third century BCE, a Greek mathematician named Archimedes realized
Archimedes’ principle - states
principle? that buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by an object. that the buoyant force is equal to the
We call this relationship Archimedes’ principle. For example, suppose a weight of the fluid displaced by an
rock with a volume of 1,000 cubic centimeters is dropped into water object.
(Figure 12.18). The rock displaces 1,000 cm3 of water, which has a mass of
1 kilogram. The buoyant force on the rock is the weight of 1 kilogram of
water or 9.8 newtons.
A simple buoyancy Look at the illustration above. A simple experiment can be done to measure
experiment the buoyant force on a rock (or any object) using a spring scale. Suppose you
have a rock with a volume of 1,000 cubic centimeters and a mass of
3 kilograms. In air, the scale shows the rock’s weight as 29.4 newtons. The Figure 12.18: A rock with a volume
rock is then gradually immersed in a container of water, but not allowed to of 1,000 cm3 experiences a buoyant force
touch the bottom or sides of the container. As the rock enters the water, the of 9.8 newtons.
reading on the scale decreases. When the rock is completely submerged, the
scale reads 19.6 newtons.
Calculating the Subtracting the two scale readings, 29.4 newtons and 19.6 newtons, results in
buoyant force a difference of 9.8 newtons. This is the buoyant force exerted on the rock, and
it is the same as the weight of the 1,000 cubic centimeters of water the rock
displaced.
285
Sinking and floating

Comparing buoyant Buoyancy explains why some objects sink and others float. A submerged
force and weight object floats to the surface if the buoyant force is greater than the object’s Buoyant
force
weight (Figure 12.19). If the buoyant force is less than its weight, then the
object sinks.
Equilibrium Suppose you place a block of foam in a tub of water. The block sinks
partially below the surface. Then it floats without sinking any farther. The
upward buoyant force perfectly balances the downward force of gravity (the eight
block’s weight). But how does the buoyant force “know” how strong it needs
to be to balance the weight? Buoyant
force
Weight
uoyant
rce
Denser objects float You can find the answer to this question in the illustration above. If a foam Weight
lower in the water block and a wood block of the same size are both floating, the wood block
sinks farther into the water. Wood has a greater density, so the wood block
weighs more. A greater buoyant force is needed to balance the wood block’s Figure 12.19: Whether an object
weight, so the wood block displaces more water. The foam block has to sink sinks or floats depends on how the
only slightly to displace water with a weight equal to the block’s weight. A buoyant force compares with the object’s
weight.
floating object displaces just enough water to make the buoyant force equal
to the object’s weight.
Density and buoyancy

Comparing densities If you know an object’s density, you can immediately predict whether it will
Buoyancy and Submarines
sink or float—without measuring its weight. An object sinks if its density is
greater than that of the liquid it is submerged into. It floats if its density is less Deep beneath the ocean surface are
than that of the liquid. undersea mountains and volcanoes
and many clues to past and present
Two balls with the To see why, picture dropping two balls into a pool of water. The balls have the conditions of our planet. Exploring the
same volume but same size and volume but have different densities. The steel ball has a density deep ocean requires sophisticated
different densities of 7.80 g/cm3 which is greater than the density of water (1.0 g/cm3). The engineering. The U.S. Navy’s
submarine Alvin is a research vessel
wood ball has a density of 0.75 g/cm3, which is less than the density of water. that can dive to 4,500 meters below
the ocean surface. Scientists aboard
Alvin have discovered strange life
forms near deep hot spots where there
is no light and pressures are 400 times
greater than at Earth’s surface!
Alvin’s depth is controlled by changing
its average density. There is a
chamber aboard the submarine that
can be filled with air or water. To
Why one sinks and When they are completely underwater, both balls have the same buoyant force dive, water is pumped into the tank
the other floats because they displace the same volume of water. However, the steel ball has and air is released. The tank’s
average density becomes greater
more weight since it has a higher density. The steel ball sinks because steel’s than the density of water and the
higher density makes the ball heavier than the same volume of water. The submarine sinks.
wood ball floats because wood’s lower density makes the wood ball lighter When the sub reaches the proper
than the same volume of displaced water. depth, the amount of air and water is
adjusted with pumps until the average
density of the whole vessel is the
same as the density of water. This is
called neutral buoyancy. When it is
time for the ship to head back to the
surface, water is pumped out of the
tank and replaced with air. The
submarine’s average density
decreases and the submarine rises.
Boats and average density

How do steel boats If you place a solid chunk of steel in water, it immediately sinks because the An object with an average
float? density of steel (7.8 g/cm3) is much greater than the density of water density GREATER than the
(1.0 g/cm3). So how is it that thousands of huge ships made of steel are
floating around the world? The answer is that average density determines
density of water will sink.
whether an object sinks or floats (Figure 12.20). An object with an average
Solid steel sinks To make steel float, you have to reduce the average density somehow. density LESS than the
because it is denser Making the steel hollow does exactly that. Making a boat hollow expands its
than water volume a tremendous amount without changing its mass. Steel is so strong
density of water will float.
that it is quite easy to reduce the average density of a boat to 10 percent of
the density of water by making the shell of the boat relatively thin.
Increasing volume Ah, you say, but that’s an empty ship. True, so the
decreases density density of a new ship must be designed to be under
1.0 g/cm3 to allow for cargo. When objects are placed
in a boat, the boat’s average density increases. The boat
must sink deeper to displace more water and increase
the buoyant force. If you have seen a loaded cargo Figure 12.20: The meaning of
ship, you might have noticed that it sat lower in the average density. Note: 1 mL = 1 cm3.
water than an unloaded ship nearby. In fact, the limit to
how much a ship can carry is set by how low in the
water the ship can get before rough seas cause waves to
break over the sides of the ship.
288
Section 12.3 Review

1. The buoyant force on an object depends on the _______ of the object that
is underwater.
2. What happens to the buoyant force on an object as it is lowered into
water? Why?
3. The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the water
it ________________.
4. When the buoyant force on an object is greater than its weight, the
object ___________.
Legend has it that Archimedes added

to his fame by using the concepts of
volume and density to figure out
5 cm
whether a goldsmith had cheated

Hiero II, the king of Syracuse. The
cm
10 goldsmith had been given a piece of
20 cm gold of a known weight to make a
crown. Hiero suspected the goldsmith
5. A rectangular object is 10 centimeters long, 5 centimeters high, and had kept some of the gold for himself
20 centimeters wide. Its mass is 800 grams. and replaced it with an equal weight of
a. Calculate the object’s volume in cubic centimeters. another metal. Explain the steps you
could follow to determine whether or
b. Calculate the object’s density in g/cm3. not the crown was pure gold.
c. Will the object float or sink in water? Explain.
6. Solid iron has a density of 7.9 g/cm3. Liquid mercury has a density of
13.5 g/cm3. Will iron float or sink in mercury? Explain.
7. Why is it incorrect to say that heavy objects sink in water?
8. Steel is denser than water, yet steel ships float. Explain.
9. A rock sinks in water, but suppose a rock was placed in a pool of
mercury. Mercury is a liquid metal with a density of 13.5 g/cm3. The
density of rock is 2.6 g/cm3. Will the rock sink or not? Explain how you
got your answer.
289
ENGINEERING8CONNECTION
Chapter 12
the entire weight of the boat is supported by the water and the hull
The Hull
What Makes a Boat
acts like a displacement hull. But at high speeds, the boat rides up
on top of the water. The force of the water being thrown out of the
way supports most of the weight of the boat. Boats with planing
hulls are capable of moving very fast since they displace very little
water. The limiting factor for this type of hull is usually rough water,
Stay Afloat since planing hulls tend to pound or slam into waves, making the
ride uncomfortable for passengers.
There are many different types of
boats, but all have one thing in Variations on Main Hull Types:
common—the hull. The hull is the Flat bottom: This design enables the boat to ride
main body of the boat. It displaces on top of the water at high speeds (planing).
the water that provides the upward These boats are used on calmer waters like ponds,
buoyant force. It also provides small lakes, and slow-moving rivers. Flat bottom
Flat bottom
stability. All hulls must have the boats have less depth, allowing them to be used
ability to displace an amount of in shallower waters. These boats tend to be very
Flat bottom
stable, but can be damaged by pounding in rough water.
water equal to the weight of the
boat in order to float. However, hulls Flat bottom Round bottom: Boats with this displacement hull
come in a variety of shapes, each serving a different purpose. A sailboat Round bottom move easily and smoothly through the water, even
needs a different type of hull than a speedboat or an oil tanker. at slow speeds. Round bottom hulls have a tendency
Flat bottom
Round bottom
to roll over. To fix this problem on sailboats, a deep
keel is added. The deep keel of a sailboat sticks
Two Main Types of Hulls down in the water like a long wing and is very heavy. It helps the
Round bottom
The displacement hull: Boats with boat sail into the wind and provides stability.
displacement hulls have cross-sections Deep-V hull
that are rounded or v-shaped. The Deep-V hull: This design comes nearly to a point
hull displaces the water, and the water Round
Deep-Vbottom
hull at the very bottom of the boat. A deep-V hull
completely supports the weight of the moves more efficiently and with greater stability
boat. As the boat moves, a displacement Deep-V hull than a flat bottom boat, but it is less stable than
hull pushes water out of the way, both a round bottom boat. A deep-V hull is used on
Multi-hull
high-powered pleasure boats. A boat with this hull can go very fast
sideways and down. The curves of the hull allow the water to be
pushed away smoothly with a minimum of turbulence, making these and can plane, but the hull slices somewhat through the water for a
Deep-V
more hull
comfortable
Multi-hull ride in rough water.
types of hulls more energy efficient. The top speed of boats with
displacement hulls is limited by the amount of the hull that is under
Multi-hull Multi-hull: In this design, two or more hulls are
water and by the hull’s shape.
connected together. The hulls are set wide apart
Tunnel hull
The planing hull: This type of hull with a platform on top. The multiple hulls allow the
has a flatter bottom designed to ride boat to move very fast through the water using a
Tunnel hull
Multi-hull
primarily on “plane,” or on top of the displacement hull design, while remaining
water. When a boat with a planing very stable.
Tunnel hull
hull is at rest or moving at low speeds,
SC.912.L.18.12–Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth’s suitability as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing,
290 and versatility as a solvent. Tunnel hull
ENGINEERING8CONNECTION
Chapter 12
Boat Stability: Center of Gravity vs. Center of Buoyancy With a sailboat, the boat is
larger, has more mass, and is
Have you ever tried to stand up in a rowboat? It’s a lot harder than Wind
less influenced by your weight.
standing up on a sailboat or powerboat. One reason is that the
Moreover, the CG is generally
rowboat has less mass and is easily influenced by your weight. When
made lower in a big sailboat
you’re standing in a rowboat, the center of gravity is raised, making CG CG
by the weight of the keel. The
the boat less stable. The lower the center CB CB
combination of the CG and the
CG of gravity, the more stable the boat. A
Water CB of the boat create a righting
boat’s stability is also dependent on the Righting pressure
moment opposite to the direction
relationship between its center of gravity moment
the boat is heeling (tilting). This will
(CG) and its center of buoyancy (CB).
keep it from capsizing. This is how a sailboat stays upright when the
CB The CG is the exact center of the boat wind is blowing to the left or right—the coupled CG and CB work in
according to its weight distribution. If you opposite directions to counteract the tilt.
Flat bottom
had a toy boat and you put your finger
directly under the CG, it would balance on Hydrofoil Boats: Boats that Can Fly
CG your finger. The center of buoyancy, or CB, Wind
is the exact center of gravity of the volume A hydrofoil boat is a boat built for speed. It uses
of water displaced by the boat’s hull. When wings, or foils, to lift the boat up and the hull
weight is distributed evenly in a boat, the CG out of the water. When a normal boat moves
CB is directly below the CG. The CG is a CB forward through the water, most of the energy
CB downward force while the CB is an upward expended by the engine goes into moving the
Round bottom Water
water in the front of the boat out of the way by
force so together they create balance. Righting pressure
moment pushing the hull through it. This action creates
The stability of the boat depends on how the CB shifts as the boat the opposing force of fluid friction, slowing the
tilts or “heels.” For example, if you move from the center to one side boat down.
of a small boat, the CG will move to that
side. The boat tilts as the CB shifts toward Hydrofoils engage in lift, the same phenomenon airplanes use to
CG CG
fly. A hydrofoil boat has foils beneath the hull. As a hydrofoil boat
that side to balance the new CG. That
ability of the CB to shift is the measure of increases in speed, water flows over and under the foils like air
the boat’s stability. The more easily the CB flows over and under an airplane wing. The shape of the foil causes
shifts, the more stable the boat is. the water to move down, creating an upward force on the boat
called lift. When this lifting force of the hydrofoils is balanced by
CB CB weight of the boat, the boat is in equilibrium. At this point, the
If you were to shift your weight all the way the
to the side of a small rowboat, you could displacement part of the hull is out of the water, greatly reducing
shift the CG so far out that no matter how the force of fluid friction.
CGbe able CG
far the boat tilts, the CB won’t
to shift under the CG. If the CB can’t get Questions:
underneath the CG, the boat will capsize,
1. What are the two main types of hulls?
and you’ll be going for a swim.
CB CB
2. What is the advantage of a planing hull?
3. What two forces determine the stability of a boat?
4. How does a hydrofoil boat work?
SC.912.L.18.12–Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth’s suitability as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing,
and versatility as a solvent. 291
Vocabulary 11. A measure of how much pulling a material can withstand
before breaking is called _____.
12. When a material changes size as temperature changes, it is
brittleness thermal expansion amorphous
called _____.
buoyancy chemical properties Archimedes’ principle
elasticity crystalline pressure Section 12.2
fluid viscosity Bernoulli’s principle 13. _____ is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
hardness ductility malleability 14. Any matter that flows when force is applied is referred to as
tensile strength strength physical properties a(n) _____.
Section 12.1 15. _____ is the measure of force per unit of area.
1. ____ are properties that can be observed directly. 16. _____ is a relationship that describes energy conservation in
2. ____ can only be observed when one substance is changed to a fluid.
another substance. Section 12.3
3. A solid having randomly arranged atoms or molecules is 17. _____ is a measure of the upward force a fluid exerts on an
called ____. object that is submerged.
4. The tendency to crack or break is called _____. 18. _____ states that the buoyant force is equal to the weight of
5. A(n) _____ solid has an orderly, repeating arrangement the fluid displaced by an object.
of particles.
Concepts
6. _____ is the ability to bend without breaking.
Section 12.1
7. A solid that can be bent and stretched and then return to its 1. In general, how do the densities of a material in solid, liquid,
original size has high _____. and gas phases compare? Name a common exception to the
8. A solid’s ability to resist being scratched is called _____. general rule.
9. Gold has high _____ because it can be pounded into very 2. Explain the difference between physical and chemical
thin sheets. properties. Use an example in your explanation.
10. The ability to maintain shape under the application of forces 3. The density of a solid material depends on two things. Name
is called _____. those two things.
292
4. Compare the arrangement of atoms or molecules in an 11. Tamara sprays a garden hose at her brother who is 20 feet
amorphous solid to the arrangement of atoms or molecules off the ground in a tree. How would the speed of the water as
in a crystalline solid. it comes from the faucet compare to the speed of the water
5. Classify the following as a physical property (P) or a as it hits her brother? Explain.
chemical property (C). 12. What is Pascal’s principle and how does it apply to
a. ____ ice melts at room temperature hydraulic lifts?
b. ____ an apple turns brown when it is peeled Section 12.3
c. ____ mercury is a metal that is liquid at room 13. Why does a glass marble sink in water?
temperature
14. What happens to the weight of a rock when it is placed
d. ____ rust is orange
under water? Why?
e. ____ copper is shiny
f. ____ copper forms a blue-green patina after being 15. Compare the buoyant force to the weight of a floating block
exposed to the air for a long period of time of foam.
6. Use the word amorphous or crystalline to describe each of 16. Explain why a solid steel ball sinks in water but a steel ship
the materials listed below. floats in water.
a. metal e. taffy candy 17. A solid steel ball and a hollow steel ball of the same size are
b. glass f. plastic dropped into a bucket of water. Both sink. Compare the
c. rubber g. sugar buoyant force on each.
d. diamond h. ice 18. What is the maximum density that a fully loaded cargo ship
7. Match the materials below with the mechanical property can have without sinking?
associated with the material. 19. Why does ice float in a glass of water? Explain in terms of
a. ____ gold 1. brittleness density and buoyancy.
b. ____ rubber 2. ductility
c. ____ glass 3. elasticity Problems
8. Compare the terms liquid and fluid. 1. Your teacher gives you two stainless steel ball bearings. The
larger has a mass of 25 g and a volume of 3.2 cm3. The
9. Describe how Newton’s third law is related to fluid pressure.
smaller has a mass of 10 g. Calculate the volume of the
10. Explain how Bernoulli’s principle helps to explain the lift smaller ball bearing.
that airplane wings experience.
293
2. At 20°C, the density of copper is 8.9 g/cm3. The density of 12. If an object has a buoyant force of 320 newtons acting on it,
platinum is 21.4 g/cm3. What does this tell you about how would the weight of the object have to be more or less than
the atoms are “packed” in each material? 320 newtons in order to float?
Section 12.2 13. Neutral buoyancy is when an object stays in one position
3. What is the pressure if 810 N of force are applied on an area underwater. It doesn’t sink or float. An object weighs 135
of 9 m2? newtons. What would the buoyant force have to be in order
for the object to have neutral buoyancy?
4. If the air pressure is 100,000 N/m2, how much force is acting
on a dog with a surface area of 0.5 m2? Applying Your Knowledge
5. A 4,000-pound car’s tires are inflated to 35 pounds per
Section 12.1
square inch (psi). How much tire area must be in contact
with the road to support the car? 1. You are an engineer who must choose a type of plastic to use
for the infant car seat that you are designing. Name two
6. A force of 15 N is exerted over an area of 0.1 m2 in a
properties of solids that would help you decide, and explain
hydraulic lift. What output force will be generated by the
why each is important.
output cylinder if it has an area of 5 m2?
Section 12.2
Section 12.3
2. Many studies have been done about the viscosity of lava
7. What buoyant force is exerted on a toy balloon with a
from various volcanic eruptions around the world. Do some
volume of 6,000 mL by the air surrounding the balloon?
research to find out how scientists determine the viscosity of
8. An object weighing 45 newtons in air is suspended from a lava, and find out if there is much variation in the viscosity
spring scale. The spring scale reads 22 newtons when the of different lava flows.
object is fully submerged in water. Calculate the buoyant
Section 12.3
force on the object.
3. Scuba divers use weights and a buoyancy control device
9. A bucket is filled to the top with water and set into a large
(BCD) to help them maintain neutral buoyancy. Explain the
pan. When a 200-gram wooden block is carefully lowered
advantages of being neutrally buoyant when you are a
into the water it floats, but some water overflows into the
scuba diver.
pan. What is the weight of the water that spills into
the pan? 4. The Dead Sea is a body of water that lies between Israel and
Jordan. It is so salty that almost no organisms other than a
10. A stone that weighs 6.5 newtons in air weighs only
few types of bacteria can survive in it. The density of its
5.0 newtons when submerged in water. What is the buoyant
surface water is 1.166 g/mL. Would you find it easier to float
force exerted on the rock by the water?
in the Dead Sea or in a freshwater lake? Give a reason for
11. A 100-mL oak object is placed in water. What volume of your answer.
water is displaced by the oak object? The density of oak is
0.60 g/cm3.
Chapter 13
The Behavior of Gases
Do you know what the oldest form of aircraft is? You may think it’s the airplane flown by the
Wright brothers in 1903, but the hot air balloon dates back much earlier than the Wright
brothers’ plane. In 1783, the first passengers to ride in a hot air balloon were a duck, a
rooster, and a sheep. Several months later, the Montgolfier brothers of France made a balloon of paper and
silk. This flight carried 2 men for 25 minutes across 51⁄2 miles. Ballooning has come a long way since that
historic flight. Balloons are used to forecast weather, explore space, perform experiments, and for recreation.
The National Scientific Balloon Facility in Palestine, Texas is a National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) facility. NASA launches about 25 science balloons each year. These balloons do not
carry people, but they carry a “payload.” The payload includes equipment for experiments and may
weigh up to 8,000 pounds. These experiments help scientists study Earth and space. Airplanes
usually fly 5 to 6 miles above the ground. Science balloons fly up to 26 miles high!
Imagine you are floating over your community in a hot air balloon. How is it possible to
perform such a feat? It has to do with the gases inside and outside of the balloon. In this
chapter, you will learn about the behavior of gases and also about Earth’s atmosphere,
which consists of gases. Once you’ve read this chapter you will be able to explain why
and how a hot air balloon works.
What gases are found in Earth’s atmosphere

and where do they come from?
What laws describe the behavior of a gas?

Why does a hot air balloon float in the air?
x
Chapter 13 THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES
13.1 Gases, Pressure, and the Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet, protecting and sustaining life. It
insulates Earth so we don’t freeze at night. Earth’s atmosphere also contains the carbon dioxide
needed by plants for photosynthesis and the oxygen we need to breathe.
What’s in Earth’s atmosphere?

Earth’s atmosphere Nitrogen (N2) gas makes up about 78 percent of Earth’s atmosphere.
is 78% nitrogen Nitrogen is released into the air by volcanoes and decaying organisms and is
a vital element for living things. Protein, a substance in body tissues,
contains nitrogen. However, this nitrogen is not absorbed directly from the
air. Instead, the nitrogen is changed into nitrates (NO3) by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the soil. Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use them to make
proteins. We eat plants (especially their seeds) or meat to obtain these
proteins (Figure 13.1).
Earth’s atmosphere The second most abundant gas is oxygen (O2), which makes up 21 percent of
is 21% oxygen Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric oxygen enables us to process the fuel we
need for life. The remaining 1 percent of Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
0.93 percent argon and 0.04 percent carbon dioxide. There are also tiny
amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton, and hydrogen, which we call
trace gases.
Why Earth’s The atmosphere exists around Earth because our planet has just the right
atmosphere exists balance of mass and distance from the Sun. Scientists explain that at the time
of Earth’s formation, the heat from the Sun drove off most of the lightweight
elements such as hydrogen and helium. Earth would have remained a rocky,
airless world except that, as it cooled, earthquakes and volcanoes spewed out
heavier gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Earth’s mass gave it enough
gravitational pull that these gases stayed around. Although the planet
Mercury was formed in a similar way, its mass is too small and it is too close
to the Sun to have retained much of a layer of gas surrounding it. Venus,
Earth, and Mars, however, retained their atmospheres.
Figure 13.1: The nitrogen cycle.
296 SC.912.L.17.19-Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of use and renewal limit availability.
THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES Chapter 13
Atmospheres of Earth, Venus, and Mars

Comparing An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other body in
atmosphere - a layer of gases that
atmospheres space. The atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars were formed in similar surrounds a planet.
ways, so we might expect them to contain similar elements. Figure 13.2
compares the atmospheres of these three planets. As you can see, Earth’s
atmosphere is much different than those of Venus and Mars. Planet Major Gases in Atmosphere
Similarities between Venus and Mars show striking similarities in the makeup of their 96% 3% 0.1%
Venus and Mars atmospheres. They are mostly carbon dioxide, with a small amount of Venus N2 H2O
CO2
nitrogen. Earth, on the other hand, is very different. Ours is the only planet 0.04% 78% 21% 0.93%
with a large amount of nitrogen and oxygen, and just a tiny amount of carbon Earth CO2 N2 O2 Ar
dioxide in its atmosphere. Why is Earth so different?
95% 3% 1.6%
Mars
Life changed Earth’s Through photosynthesis, life on Earth has actually changed the planet’s CO2 N2 Ar
atmosphere atmosphere. Many forms of life use photosynthesis to obtain energy from the
Sun. This process breaks down carbon dioxide, uses carbon to build the Figure 13.2: Comparing the
atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars.
organism, and releases oxygen into the air (Figure 13.3).
Where does the When organisms die and decompose, some of the carbon from their bodies is
carbon go? released as carbon dioxide back into the air. However, if all of the carbon used
by life processes returned to Earth’s atmosphere, it would still be like that of
Venus and Mars. Instead, some of the carbon used to build living organisms
ends up staying in the ground. Earth stores carbon in several ways.
How Earth stores Many marine organisms such as microscopic
carbon phytoplankton use carbon dioxide dissolved in
seawater to form shells of calcium carbonate. A greatly
magnified picture of a coccolithophore is shown at the
left. When these organisms die, their shells sink to the
bottom of the water and stay there. The carbon doesn’t
return to the atmosphere. Huge piles of calcium
carbonate have built up over the years, creating some
of our land forms. Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) also store carbon
from decaying plants and animals in the ground. Another process stores Figure 13.3: Photosynthesis is a
process that uses carbon dioxide and
carbon in a type of rock called limestone.
produces oxygen.
SC.912.L.17.19-Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of use and renewal limit availability. 297
What is atmospheric pressure?

Air molecules exert The pressure of air molecules in the atmosphere is a result of the weight of a
atmospheric pressure - a
pressure column of air pressing down on an area. Atmospheric pressure is a measurement of the force of air
measurement of the force of air molecules per unit of area in the atmosphere molecules per unit of area in the
at a given altitude. atmosphere at a given altitude.
How we withstand At sea level, the weight of the column of air above a person is about 9,800
air pressure newtons (2,200 pounds)! This is equal to the weight of a small car
(Figure 13.4). Why aren’t we crushed by this pressure? First, there is air
inside our bodies that is pushing out with the same amount of pressure, so the
forces are balanced. Second, our skeletons are designed to withstand the
pressure of our environment.
Deep-sea animals Contrast these systems with
are adapted to live those used by deep-sea animals,
under great pressure like the deep-sea angler shown
to the right. Fish that live at a
depth of 10,000 feet are under
pressure 300 times greater than
we withstand. Instead of thick,
strong bones, deep-sea creatures
have cell membranes that
contain a material that would be
liquid at Earth’s surface. The
intense water pressure makes the
material more rigid, so that the organism’s body tissues hold their shape and
function properly. Each organism on Earth is uniquely adapted to thrive in
the pressure of its particular environment.
Figure 13.4: At sea level, the weight
of the column of air above a person is
equal to the weight of a small car.
298
Barometers and units of pressure

Barometers measure Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called a barometer
air pressure (see page 152). The oldest type of barometer is the mercury barometer
(Figure 13.5). It consists of a tube sealed at one end and partially filled with
mercury. The open end of the tube stands in a dish of mercury. As air presses
down on the mercury in the dish, it forces the liquid in the tube to rise. When
the air pressure is greater, the mercury travels farther up the tube. The air
pressure at sea level generally causes the mercury in a barometer to rise
29.92 inches (760 millimeters). Table 13.1 compares units of pressure.
Table 13.1: Units of Pressure
Unit Description Relationship Figure 13.5: A mercury barometer.
Metric unit commonly used to measure pressure of air
pascal (pa)
in a container. 1 pa = 1 N/m2
atmosphere One atmosphere is the standard air pressure at sea

level. Used by divers to compare pressure under water 1 atm = 101,325 pa
(atm)
with surface pressure.
millimeter of
Unit describing the height of a column of mercury in a
mercury
barometer. 760 mm Hg = 1 atm
(mm Hg)
pounds per
English unit commonly used to measure pressure of
square inch
air in a container, like a tire or ball. 14.7 psi = 1 atm
(psi)
millibar (mb) Metric unit used to measure atmospheric pressure. 1013.25 mb = 1 atm
Aneroid barometers Mercury barometers have a downside: Mercury is a poisonous liquid, and it
creates unhealthy vapors. You would not want to have a mercury barometer in Figure 13.6: Inside an aneroid
barometer. Letter A shows the airtight
your living room! Most barometers in use today are aneroid barometers
cylinder, to which a spring, B, is
(Figure 13.6). They have an airtight cylinder made of thin metal. The walls of attached. C is a series of levers that
the cylinder are squeezed inward when the atmospheric pressure is high. At amplify the spring’s movement. A small
lower pressures, the walls bulge out. A dial attached to the cylinder moves as chain transfers the movement to the
the cylinder changes shape, indicating the change in air pressure. pointer, D.
Atmospheric pressure and altitude

A giant pile of cotton Atmospheric pressure
(from previous page)
balls decreases as altitude
increases. Why? barometer - an instrument that
measures atmospheric pressure.
Imagine that the
molecules of the
atmosphere are like a
giant pile of cotton
balls. At the top of the
pile, the cotton balls
are loosely spread out.
But the weight of the
cotton balls at the top
presses down on the
ones underneath, and
those cotton balls
press down on the
ones below them. As a
result, the cotton balls at the bottom of the pile are packed together much
more tightly than the ones at the top.
Air pressure is A similar thing happens in the atmosphere. The molecules at the bottom are
greatest at sea level packed together more tightly, because the weight of the molecules above
presses down on them. The air pressure is greatest at sea level (the bottom of
the atmosphere). As you get farther and farther from sea level, the molecules
are more and more spread out, so there are fewer molecules above you
pushing down.
Figure 13.7 shows that as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases Figure 13.7: As altitude increases,
rapidly. At sea level, atmospheric pressure averages about 1,013 millibars. atmospheric pressure decreases.
At the top of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire (the highest point in the
northeastern United States, at 1.917 kilometers), the average atmospheric
pressure is 800.3 millibars. At the top of Mt. Everest, a height of
8.85 kilometers, atmospheric pressure averages only one-third of the
pressure found at sea level.
Section 13.1 Review

1. Earth’s atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen. Converting Units of Pressure
a. Where does nitrogen in the atmosphere come from? Convert the following units of
b. How does nitrogen from the air get into the bodies of plants and pressure. Use Table 13.1 on page
299 to find the conversion factors.
animals?
2. What is the second most abundant gas in Earth’s atmosphere? Where does 1. 2 atm = _____ mm Hg
it come from? 2. 4.5 atm = _____ pa
3. The atmospheres of Mars and Venus are mostly carbon dioxide. Earth’s 3. 35 psi = _____ atm
atmosphere contains only a fraction of a percent of carbon dioxide. Why 4. 1,850 mm Hg = _____ atm
is Earth’s atmosphere so different from those of Mars and Venus? 5. 45 psi = _____ pa
4. What is atmospheric pressure?
5. Why doesn’t Earth’s atmospheric pressure crush our bodies?
6. What is a barometer? Explain how a mercury barometer works.
7. Which statement is true about atmospheric pressure?
a. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure increases.
b. Atmospheric pressure does not change with altitude.
c. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.
d. None of the above are true.
8. Use the graph in Figure 13.7 on page 300 to estimate the following:
a. What is the atmospheric pressure at an altitude of 22 kilometers?
b. If the atmospheric pressure measures 500 millibars, what is the
altitude?
c. Mt. Rainier (Figure 13.8), in Washington state has an elevation of
about 14,000 feet. What is the atmospheric pressure at its summit?
Figure 13.8: Question 8c.
301
13.2 The Gas Laws

Gases are fluids but they are different from liquids because the molecules in a gas are completely Boyle’s law - in a fixed quantity of a
separated from each other. Because gas molecules act independently, gases are free to expand or gas, the pressure and volume are
contract. Unlike liquids, a gas will expand to completely fill its container. In this section, you will inversely related if the mass and
temperature are held constant.
learn about some laws that describe the behavior of gases.
Pressure, volume, and density

Pressure and When you squeeze a fixed quantity of gas into a smaller volume, the pressure
volume goes up (Figure 13.9). This rule is known as Boyle’s law. The pressure
increases because the same number of molecules are now squeezed into a
smaller space. The molecules hit the walls more often because there are more
of them per unit of area. The formula for Boyle’s law relates the pressure and
volume of gas. If the mass and temperature are kept constant, the product of
the pressure multiplied by the volume stays the same.
Pressure and The density of a gas usually increases when the pressure increases. (We say
density “usually” because density and pressure are also affected by temperature.) By
increasing the pressure you are doing one of two things: squeezing the same
amount of mass into a smaller volume, or squeezing more mass into the same
volume. Either way, the density goes up. For example, air has a density of Figure 13.9: Compressing the
0.0009 g/cm3 at atmospheric pressure. When compressed in a diving tank to volume of air to increase the pressure.
150 times higher pressure, the density is about 0.135 g/cm3. The density of a
gas can vary from near zero (in outer space) to greater than the density of
some solids. This is very different from the behavior of liquids or solids.
302 SC.912.P.12.10-Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Boyle’s law graph The relationship between pressure and volume for a gas, when temperature
remains constant, is evident in the graph in Figure 13.10. The example below Volume vs. Pressure
shows you how to solve problems using Boyle’s law. 60
50
Solving Problems: Boyle’s Law
40
Volume (L)
A kit used to fix flat tires consists of an aerosol can containing compressed air 30
and a patch to seal the hole in the tire. Suppose 5 liters of air at atmospheric
pressure (1 atm) is compressed into a 0.5 liter aerosol can. What is the pressure 20
of the compressed air in the can? Assume no change in temperature or mass. 10

1. Looking for: You are looking for the pressure inside of an aerosol can.
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
2. Given: You are given initial volume (in liters), initial pressure (in atmospheres), and Pressure (Pa)
final volume.
Figure 13.10: This graph shows the
3. Relationships: Use Boyle’s law, P1V1 = P2V2; rearrange variables to solve for P2: relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas when the temperature
P1 × V1
P2 = does not change.
V2
4. Solution: Plug in the numbers and solve:

1 atm × 5.0 L
P2 = = 10 atm
0.5 L
Your turn...
a. A total of 0.50 L of O2 is collected at a pressure of 300 mm Hg. What
a. 0.20 L
volume will this gas occupy at sea level (760 mm Hg) at constant
temperature and mass? b. 1.3 L
b. A total of 1.0 L of helium is stored at sea level (1013 mb). If the gas is
carried to the top of Mt. Washington (pressure = 800 mb), what volume
will it occupy at constant temperature and mass?
Pressure and temperature

Pressure and The pressure of a gas is affected by temperature changes. If the mass and
temperature volume are kept constant, the pressure goes up when the temperature goes
up, and the pressure goes down when the temperature goes down.
Why temperature Pressure changes with temperature because the average kinetic energy of
affects pressure moving molecules is proportional to temperature. Hot molecules move faster
than cold molecules. Faster molecules exert more force when they bounce
off each other and off the walls of their container (Figure 13.11).
Gay-Lussac’s law The mathematical relationship between the temperature and pressure of a gas
at constant volume and mass was discovered by Joseph Gay-Lussac in 1802.
PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP
P1
Initial pressure P2 New pressure
Initial temperature (K) T

= Figure 13.11: Faster molecules
1
T2 New temperature
create higher pressure because they exert
Volume and mass remain constant larger forces as they collide with the
sides of the container.
Use Kelvins for Any time you see a temperature in a formula in this section about gases, the
problems related to temperature must be in Kelvins. This is because only the Kelvin scale starts
gas from absolute zero. A temperature in Kelvins expresses the true thermal
energy of the gas above zero thermal energy. A temperature in Celsius
measures only the relative energy, relative to zero Celsius. Remember,
temperature must be in Kelvins for problems related to the law of gases!
Kelvin temperature The Kelvin temperature scale starts at absolute zero. Add 273 to the
scale temperature in Celsius to get the temperature in Kelvins (Figure 13.12). For
example, a temperature of 21°C is equal to 294 K (21 + 273).
Figure 13.12: To convert degrees
Celsius to Kelvins, simply add 273 to the
Celsius temperature.
Buoyancy, volume, and temperature

Sinking in a gas Like water, gases can create buoyancy forces. Because gas can flow and has a
Charles’s law - at constant
very low density, objects of higher density sink quickly. For example, if you pressure and mass, the volume of a
drop a penny, it drops through the air quite easily. This is because the density gas increases with increasing
of a penny is 9,000 times greater than the density of air. temperature and decreases with
decreasing temperature.
Floating in a gas Objects of lower density can float on gas of higher density. A hot air balloon
floats because it is less dense than the surrounding air. What makes the air
inside the balloon less dense? The word “hot” is an important clue. To get
their balloons to fly, balloonists use a torch to heat the air inside the balloon.
The heated air in the balloon expands and lowers the overall density of the
balloon to less than the density of the surrounding cooler air (Figure 13.13).
Charles’s law The balloon example illustrates an important relationship, known as
Charles’s law, discovered by Jacques Charles in 1787. According to
Charles’s law, the volume of a gas increases with increasing temperature. The
volume decreases with decreasing temperature.
Pressure and mass remain constant

Figure 13.13: A hot air balloon
floats because the air inside is less dense
The buoyancy of hot Charles’s law explains why the air inside the balloon becomes less dense than than the air outside.
air the air outside the balloon. The volume increases as the temperature
increases. Since there is the same total mass of air inside, the density
decreases and the balloon floats. Stated another way, the weight of the air
displaced by the balloon provides buoyant force to keep the balloon in flight.
SC.912.N.1.6-Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and provide examples from the content being studied. 305
SC.912.P.12.10-Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Solving Problems: More Gas Laws
A can of hair spray has a pressure of 300 psi at room temperature (21°C). The
can is accidentally moved too close to a fire and its temperature increases to
295°C. What is the final pressure in the can (rounded to the nearest whole
number)?
1. Looking for: You are asked for final pressure in psi.
2. Given: You are given initial pressure in psi, and initial and final temperatures in °C.
3. Relationships: Convert temperatures to K: °C + 273
Apply the pressure–temperature relationship: P1 ÷ T1 = P2 ÷ T2
4. Solution: Convert °C to K: 21°C + 273 = 294 K and 295°C + 273 = 568 K
Rearrange variables and solve:
P2 = (P1 × T2) ÷ T1 = (300 psi × 568 K) ÷ 294 K = 580 psi.
Note: This is why you should NEVER put spray cans near heat
(Figure 13.14). The pressure can increase so much that the can explodes! Figure 13.14: NEVER put spray
cans near heat!
Your turn...
a. A balloon filled with helium has a volume of 0.50 m3 at 21°C. Assuming
the pressure and mass remain constant, what volume will the balloon
occupy at 0°C?
b. A tire contains 255 in3 of air at a temperature of 28°C. If the temperature a. 0.46 m3
drops to 1°C, what volume will the air in the tire occupy? Assume no b. 232 in3
change in pressure or mass.
c. 2.8 atm
c. A gas in a container has a pressure of 3 atm at 21°C. What will the
pressure be if the temperature drops to 5°C? Assume constant volume
and mass.
Section 13.2 Review

1. Boyle’s law states that if you squeeze a fixed amount of a gas into a
smaller volume, the pressure will increase. Explain why in your Divers get “the bends” if they come up
own words. too fast during a dive. This is because
2. Which statement is true: gas in their blood expands, forming
bubbles in their blood. If a diver has
a. When the pressure of a gas increases, its density decreases. 0.03 L of gas in her blood under a
b. Generally, the density of a gas increases with an increase in pressure. pressure of 190 atm, then rises fast to
c. The density of a gas is not related to pressure. a depth where the pressure is 50 atm,
what will the volume of gas in her blood
3. Atmospheric pressure at the top of Mt. Everest is about 150 mm Hg. That be? Do you think this will harm the
is why climbers always bring oxygen tanks. If a climber carries a diver? Explain your answer.
12.0 liter tank with a pressure of 35,000 mm Hg, what volume will the
gas occupy if it is released at the top of Mt. Everest?
4. If the mass and volume are kept constant, what happens to the pressure of
a gas if the temperature goes up?
5. Explain why pressure changes with temperature.
6. Average human body temperature is 98.6°F. What is average human body
temperature in Kelvins?
7. A helium balloon has a pressure of 40 psi at 20°C. What will the pressure
be at 40°C? Assume constant volume and mass.
8. If mass and pressure are constant, what is the relationship between
temperature and volume?
9. Charles’s law deals with what quantities?
a. pressure and temperature
b. pressure and volume
c. volume and temperature
d. volume, temperature, and pressure
10. A balloon has a volume of 0.5 L at 20°C. What will the volume be if the
balloon is heated to 150°C? Assume constant pressure and mass.
SC.912.P.12.10-Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory. 307
AERONAUTICS8CONNECTION
Chapter 13
Up, Up, and Away Bernoulli’s principle explains that the energy of any sample of fluid,
like air, must remain constant while it is moving. If one variable,
On the “Wings” of such as speed, is increased then another variable, such as pressure,
must decrease in order for the energy to remain constant. Due to
Air Pressure the curved shape of an airplane wing, the air that flows over it
during flight will have a longer distance to travel than the air that
flows beneath it. The speed of the air flowing above the wing will
Imagine you’re traveling by airplane across the country. You’re settled
be higher than the air flowing below it. Therefore, the air pressure
comfortably in your seat, a small pillow above the wing will be lower than the pressure below the wing.
tucked behind your head, a cold drink in This differential in air pressure is what generates lift and holds the
your hand, ready to relax. Before the movie wing aloft.
begins, you take the opportunity to peer
out the window. Suddenly you realize: I am Flight Instruments and Air Pressure
hurtling through the air at over 500 miles per
Air pressure is also essential to the function of several flight
hour, 30,000 feet above the ground, with instruments in an airplane. These instruments are all applications
only the structure of this plane around me! of Boyle’s law. Boyle’s law states that for a fixed quantity of a gas,
the pressure and volume are inversely related. If the volume of a
Just how does an airplane stay in the air? Would you be surprised to know gas decreases, its molecules will collide more rapidly, causing the
that something as simple as air itself makes flight possible? In fact, it is the pressure to increase. Conversely, when the volume of a gas expands,
behavior of air, specifically when it acts as a force called air pressure, which its pressure decreases, due to less frequent molecular collisions.
enables airplanes to do many different things.
Altitude is the measure of the height of an airplane above a
Airplanes use air pressure in many different ways. Air pressure is given level. An altimeter is an instrument that measures altitude.
used to keep an aircraft in the air as well as to propel it forward. Essentially, an altimeter is an aneroid barometer linked to an
Flight instruments use air pressure to measure altitude, air speed, indicator which points to measurements on a scale in feet. The air at
and vertical speed. Finally, a pressurized airplane uses air pressure to Earth’s surface is more dense, so the air
maintain appropriate pressure for human survival in its cabin. pressure decreases as altitude increases.
The partial vacuum inside a sealed case
in the altimeter expands or contracts
Airfoils, Lift, and Thrust
with changes in atmospheric pressure,
An airplane has shapes, mechanically moving the indicator
called airfoils, which are to show altitude on the dial. As
designed specifically to an airplane ascends, decreased
perform in certain ways as pressure causes the altimeter to
the plane moves through indicate increased altitude. As a plane
the air. Airplane wings, tail descends, increased pressure causes the
surfaces, and propellers are altimeter to indicate decreased altitude.
all airfoils. The essential
upward force that acts on
The altimeter shows the plane’s cruising
an airfoil moving through altitude of 8,000 feet.
the air is called lift. Lift is
created by changes in the air pressure surrounding an airfoil.
SC.912.N.4.1–Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based perspective to inform society’s decision making.
308 SC.912.P.12.10–Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
AERONAUTICS8CONNECTION
Chapter 13
Why Do Your Ears “Pop”? Cabin Pressure
When your ears pop in a descending airplane, One other use of air pressure
they are acting just like an altimeter! As the air in aviation is in a pressurized
pressure outside your body increases, the volume airplane. At altitudes above
of air behind your eardrums decrease and you 10,000 feet, the decreased air
feel as though your ears are blocked. Your body pressure makes it difficult for
then works to open an airway to equalize the the human body to process
pressure on both sides of your eardrums. When oxygen. This can lead to loss of
this happens, you feel a “pop” and relief from consciousness or even death. To
the blockage. solve this problem, air is pumped
into the cabin of the airplane.
An airplane also uses air pressure This compresses the air in the
to determine how fast it is moving, cabin, thus increasing the air
for both its forward and vertical pressure, which allows pilots
speed. A vertical speed indicator is and passengers to fly safely at
an instrument that shows whether higher altitudes.
an airplane is climbing, descending,
or in level flight. It is made up It’s amazing to think how the behavior of just one gas, air, plays
of a diaphragm in a sealed case such a significant role in aviation! Without the understanding of
that is linked to an indicator. As air pressure and its applications, inventors could not have made
the airplane moves upward or airplane flight possible for us. Thanks to Bernoulli, Boyle, and other
downward, the pressure in the scientists we now can soar over Earth on the “wings” of air pressure.
diaphragm changes more quickly
The vertical speed indicator shows
than the pressure in the case,
that this plane is ascending at a rate
causing the diaphragm to expand or of 500 feet per minute.
contract, moving the indicator to show a Questions:
climb, descent, or level flight. 1. How does Bernoulli’s principle explain how lift is generated?
The airspeed indicator is yet another sensitive 2. Explain how an altimeter uses air pressure to
pressure gauge used in an airplane. It is measure altitude.
part of a larger system called the pitot-
static system. This system uses two 3. Prepare a report (written or oral) on the contributions of an
types of pressure, pitot (impact) and aviation pioneer. Research this individual’s life and work,
static, to take measurements. When an specifically looking for examples of how he or she applied
airplane is moving through the air, the an understanding of science to aviation.
impact pressure is greater than the static
pressure. The airspeed indicator measures
Flight instrument photos and airplane photo courtesy of Michail Sheen.
this difference and moves the pointer on
the instrument to show the speed of the
According to the airspeed airplane in miles per hour or nautical miles per
indicator, this plane is hour (knots).
traveling at 100 knots.
SC.912.P.12.10–Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory. 309
Vocabulary 5. Which statement is true?
a. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is greater than
the atmospheric pressure at the top of Mt. Everest.
atmospheric pressure barometer atmosphere
b. Atmospheric pressure increases with altitude.
Charles’s law Boyle’s law
c. Atmospheric pressure is not related to altitude.
Section 13.1 d. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
1. The layer of gases surrounding a planet is called its _____. e. Statements a and d are true.
2. _____ is a measurement of the force of air molecules in the Section 13.2
atmosphere at a given altitude. 6. What does Boyle’s law say about the relationship between
3. An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is the pressure and volume of a gas at constant mass
called a(n) _____. and temperature?
Section 13.2 7. What does Charles’s law say about the relationship between
the volume and temperature of a gas at constant pressure
4. _____ describes the relationship between the pressure and
and mass?
volume of a gas when temperature and mass are constant.
8. How is the pressure of a gas affected by temperature
5. _____ describes the relationship between the volume and
changes? Assume no change in volume or mass in
temperature of a gas when pressure and mass are constant.
your explanation.
Concepts 9. Explain how the density of a gas is different from the

density of a liquid.
Section 13.1
10. Explain, using what you have learned in this chapter, why it
1. What gases are found in Earth’s atmosphere? How has life
is not wise to place an aerosol can near a heat source.
on Earth changed Earth’s atmosphere?
11. A hot air balloon floats because:
2. Explain how Earth’s atmosphere formed.
a. The heated air inside the balloon becomes less dense
3. What is atmospheric pressure? Explain how our bodies are than the air outside of the balloon.
adapted to survive Earth’s atmospheric pressure. b. The weight of the air displaced by the balloon provides
4. How does a mercury barometer measure atmospheric buoyant force to keep the balloon in flight.
pressure? What is atmospheric pressure at sea level on a c. Both statements are true.
mercury barometer? d. Neither statement is true.
310
Problems Applying Your Knowledge

1. Would you expect a barometer to have a higher reading in 1. Find out the atmospheric pressure for today. You can find
Alaska’s Denali national park or in Florida’s Everglades this value by listening to a local TV weather report or by
national park? (Hint: An atlas may help you.) going to a weather website on the Internet. Convert this
2. Convert the following barometric readings to pressure reading so that you have the value in inches of
atmospheres (atm): mercury, atmospheres, and in millibars.
a. 1,890 mm Hg 2. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of layers. Find out why

b. 306,000 pa there are layers and the names of each layer.
c. 100 psi Section 13.2
d. 5,000 mb 3. Describe how your body makes use of Boyle’s law in order
Section 13.2 to breathe.
3. A total of 1.00 L of helium at 1 atm is compressed to 350 mL. 4. SCUBA stands for self-
What is the new pressure of the gas? Assume that contained underwater
temperature and mass are constant. breathing apparatus. A
number of inventors have
4. A total of 5.00 L of oxygen is pumped from a tank with a
contributed to developing
pressure of 20 atm into another tank. The new pressure is
the technology for scuba
80 atm. What is the new volume of the oxygen? Assume that
diving. The invention of
temperature and mass are constant.
the aqualung by Jacques-
5. A tank of helium is stored at 273 K and 10 atm of pressure. Yves Cousteau and Emile
The tank is moved into a room at 293 K. What is the new Gagnan in 1943 made
pressure of the helium? Assume no change in volume scuba diving available to anyone who wanted to do
or mass. underwater exploring. A standard sized scuba tank is filled
6. At 225°C, a gas has a volume of 350 mL. What is the volume with the equivalent of 80 cubic feet of air at 1 atm
of this gas at 120°C? Assume constant pressure and mass. compressed into a 0.39-cubic-foot space. What is the
pressure within the tank, in psi?
7. At 210°C, a gas has a volume of 7.5 L. What is the volume of
this gas at –20.0°C? Assume constant pressure and mass. 5. Decompression sickness, also known as the bends can
happen when a diver surfaces too quickly. Research
8. A 7.25 L sample of nitrogen is heated from 80.5°C to
decompression sickness. What are some other situations
86.0°C. Find its new volume if the pressure and mass
where it can occur? What happens inside the body? How is it
remain constant.
treated? Prepare a pamphlet explaining the condition.
Unit 5
Atoms, Elements,
and Compounds
CHAPTER 14 Atoms
CHAPTER 15 Elements and the

Periodic Table
CHAPTER 16 Compounds
You know that your food contains

“nutrients,” but did you ever stop to think
about what those “nutrients” are? Take some
packages of food and the periodic table of elements in your book and
compare them. Do you see the names of any elements in the list of
food ingredients? Do you see any elements listed on the nutrition
label? What about parts of words that look or sound similar to the
names of any elements? Are you surprised at what you find?
Chapter 14
Atoms
Have you ever seen fireflies on a warm summer night? These amazing
creatures use a process called bioluminescence (bio means “living” and
luminesce means “to glow”) to create light signals to attract a mate. A firefly
has special light-emitting organs in its abdomen where a chemical reaction takes place, causing
the emission of light. Each species of firefly has a unique flashing pattern that they use to
locate other members of the same species. Bioluminescence is a very efficient process.
About 90 percent of the energy used by a firefly to create light is transformed into visible light.
Contrast that with an incandescent light bulb that converts only ten percent of its energy into
visible light.
There are many other examples of bioluminescent creatures on land and in the sea. How does
bioluminescence work? It has to do with atoms! After reading this chapter on atoms, you can
read about how living things produce light in the chapter Connection.
What is the structure of an atom?

What holds an atom together?
What does light have to do with atoms?
Chapter 14 ATOMS
14.1 The Structure of the Atom

Scientists once believed atoms were the smallest particles of matter. With the advancement of electric charge - a fundamental
technology, it became clear that atoms themselves are made of simpler particles. Today, we property of matter that can be either
believe atoms are made of three basic particles: the proton, electron, and neutron. It’s amazing that positive or negative.
the incredible variety of matter around us can all be built from just three subatomic particles! elementary charge - the smallest
unit of electric charge that is possible
Electric charge in ordinary matter; represented by the
lowercase letter e.
Electric charge is a In order to understand atoms, we need to understand the idea of electric
property of matter charge. Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that can be
either positive or negative. One of the two forces that hold atoms together
comes from electric charge.
Positive and There are two different kinds of electric charge—positive and negative.
negative Because there are two kinds of charge, the force between electric charges can
be either attractive or repulsive.
• A positive and a negative charge will attract

each other.
• Two positive charges will repel each other.
• Two negative charges will also repel each
other.
The elementary Scientists use the letter e to represent the elementary charge. At the size of
charge atoms, electric charge always comes in units of +e or –e. It is only possible to Figure 14.1: Just as normal matter
have charges that are multiples of e, such as +e, +2e, –e, –2e, –3e, and so on. is divided into atoms, electric charge
Scientists believe it is impossible for ordinary matter to have charges that are appears only in whole units of the
fractions of e. For example, a charge of +0.5e is impossible in ordinary elementary charge, e.
matter. Electric charge only appears in whole units of the elementary charge
(Figure 14.1).
314
ATOMS Chapter 14
Inside an atom: Solving the puzzle

The electron The first strong evidence that something smaller than an atom existed was
electron - a particle with an electric
identified found in 1897. English physicist J. J. Thomson discovered that electricity charge (–e) found inside of atoms but
passing through a gas caused the gas to give off particles that were too small outside the nucleus.
to be atoms. The new particles had negative electric charge. Atoms have zero nucleus - the tiny core at the
charge. Thomson’s particles are now known as electrons. Electrons were the center of an atom containing most
first particles discovered that are smaller than atoms. of the atom’s mass and all of its
positive charge.
An early model of an Thomson proposed that negative electrons were
atom sprinkled around inside atoms like raisins in a loaf of
raisin bread. The “bread” was positively charged and the
electrons were negatively charged. This was the first real
model for the inside of an atom. As it soon turned out, it
was not the right model, but it was a good place to start.
Testing the model In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger, and Ernest Marsden did an
with an experiment experiment to test Thomson’s model of the atom. They launched
positively-charged helium ions (a charged atom is an ion) at a very thin gold
foil (Figure 14.2). They expected most of the helium ions to be deflected a
little as they plowed through the gold atoms.
An unexpected They found something quite unexpected. Most of the helium ions passed right
result! through the foil with no deflection at all. Even more surprising—a few
bounced back in the direction they came! This unexpected result prompted
Rutherford to remark, “It was as if you fired a fifteen-inch (artillery) shell at a
piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you!”
The nuclear model of The best way to explain the pass-through result was if a gold atom was mostly
the atom empty space. If most of the helium ions hit nothing, they wouldn’t be Figure 14.2: Rutherford’s famous
deflected. The best way to explain the bounce-back result was if nearly all the experiment led to the discovery of
mass of a gold atom were concentrated in a tiny, dense core at the center. the nucleus.
Further experiments confirmed Rutherford’s idea about this dense core. We
now know that every atom has a tiny nucleus, which contains more than
99 percent of the atom’s mass.
SC.912.N.2.5-Describe instances in which scientists' varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations...
Chapter 14 ATOMS
Three particles make up all atoms

Protons and Today we know that the nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.
proton - a particle found in the
neutrons Protons have positive charge, opposite of electrons. The charge on a proton nucleus with a positive charge exactly
(+e) and an electron (–e) are exactly equal and opposite. Neutrons have equal and opposite to the electron.
zero electric charge. neutron - a particle found in the
The nucleus Protons and neutrons are much more nucleus with mass similar to the
contains most of the proton but with zero electric charge.
massive than electrons. A proton has
mass 1,836 times as much mass as an
electron. A neutron has about the
same mass as a proton. The chart
below compares electrons, protons,
and neutrons in terms of charge and
mass. Because protons and neutrons
have so much more mass, more than
99% of an atom’s mass is in the
nucleus.
Electrons define the Electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus in a region called the electron
volume of an atom cloud. The diameter of an atom is really the diameter of the electron cloud
(Figure 14.3). Compared to the tiny nucleus, the electron cloud is enormous, Figure 14.3: The overall size of an
more than 10,000 times larger than the nucleus. As a comparison, if an atom atom is the size of its electron cloud. The
nucleus is much, much smaller.
were the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be the size of a pea,
and the electrons would be equivalent to a small swarm of gnats buzzing
around the stadium at an extremely high speed. Can you imagine how much
empty space there would be in the stadium? An atom is mostly empty space!
316 SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these
particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within.
ATOMS Chapter 14
Forces inside atoms

Electromagnetic Electrons are bound to the nucleus by the attractive force between
forces electrons (–) and protons (+). The electrons don’t fall into the nucleus because
they have kinetic energy, or momentum. The energy of an electron causes it to
move around the nucleus instead of falling in (Figure 14.4). A good analogy
is Earth orbiting the Sun. Gravity creates a force that pulls Earth toward the
Sun. Earth’s kinetic energy causes it to orbit the Sun rather than fall straight
in. While electrons don’t really move in orbits, the energy analogy is
approximately right.
Strong nuclear force Because of electric force, all the positively charged protons in the nucleus
repel each other. So, what holds the nucleus together? There is another force
that is even stronger than the electric force. We call it the strong nuclear force. Figure 14.4: The negative electrons
are attracted to the positive protons in
The strong nuclear force is the strongest force known to science (Figure 14.5). the nucleus, but their momentum keeps
This force attracts neutrons and protons to each other and works only at the them from falling in.
extremely small distances inside the nucleus. If there are enough neutrons, the
attraction from the strong nuclear force wins out over repulsion from the
electromagnetic force and the nucleus stays together. In every atom heavier
than helium, there is at least one neutron for every proton in the nucleus.
Weak force There is another nuclear force called the weak force. The weak force is
weaker than both the electric force and the strong nuclear force. If you leave a
single neutron outside the nucleus, the weak force eventually causes it to
break down into a proton and an electron. The weak force does not play an
important role in a stable atom, but comes into action in certain special cases
when atoms break apart.
Gravity The force of gravity inside the atom is much weaker than even the weak force.
It takes a relatively large mass to create enough gravity to make a significant
force. We know that particles inside an atom do not have enough mass for
gravity to be an important force on the scale of atoms. But there are many Figure 14.5: When enough neutrons
are present, the strong nuclear force
unanswered questions. Understanding how gravity works inside atoms is an wins out over the repulsion between
unsolved scientific mystery. positively charged protons and pulls the
nucleus together tightly. The strong
nuclear force is the strongest known
force in the universe.
SC.912.P.10.10-Compare the magnitude and range of the four fundamental forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear). 317
Chapter 14 ATOMS
How atoms of various elements are different

The atomic number How is an atom of one element different from an atom of another element?
atomic number - the number of
is the number of The atoms of different elements contain varying numbers of protons in the protons in the nucleus of an atom. The
protons nucleus. For example, all atoms of carbon have six protons in the nucleus atomic number determines what
and all atoms of hydrogen have one proton in the nucleus (Figure 14.6). element the atom represents.
Because the number of protons is so important, it is called the atomic
number. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus of every atom of that element.
Elements have Each element has a unique atomic
unique atomic number. On a periodic table of
numbers elements, the atomic number is usually
written above or below the atomic
symbol. An atom with only one proton
in its nucleus is the element hydrogen,
atomic number 1. An atom with six
protons is the element carbon, atomic
number 6. Atoms with seven protons
are nitrogen, atoms with eight protons
are oxygen, and so on.
Complete atoms are Because protons and electrons attract each other with very large forces, the
electrically neutral number of protons and electrons in a complete atom is always equal. For
example, hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus and one electron outside the
nucleus. The net electric charge of a hydrogen atom is zero because the
negative charge of the electron cancels the positive charge of the proton.
Each carbon atom has six electrons, one for each of carbon’s six protons.
Like hydrogen, a complete carbon atom is electrically neutral.
Ions Ions are atoms that have a different number of protons than electrons and so
have a net electric charge. Positively charged ions have more protons than Figure 14.6: Atoms of the same
electrons. Negatively charged ions have more electrons than protons.You element always have the same number
will read more about ions in Chapter 16. of protons in the nucleus.
318 SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these
particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within.
SC.912.P.8.5-Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the arrangement of their electrons.
ATOMS Chapter 14
Isotopes
Isotopes All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the
isotopes - atoms of the same
nucleus. However, atoms of the same element may have different numbers of element that have different numbers
neutrons in the nucleus. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have of neutrons in the nucleus.
different numbers of neutrons. mass number - the number of
The isotopes of Figure 14.7 shows three isotopes of carbon that exist in nature. Most carbon protons plus the number of neutrons
carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in the nucleus. However, some in the nucleus.
carbon atoms have seven or eight neutrons. They are all carbon atoms because
they all contain six protons, but they are different isotopes of carbon. The
isotopes of carbon are called carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. The
number after the name is called the mass number. The mass number of an
isotope tells you the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.
Solving Problems: Isotopes

How many neutrons are present in an aluminum atom that has an atomic
number of 13 and a mass number of 27?
1. Looking for: You are asked to find the number of neutrons.
2. Given: You are given the atomic number and the mass number.
3. Relationships: Use the relationship: protons + neutrons = mass number.
4. Solution: Plug in and solve: 13 + x = 27; x = 14
The aluminum atom has 14 neutrons. Figure 14.7: The isotopes of carbon.
Your turn...
a. How many neutrons are present in a magnesium atom with a mass number
a. 12
of 24?
b. 20
b. Find the number of neutrons in a calcium atom that has a mass number of
40.
319
Chapter 14 ATOMS
Radioactivity
What if there are Almost all elements have one or more isotopes that are stable. Stable means
stable - a nucleus is stable if it stays
too many neutrons? the nucleus stays together. For complex reasons, the nucleus of an atom together.
becomes unstable if it contains too many or too few neutrons relative to the
radioactive - a nucleus is
number of protons. If the nucleus is unstable, it breaks apart. Carbon has two radioactive if it spontaneously breaks
stable isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-13. Carbon-14 is radioactive because up, emitting particles or energy in the
it has an unstable nucleus. An atom of carbon-14 eventually changes into an process.
atom of nitrogen-14.
Radioactivity If an atomic nucleus is unstable for any reason, the atom eventually changes
into a more stable form. Radioactivity is a process in which the nucleus
spontaneously emits particles or energy as it changes into a more stable
isotope. Radioactivity can change one element into a completely different
element.
Alpha decay When alpha decay occurs, the nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons
(Figure 14.8). Check the periodic table and you can quickly find that two
protons and two neutrons are the nucleus of a helium-4 (He-4) atom. Alpha
radiation is actually fast-moving He-4 nuclei. When alpha decay occurs, the
atomic number is reduced by two because two protons are removed. The
atomic mass is reduced by four because two neutrons go along with the two
protons. For example, uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay to become
thorium-234.
Beta decay Beta decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus splits into a proton and an
electron. The proton stays in the nucleus, but the high energy electron is
ejected (this is called beta radiation). During beta decay, the atomic number
increases by one because one new proton is created. The mass number stays
the same because the atom lost a neutron but gained a proton.
Gamma decay Gamma decay is how the nucleus gets rid of excess energy. In gamma decay,
the nucleus emits pure energy in the form of gamma rays. The number of
protons and neutrons stays the same. Figure 14.8: Two common
radioactive decay reactions.
320 SC.912.P.10.11-Explain and compare nuclear reactions (radioactive decay, fission and fusion), the energy changes associated with them and their associated safety issues.
SC.912.P.10.12-Differentiate between chemical and nuclear reactions.
ATOMS Chapter 14
Section 14.1 Review

1. Which of the following statements regarding electric charge is TRUE?
a. A positive charge repels a negative charge and attracts other positive
charges.
b. A positive charge attracts a negative charge and repels other positive
charges.
2. Is electric charge a property of just electricity or is charge a property of all
atoms?
3. Which of the drawings in Figure 14.9 is the most accurate model of the
interior of an atom?
4. There are four forces in nature. Name the four forces and rank them from
strongest to weakest.
5. There are three particles inside an atom. One of them has zero electric
charge. Which one is it? Figure 14.9: Question 3.
6. All atoms of the same element have (choose one):
a. the same number of neutrons
b. the same number of protons
c. the same mass
7. The atomic number is:
a. the number of protons in the nucleus
b. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
c. the number of neutrons plus protons
8. The diagram in Figure 14.10 shows three isotopes of the element carbon.
Which one is radioactive?
9. Radioactive means:
a. an atom gives off radio waves
b. the nucleus of an atom is unstable and will eventually change Figure 14.10: Question 8.
c. the electrons in an atom have too much energy
321
Chapter 14 ATOMS
14.2 Electrons
Atoms interact with each other through their electrons. This is why almost all the properties of the spectrum - the characteristic colors
elements (except mass) are due to electrons. Chemical bonds involve only electrons, so electrons of light given off or absorbed by an
determine how atoms combine into compounds. We find a rich variety of matter because electrons element.
inside atoms are organized in unusual and complex patterns. Exactly how electrons create the spectral line - a bright, colored line
properties of matter was a puzzle that took bright scientists a long time to figure out! in a spectroscope.
spectroscope - an instrument that
The spectrum separates light into a spectrum.
The spectrum is a Almost all the light you see comes from atoms. For example, light is given
pattern of colors off when electricity passes through the gas in a fluorescent bulb or a neon
sign. When scientists look carefully at the light given off by a pure element,
they find that the light does not include all colors. Instead, they see a few
very specific colors, and the colors are different for different elements
(Figure 14.11). Hydrogen has a red line, a green line, a blue, and a violet line
in a characteristic pattern. Helium and lithium have different colors and
patterns. Each different element has its own characteristic pattern of colors
called a spectrum. The colors of clothes, paint, and everything else around
you come from this property of elements that allows them to emit or absorb
light of only certain colors.
Spectroscopes and Each individual color in a spectrum is called a spectral line because each
spectral lines color appears as a line in a spectroscope. A spectroscope is a device
that separates light into its different colors. The illustration below shows a
spectroscope made with a prism. The spectral lines appear on the screen at Figure 14.11: When light from
energized atoms is directed through a
the far right. prism, spectral lines are observed. Each
element has its own distinct pattern of
spectral lines.
322 SC.912.P.10.18-Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy, and relate them
to phenomena and applications.
ATOMS Chapter 14
The Bohr model of the atom

Energy and color Light is a form of pure energy that comes in tiny bundles called photons. A
energy level - one of the discrete
photon is the smallest possible quantity of light energy. The amount of energy allowed energies for electrons in an
in a photon determines the color of the light. Red light has lower energy and atom.
blue light has higher energy. Green and yellow light have energy between red
and blue. The fact that atoms only emit certain colors of light tells us that
something inside an atom can only have certain values of energy.
Neils Bohr Danish physicist Neils Bohr (1885 - 1962) proposed the concept of energy
levels to explain the spectrum of hydrogen. In Bohr’s model, the electron in a
hydrogen atom must be in a specific energy level. You can think of energy
levels like steps on a staircase. You can be on one step or another, but you
cannot be between steps except in passing. Electrons must be in one energy
level or another and cannot remain in between energy levels. Electrons
change energy levels by absorbing or emitting light (Figure 14.12).
Explaining the When an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower one, the atom
spectrum gives up the energy difference between the two levels. The energy comes out
as different colors of light. The specific colors of the spectral lines correspond
to the differences in energy between the energy levels. The diagram below
shows how the spectral lines of hydrogen come from electrons falling from
the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th energy levels down to the 2nd energy level.
Figure 14.12: When the right

amount of energy is absorbed, an
electron in a hydrogen atom jumps to a
higher energy level. When the electron
falls back to the lower energy level, the
atom releases the same amount of
energy it absorbed. The energy comes
out as light of a specific color.
SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these particles in
323
Chapter 14 ATOMS
The quantum theory

Quantum versus Quantum theory says that when things get very small, like the size of an
quantum theory - the theory that
classical atom, matter and energy do not obey Newton’s laws or other laws of describes matter and energy at very
classical physics. That is, the classical laws are not obeyed in the same way small (atomic) sizes.
as with a larger object, like a baseball. According to the quantum theory, uncertainty principle - it is
when a particle (such as an electron) is confined to a small space (such as impossible to know variables
inside an atom) then the energy, momentum, and other variables of the precisely in the quantum world.
particle become restricted to certain specific values.
Everything is fuzzy A particle like a grain of sand is small, but
in the quantum you can easily imagine it has a definite shape,
world size, position, and speed. According to
quantum theory, particles the size of electrons
are fundamentally different. When you look
closely, an electron is “smeared out” into a
wave-like “cloud.”
The uncertainty The work of German physicist Werner
principle Heisenberg (1901–1976) led to Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle. According to the
uncertainty principle, in the quantum world, a
particle’s position, momentum, energy, and time can never be precisely
known at the same time. For example, if you choose to measure the location
of the electron, its momentum cannot be determined.
Understanding the The uncertainty principle arises because the quantum world is so small. To
uncertainty principle “see” an electron you have to bounce a photon of light off it, or interact with
the electron in some way (Figure 14.13). Because the electron is so small,
even a single photon moves it and changes its motion. That means the
moment you use a photon to locate an electron, you push it, so you no
longer know precisely how fast it was going. However, you know its position
at that moment in time. In fact, any process of observing in the quantum Figure 14.13: The act of observing
world changes the very system you are trying to observe. The uncertainty anything in the quantum world means
disturbing in unpredictable ways the
principle exists because measuring any variable disturbs the others in an very thing you are trying to observe.
unpredictable way.
ATOMS Chapter 14
Electrons and energy levels

The energy levels The positive nucleus attracts negative electrons like gravity attracts a ball Orbitals
are at different down a hill. The farther down the “hill” an electron slides, the less energy it The energy levels in an atom are
distances from the has. Conversely, electrons have more energy farther up the hill, and away grouped into different shapes
nucleus from the nucleus. The higher energy levels are farther from the nucleus and called orbitals.
the lower energy levels are closer.
The electron cloud While Bohr’s model of electron energy levels explained atomic spectra and
the periodic behavior of the elements, it was incomplete. Electrons are so The s-orbital is spherical and
fast and light that their exact position within an atom cannot be defined. holds two electrons. The first two
Remember, in the current model of the atom, we think of the electrons as electrons in each energy level are
moving around the nucleus in an area called an electron cloud. The energy in the s-orbital.
levels occur because electrons in the cloud are at different average distances
from the nucleus.
Rules for energy Inside an atom, electrons always obey these rules:
levels
• The energy of an electron must match one of the energy levels in the atom.
• Each energy level can hold only a certain number of electrons, and
no more.
• As electrons are added to an atom, they settle into the lowest unfilled
energy level.
Quantum mechanics Energy levels are predicted by quantum mechanics, the branch of physics that The p-orbitals hold 6 electrons
deals with the microscopic world of atoms. While quantum mechanics is and are aligned along the three
outside the scope of this book, you should know that it is a very accurate directions on a 3-D graph.
theory and it explains the characteristics of the energy levels.
Chapter 14 ATOMS
The energy levels in an atom

How electrons fill in In the Bohr model of the atom, the first energy level can accept up to
the energy levels 2 electrons. The second and third energy levels hold up to 8 electrons each.
The fourth and fifth energy levels hold up to 18 electrons each
(Figure 14.14). A good analogy is to think of the electron cloud like a
parking garage. The first level of the garage only has spaces for 2 cars, just
as the first energy level only has spaces for 2 electrons. The second and third
levels of the garage can hold 8 cars each, and the fourth and fifth levels can
each hold 18 cars. Each new car that enters the garage parks in the lowest
level with an unfilled space, just as each additional electron occupies the
lowest unfilled energy level in the atom.
How the energy The number of electrons in an atom depends on the atomic number because
levels fill the number of electrons equals the number of protons. That means each
Figure 14.14: Electrons occupy
element has a different number of electrons and therefore fills the energy energy levels around the nucleus.
levels to a different point. For example, a helium atom (He) has two The farther away an electron is from
electrons (Figure 14.15). The two electrons completely fill up the first the nucleus, the higher the energy
energy level (diagram below). The next element is lithium (Li) with three it possesses.
electrons. Since the first energy level only holds two electrons, the third
electron must go into the second energy level. The diagram shows the first
10 elements which fill the first and second energy levels.
Figure 14.15: A helium atom has two

protons in its nucleus and two electrons.
326 SC.912.P.8.5-Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the arrangement of their electrons.
ATOMS Chapter 14
Section 14.2 Review

1. The pattern of colors given off by a particular atom is called:
a. an orbital
b. an energy level
c. a spectrum
2. Which of the diagrams in Figure 14.16 corresponds to the element
lithium?
3. When an electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy
level, the atom:
a. absorbs light
b. gives off light
c. becomes a new isotope
4. Two of the energy levels can hold eight electrons each. Which energy
levels are they?
5. How many electrons can fit in the fourth energy level?
6. The element beryllium has four electrons. Which diagram in Figure 14.17
shows how beryllium’s electrons are arranged in the first four energy
levels?
7. Which two elements have electrons only in the first energy level?
a. hydrogen and lithium
b. helium and neon
c. hydrogen and helium
d. carbon and oxygen
8. On average, electrons in the fourth energy level are:
a. farther away from the nucleus than electrons in the second
energy level
b. closer to the nucleus than electrons in the second energy level Figure 14.17: Question 6.
c. about the same distance from the nucleus as electrons in the second
energy level
327
BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 14
Bioluminescence
Atoms can also use the energy How Light Sticks Work
from a chemical reaction. When
Hydrogen BEFORE
you bend a glow stick, you break Peroxide
Solution
a vial inside so that two chemicals
Glow Live!
Phenyl Oxalate Ester
and Flourescent
can combine. When they react, Dye Solution
energy is released and used to Plastic

Casing
make light.
Glass Vial
Imagine you could make your hands glow like living flashlights. No more
fumbling around for candles when the power goes out! You could read in Bioluminescence
bed all night, or get a job directing airplanes to their runways. Like a glow stick, living things AFTER
produce their own light using a
Although a glowing hand might sound like something from a science
chemical reaction. We call this
fiction movie, many living things can make their own light. On warm process bioluminescence (bio- means “living” and luminesce means
summer evenings, fireflies flash signals to attract a mate. A fungus known “to glow”). Bioluminescence is “cold light” because it doesn’t
as foxfire glows in decaying wood. While there are only a few kinds of produce a lot of heat. While it takes a lot of energy for a living
glowing creatures that live on land, about 90 percent of the animals that thing to produce light, almost 100 percent of the energy becomes
live in the deep parts of the ocean make their own light! visible light. In contrast, only 10 percent of the energy used by an
incandescent electric light bulb is converted to visible light. Ninety
percent of the energy is lost as heat.
How Do They Do That?
Almost everything that creates The Chemical Reaction
light is made of atoms. If
an atom absorbs energy, an Three ingredients are usually needed for a bioluminescent reaction
electron can move to a higher to occur: an organic chemical known as luciferin, a source of oxygen,
energy level. When the electron and an enzyme called luciferase. Luciferin in a firefly is not exactly
moves back down to its original the same as the luciferin in foxfire fungus. However, both luciferin
energy level, the atom may give chemicals are carbon based and have the ability to give off light
off visible light. under certain conditions.
Atoms can absorb energy from

a number of sources. Electrical
Firefly Light
energy is used ito light ordinary In a firefly, luciferin and luciferase are
light bulbs. Mechanical energy stored in special cells in the abdomen called
can be used, too. Hit two quartz photocytes. To create light, fireflies push
rocks together in a dark room, oxygen into the photocytes. When the
and you’ll see flashes of light as luciferin and luciferase are exposed to oxygen,
the energized electrons fall back they combine with ATP (a chemical source
down to lower energy levels. of energy) and magnesium. This chemical
reaction drives some of the luciferin electrons
into a higher energy state. As they fall back down to their “ground
state,” energy is given off in the form of visible light.
SC.912.P.8.4–Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these
328 particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within.
BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 14
Why Make Light? Comb jellies can produce bright
Living creatures don’t have an endless supply of energy. Since it flashes of light to startle a predator.
takes a lot of energy to make light, there must be good reasons for This photo set (right) shows the
doing it. comb jelly’s bioluminescence. When
threatened, some comb jellies release
Fireflies flash their lights in patterns to attract a mate. The lights a cloud of bioluminescent particles
also warn predators to stay away, because the light-producing into the water, temporarily blinding
chemicals taste bitter. Light can also be used as a distress signal, the attacker.
warning others of their species that there is danger nearby. The
female of one firefly species has learned to mimic the signal of other So far, we know that living creatures
types of fireflies. She uses her light to attract males of other species use bioluminescence to attract mates,
and then she eats them! to communicate, to find food, and
to ward off attackers. Perhaps
It’s a little harder to figure out someday you will be part of a
why foxfire fungus glows. Some research team that discovers even
scientists think that the glow more uses for bioluminescence.
attracts insects that help spread
the fungus spores.
Bioluminescent ocean creatures

use their lights in amazing
ways. The deep-sea angler fish
looks like it has a glowing lure Questions:
attached to its head. It is actually
a modified spine with a fleshy 1. Name three sources of energy that can be absorbed by
bulb (called an esca) at the tip. atoms to produce light. Which source is used in
Bioluminescent bacteria grow in bioluminescent organisms?
the esca, causing it to glow. When
a smaller fish comes to munch on 2. Bioluminescence is found in a wide range of living
the “lure,” it is gobbled up by the organisms, including bacteria, fungi, insects, crustaceans,
angler fish instead. and fish. However, no examples have been found among
flowering plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians, or mammals.
Comb jellies are some of Why do you think this is so?
the ocean’s most beautiful
glowing creatures. Comb jellies 3. Use the Internet or a library to find out more about
are mostly colorless, but they bioluminescent sea creatures. Here are some questions to
have iridescent plates that pursue: What is the most common color of light produced?
reflect sunlight. This picture What other colors of bioluminescence have been found?
(left) shows a comb jelly under
reflected light. You are seeing iridescence, not bioluminescence. Angler fish and comb jelly photos by Edith Widder. Fungus photos by Garth Fletcher.
LA.910.4.2.2–The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing
sources of information.
SC.912.N.1.4–Identify sources of information and assess their reliability according to the strict standards of scientific investigation. 329
Chapter 14 ATOMS
Vocabulary 11. A bright colored line produced by a spectroscope is a(n) ____.
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. 12. An instrument that is used to separate light into spectral
lines is a(n) ____.
atomic number electron elementary charge
energy level isotopes mass number
neutron nucleus spectral line
Concepts
quantum theory radioactive spectroscope Section 14.1
Section 14.1 1. Explain why Rutherford assumed most of the atom to be

empty space.
1. The sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
is known as the ____. 2. Explain how Rutherford concluded that positive charge was
concentrated in a small area.
2. The smallest unit of electric charge in matter is called ____.
3. How did Rutherford’s model of the atom differ from
3. The core of the atom containing most of the atom’s mass and
Thomson’s model?
all of its positive charge is called the ____.
4. Summarize the characteristics of the electron, proton, and
4. A light particle with a negative charge, found in atoms, is
neutron, comparing their relative mass, charge, and location
called a(n) ____.
within the atom by completing the table below.
5. A neutral particle with nearly the same mass as the proton
is the ____. Location Relative
Particle Charge
6. The number of protons in an atom, unique to each element, in Atom Mass
is known as the ____. electron ? ? 1
7. A nucleus that spontaneously breaks apart, emitting proton ? +1 ?
particles of energy is referred to as ____.
neutron ? ? ?
8. Atoms of the same element containing different numbers of
neutrons are called ____. 5. Name the four forces of nature and compare their relative
Section 14.2 strengths.
9. One of the allowed energies for electrons in an atom is 6. Explain the effect of the electromagnetic and strong forces
known as a(n) ____. on the structure of the atom.
10. The theory that describes matter and energy at atomic sizes 7. What do the atomic number and mass number tell you about
is the ____. an atom?
330
ATOMS Chapter 14
8. Compare the number of protons and electrons in a Problems
neutral atom.
Section 14.1
9. Compare the mass number and atomic number for isotopes
1. Which of the following charges do not appear in
of an element. Explain your answer.
normal matter?
10. Describe the radioactive disintegrations known as alpha, a. +2e d. –5.4e
beta, and gamma decay.
b. +1/4e e. +3/4e
Section 14.2 c. –4e f. –1e
11. Which particle in an atom is most responsible for its 2. What charge would an atom have if it lost one electron?
chemical properties?
3. For each of the nuclei shown below, do the following.
12. What is the source of the light you see?
a. Name the element.
13. How can a spectroscope be used to identify an element b. Give the atomic number.
heated to incandescence? c. Give the mass number.
14. Cite evidence that electrons are restricted to having only
certain amounts of energy.
15. How did Neils Bohr explain spectral lines?
16. What is the difference between an electron in ground state
and one in an excited state?
17. What would occur if an electron were to move from a certain
energy level to a lower energy level? 4. A neutral atom has 7 protons and 8 neutrons. Determine its:
18. Summarize the uncertainty principle. a. mass number
b. atomic number
19. Why can’t the position of an electron be determined
c. number of electrons
with certainty?
5. A carbon atom contains 6 protons in the nucleus. If an atom
20. How is the location of an electron described?
of carbon-14 were to undergo alpha decay, determine each of
the following for the new element.
a. mass number
b. atomic number
c. number of protons
d. number of neutrons
331
Chapter 14 ATOMS
6. A uranium atom contains 92 protons in the nucleus. If an 2. Radioactive isotopes emit particles that can cause harm to
atom of uranium-238 were to undergo alpha decay, our cells. However, scientists have figured out ways to use
determine each of the following for the new element. radioisotopes in ways that are beneficial to our health.
a. mass number Nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine that uses medical
b. atomic number radioisotopes to diagnose and treat diseases. Research a
c. number of protons disease that is either diagnosed or treated with medical
radioisotopes. Create a pamphlet that provides information
d. number of neutrons
about the disease and how medical radioisotopes are used to
Section 14.2 diagnose and/or treat it.
7. If electrons in the hydrogen atom become excited and then Section 14.2
fall back to the 2nd energy level from levels 3, 4, 5, and 6,
3. The element helium is a light gas that is very rare on Earth.
four colors of light are emitted: violet, red, blue-violet, and
In fact, helium was not discovered on this planet. It was
blue-green.
discovered in the Sun. In Greek, helios means “sun.”
a. Which transition is responsible for the blue-violet light: Astronomers saw a series of spectral lines in the Sun that
6 to 2, 5 to 2, 4 to 2, or 3 to 2? did not match any known element on Earth. Helium was
b. If an electron on the 2nd level were struck by a photon, first identified from its spectrum of light from the Sun.
then it could be excited to the 6th energy level. What Researchers were then able to find it on Earth because they
color photon would be absorbed by the electron? knew what to look for. Research and draw the visible
8. An atom has an atomic number of 6. Sketch a diagram that spectrum for helium, labeling the wavelength of each
correctly represents the electron arrangement in energy spectral line. Rank the spectral lines from highest energy to
levels around the nucleus. What is the name of this atom? lowest energy.
4. Choose an atom and make a three-dimensional model of its
Applying Your Knowledge structure, using the Bohr model. Choose different materials
Section 14.1 to represent protons, neutrons, and electrons. Attach a key
to your model that explains what each material represents.
1. Make a poster illustrating the different models of the atom
that scientists have proposed since the 1800s. Explain how
each model reflects the new knowledge that scientists
gained through their experiments. When possible, comment
on what scientists learned about charge, mass, and location
of subatomic particles.
LA.910.4.2.2-The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing sources
of information.
SC.912.N.2.5-Describe instances in which scientists' varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural
SC.912.P.10.11-Explain and compare nuclear reactions (radioactive decay, fission and fusion), the energy changes associated with them and their associated safety issues.
Chapter 15
Elements and the Periodic Table
What are metals like? Think of things that are made with metals like
aluminum, copper, iron, and gold. What do they have in common?
They are usually shiny, and they can often be bent into different shapes without
breaking. Did you know there is a metal that is shiny, but is so soft it can be cut with
a knife? This metal is very reactive. If you place a piece of this metal in water, it will
race around the surface, and the heat given off is often enough to melt the metal and
ignite the hydrogen gas that is produced! This strange metal is called sodium. You can
look at the periodic table of elements to find other metals that behave like sodium. In
this chapter, you will become familiar with how you can predict the properties of
different elements by their location on the periodic table.
How are the elements arranged in the

periodic table?
What sort of information can the periodic

table of elements give you?
Why does the periodic table have the

shape that it does?
Chapter 15 ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
15.1 The Periodic Table of the Elements

Long before scientists understood atoms, they grouped elements by their chemical properties. physical change - a change that
Chemical properties can only be observed when a chemical change occurs. In this section, you does not result in a new substance
will learn how the periodic table gives us a way to organize all the known elements. The periodic being formed.
table also shows how chemical properties are related to the arrangement of electrons inside the chemical change - a change that
atom. transforms one substance into a
different substance.
Chemical changes
Physical properties Recall that the physical properties of water include that it is colorless,
odorless, and exists as a liquid at room temperature. Physical properties
include color, texture, density, brittleness, and state (solid, liquid, or gas).
Melting point, boiling point, and specific heat are also physical properties.
Physical changes A physical change in matter, such as melting, boiling, or bending is
are reversible usually reversible and does not result in the formation of a new substance.
When water freezes, it undergoes a physical change from a liquid to a solid.
This does not change the water into a new substance. It is still water, only in
solid form. The change can easily be reversed by melting the solid water
(ice). Bending a steel bar is another physical change. Bending changes the
shape of the bar, but it is still steel.
Chemical properties As you have read, properties that can only be observed when one substance
changes into a different substance are called chemical properties. For
example, if you leave an iron nail outside, it will eventually rust
(Figure 15.1). A chemical property of iron is that it reacts with oxygen in the
air to form iron oxide (rust).
Chemical changes Any change that transforms one substance into a different substance is called
are hard to reverse a chemical change. The transformation of iron into rust is a chemical Figure 15.1: Rusting is an example
change. Chemical changes are not easily reversible. Rusted iron will not turn of a chemical change.
shiny again even if you remove it from the oxygen in the air.
334 SC.912.N.1.6-Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and provide examples from the content being studied.
ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE Chapter 15
The periodic table

How many elements How many elements make up the universe? The only way to tell if a
periodic table - a chart that
are there? substance is an element is to try and break it down into other substances by organizes the elements by their
any possible means. A substance that can be chemically broken apart cannot chemical properties and increasing
be an element. As of this writing, scientists have identified 117 confirmed atomic number.
elements. Only about 90 of these elements occur naturally. The others are period - a row of the periodic table.
made in laboratories.
group - a column of the periodic
The modern periodic As chemists worked on identifying the true elements, they noticed that some table.
table elements acted like other elements. For example, the soft metals lithium,
sodium, and potassium always combine with oxygen in a ratio of two atoms
of metal to one atom of oxygen (Figure 15.2). By keeping track of how each
element combined with other elements, scientists began to recognize
repeating patterns. From this data, they developed the first periodic table of
the elements. The periodic table organizes the elements according to how
they combine with other elements due to their chemical properties.
Organization of the The periodic table is organized in order of
periodic table increasing atomic number. The lightest
element (hydrogen) is at the upper left. The
heaviest (#118) is on the lower right. Each
element corresponds to one box in the
periodic table, identified with the element
symbol.
The periodic table is further divided into periods and groups. Each horizontal
row is called a period. Across any period, the properties of the elements
gradually change. Each vertical column is called a group. Groups of Figure 15.2: The metals lithium,
sodium, and potassium all form
elements have similar properties. The main group elements are Groups 1 and compounds with a ratio of two atoms of
2 and Groups 13 through 18 (the tall columns of the periodic table). Elements the metal to one atom of oxygen. All the
in Groups 3 through 12 are called the transition elements. The inner transition elements in Group 1 of the periodic table
elements, called lanthanides and actinides, are often shown below the bottom form similar compounds.
row of the chart in order for the chart to fit on a page.
SC.912.P.8.5-Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the arrangement of their electrons. 335
Reading the periodic table

Metals, nonmetals, Most of the elements are metals. A metal is typically shiny, opaque, and a
metals - elements that are typically
and metalloids good conductor of heat and electricity as a pure element. Metals are also shiny and good conductors of heat
ductile, which means they can be bent into different shapes without breaking. and electricity.
Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid nonmetals are nonmetals - elements that are poor
brittle and appear dull. With the exception of hydrogen, the nonmetals are on conductors of heat and electricity.
the right side of the periodic table. The elements on the border between
metals and nonmetals are called metalloids. Silicon is an example of a
metalloid element with properties in-between those of metals and nonmetals.
Atomic mass
Atomic mass units The mass of individual atoms is so small that the numbers are difficult to
atomic mass unit - a unit of mass
work with. To make calculations easier, scientists came up with the atomic equal to 1.66 × 10-24 grams.
mass unit (amu). One atomic mass unit is about the mass of a single proton
atomic mass - the average mass of
(or neutron). In laboratory units, 1 amu is 1.66 × 10–24 gram. That’s all the known isotopes of an element,
0.00000000000000000000000166 gram! expressed in amu.
Atomic mass and The atomic mass is the average mass (in amu) of an atom of each element.
isotopes Atomic masses differ from mass numbers because most elements in nature
contain more than one isotope (see chart below). For example, the atomic
mass of lithium is 6.94 amu. That does NOT mean there are 3 protons and
3.94 neutrons in a lithium atom! On average, out of every 100 atoms of
lithium, 6 atoms are Li-6 and 94 atoms are Li-7 and (Figure 15.3). The
average atomic mass of lithium is 6.94, because of the mixture of isotopes.
Atomic number As you learned earlier, the atomic number is the number of protons all atoms
review of that element have in their nuclei. If the atom is neutral, it will have the
same number of electrons as well.
Figure 15.3: Naturally occurring

elements have a mixture of isotopes.
SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these particles in
337
Groups of the periodic table

Alkali metals All of the elements in the different groups of the
alkali metals - elements in the first
periodic table have similar chemical group of the periodic table.
properties. The first group is known as the
halogens - elements in the group
alkali metals. This group includes the containing fluorine, chlorine, and
elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and bromine, among others.
potassium (K). The alkali metals are soft and noble gases - elements in the
silvery in their pure form and are highly group containing helium, neon, and
reactive. Each of them combines in a ratio of two to one with oxygen. For argon, among others.
example, lithium oxide has two atoms of lithium per atom of oxygen.
Group 2 metals The Group 2 metals include beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), and calcium
(Ca). These metals also form oxides however they combine one-to-one with
oxygen. For example, beryllium oxide has one beryllium
atom per each oxygen atom.
Halogens The halogens are on the right-hand side of

the periodic table. These elements tend to be
toxic in their pure form. Some examples are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), and
bromine (Br). The halogens are also very reactive and are rarely found in
pure form. When combined with alkali metals, they form salts such as
sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl).
Noble gases On the far right of the periodic table are the noble gases, including the
elements helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar). These elements do not
naturally form chemical bonds with other atoms and are almost always found
in their pure state. They are sometimes called inert gases for this reason.
Figure 15.4: Groups of the periodic
table.
Transition metals In the middle of the periodic table are the transition metals, including
titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu). These elements are usually good
conductors of heat and electricity. For example, the wires that carry
electricity in your school are made of copper. Figure 15.4 shows the location
of the groups of elements on the periodic table.
Energy levels and the periodic table

Period 1 is the first The periods (rows) of the periodic table correspond to the energy levels in the
energy level Bohr model of the atom (Figure 15.5). The first energy level can accept up to
two electrons. Hydrogen (H) has one electron and helium (He) has two. These
two elements complete the first period.
Period 2 is the The next element, lithium (Li), has three electrons. Lithium begins the second
second energy level period because the third electron goes into the second energy level. The
second energy level can hold eight electrons so there are eight elements
in the second row of the periodic table, ending with neon (Ne). Neon has
10 electrons, which completely fill the second energy level.
Period 3 is the third Sodium (Na) has 11 electrons, and starts the third period because the
energy level 11th electron goes into the third energy level. We know of elements with up to
118 electrons. These elements have their outermost electrons in the seventh
energy level.
Outer electrons As we will see in the next chapter, the outermost electrons in an atom are the
ones that interact with other atoms. The outer electrons are the ones in the
highest energy level. Electrons in the completely filled inner energy levels do
not participate in forming chemical bonds.
Figure 15.5: The rows (periods) of

the periodic table correspond to the
energy levels for the electrons in an
atom.
SC.912.N.3.5-Describe the function of models in science, and identify the wide range of models used in science. 339
Section 15.1 Review

1. Which two of the following are physical properties of matter and not
chemical properties?
a. melts at 650°C
b. density of 1.0 g/mL
c. forms molecules with two oxygen atoms
2. Groups of the periodic table correspond to elements with:
a. the same color
b. the same atomic number
c. similar chemical properties
d. similar numbers of neutrons Figure 15.6: Question 3.
3. Which element is the atom shown in Figure 15.6?
4. Name three elements that have similar chemical properties to oxygen.
5. The atomic mass unit (amu) is:
a. the mass of a single atom of carbon
b. one millionth of a gram
c. approximately the mass of a proton
d. approximately the mass of an electron
6. Which element belongs in the empty space in Figure 15.7?
7. The outermost electrons of the element vanadium (atomic #23) are in
which energy level of the atom? How do you know?
8. The elements fluorine, chlorine, and bromine are in which group of the
periodic table?
a. the alkali metals
b. the oxygen-like elements Figure 15.7: Question 6.
c. the halogens
d. the noble gases
9. Which three metals are in the third period (row) of the periodic table?
340
15.2 Properties of the Elements

The elements have a wide variety of chemical and physical properties. Some are solid at room
temperature, like copper. Others are liquid (like bromine) or gas (like oxygen). Some solid
elements (like zinc) melt at very low temperatures and some (like titanium) melt at very high
temperatures. Chemically, there is an equally wide variety of properties. Some elements, like
sodium, form salts that dissolve easily in water. Other elements, like neon, do not form compounds
with any other elements.
State of matter at room temperature

Most elements are Most of the pure elements are solid at room temperature. Only 11 of the
solid at room 92 naturally occurring elements are a gas, and 10 of these 11 are found on the
temperature far right of the periodic table. Only two elements (Br and Hg) are liquid at
room temperature.
What this tells us An element is solid when intermolecular forces are strong enough to
about intermolecular overcome the thermal motion of atoms. At room temperature, this is true for
forces most of the elements. The noble gases and elements to the far right of the
periodic table are the exceptions. These elements have completely filled or
nearly filled energy levels (Figure 15.8). When an energy level is completely
filled, the electrons do not interact strongly with electrons in other atoms,
reducing intermolecular forces.
Figure 15.8: The noble gases have

completely filled energy levels. All of
the elements that are gas at room
temperature have filled or nearly filled
energy levels.
SC.912.P.8.1-Differentiate among the four states of matter. 341

Periodic properties of the elements

The pattern in We said earlier that the periodic table arranges elements with common
periodicity - the repeating pattern of
melting and boiling properties into groups (columns). The diagram below shows the melting and chemical and physical properties of
points boiling points for the first 36 elements. The first element in each row (Li, Na, the elements.
K) always has a low melting point. The melting (and boiling) points rise
toward the center of each row and then decrease again.
Periodicity The pattern of melting and boiling points is an example of periodicity.
Periodicity means properties repeat each period (row) of the periodic table
(Figure 15.9). Periodicity tells us a property is strongly related to the
filling of electron energy levels. Melting points reflect the strength of
intermolecular forces. The diagram below shows that intermolecular forces
are strongest when energy levels are about half full (or half empty). Elements
with half-filled energy levels have the greatest number of electrons that can
participate in bonding.
Figure 15.9: One of these graphs

shows periodicity and the other does not.
Can you tell which one is periodic?
The top graph shows the energy it takes
to remove an electron. The bottom graph
shows the atomic weight.
Thermal and electrical conductivity

Metals are good Electricity is something we often take for
electrical conductor - a material
electrical granted because we use it every day. that allows electricity to flow through
conductors Fundamentally, electricity is the movement of easily.
electric charge, usually electrons. Some thermal conductor - a material
materials allow electrons to flow easily through that allows heat to flow easily.
them. If you connected a battery and a light
insulator - a material that slows
bulb through one of these materials, the bulb down or stops the flow of either heat
would light. We call these materials electrical or electricity.
conductors. Copper and aluminum are
excellent electrical conductors. Both belong to the family of metals, which are
elements in the center and left-hand side of the periodic table (Figure 15.10).
Copper and aluminum are used for almost all electrical wiring.
Metals are good If you hold one end of a copper pipe with
conductors of heat your hand and heat the other end with a
torch, your hand will quickly get hot. That is
because copper is a good conductor of heat
as well as of electricity. Like copper, most
metals are good thermal conductors. That
is one reason pots and pans are made of
metal. Heat from a stove can pass easily
through the metal walls of a pot to transfer
energy (heat) to the food inside.
Nonmetals are Elements to the far right of the periodic table
typically insulators are not good conductors of electricity or
heat, especially since many are gases. Figure 15.10: Dividing the periodic
table into metals, metalloids, and
Because they are so different from metals,
nonmetals.
these elements are called nonmetals.
Nonmetals make good insulators. An
insulator is a material that slows down or
stops the flow of either heat or electricity.
Air is a good insulator. Air is made of
oxygen, nitrogen, and argon.
Metals and metal alloys

Steel is an alloy of When asked for an example of a metal, many people immediately think of
steel - an alloy of iron and carbon.
iron and carbon steel. Steel is made from iron, which is the fourth most abundant element in
Earth’s crust. However, steel is not pure iron. Steel is an alloy. An alloy is a
solid mixture of one or more elements. Most metals are used as alloys and
not in their pure elemental form. Common steel contains mostly iron with a
small percentage of carbon. Stainless steel and high-strength steel alloys also
contain small percentages of other elements such as chromium, manganese,
and vanadium. More that 500 different types of steel are in everyday use
(Figure 15.11).
Aluminum is light Aluminum is a metal widely used for structural applications. Aluminum
alloys are not quite as strong as steel, but aluminum has one third the density
of steel. Aluminum alloys are used when the product needs to be light
weight, such as an airplane. The frames and skins of airplanes are built of Figure 15.11: Nails are made of
aluminum alloys (Figure 15.12). steel that contains 95 percent iron and
5 percent carbon. Kitchen knives are
Titanium is both Titanium combines the strength and hardness
made of stainless steel that is an alloy
strong and light of steel with the light weight of aluminum. containing vanadium and other metals.
Titanium alloys are used for military aircraft,
racing bicycles, and other high performance
machines. Titanium is expensive because it is
somewhat rare and difficult to work with.
Brass Brass is a hard, gold-colored metal alloy. Ordinary

(yellow) brass is an alloy of 72 percent copper,
24 percent zinc, 3 percent lead, and 1 percent tin.
Hinges, door knobs, keys, and decorative objects are
made of brass because brass is easy to work with.
Because it contains lead, however, you should never Figure 15.12: This aircraft is made
eat or drink from anything made of ordinary mostly from aluminum alloys.
(yellow) brass. Aluminum combines high strength and
light weight.
Carbon and carbon-like elements

Carbon is an Carbon represents less than 1/100th of a percent of Earth’s crust by mass, yet
important element it is the element most essential for life on our planet. Virtually all the
for life molecules that make up plants and animals are constructed around carbon.
The chemistry of carbon is so important it has its own name, organic
chemistry (Figure 15.13).
Diamond and Pure carbon is found in nature in two very different
graphite forms. Graphite is a black solid made of carbon that
becomes a slippery powder when ground up.
Graphite is used for lubricating locks and keys.
Diamond is also pure carbon. Diamond is the hardest
natural substance known and also has the highest
thermal conductivity of any material. Diamond is so Figure 15.13: Organic chemistry is
the chemistry of living organisms and is
strong because every carbon atom in diamond is based on the element carbon.
bonded to four neighboring atoms in a tetrahedral
crystal (shown left).
Silicon Directly under carbon on the periodic table is the element silicon. Silicon is
the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust, second only to oxygen.
Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outermost energy level. This
means silicon can also make bonds with four other atoms. Sand, rocks, and
minerals are predominantly made of silicon and oxygen (Figure 15.14). Most
gemstones, such as rubies and emeralds, are compounds of silicon and
oxygen with traces of other elements. In fact, when you see a glass window,
you are looking at (or through) pure silica (SiO2).
Silicon and Perhaps silicon’s most famous application today is for
semiconductors making semiconductors. Virtually every computer chip
and electronic device uses crystals of very pure silicon.
The area around San Jose, California, is known as Silicon Figure 15.14: Sand and glass are
two common materials made of silicon.
Valley because of the electronics companies located
there. Germanium, the element just below silicon on the
periodic table, is also used to make semiconductors.
Nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus

Nitrogen and oxygen Nitrogen is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas that makes up 77 percent
make up most of the of Earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen makes up another 21 percent of the
atmosphere atmosphere (Figure 15.15). Both oxygen and nitrogen gas consist of
molecules with two atoms (N2, O2).
Oxygen in rocks and Oxygen makes up only 21 percent of the atmosphere however oxygen is by
minerals far the most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Almost 46 percent of Earth’s
crust is oxygen (Figure 15.16). Because it is so reactive, all of this oxygen is
bonded to other elements in rocks and minerals in the form of oxides. Silicon
dioxide (SiO2), calcium oxide (CaO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and
magnesium oxide (MgO) are common mineral compounds. Hematite
(Fe2O3), an oxide of iron, is a common ore from which iron is extracted.
Liquid nitrogen With a boiling point of –196°C, liquid nitrogen is used for rapid freezing in
medical and industrial applications. A common treatment for skin warts is to
freeze them with liquid nitrogen. Figure 15.15: Earth’s atmosphere is
predominantly made up of nitrogen and
Oxygen and nitrogen Oxygen and nitrogen are crucial to living animals and plants. For example, oxygen.
in living organisms proteins and DNA both contain nitrogen. Nitrogen is part of a key ecological
cycle. Bacteria in soil convert nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the soil into
complex proteins and amino acids. These nutrients are taken up by the roots
of plants, and later eaten by animals. Waste and dead tissue from animals is
recycled by the soil bacteria that return the nitrogen to begin a new cycle.
Phosphorus Directly below nitrogen in the periodic table is
phosphorus. Phosphorus is a key ingredient of DNA,
the molecule responsible for carrying the genetic
code in all living creatures. One of phosphorus’s
unusual applications is in “glow-in-the-dark” plastic.
When phosphorus atoms absorb light, they store
energy and give off a greenish glow as they slowly
re-emit the energy. Figure 15.16: Oxygen makes up
46 percent of the mass of Earth’s crust.
This enormous quantity of oxygen is
bound up in rocks and minerals.
Section 15.2 Review

1. Name two elements that are liquid at room temperature. One of the elements with an atomic
number less than 54 has the honor of
2. Which of the following is not true about the noble gases? being the first man-made element.
a. They have completely filled energy levels. Which element is this and how was
b. They have weak intermolecular forces. it discovered?
c. They do not bond with other elements in nature.
d. They have boiling points above room temperature.
3. Describe what it means if a chemical or physical property is periodic.
4. Name three elements that are good conductors of electricity.
5. Name three elements that are good conductors of heat.
6. A metalloid is an element that:
a. has properties between those of a metal and a nonmetal
b. is a good thermal conductor but a poor electrical conductor
c. is a good electrical conductor but a poor thermal conductor
d. belongs to the same group as carbon in the periodic table
7. Steel is a metallic-like material but is not a pure element. What is steel?
8. Almost all of the oxygen on the planet Earth is found in the atmosphere.
Is this statement true or false? Figure 15.17: Questions 11 and 12.
9. This element is abundant in Earth’s crust and combines with oxygen to
form rocks and minerals. Which element is it?
10. An element that has strong intermolecular forces is most likely to have:
a. a boiling point below room temperature
b. a melting point below room temperature
c. a boiling point very close to its melting point
d. a very high melting point
11. Which element in Figure 15.17 is likely to be a the best conductor
of electricity?
12. Which element in Figure 15.17 is likely to be a the best insulator?
347
Chapter 15
Silicon
glass more chemically stable. This mixture is heated to a very high
temperature (over 1,700ºC!) until it melts. The liquid glass is poured
into a mold and allowed to cool.
Silicon also forms minerals

The Super Element of called silicates when
it bonds with oxygen
the Information Age and a metal ion, such
as aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium,
Silicon is one of the most useful elements on the planet and it’s sodium, or potassium.
easy to find—in fact, it’s the second most common element in Most of the rocks on
Earth’s crust, making up over 25.6 percent by weight. However, Earth’s surface are silicates:
you’re not likely to find chunks of pure silicon in your granite, feldspar, mica,
backyard—or anywhere in nature. Silicon, like carbon, has four hornblende, and sandstone
electrons in its outermost energy level. This means it can, and are just a few examples.
usually does, bond with other atoms. Clay is made of silicates,
too. Silicates are important
Silicon Compounds natural resources for the
construction industry, since
Silicon often bonds with oxygen, in they are used to make Most of the rocks on Earth’s surface are silicates.
a compound called silicon dioxide concrete and brick.
(SiO2), commonly known as silica.
Sand, quartz, amethyst, and opal Silicon is not the same as silicone, although the two are often
are all silicas found in nature. confused. Silicone is a man-made compound created by repeating
groups of silicon, oxygen, and a carbon compound. A simple
Diatoms are a type of tiny silicone is shown below.
photosynthetic plankton (one-celled
organism) found in both salt water
and fresh water. They have beautiful
outer “shells” called frustules that
are made of silica. Silicon dioxide (silica) structure
There are
about 70,000 known species of diatoms,
each with a unique frustule shape. Biologists
estimate that diatoms make up one quarter
of all photosynthetic life and produce at Silicones are never found in nature—they have to be created in a
least one quarter of the oxygen we breathe! lab. They’re incredibly useful because they don’t melt or break down
easily, they’re water repellent, and they don’t conduct electricity.
Common glass is made by mixing silica (sand)
You’ll find silicones in glue, caulk, paint, contact lenses, and many
Different species of diatoms
with soda (Na2CO3), which lowers the melting
other objects.
point, and lime (CaO), which makes the
348 SC.912.P.8.7–Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of composition and structure.
Chapter 15
Pure Silicon: A High-Tech Marvel To fabricate a chip on top of a wafer,
several processes must be performed,
Although silicon can form a myriad of useful compounds, it’s best
one after the other. These processes
known for its impact on the modern world in the form of the
may include depositing a film,
microchip, a miniaturized electric circuit that fits into computers,
patterning the film, and etching or
cellular telephones, microwaves, and other digital appliances.
removing part of the film. In other
Pure silicon enables the electronic transfer of data with
words, a coating or film is applied
remarkable efficiency.
to the wafer and the diagram of the
Microchips, also known as computer circuit is etched into it, then other
chips or integrated circuits, are loaded parts, such as
with tiny transistors. Transistors tiny copper wires, are deposited in
are devices that act as switches, the etching.
responsible for turning current on
Computer chips must be created in
and off. By doing so, transistors
sterile environments known as clean
relay electrical signals from one part
rooms. Just one speck of dust can
of a circuit to another. Silicon has
interfere with the circuitry, making Silicon wafers.
proven to be an excellent material
the chip unusable. Chip makers wear
for making transistors. Why? Silicon
gowns, hoods, goggles, and masks that industry insiders call “bunny
is a semiconductor. This means its ability to conduct electricity lies
suits.” Pencils are forbidden in clean rooms, because bits of graphite
somewhere between a conductor, which conducts electricity well,
could flake off and stick to a chip. Since graphite is a conductor,
and an insulator, which conducts electricity poorly. The conductivity
even a microscopic particle could short-circuit a chip!
of a semiconductor is suitable for turning the electric signal on and
off without complications
Silicon: It’s All Around You
Creating the Computer Chip Look around the room you’re in. How many devices can you find
that contain these silicon-based computer chips? What else can you
How do you get from silicon dioxide, or common sand, to the
see that contains silicon? It’s easy to see why silicon is known as “the
microchip? The first step is a chemical reaction that separates
super element of the information age.”
the silicon from the oxygen. The silicon is then melted down at
extremely high temperatures. Next, a seed crystal (a small sample
Questions:
of pure silicon) is positioned on a rod and dipped into the molten
silicon. An example of a seed crystal is an ice cube; it’s a solid sample 1. What is the difference between silicon, silica, silicates,
of an element or compound where the atoms or molecules have a and silicone?
particular repeating pattern.
2. Why is silicon used for computer chips?
The liquid particles of the silicon attach themselves to the solid seed
crystal in the same pattern and a larger monocrystal is formed. This 3. Research: Where is Silicon Valley? How did this region of
large single crystal of silicon, known as a boule, is now a usable the United States acquire this nickname?
shape. Standard boules are typically 200 mm to 300 mm in diameter
and 1 to 2 meters in length. A diamond blade or wire is then used to Diatoms photo by Randolph Femmer/NBII.
cut the boule into wafers that are 0.5 millimeters thick.
349
Vocabulary 10. A material that slows or stops the flow of heat or electricity
is called a(n) ____.
11. An alloy of iron and carbon is called ____.
group chemical change insulator
period periodicity nonmetals 12. A material that allows electricity to flow easily is called
physical change steel periodic table a(n) ____.
atomic mass electrical conductor thermal conductor
Section 15.1
Concepts
Section 15.1
1. A chart that organizes elements by their chemical properties
and increasing atomic number is the ____. 1. Label each of the following changes or properties as being a
physical (P) or chemical (C) change or property.
2. A change in matter that can be seen through direct
observation are called ____. a. One cm3 of water has a mass of one gram.
b. Burning hydrogen in the presence of oxygen produces
3. A row of the periodic table is referred to as a(n) ____.
water.
4. A change in matter that can be observed only as one c. Candle wax will melt when heated gently.
substance changes to another are called ____. d. An iron nail left outside for a year will rust.
5. A column of the periodic table is known as a(n) ____. e. To raise the temperature of 1 kg of lead by 1°C requires
130 joules of energy.
6. The average mass of all known isotopes of an element,
expressed in amu, is that element’s ____. f. If ice is heated enough, the ice will change to steam.
7. Elements that are generally poor conductors, and in solid 2. Melting, boiling, and bending are considered physical changes,
form, and are generally dull and brittle are called ____. but burning is a chemical change. Explain why this is so.
Section 15.2 3. How may a substance be tested to determine whether or not

it is an element?
8. A repeating pattern of chemical and physical properties of
the elements is called ____. 4. Supply the missing number for each of the following.
9. A material that allows heat to flow easily is called a(n) ____. a. The number of naturally occurring elements.
b. The atomic number of the heaviest element.
c. The atomic number of the lightest element.
d. The total number of elements identified (as of the
publication of this book).
350
5. Describe the difference between a period and a group on the 14. Name three elements that are good conductors of both heat
periodic table. and electricity.
6. What property of elements was used to organize the periodic 15. Name three elements that are poor conductors but are good
table? insulators of both heat and electricity.
7. Describe the difference between the mass number and the 16. Carbon is not an exceptionally abundant element but it is
atomic mass of an element. the most essential element for life on our planet. Why?
8. Identify each of the following as a metal (M), nonmetal (N), 17. Name two reasons why silicon is an important
or metalloid (T). element economically.
a. Includes most of the elements 18. Name the following.
b. As solids they are dull, poor conductors, and brittle a. The two most abundant gases and their approximate
c. Generally located on the right side of the periodic table percentage of occurrence in Earth’s atmosphere.
d. Ductile b. The most abundant element in Earth’s crust and its
e. Share properties in between metals and nonmetals percentage of occurrence.
9. Briefly describe each group below and give an example of
one element in each group. Problems
a. alkali metals Section 15.1
b. halogens 1. How many electrons can be held in the first energy level? In
c. noble gases the second energy level?
10. How does the energy level of an element on the periodic 2. Aluminum has 13 electrons. How many electrons are found
table compare to its period number? in the outermost energy level for this atom? Which energy
Section 15.2 level is the outermost?
11. Most elements occur as solids at room temperature. 3. Name the elements found at the following positions.
a. Name the two elements that are found as liquids at a. Group 1, Period 2
room temperature. b. Period 4, Group 9
b. Name 5 elements (out of 11) that are found as gases at
4. Give the symbol, name, and atomic number of the two
room temperature.
elements in Period 4 that are most similar to cobalt (Co).
12. Explain why the elements in Group 18 are all gases.
13. Name two properties that display periodicity across the
periodic table.
351

5. State one property for each labeled element on this periodic 3. Choose an element from the periodic table. Create a fact
table. Write your answers in a data table on your own paper. sheet about the element. Include the following on your
An example of a data table is shown below. fact sheet.
a. Symbol, name, atomic number, and atomic mass
D b. Date of discovery and people responsible for discovery
c. Physical properties of the element including state of
C matter at room temperature, melting point, boiling
B point, appearance, etc.
d. Use(s) for the element, including useful compounds that
contain the element
A e. Any other important information about the element. If
possible, find pictures of the element on the Internet
and include them on your fact sheet.
Element Property 4. Suppose the periodic table arranged Periods 1 to 4 in order
of increasing average atomic mass instead of increasing
A
atomic number. Would this arrangement show periodicity?
B Explain your answer.
C
D

Section 15.1
1. Create a pie graph showing the elements classified as
nonmetals, metalloids, and metals.
2. List the elements of the periodic table for which the symbol
does not match the name. For example, the symbol for lead
is Pb. Choose any three of those elements and find out where
the symbol comes from.
Chapter 16
Compounds
What do sugar, aspirin, ethanol, and wood have in common? They are all
compounds made from different combinations of the same three elements:
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. By themselves, these elements cannot sweeten your tea, relieve
pain, fuel a car, or build a house. But when these elements are combined in different ways to
form various compounds, they can be useful in many, many ways.
Most of the matter you use every day is in the form of compounds and mixtures, not elements.
All compounds are made out of combinations of less than one hundred of the elements on the
periodic table. The number of different compounds that exist is mind boggling! Study this
chapter to learn how and why compounds form.
What does the chemical formula H2O mean?

Why do elements tend to combine to form
compounds?
What compounds are you made of?

Chapter 16 COMPOUNDS
16.1 Chemical Bonds and Electrons

Most matter exists as compounds, not as pure elements. That’s because most pure elements are chemical bond - a bond that forms
chemically unstable. They quickly form chemical bonds with other elements to make compounds. when atoms transfer or share
For example, water (H2O) is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The salt used in food is a electrons.
compound that contains two elements, sodium and chlorine, that are poisonous by themselves. In covalent bond - a chemical bond
this section, you will learn why and how the atoms of elements form compounds. formed by atoms that are sharing one
or more electrons.
Covalent bonds chemical formula - a
representation of a compound that
Electrons form A chemical bond forms when atoms transfer or share electrons. Almost all includes the symbols and ratios of
chemical bonds elements form chemical bonds easily. This is why most of the matter you atoms of each element in the
experience is in the form of compounds. compound.
Covalent bonds A covalent bond is formed when atoms share electrons. A group of atoms
held together by covalent bonds is called a molecule. The bonds between
oxygen and hydrogen in a water molecule are covalent bonds (Figure 16.1).
There are two covalent bonds in a water molecule, between the oxygen and
each of the hydrogen atoms. Each bond represents a shared electron pair.
Chemical formulas A molecule’s chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms of each element
in the compound. For example, the chemical formula for water is H2O. The
subscript 2 indicates there are two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule. No
subscript after the o indicates there is only one oxygen atom for every two
hydrogen atoms in the molecule.
Figure 16.1: In a covalent bond,

electrons are shared between atoms.
COMPOUNDS Chapter 16
Ionic bonds
An ion is a Not all compounds are made of molecules. For example, sodium chloride
ion - an atom (or group of atoms) that
charged atom (NaCl) is a compound of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in a ratio of one has an electric charge other than
sodium atom per chlorine atom. The difference is that in sodium chloride, the zero, created when an atom (or group
electron is transferred (instead of shared) from the sodium atom to the of atoms) gains or loses electrons.
chlorine atom. When atoms gain or lose an electron they become ions. An ionic bond - a bond that transfers
ion is a charged atom. By losing an electron, the sodium atom becomes a one or more electrons from one atom
sodium ion with a charge of +1. By gaining an electron, the chlorine atom to another, resulting in attraction
becomes a chloride ion with a charge of –1. (Note that when chlorine between oppositely charged ions.
becomes an ion, the name changes to chloride.)
Ionic bonds Sodium and chlorine form an ionic bond because the positive sodium ion is
attracted to the negative chloride ion. Ionic bonds are bonds in which one or
more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
Ionic compounds do Unlike covalent bonds, ionic bonds are not limited to a single pair of atoms.
not form molecules In sodium chloride, each positive sodium ion is attracted to all of the
neighboring chloride ions (Figure 16.2). Likewise, each chloride ion is
attracted to all the neighboring sodium atoms. Because the bonds are not just
between pairs of atoms, ionic compounds do not form molecules! In an ionic
compound, each atom bonds with all of its neighbors through attraction
between positive and negative charges.
The chemical Like covalent compounds, ionic compounds have fixed ratios of elements.
formula for ionic For example, there is one sodium ion per chloride ion in sodium chloride
compounds (NaCl). This means we can use the same type of chemical formula for ionic
compounds and covalent compounds.
Ions may be Sodium chloride involves the transfer of one electron. However, ionic
multiply charged compounds may also be formed by the transfer of two or more electrons. A Figure 16.2: Sodium chloride is an
ionic compound in which each positive
good example is magnesium chloride (MgCl2). The magnesium atom gives sodium ion is attracted to all of its
up two electrons to become a magnesium ion with a charge of +2 (Mg2+). negative chloride ion neighbors and
Each chlorine atom gains one electron to become a chloride ion with a charge vice versa.
of –1 (Cl–). The ion charge is written as a superscript after the element symbol
(Mg2+, Fe3+, Cl–, etc.).
SC.912.P.8.7-Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of composition and structure. 355
Why chemical bonds form

Atoms form bonds Imagine pulling tape off a surface. It takes energy to pull the tape off. It also
to reach a lower takes energy to separate atoms that are bonded together. If it takes energy to
energy state separate bonded atoms, then the same energy must be released when the
bond forms. Energy is released when chemical bonds form. Energy is
released because atoms bonded together have less total energy than the same
atoms separately. Like a ball rolling downhill, atoms form compounds
because the atoms have lower energy when they are together in compounds.
For example, one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms have more total
energy apart than they do when combined in a methane molecule
(Figure 16.3).
Chemical reactivity All elements, except the noble gases, form chemical bonds. However, some
elements are much more reactive than others. In chemistry, reactive means Figure 16.3: The methane (CH4)
molecule has lower total energy than
an element readily forms chemical bonds, often releasing energy. For four separate hydrogen atoms and one
example, sodium is a highly reactive metal. Chlorine is a highly reactive gas. separate carbon atom.
If pure sodium and pure chlorine are placed together, a violent explosion
occurs as the sodium and chlorine combine. The energy of the explosion is
the energy given off by the formation of the chemical bonds.
The noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, etc.) are
called inert because they do not
ordinarily react with anything. You can
put sodium in an atmosphere of pure
helium and nothing will happen.
However, scientists have found that a
few noble gases do form compounds,
in very special circumstances.
Research this topic and see if you
can find a compound involving a
Some elements are The closer an element is to having the same number of electrons as a noble noble gas.
more reactive gas, the more reactive the element is. The alkali metals are very reactive
than others because they are just one electron away from the noble gases. The halogens
are also very reactive because they are also one electron away from the noble
gases. The beryllium group and the oxygen group are less reactive because
each element in these groups is two electrons away from a noble gas.
SC.912.P.8.7-Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of composition and structure.
Valence electrons
Compounds contain The discovery of energy levels in the atom solved a 2,000-year-old mystery.
valence electrons - the electrons
particular ratios of Why do elements combine with other elements only in particular ratios (or in the highest, unfilled energy level of
elements not at all)? For example, why do two hydrogen atoms bond with one oxygen an atom.
atom to make water? Why isn’t there a molecule with three (H3O) or even
four (H4O) hydrogen atoms? Why does sodium chloride have a precise ratio
of one sodium ion to one chloride ion? Why don’t helium, neon, and argon
form compounds with any other elements? The answer has to do with the
electrons in the outermost energy levels.
What are valence Chemical bonds are formed only between the electrons in the highest unfilled
electrons? energy level. These electrons are called valence electrons. You can think of
valence electrons as the outer “skin” of an atom. Electrons in the inner (filled)
energy levels do not interact with other atoms because they are shielded by
the valence electrons. For example, chlorine has 7 valence electrons. The first
10 of chlorine’s 17 electrons are in the inner (filled) energy levels
(Figure 16.4).
Most elements bond It turns out that eight is the stable number for chemical bonding. All the
to reach eight elements heavier than boron form chemical bonds to acquire a configuration Figure 16.4: Chlorine has 7 valence
valence electrons with eight valence electrons. For example, sodium and chlorine form an electrons. The other 10 electrons are in
ionic bond so each can have a configuration of eight valence electrons filled (inner) energy levels.
(Figure 16.5). Eight is a stable number because eight electrons completely fill
a part of the outermost energy level. The noble gases already have a a stable
number of eight valence electrons. They don’t form chemical bonds because
they don’t need to!
Light elements bond For elements with atomic number of five (boron) or less, the stable number
to reach two valence is two instead of eight. For these light elements, two valence electrons
electrons completely fill the first energy level. The elements H, He, Li, Be, and B
form bonds to reach the stable number of two valence electrons.
Hydrogen is special Because of its single electron, hydrogen can also have zero valence electrons!
Zero is a stable number for hydrogen, as well as two. This flexibility makes Figure 16.5: Chlorine and sodium
hydrogen a very “friendly” element; hydrogen can bond with almost any bond so each can reach a configuration
with eight valence electrons.
other element.
Valence electrons and the periodic table

Period 2 elements The illustration below shows how the electrons in the elements in the second
period (lithium to neon) fill the energy levels. Two of lithium’s three
electrons go in the first energy level. Lithium has one valence electron
because its third electron is the only one in the second energy level.
Each successive Going from left to right across a period, each successive element has one
element has one more valence electron. Beryllium has two valence electrons, boron has three,
more valence and carbon has four. Each element in the second period adds one more
electron electron until all eight spots in the second energy level are full at atomic
number 10, which is neon, a noble gas. Neon has eight valence electrons.
Figure 16.6: Oxygen has 6 valence

electrons and hydrogen has 2. In a
water molecule, each hydrogen supplies
one electron to make a total of 8 valence
electrons.
Bonding Oxygen has six valence electrons. To get to the magic number of eight,
oxygen needs to add two electrons. Oxygen forms chemical bonds that
provide these two extra electrons. For example, a single oxygen atom
combines with two hydrogen atoms because each hydrogen can supply only
one electron (Figure 16.6).
Double bonds share Carbon has four valence electrons. That means two oxygen atoms can bond Figure 16.7: Carbon forms two
two electrons with a single carbon atom, with each oxygen sharing two of carbon’s four double bonds with oxygen to make
carbon dioxide.
valence electrons. The bonds in carbon dioxide (CO2) are double bonds
because each bond involves four electrons (Figure 16.7).
Lewis dot diagrams

Dot diagrams of A Lewis dot diagram is a way to represent an atom’s valence electrons.
Lewis dot diagram - a method for
the elements A dot diagram shows the element symbol surrounded by one to eight dots representing an atom’s valence
representing its valence electrons. Each dot represents one electron. Lithium electrons using dots around the
has one dot, beryllium has two, boron has three, etc. Figure 16.8 shows dot element symbol.
diagrams for some of the elements.
Dot diagrams of Each element forms bonds to reach one of the stable numbers of valence
molecules electrons: two or eight. In dot diagrams of a complete molecule, each element
symbol has either two or eight dots around it. Both configurations correspond
to completely filled (or empty) energy levels.
Example dot Carbon has four dots and hydrogen has one. One carbon atom bonds with four
diagrams hydrogen atoms because this allows the carbon atom to have eight valence
electrons (eight dots)—four of its own and four shared with the hydrogen
atoms. The picture above shows dot diagrams for carbon dioxide (CO2),
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), a
flammable solvent.
The formation of A sodium atom is neutral with 11 positively charged protons and 11
an ionic bond negatively charged electrons. When sodium loses 1 electron, it has 11 protons
(+) and 10 electrons (–) and becomes an ion with a net charge of +1. This is
because it now has one more positive charge than its negative charges. A
chlorine atom is neutral with 17 protons and 17 electrons. When chlorine
gains 1 electron to have a stable 8 electrons, it has 17 protons (+) and 18
electrons (–) and becomes an ion with a charge of –1. This is because it has
gained one negative charge. When sodium and chlorine form an ionic bond, Figure 16.8: Dot diagrams for some
the resulting compound is neutral (+1) + (–1) = 0. of the elements.
Section 16.1 Review

1. Molecules are held together by:
a. ionic bonds
b. covalent bonds
c. both a and b
2. How many atoms of chlorine (Cl) are in the carbon tetrachloride
molecule (CCl4)?
3. Which of the compounds below has a chemical formula of C3H8?
4. True or False: Ionic compounds do not form molecules.

5. Atoms form chemical bonds using:
a. electrons in the innermost energy level
b. electrons in the outermost energy level
c. protons and electrons
6. Which of the diagrams in Figure 16.9 shows an element with three
valence electrons? What is the name of this element?
7. Name two elements that have the Lewis dot diagram shown in
Figure 16.10.
8. Draw dot diagrams for the following.
a. silicon
b. xenon
c. calcium
d. H2O
360
16.2 Chemical Formulas

In the previous section, you learned how and why atoms form chemical bonds with one oxidation number - a quantity that
another. You also learned that atoms combine in certain ratios with other atoms. These ratios indicates the charge on an atom when
determine the chemical formula for a compound. In this section, you will learn how to write the it gains, loses, or shares electrons
during bond formation.
chemical formulas for compounds. You will also learn how to name compounds based on their
chemical formulas.
Chemical formulas and oxidation numbers

Ionic compounds Recall that the chemical formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. This formula
indicates that every formula unit of sodium chloride contains one atom of
sodium and one atom of chlorine; a 1:1 ratio. Why do sodium and chlorine
combine in a 1:1 ratio? When sodium loses an electron, it becomes an ion
with a charge of +1. When chlorine gains an electron, it becomes an ion with
a charge of –1. When these two ions combine to form an ionic bond, the net
electrical charge is zero (Figure 16.11). This is because (+1) + (–1) = 0.
All compounds have an electrical charge of zero; that
is, they are neutral.
Oxidation numbers A sodium atom always ionizes to become Na+ (a charge of +1) when it Figure 16.11: Sodium and chlorine
combines with other atoms to make a compound. Therefore, we say that combine in a 1:1 ratio.
sodium has an oxidation number of 1+. An oxidation number indicates the Electrons
electric charge on an atom when electrons are lost, gained, or shared during Oxidation
Atom Gained or
chemical bond formation. Notice that the convention for writing oxidation Number
Lost
numbers is the opposite of the convention for writing the charge. When
writing the oxidation number, the positive (or negative) symbol is written K loses 1 1+
after the number, not before it. Mg loses 2 2+
Al loses 3 3+
What is chlorine’s oxidation number? If you think it is 1–, you are right. This
is because chlorine gains one electron, one negative charge, when it bonds P gains 3 3–
with other atoms. Figure 16.12 shows the oxidation numbers for some of Se gains 2 2–
the elements. Br gains 1 1–
Figure 16.12: Oxidation numbers of
some common elements.
Predicting oxidation numbers from the periodic table

Valence electrons In the last section, you learned that you can tell how many valence electrons
and oxidation an element has by its location on the periodic table. If you can determine
numbers how many valence electrons an element has, you can predict its oxidation
number. An oxidation number corresponds to the need of an atom to gain or
lose electrons (Figure 16.13).
Beryllium has For example, locate beryllium (Be) on the periodic table below. It is in the
an oxidation second column, or Group 2, which means beryllium has two valence
number of 2+ electrons. Will beryllium get rid of two electrons, or gain six in order to
obtain a stable number? Of course, it is easier to lose two electrons. When
these two electrons are lost, beryllium becomes an ion with a charge of +2.
Therefore, the most common oxidation number for beryllium is 2+. In fact,
the most common oxidation number for all elements in Group 2 is 2+.
The periodic table The periodic table below shows the most common oxidation numbers of
most of the elements. The elements known as transition metals (in the middle
of the table) have variable oxidation numbers.
Figure 16.13: Oxidation numbers

correspond to the need to gain or lose
electrons.
Predicting ionic and covalent bonds

Why bonds are ionic Whether or not a compound is ionic or covalently bonded depends on how
or covalent much each element “needs” an electron to get to a magic number (2 or 8). You can use the periodic table to
predict whether or not two elements
Elements that are very close to the noble gases tend to give or take electrons will form ionic or covalent compounds.
rather than share them. These elements often form ionic bonds rather than For example, potassium combines
covalent bonds. with bromine to make potassium
bromide (KBr). Are the chemical
Sodium chloride As an example, sodium has one electron more than the noble gas neon. bonds in this compound likely to be
is ionic Sodium has a very strong tendency to give up that electron and become a ionic or covalent? To solve this
positive ion. Chlorine has one electron less than argon. Therefore, chlorine problem, look at the periodic table at
has a very strong tendency to accept an electron and become a negative ion. the left.
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound because sodium has a strong tendency K is a strong electron donor and Br is
to give up an electron and chlorine has a strong tendency to accept an a strong electron acceptor. KBr is an
electron. ionic compound because K and Br are
from opposite sides of the periodic
Widely separated On the periodic table, strong electron donors are the left side (alkali metals). table.
elements form ionic Strong electron acceptors are on the right side (halogens). The farther Now you try these:
compounds separated two elements are on the periodic table, the more likely they are to
1. Are the chemical bonds in silica
form an ionic compound. (SiO2) likely to be ionic or
Nearby elements Covalent compounds form when elements have roughly equal tendency to covalent?
form covalent accept electrons. Elements that are nonmetals and therefore close together on 2. Are the chemical bonds in calcium
compounds the periodic table tend to form covalent compounds with each other because fluoride (CaF2) likely to be ionic or
covalent?
they have approximately equal tendency to accept electrons. Compounds
involving carbon, silicon, nitrogen, and oxygen are often covalent.
Oxidation numbers and chemical formulas

Oxidation numbers When elements combine in molecules and ionic compounds, the total Oxidation
Element
in a compound electric charge is always zero. This is because any electron donated by one Number
add up to zero atom is accepted by another. The rule of zero charge is easiest to apply using
copper (I) Cu+
oxidation numbers. The total of all the oxidation numbers for all the atoms in
a compound must be zero. This important rule allows you to predict many copper (II) Cu2+
chemical formulas. iron (II) Fe2+
The oxidation numbers for all the atoms in a iron (III) Fe3+
compound must add up to zero. chromium (II) Cr2+
Example: carbon To see how this works, consider the compound carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). chromium (III) Cr3+
tetrachloride Carbon has an oxidation number of 4+. Chlorine has an oxidation number of lead (II) Pb2+
1–. It takes four chlorine atoms to cancel carbon’s 4+ oxidation number. lead (IV) Pb4+
Figure 16.14: In some cases, roman
numerals are used to distinguish the
oxidation number for an element with
multiple numbers.
Most elements Some periodic tables list multiple oxidation numbers for
have more than most elements. This is because more complex bonding is
one possible possible. This course gives you the fundamental ideas but
oxidation number there is much more! When multiple oxidation numbers are
shown, the most common one is usually in bold type. For
example, nitrogen has possible oxidation numbers of 5+,
4+, 3+, 2+, and 3– even though 3– is the most common
(shown right). In some reference materials, roman numerals
are used to distinguish the oxidation number. Figure 16.14
shows a few of these elements.
Predicting chemical formulas for binary compounds

Rules for predicting Once you know how to find the oxidation numbers of the elements, you can
binary compound - a chemical
chemical formulas predict the chemical formulas of binary compounds (Figure 16.15). A binary compound that consists of two
compound is a compound that consists of two elements. Sodium chloride elements.
(NaCl) is a binary compound. To predict and write the chemical formula of a
binary compound, use the following rules.
1. Write the symbol for the element that has a positive oxidation number
first. Do not write the oxidation number.
2. Write the symbol for the element that has a negative oxidation number
second. Do not write the oxidation number.
3. Find the least common multiple between the oxidation numbers to make
the sum of their charges equal zero. Use the numbers you multiply the
oxidation numbers by as subscripts.
Solving Problems: Binary Compounds

Iron (III) (3+) and oxygen (2–) combine to form a compound. Predict the
chemical formula of this compound.
1. Looking for: Chemical formula for a binary compound
2. Given: Elements and oxidation numbers: Fe (III) = 3+ and O = 2–
3. Relationships: Write the subscripts so that the sum of the oxidation numbers equals zero.
4. Solution: The least common multiple between 3 and 2 is 6.
For iron (III): 2 × (3+) = 6+. For oxygen: 3 × (2–) = 6–
(6+) + (6–) = 0. The chemical formula is Fe2O3 because it took 2 Fe atoms Figure 16.15: The steps to
and 3 O atoms to make a neutral compound. predicting the chemical formula
of a binary compound.
Your turn...
a. Predict the chemical formula of the compound containing beryllium (2+)
and fluorine (1–). a. BeF2
b. Predict the chemical formula of the compound containing lead (IV) and b. PbS2
sulfur (2–).
365
Compounds with more than two elements

Not all compounds Have you ever taken an antacid for an upset stomach? Many antacids contain
polyatomic ion - an ion that
are made of only two calcium carbonate, or CaCO3. How many types of atoms does this
contains more than one atom.
types of atoms compound contain? You are right if you said three: calcium, carbon, and
oxygen. Some compounds contain more than two elements. Some of these
types of compounds contain polyatomic ions. A polyatomic ion contains Oxidation
Name of Ion Formula
more than one atom. The prefix poly- means “many.” Figure 16.16 lists some Number
common polyatomic ions. The example below illustrates how to write 1+ ammonium NH4+
chemical formulas for these types of compounds.
1– acetate C2H3O2–
2– carbonate CO32–
Solving Problems: More Chemical Formulas 2– chromate CrO42–
hydrogen
1– HCO3–
Aluminum (3+) combines with the sulfate (SO42– ) to make aluminum carbonate
sulfate. Write the chemical formula for aluminum sulfate. 1+ hydronium H3O+
1. Looking for: Chemical formula for a compound containing more than two elements 1– hydroxide OH–
2. Given: Al 3+ and SO42– 1– nitrate NO3–
3. Relationships: The oxidation numbers for all of the atoms in the compound must add up to 2– peroxide O22–
zero. 3– phosphate PO43–
4. Solution: Two aluminum ions have a charge of 6+. It takes three sulfate ions to get a 2– sulfate SO42–
charge of 6–. To write the chemical formula, parentheses must be placed SO32–
2– sulfite
around the polyatomic ion. The subscript is placed on the outside of the
parentheses. The formula is: Al2(SO4)3 Figure 16.16: Oxidation numbers of
some common polyatomic ions.
Your turn...
a. Write the chemical formula for hydrogen (1+) peroxide (O22– ).
a. H2O2
b. Write the chemical formula for calcium (2+) phosphate (PO43– ).
b. Ca3(PO4)2
366
Naming compounds
Naming binary ionic You can name a binary ionic compound if you are given its chemical formula
compounds by following these rules. A binary ionic compound is held together by ionic
bonds. Binary molecular compounds consist of covalently bonded atoms.
Naming binary molecular compounds is in discussed the Solve It! on the next
page. To name a binary ionic compound:
1. Write the name of the first element.
2. Write the root name of the second element.
3. Add the suffix -ide to the root name.
What is the name of MgBr2 is magnesium (name of first element) + brom (root name of second
MgBr2? element) + ide = magnesium bromide (Figure 16.17, top).
If the positive element has more than one oxidation number, you must first
figure out that number. Then, use a roman numeral to indicate the oxidation
number. For example, FeCl3 = iron (III) chloride because iron (III) has a
charge of 3+ so it would take 3 chloride ions (oxidation number = 1–) to make
the sum of the oxidation numbers equal zero.
Naming compounds Naming compounds with polyatomic ions is easy.
with polyatomic ions
1.
Write the name of the first element or polyatomic ion first. Use the
periodic table or ion chart (Figure 16.16, previous page) to find its name.
2. Write the name of the second element or polyatomic ion second. Use the
periodic table or ion chart (Figure 16.16, previous page) to find its name.
If the second one is an element, use the root name of the element with the
suffix -ide.
What is the name of NH4Cl is ammonium (the name of the polyatomic ion from Figure 16.16) +
NH4Cl? chlor (root name of the second element) + ide = ammonium chloride
(Figure 16.17, bottom).
Again, if an element has more than one oxidation number, you must figure out
that number. For example, Cu2SO3 would be named copper (I) sulfite and
CuSO3 would be copper (II) sulfite.
Figure 16.17: Naming compounds.
Section 16.2 Review

1. The oxidation number is: Naming binary molecular
a. the number of oxygen atoms an element bonds with compounds
b. the positive or negative charge acquired by an atom in a Naming binary molecular compounds,
chemical bond is similar to the methods used in
naming binary ionic compounds
c. the number of electrons involved in a chemical bond described on the previous page.
2. Name three elements that have an oxidation number of 3+. However, in this case, the number of
3. What is the oxidation number for the elements in Group 7? each type of atom (the subscript) is
also specified in the name of the
4. When elements form a molecule, what is true about the oxidation compound. The Greek prefixes are,
numbers of the atoms in the molecule? from 1 to 10: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta,
a. The sum of the oxidation numbers must equal zero. hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca.
b. All oxidation numbers from the same molecule must be positive. To name a binary molecular
5. True or False: All oxidation numbers from the same molecule must be compound, specify the number of
each type of atom using the Greek
negative. prefix. As with binary ionic
6. Which of the following elements will bond with oxygen resulting in a compounds, the ending of the name
1:1 ratio of oxygen and the element? of the second element in the
a. lithium compound is modified by adding the
suffix -ide as shown in this example:
b. boron
c. beryllium
d. nitrogen
7. Name the following compounds.
a. NaHCO3 If the first element in the compound
b. BaCl2 does not have a subscript, do not use
a Greek prefix for that element, but
c. LiF use one for the second element. For
d. Al(OH)3 example, CO2 is carbon dioxide.
e. SrI Name the following binary molecular
8. Would a bond between potassium and iodine most likely be covalent or compounds:
ionic? Explain your answer. (a) CCl4 (b) N4O6 (c) S2F10
368
16.3 Molecules and Carbon Compounds

Do you know which compounds you are made of? Excluding water, 91 percent of your body mass
consists of compounds that are made up of only four elements: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen. Of those four, carbon is the largest part at 53 percent. The molecules of some of those
compounds are large and complex. In this section, you will learn more about molecules and why
carbon is such an important element in the molecules of living things.
Structural diagrams of molecules

Molecules are In addition to the elements from which it is made, the shape of a molecule is
represented using also important to its function and properties. For this reason, we use
structural diagrams structural diagrams to show the shape and arrangement of atoms in a
molecule. Single bonds between atoms are shown with solid lines connecting
the element symbols. Double and triple bonds are shown with double and
triple lines. Figure 16.18 shows the chemical formula and structural diagram
for some compounds.
Properties come Both chemical formula and the structure of the molecules determine the
from the molecule properties of a compound. For example, aspirin, a pain reducer, is a molecule
made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen according to the chemical formula
C9H8O4. The same 21 atoms in aspirin can be combined in other structures
with the same chemical formula! But the resulting molecules do not have the
pain-relieving properties of aspirin.
Figure 16.18: Chemical formulas
and structural diagrams.
Carbon molecules
Many compounds Most of the compounds you are made of contain the element carbon.
organic chemistry - a branch of
contain carbon Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that specializes in carbon chemistry that specializes in the study
compounds, also known as organic molecules. But carbon compounds are of carbon compounds, also known as
not only found in living things. Plastic, rubber, and gasoline are carbon organic molecules.
compounds. In fact, there are over 12 million known carbon compounds! polymer - a compound that is
Carbon is unique among the elements because a carbon atom can form composed of long chains of smaller
chemical bonds with other carbon atoms in long chains or rings. Some molecules.
carbon compounds contain several thousand carbon atoms.
Carbon forms ring Carbon atoms have four valence electrons and can share one or more of these
and chain molecules electrons to make covalent bonds with other carbon atoms or as many as four
other elements. Carbon molecules come in three basic forms: straight chains,
branching chains, and rings. The three basic shapes can be combined in the
same molecule.
Polymers A polymer is a compound that is composed of long chains of smaller,

repeating molecules. Plastic (polyethylene) is a polymer that is
composed of long chains of a smaller molecule called ethylene. You
can think of a plastic molecule as a chain of paperclips. Each Figure 16.19: Plastic is a polymer
made from long chains of ethylene
paperclip represents an ethylene molecule (Figure 16.19).
molecules.
Carbohydrates
The four types of Scientists classify the organic molecules in living things into four basic
carbohydrates - a group of energy-
biological molecules groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids. All living things rich compounds that are made from
contain all four types of molecules. And each type of molecule includes carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
thousands of different compounds, some specific to plants, some to animals. that include sugars and starches.
It is only in the past few decades that biotechnology has been able to reveal
the rich chemistry of living things.
What are Carbohydrates are energy-rich compounds made from carbon, hydrogen,
carbohydrates? and oxygen. Carbohydrates are classified as sugars and starches. Sugars are
smaller molecules. Glucose is a simple sugar made of 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen,
and 6 oxygen atoms (Figure 16.20). The sugar you use to sweeten food is
called sucrose. A sucrose molecule is made from two glucose molecules.
Starches are chains Starches are long chains of glucose molecules joined together to make natural
of sugar polymers. Because starches are larger molecules, they are slower to break
down in the body and therefore can provide energy for a longer period than
sugars. Corn, potatoes, and wheat contain substantial amounts of starches.
Cellulose Cellulose is the primary molecule in plant fibers, including wood. The
Figure 16.20: A glucose molecule.
long-chain molecules of cellulose are what give wood its strength. Like
starch, cellulose is a polymer made of
thousands of glucose molecules.
However, in starch all the glucose
units are the same orientation. In
cellulose, alternate glucose units
are inverted. This difference
makes cellulose difficult for
animals to digest. Trees grow so large
partly because so few animals can
digest wood.
Lipids
Lipids Like carbohydrates, lipids are energy-rich compounds made from carbon,
lipids - a group of energy-rich
hydrogen, and oxygen (Figure 16.21). Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes. compounds that are made from
Lipids are made by cells to store energy for long periods of time. Animals carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
that hibernate (sleep through the winter) live off of the fat stored in their that include fats, waxes, and oils.
cells. Polar bears have a layer of fat beneath their skin to insulate them from saturated fat - a fat in which the
very cold temperatures. Can you name some foods that contain lipids? carbon atoms are surrounded by as
many hydrogen atoms as possible.
Cholesterol is a lipid Like fat, cholesterol is listed on food labels. Cholesterol is a lipid that makes
up part of the outer membrane of your cells. Your liver normally produces unsaturated fat - a fat that has
fewer hydrogen atoms because
enough cholesterol for your cells to use. Too much cholesterol in some double bonds exist among some of
people’s diet may cause fat deposits on their blood vessels. This may lead to the carbon atoms.
coronary artery disease. Foods that come from animals are often high in
cholesterol.
Saturated fats A lipid molecule has a two-part structure. The first part is called glycerol.
Attached to the glycerol are 3 carbon chains. In a saturated fat, the carbon
atoms are surrounded by as many hydrogens as possible. (See graphic below,
left.)
Unsaturated fats An unsaturated fat has fewer hydrogen atoms than it could have, because
double bonds exist between some of the carbon atoms. (See graphic below,
right.) Chemical processing of food adds some hydrogen to unsaturated fats
in a process called hydrogenation. While partially hydrogenated fats have a
longer shelf life, research is showing that consuming them may be unhealthy.
Figure 16.21: A lipid molecule.
Proteins
Proteins Proteins are very large molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
proteins - a group of very large
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. Many animal parts like hair, fingernails, molecules made of carbon,
muscle, and skin contain proteins. Hemoglobin is a protein in your blood that hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
carries oxygen to your cells. Enzymes are also proteins. An enzyme is a type sometimes sulfur.
of protein that cells use to speed up chemical reactions in living things. enzyme - a type of protein used to
Proteins are made of Protein molecules are made of smaller molecules called amino acids. Your speed up chemical reactions in
living things.
amino acids cells combine different amino acids in various ways to make different
proteins. There are 20 amino acids used by cells to make proteins. You can amino acids - a group of smaller
molecules that are the building blocks
compare amino acids to letters in the alphabet. Just as you can spell thousands
of proteins.
of words with just 26 letters, you can make thousands of different proteins
from just 20 amino acids (Figure 16.22).
Shape and function Only certain parts of a protein are
chemically active. The shape of a
protein determines which active sites
are exposed. Many proteins work
together by fitting into each other like
a lock and key. This is one reason why
proteins that perform a function in one
organism cannot perform the same
function in another organism. For
example, a skin protein from an
animal cannot replace a skin protein
from a human.
Amino acids from Food supplies new proteins that a
food are used to body needs to live and grow. However,
build proteins proteins from one organism cannot be
directly used by another. Fortunately,
the same 20 amino acids are found in proteins from almost all living things. In Figure 16.22: Proteins are
your body, digestion breaks down food protein into its component amino made from smaller molecules called
acids. Cells reassemble the amino acids into new proteins suitable for your amino acids.
body’s needs.
DNA and nucleic acids

What are nucleic Nucleic acids are compounds made of long, repeating chains called
nucleic acids - compounds made
acids? nucleotides. Nucleotides are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
of long, repeating chains of
and phosphorus. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule, a phosphate smaller molecules called
molecule, and a base molecule, as shown in the graphic below. nucleotides.
DNA - a type of nucleic acid that
contains the genetic code for an
organism.
DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid that contains the information
cells need to make all of their proteins. A DNA molecule is put together like
a twisted ladder, or double helix. Each rung of the DNA ladder consists of a
base pair. A base on one side of the molecule always matches up with a
certain base on the other side (Figure 16.23). The base adenine (A) only pairs
with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) only pairs with guanine (G). This base
pairing is very important to the function of DNA. A single DNA molecule
contains more than one million atoms!
Figure 16.23: The DNA molecule.
374 SC.912.L.16.10-Evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including medical and ethical issues.
Section 16.3 Review

1. Explain why life is often referred to as “carbon-based.” Counting Calories
2. What are the four groups of carbon compounds found in living things?
3. You may have heard the saying, “You are what you eat.” Use information
learned in this section to explain what this statement means.
4. Classify each substance as either sugar, starch, protein, or nucleic acid.
a. the major compound that makes up the skin
b. glucose
c. the major compound in potatoes
d. DNA
5. Complete the table below.
Carbon Elements It Is Importance to

Example
Compound Made From Living Things
Carbohydrate A food calorie (kilocalorie) tells you
how much energy is in different foods.
Lipid Each type of carbon compound has a
certain number of food calories per
Protein
gram. Fat contains 9 food calories per
Nucleic acid gram. Carbohydrate and protein each
contain 4 food calories per gram.
Based on this information, answer the
6. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fat? Why are following.
partially hydrogenated fats useful for making potato chips but not
1. How many food calories in the
particularly healthy for humans to eat?
product above come from fat?
7. Simple sugars are the building blocks of carbohydrates. What are the 2. How many food calories come
simple units that make up proteins? from carbohydrate?
8. How many amino acids are used by cells to make the proteins? How 3. How many food calories come
many different kinds of proteins can be made by this number of amino from protein?
acids? 4. How many food calories are in a
serving of the product?
9. What type of biological molecule is an enzyme, and why are enzymes so
important to living things?
375
Chapter 16
The Spin on Recycle and

Reuse
Scrap Tires
Whole-tire recycling
involves using the
old tire whole for
other purposes,
The next time you travel in a car, think about the tires on which such as landscape
you are riding. Did you know that more than 290 million tires borders, playground
are discarded in the U.S. each year? Around the world, millions structures, bumpers,
of tires are thrown away each day! As the number of cars on the and highway crash
road increases each year, so does the number of scrap tires. For barriers. Some
many years, the only disposal options were to throw scrap tires scrap tires can be
into landfills or burn them, which caused air pollution. Today, reconditioned and
scientists and engineers are coming up with innovative ways to reused as tires
put a new spin on discarding old tires. again. It is more
difficult to recycle
tires for other
Tire Composition purposes. Most tires
A typical automobile tire is about 65 percent rubber, 25 percent are made from rubber, steel, and plastic fiber, bonded together in
steel, and 10 percent plastic fiber. The rubber found in tires is layers as shown below. To recycle tires for other uses, these materials
vulcanized, or chemically treated to increase the number of sulfur must be separated. The process involves chopping the scrap tires up
bonds. While this process produces a rigid, strong, and puncture- into pieces, and then separating the rubber and fiber from the steel.
resistant substance, it also makes it
harder to chemically break the rubber An expensive, but very effective
down into useful substances. Some way to separate the rubber, fiber,
experts have said that reclaiming the and steel involves cooling the small
original components from scrap tires is pieces of tire with liquid nitrogen.
like trying to recycle a cake back to its This releases the bond between
original ingredients. That’s why it is so the steel, rubber, and fiber pieces.
important to find innovative uses for Next, magnets are used to take out
scrap tires. the steel. The pieces of rubber can
then be separated from the fiber
using density techniques.
Keeping Tires Out of the Dump
These days, a tire can have more than one life. After manufacture
Uses for Scrap Rubber
and use, tires are either recycled, reconditioned, used as fuel, or
in fewer and fewer cases, discarded. Today, more than 80 percent and Steel
of scrap tires are reused in some way and do not end up in a The small particles of rubber can be used immediately as a substitute
landfill. This is up from only around 17 percent in 1990 (Source: U.S. for new rubber in products such as footwear, carpet underlay, and
Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA). waterproofing compounds. It can also be mixed with asphalt to
SC.912.L.17.16–Discuss the large-scale environmental impacts resulting from human activity, including waste spills, oil spills, runoff, greenhouse gases, ozone depletion, and surface and ground-
water pollution.
SC.912.L.17.20–Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability.
376 SC.912.P.8.7–Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of composition and structure.
Chapter 16
make safe and durable
road surfaces. In fact,
Chemically Changing Rubber
it has been found that Like plastic, rubber is a polymer—that is, a molecule that consists
adding scrap rubber to of long chains of repeating smaller molecules. Rubber is a polymer
the asphalt used to pave that is very difficult to break down—especially vulcanized rubber.
roads can significantly But recent advances in technology have created an environmentally
decrease braking friendly process for breaking the carbon–carbon, carbon–sulfur, and
distances! The use of sulfur–sulfur bonds in order to produce smaller molecules. These
ground rubber from smaller molecules can be used to make liquid and gaseous fuels,
scrap tires for paving ingredients for other polymers, lubricating oils, and a charcoal that
highways is the largest can be used to decontaminate water or soil. However, this process,
single use of recycled rubber. Currently 12 million scrap tires per year called pyrolysis, is difficult and expensive. Only a small fraction of
are used in paving highways (Source: EPA). Asphalt–scrap rubber the rubber from scrap tires is used in this way.
mixtures are also used for track and field grounds, equestrian tracks,
and playground surfaces. A Shortage of Discarded Tires?
The steel that is recovered from tires is used to make new steel. Currently, there are so many uses for
In fact, almost everything we make out of steel contains some discarded tires that a good question seems
percentage that is recycled. For nearly as long as steel has been to be, Why not recycle all of our discarded
made, recycling has been part of the process. tires? Perhaps in the near future, instead of
an overabundance of discarded tires, there
will be a shortage!
Scrap Tires as Fuel
Another use for scrap tires
is to burn them as fuel. The
tires are either incinerated Questions:
whole, or ground up into
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages to
smaller pieces first. Many
asphalt plants across the
whole-tire recycling?
country use scrap tires as a 2. Use information in this article and other sources
fuel source. (www.epa.gov) to make a pie graph that shows
A total of 130 million scrap tires were used as tire-derived fuel (TDF) the percentage of scrap tires that are used for
in 2003, up from 25 million in 1990. Tires produce the same amount different purposes.
of energy as oil and
25 percent more energy than coal. In fact, one passenger car tire 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages to chemically
is equivalent in energy to about seven gallons of oil! The amount changing scrap rubber?
of energy in each pound of scrap tire is about 15,800 kilojoules
4. Imagine that a manufacturer designs a new tire using
(Source for all: EPA). In addition, burning scrap tires produces fewer
pollutants and less carbon dioxide than burning coal or fossil fuels!
completely different materials. How might this affect the
tire recycling options? What should tire manufacturers take
into consideration before changing their tire designs?
water pollution.
SC.912.L.17.20–Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability. 377
Chapter 16 ELECTRICITY
11. Fats, oils, and waxes are examples of _____.
polyatomic ion organic chemistry Lewis dot diagram 12. ____ are molecules composed of long chains of smaller,
nucleic acids binary compound saturated fat
repeating molecules.
chemical formula amino acids enzyme 13. Sugars and starches are examples of _____.
proteins valence electrons ion 14. The building blocks of proteins are called _____.
ionic bond carbohydrates covalent bond
15. A branch of chemistry that specializes in the study of carbon
oxidation number unsaturated fat polymer
compounds is _____.
lipids chemical bond DNA
16. A fat that has fewer hydrogen atoms because double bonds
Section 16.1 exist among some of the carbon atoms is called a(n) _____.
1. H2O is the ____ of water.
17. A fat in which the carbon atoms are surrounded by as many
2. A(n) ____ is formed when atoms share one or more electrons. hydrogen atoms as possible is called a(n) _____.
3. A(n) ____ is formed when atoms transfer or share electrons. 18. Very large molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
4. A(n) ____ is formed when atoms transfer electrons. nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur are called _____.
5. You can use a(n) _____ to represent the valence electrons of 19. A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in living
an atom. things is called a(n) _____.
6. A charged atom is called a(n) _____. 20. Compounds made of many repeating nucleotides are known
as _____.
7. The electrons involved in chemical bonds are called _____.
21. _____ is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic code for
Section 16.2
an organism.
8. A(n) _____ indicates the electric charge on an atom when it
gains, loses, or shares electrons during chemical Concepts
bond formation.
Section 16.1
9. A compound consisting of two elements is called a(n) _____.
1. What is the chemical formula for water? What atoms make
10. The type of ion that contains more than one atom is called up this compound?
a(n) _____.
2. Why do atoms form compounds instead of existing as
single atoms?
378
3. What type of bond holds a water molecule together? 16. Using the periodic table, what is the oxidation number of:
4. What do we call the particle that is a group of atoms held a. calcium
together by covalent bonds? b. aluminum
5. What does the subscript 2 in H2O mean? c. fluoride
6. What do the subscripts in the formula for ethane represent? 17. What is the total electric charge on molecules and
compounds?
18. Elements close to the noble gases tend to form what type
of bond?
19. Elements that are widely separated on the periodic table
tend to form ____ compounds.
20. Elements that are close together on the periodic table tend
7. Name the two most important factors in determining the to form ____ compounds.
properties of a compound.
21. Strong electron donors are on the ____ side of the periodic
8. Summarize the differences between a covalent compound table, while strong electron acceptors are on the ____ side.
and an ionic compound.
Section 16.3
9. Which group of elements usually don’t form chemical bonds?
22. What do all organic molecules have in common?
10. When atoms form chemical bonds, which of their electrons
23. What makes carbon uniquely suited to being the basis for
are involved in the bonds?
biological molecules?
11. In a Lewis dot diagram, what is represented by the dots
24. An organic compound contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
surrounding the element symbol?
and nitrogen. Is this compound likely to be a lipid,
Section 16.2 carbohydrate, or protein? Explain.
12. Name a very reactive group of metals and a very reactive 25. Describe the four types of biological molecules. Give an
group of nonmetals. Why do they behave this way? example for each type.
13. Noble gases usually don’t form chemical bonds. Why? a. carbohydrate
14. Each successive element on a period table going from left to b. fat
right across a period has what? c. protein
d. nucleic acid
15. How does the oxidation number indicate if an electron will
be lost or gained by the bonding atom? 26. What elements are carbohydrates made of?
27. Why do sugars break down so quickly in your body?
379
Chapter 16 ELECTRICITY
28. Identify each of the following as a carbohydrate, lipid, 4. Which of the following would be a correct chemical formula
protein, or nucleic acid. for a molecule of N3– and H+?
a. glucose a. HNO3
b. hemoglobin b. H3N6
c. DNA c. NH3
d. digestive enzymes 5. Refer to the diagram of the periodic table in Chapter 7 and
e. cholesterol determine which element in each pair is more active.
f. cellulose a. Li or Be
b. Ca or Sc
Problems c. P or S
Section 16.1 d. O or Ne
1. For each of the molecule formulas listed below, name each 6. In order for nitrogen to form a compound
element and tell how many of atoms of each element are in with other elements, how many
that molecule. additional electrons are required to give
a. C6H12O6 nitrogen the required number of electrons
b. CaCO3 in its outermost energy level?
c. Al2O3 7. Using the periodic table:
d. B(OH)3 a. determine the oxidation number of
2. Draw Lewis dot diagrams for the following. Ca and Cl
a. Bi b. write the chemical formula for calcium chloride
b. Ge 8. Write the chemical formulas for the following compounds.
c. Ne Consult Figure 16.16 on page 366 if necessary.
d. SrI2 a. sodium iodide
Section 16.2 b. aluminum hydroxide
c. magnesium sulfide
3. Predict the formula for a molecule containing carbon (C)
d. ammonium nitrate
with an oxidation number of 4+ and oxygen (O) with an
oxidation number of 2–. 9. Name the following compounds.
a. KI
b. SrCl2
c. KNO3
d. Al2O3
380
10. Classify each of the following carbohydrates as containing Section 16.1
mostly sugar, starch, or cellulose.
1. The noble gases used to be called “inert” gases until 1962,
a. a stack of firewood
when scientists were able to cause them to react and form
b. rice compounds. Using a search engine, and keywords “noble gas
c. jelly beans compound,” conduct research on this topic. Find the names
d. a shirt made of cotton of some noble gas compounds, who discovered them, their
e. an apple chemical formulas, and how they are used.
11. The human body is made mostly of: Section 16.2
a. carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 2. Answer each of the following questions about compounds.
b. oxygen, calcium, carbon, and hydrogen a. Ammonium sulfate is often used as a chemical fertilizer.
c. hydrogen, iron, nitrogen, and oxygen What is its chemical formula?
12. Which of the following compounds are organic? b. Calcium carbonate is a main ingredient in some
a. nucleic acid antacids. What is its chemical formula?
b. CH4 c. Kidney stones, a painful problem, a partially made from
c. H 2O a compound whose chemical formula is Ca3(PO4)2.
What is the name of this compound?
d. hydrochloric acid
e. table salt Section 16.3
f. sugar 3. Suppose that there are only three amino acids called 1, 2,
13. The diagram below shows an enzyme and three different and 3. If all three are needed to make a protein, how many
molecules. Which of the three molecules would this enzyme different proteins could be made? Each amino acid may only
target for a reaction? appear in each protein once. Also, the position of the amino
acid is important—123 is not the same as 321. Show your
number arrangements to support your answer.
4. You are entering a contest to design a new advertising
campaign for National Nutrition Awareness Week. Create a
slogan and a written advertisement that encourages teens to
eat the right amounts of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Use at least three facts to make your advertisement
convincing.
Unit 6
Changes in Matter
CHAPTER 17 Chemical Change
CHAPTER 18 Energy and

Reactions
CHAPTER 19 Solutions
Make invisible ink! Mix equal parts of baking

soda and water in a small cup. Use a
paintbrush or cotton swab dipped in the
baking soda mixture to create a message on a piece of paper. Let the
message dry. Paint over the message with some concentrated purple
grape juice. Watch the message appear! The purple grape juice
changes color in the presence of certain substances like the baking
soda; it’s an acid/base reaction.
Chapter 17
Chemical Change
-
+
+
-
When studying science, it is common to be told “Look around!” However, in
chemistry, the objects of study aren’t cars or people in motion, which are easy to
see. The objects of study are atoms and molecules, which are extremely small. Nonetheless,
these tiny particles are ALL around you. In fact, some scientists describe the space around them
as “chemical space.” They think that the number of possible arrangements of atoms in the
universe be as many as up to 1060 compounds! That is a huge number! To date, “only” about
27 million compounds are known to be on Earth or have been made by scientists. For a
new compound to be made, a chemical change has to occur. That means the atoms in the
starting materials are rearranged to make different or even new compounds. What might
be the motivation for making a new compound? Here are some ideas: New compounds
can mean new medicines, new materials to make lighter cars or airplanes, or even new
fuels to run a car or an airplane! For this reason, being able to predict the outcome of
chemical changes is important. You are going to learn the basics of doing just that in
this chapter.
How do you know a chemical reaction

has occurred?
What does it mean to “balance” a

chemical equation?
How are chemical reactions classified?

Chapter 17 CHEMICAL CHANGE
17.1 Chemical Reactions

Atoms and molecules are all around us and so are chemical reactions. How do you know a
chemical reaction is occurring? When you make pizza, for example, some of your work involves
physical changes and some involves chemical changes (Figure 17.1). You know a chemical
reaction has occurred if a chemical change has occurred as well. In this section, you will learn
about chemical reactions.
Physical vs. chemical changes

A review of In Chapter 15, you learned that matter undergoes chemical changes and
changes physical changes. Recall that a physical change is a change that affects only
the physical properties of a substance. Examples of physical changes include
chopping pizza toppings (like vegetables) into smaller pieces and melting an
ice cube into liquid water. Both of these changes involve a change in size,
shape, or state of matter. A chemical change is a change in a substance that
Figure 17.1: This woman is making
involves the breaking and reforming of chemical bonds to make one or more pizza from scratch. Here, she is
different substances. preparing the dough. What part of
making a pizza involves physical
Physical and The process of making pizza involves some physical changes (like chopping
changes? What part of the process
chemical changes vegetables) and chemical changes. Pizza dough is made of flour, oil, salt, and
involves chemical changes?
in making pizza yeast (a type of fungus). As pizza dough is made, the yeast produces carbon
dioxide gas in a process called cellular respiration. The carbon dioxide
causes the dough to rise. This gas, the result of a chemical change, is
responsible for the small holes you see in any kind of bread made with yeast.
The action of the yeast and heat from an oven causes chemical changes that
transform the sticky pizza dough into a tasty crust. Science in Your Mouth
Place a saltine cracker in your mouth.
Energy and changes Both physical and chemical changes involve energy. For example, you need How does it taste? Hold it there for
energy to chop a green pepper into smaller pieces. Energy is also required for about 10 minutes. Now how does it
a substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid to a gas. Because taste? Is this evidence of a chemical
chemical changes involve breaking and forming bonds, energy is also or physical change? Write down what
involved in these changes. Heat or light—forms of energy—are produced you observe and think.
or used during a chemical change. The chemical changes in making pizza
require the yeast to use and release energy and the heat of an oven to cook
the pizza.
CHEMICAL CHANGE Chapter 17
What is a chemical reaction?

Chemical reaction You have just learned something about the physical and chemical changes
chemical reaction - the process
defined involved in making pizza. Any time there is a chemical change, a chemical of breaking chemical bonds in one or
reaction has occurred. A chemical reaction is the process of breaking more substances and the reforming
chemical bonds in one or more substances, and the reforming of new bonds to of new bonds to create new
create new substances. The process of respiration performed by yeast in substances.
making pizza dough is a chemical reaction. The process used to generate heat precipitate - a solid that forms and
in a gas stove to bake the pizza is also a chemical reaction and is illustrated is insoluble in a reaction mixture.
below. When methane gas (a fuel) and oxygen react, the bonds in these
molecules are broken to form the compounds carbon dioxide and water.
Evidence of a When you combine two or more compounds, how do you know whether or
chemical reaction not a chemical reaction has occurred? You can’t see atoms and molecules
actually breaking and forming bonds, but you can observe other events that
indicate a chemical reaction. Figure 17.2 illustrates the type of evidence you
can expect. For example, if you see a newly formed substance like a gas or a
solid, you can suspect a chemical reaction. If a gas is a product in the reaction,
you might see bubbles. If a new solid is produced, you might see powder
forming in the reaction mixture so that it turns cloudy. A solid that forms and
is insoluble in the reaction mixture is called a precipitate. Similarly, if you Figure 17.2: These are all different
see a color change in the reaction mixture, a new substance may have been kinds of evidence that a chemical
formed. Finally, evidence of a chemical reaction includes a temperature reaction is occurring.
change. Keep in mind that any heat added to the reaction to get it started is not
part of the evidence of a chemical reaction.
SC.912.P.8.8-Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base, synthesis, and single and double replacement reactions. 385
Reactants and products

Parts of a You can think of a chemical reaction as a kind of recipe. A recipe calls for
reactant - a starting ingredient in a
chemical reaction specific amounts of ingredients to make a food—like a cake. The starting chemical reaction.
ingredients for a chemical reaction are called the reactants. A reactant is a
product - a new substance formed
starting ingredient in a chemical reaction. The resulting substances formed in in a chemical reaction.
a chemical reaction are called the products. A product is a compound that
results from new chemical bonds formed when a chemical reaction occurs.
Reactants are On the previous page, you saw a reaction involving methane and oxygen.
chemically changed Below is that reaction presented again so that you can see what happens
to form products when reactants are chemically changed to become products. In the reaction,
methane (a natural gas) is burned or combusted. Some energy is added to get
the reaction started. Once this happens, a carbon atom from the methane
molecule reacts with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide. Single oxygen
atoms and hydrogen atoms also combine to form water. This reaction is
particularly useful in making gas stoves work because a great deal of heat
is released by this reaction.
States of matter in You know that the reactants in the reaction below are gases because of the
chemical reactions symbol (g) listed next to the molecules (Figure 17.3). Likewise, you know Figure 17.3: Symbols used for states
of matter.
that the products are gases—carbon dioxide gas and water vapor. In the next
section, you will learn more about the ways that chemical reactions are
written and the symbols that are used.
For the methane reaction, do the
number of atoms of the reactants
equal the number of atoms of the
products? Count and see. How could
you make the numbers match? (Note:
In the next section, you’ll find out!)

Look for Chemistry Everywhere
1. Is the formation of rust on an iron nail a chemical change or a physical
change? Explain your answer. This chapter is all about chemistry.
How can you improve your
2. Which of the statements below is correct? understanding? One way is to
a. In the process of cooking a frozen pizza, only chemical changes occur. practice seeing objects and events in
b. Both physical and chemical changes occur when you make pizza terms of chemistry.
from scratch. Here are some simple examples.
c. Only chemical changes occur when you cook a frozen pizza and only (1) When you see a glass of water
physical changes occur when you make pizza from scratch. think of the chemical formula for
d. You cause chemical changes in vegetables by cutting up them into water—H2O.
small pieces. (2) When you breathe, think about the
oxygen (O2) coming in and the carbon
3. In your own words, explain how energy is involved in physical changes
dioxide (CO2) going out of your nose
and in chemical changes. or mouth.
4. For the examples below, explain whether a physical or a chemical change (3) Identify events as causing a
has occurred. Justify your answer. physical change or a chemical
a. When you mix baking soda and vinegar, carbon dioxide is released. change. For example, when you write
b. You build a tall sand castle at the beach. After a wave washes over it, with a pencil, you are causing a
physical change in the pencil lead
the sand castle turns into a big pile of sand. by wearing it down. If you cook
c. Boiling water turns a raw egg into a hardboiled egg. food, you are probably causing
d. Max divided cookie dough into small piles on a cookie sheet. chemical changes.
e. A loaf of freshly-baked bread tastes better and looks much different (4) Read the ingredients on labels.
than a lump of bread dough. Can you write the chemical formula
for any of the ingredients?
f. A glass of water is left in the sun. In time, the water evaporates
leaving the glass empty.
5. List the kinds of evidence that indicate that a chemical reaction
has occurred.
6. Identify the reactants and products in this chemical reaction. For each
compound, identify if it is a gas, solid, or liquid, or is in solution.
387
17.2 Balancing Equations

Have you ever wondered what happens to wood in a fireplace or campfire as it is burned? The law of conservation of mass -
burning of wood is a chemical reaction. By writing this reaction as a chemical equation, you can a principle that states that the total
figure out what happened to the wood. It doesn’t just disappear! In this section, you will learn how mass of the reactants equals the
total mass of the products in a
reactants and products are related, and how to write and balance chemical equations.
chemical reaction.
The relationship between reactants and products

The law of In the 18th century, chemical reactions were still a bit of a mystery. A
conservation French scientist, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, established an important
of mass principal based on his experiments with chemical reactions. He stated that
the total mass of the products of a reaction is equal to the total mass of the
reactants. This statement, which relates reactants and products, is known as
the law of conservation of mass.
Figure 17.4: What happens to wood
Investigating To understand the law of conservation of mass, let’s look at the reaction of when it is burned?
a reaction burning wood. It is easy to find the mass of a piece of wood you want to
burn. But, what happens to the mass of the wood after it burns (Figure 17.4)?
To find out, look at the reaction below. The combined mass of the burning
wood and oxygen is converted into carbon dioxide and water.
Using a closed How can you prove that the mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of the
system to study products in the reaction of burning wood? Lavoisier showed that a closed
a reaction system must be used when studying chemical reactions. When chemicals are
reacted in a closed container, you can show that the mass before and after the
reaction is the same (Figure 17.5).
For a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants Figure 17.5: A closed system
illustrates the law of conservation
always equals the total mass of the products. of mass.
388 SC.912.P.8.8-Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base, synthesis, and single and double replacement reactions.
Formula mass and the mole

Formula mass The chemical formula of a reactant or product helps you calculate the mass of
formula mass - the sum of the
one unit of the compound relative to the mass of other compounds. The sum atomic mass values of the atoms in
of the atomic mass values of the atoms in a chemical formula is called the a chemical formula.
formula mass. Formula mass is a way to compare the masses of units of Avogadro number - the number
different substances. of atoms or molecules in a mole of
Determining The formula mass of a compound is determined by adding up the atomic mass any substance; the number equals
6.02 × 1023.
formula mass values of all of the atoms in the compound. For example, the chemical
formula for water is H2O. This means that there are two hydrogen atoms for mole - a unit of any substance that
contains the Avogadro number of
every one oxygen atom in a molecule of water. Using the periodic table, you
atoms or molecules.
can see that the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.007 atomic mass unit (amu). We
will round all atomic mass values to the hundredths place. Using 1.01 amu for molar mass - the mass, in grams,
of one mole of a compound.
hydrogen, we can multiply this number by the number of atoms present to
determine atomic mass of hydrogen in a water molecule. The atomic mass of
oxygen, rounded off, is 16.00. Using this information, the formula mass of a
water molecule is calculated to be 18.02 amu (Figure 17.6).
Avogadro number In order to perform chemical reactions, it is helpful to be able to measure
compounds in grams. Therefore, units of amu and grams have been related
using a number called the Avogadro number. This number is equal to
6.02 × 1023 and it is a very, very large number! The Avogadro number refers
to the number of molecules in the formula mass of a compound when this Figure 17.6: The formula mass of a
mass is expressed in grams. The Avogadro number is also the number of water molecule.
atoms in the atomic mass of an element when that value is expressed in
grams. For example, 1.01 grams of hydrogen contains 6.02 × 1023 hydrogen
atoms.
The mole The Avogadro number was named in honor of Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian
physicist and mathematician who discovered that a mole of any gas under the
same conditions has the same number of molecules. Johann Josef Loschmidt,
a German physicist, discovered and named the Avogadro number. Loschmidt
realized that a mole of any substance—be it a gas, liquid, or solid—contains
6.02 × 1023 atoms or molecules (Figure 17.7). The mass, in grams, of one Figure 17.7: Comparing numbers
mole of a compound is called its molar mass. for water.
Solving Problems: Formula Mass and Moles

a. The molar mass of two moles of
CaCO3 is: 2 mol ×
What is the molar mass of one mole of CaCO3?
100.09 g/mol = 200.18 g.
1. Looking for: The molar mass of one mole of CaCO3. b. CH4 = 16.05 amu; O2 = 32 amu;
CO2 = 44.01 amu
2. Given: The chemical formula: CaCO3.
c. You would have 6.02 × 1023
3. Relationships: One mole of CaCO3 has a molar mass in grams equal to the formula mass in molecules of water for each
atomic mass units. state. The only difference would
4. Solution: Find the atomic mass units of each element in the chemical formula for be how the molecules are
CaCO3 on a periodic table. These values are equivalent to the value for mass arranged. For example, a mole
in grams of one mole of each element. of water vapor takes up more
space than a mole of liquid
Atom amu Grams Total Mass of CaCO3 (Grams) water.
Ca 40.08 40.08 40.08
C 12.01 12.01 12.01
O 16.00 16.00 16.00 × 3 = 48.00 Looking Ahead to the Next Topic
Total 100.09 You have just calculated the formula
mass of the reactants and one product
The formula mass of CaCO3 is 100.09 amu and, therefore, the molar mass of for the reaction below. You also know
one mole of CaCO3 is 100.09 grams. that the formula mass of H2O is 18.02
amu.
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Your turn...
Convert the formula mass of each
a. What is the molar mass of two moles of CaCO3? molecule to grams and determine if the
mass of the reactants in this reaction
b. What is the formula mass of these compounds: CH4, O2, and CO2? equals the mass of the products.
c. You have 18.02 grams of each of the following states of water—water As it is written, does this reaction satisfy
vapor (a gas), liquid water, and ice. How many molecules of each of these the law of conservation of mass?
states of water do you have?
390
How are chemical reactions written?

The chemical So far you have seen how a chemical reaction—like the methane reaction
chemical equation - an
equation below—is written. When a chemical reaction is written using chemical expression of a chemical reaction
formulas and symbols, it is called a chemical equation. Chemical equations using chemical formulas and
are a convenient way to describe chemical reactions. Here you see the symbols.
methane reaction written as a chemical equation and as a sentence. What
advantages do you see for writing the reaction as an equation?
Parts of a chemical In Chapter 16, you learned how to write chemical formulas (Figure 17.8).
equation Recall that the symbols for elements are used along with subscripts.
Additional parts of a chemical equation are symbols that indicate the state
of matter for each reactant and product. An arrow is always included
between reactants and products. The arrow means “to produce” or “to yield.”
Figure 17.8: The parts of a chemical
Accounting for You know that a chemical reaction involves breaking and reforming chemical
formula.
the atoms bonds. See if you can account for how atoms are distributed on the reactant
side versus the product side in the methane reaction above. What’s wrong?
Notice that there are only two oxygen atoms on the reactant side, but there are
three on the product side. You might also notice that you have four hydrogen
atoms on the reactant side and only two on the product side (Figure 17.9).
This means that the chemical equation above is not completely correct.
Numbers and types The law of conservation of mass is always applied to chemical equations. The
of atoms must law is applied by balancing the number and type of atoms on either side of the
balance equation. When balancing a chemical equation, you consider whole atoms
rather than fractions of an atom because only whole atoms react. Also, you
are not allowed to change the chemical composition of any of the compounds
on the reactants or products side. To learn how to balance chemical equations, Figure 17.9: This graphic illustrates
let’s take another look at the methane reaction. that the number of oxygen and hydrogen
atoms are not balanced for the methane
reaction.
Balancing a chemical equation

Begin by counting The first step of balancing a chemical equation involves counting the number
coefficient - a whole number
the number of atoms of each type of atom on both sides of the reaction. Recall that the subscripts placed in front of a chemical formula
in a chemical formula tell you the number of each type of atom. The table in a chemical equation.
below summarizes this information for the methane reaction (Figure 17.10).
Type of Atom in Total on Total on
Balanced?
Methane Reaction Reactants Side Products Side
C 1 1 yes
H 4 2 no
O 2 3 no
When an equation As you can see, the chemical equation for the methane reaction is not
Figure 17.10: Graphic of the
is unbalanced balanced. The number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms are different on each unbalanced methane reaction.
side of the equation. To make them equal and balance the equation, you must
figure out what number to multiply each compound by in order to make the
numbers add up. Remember, you cannot change the number of individual
atoms in a compound. That would change its chemical formula and you
would have a different compound.
Adding coefficients To change the number of molecules of a compound, you can write a whole
number coefficient in front of the chemical formula (Figure 17.11). When
you do this, all of the types of atoms in that formula are multiplied by that
number. When there is no coefficient in front of a chemical formula, you
assume that one molecule of that compound is sufficient.
Figure 17.11: What do coefficients

and subscripts mean?
Checking your work Figuring out where to place coefficients to multiply the numbers of atoms in a
chemical formula is largely a process of trial and error. Let’s look at the
methane reaction after the correct coefficients have been added: When Balancing a
Chemical Equation...
1. Make sure you have written the
correct chemical formula for each
reactant and product.
Counting the atoms on both sides again, we see that the equation is balanced. 2. The subscripts in the chemical
formulas of the reactants and
Type of Atom in Total on Total on products cannot be changed
Balanced?
Methane Reaction Reactants Side Products Side during the process of balancing
C 1 1 yes the equation. Changing the
H 4 2(× 2) = 4 yes subscripts will change the
O 2(× 2) = 4 2 + 1(× 2) = 4 yes chemical makeup of the
compounds.
Reading a balanced Now that the equation is balanced, it can be read as follows: “One molecule of 3. Numbers called coefficients are
equation methane reacts with two molecules of oxygen to produce one molecule of placed in front of the formulas to
carbon dioxide and two molecules of water.” Figure 17.12 reviews key points make the number of atoms on
to remember when balancing chemical equations. each side of the equation equal.
Figure 17.12: Key points for

balancing a chemical equation.
Your turn... balanced or unbalanced?

Identify which of the following equations are balanced.
a. balanced
a. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
b. balanced
b. MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
c. not balanced
c. Ca + O2 → CaO
d. not balanced
d. Na2O + H2O → NaOH
e. balanced
e. 2HCl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O
393
Example: Balancing a common reaction

What happens when Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a compound your stomach normally produces to
you take an antacid? help you break down food. Sometimes, if you eat spicy foods or worry
excessively about studying chemistry, your stomach produces too much
hydrochloric acid and you get acid indigestion. Most people take antacids to
relieve this painful condition. Many antacids contain calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) which neutralizes the hydrochloric acid (Figure 17.13). The
products formed by the chemical reaction are calcium chloride, carbon
dioxide, and water. How might you write and balance the chemical equation
for this reaction? The following steps outline the process for you.
1. Write the word form of the equation.
Figure 17.13: Calcium carbonate is
Hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to produce calcium the main ingredient in antacid tablets
chloride, carbon dioxide, and water. used to fight acid indigestion.
2. Write the chemical equation.

Figure 17.14 gives you the chemical formulas for the compounds in the
reaction. Additionally, you can use the ion charts in Chapter 16 to help you
determine the chemical formulas for compounds. Using the chemical
formulas, the chemical equation for this reaction is: Some Chemical Formulas
calcium carbonate CaCO3
hydrochloric acid HCl
calcium chloride CaCl2
carbon dioxide CO2
water H2O
Figure 17.14: Chemical formulas

for each compound in the reaction.
3. Count the number of each type of atom on both sides.
The graphic below summarizes how many atoms of each type are on the
reactants and products sides of the chemical equation. Notice that there is an Antoine Lavoisier
extra hydrogen and an extra chlorine on the products side. These two extra Born in 1743, Antoine
atoms have to come from somewhere. We need to add something to the Lavoisier was one of
reactants that will give us an extra chlorine and hydrogen. the best known French
scientists of his time,
Reactants Products and is considered the
Hydrogen ✗ father of modern chemistry. He was
Carbon ✔ also an important government official.
Oxygen ✔ During Lavoisier’s time, there was a
hypothesis put forth by another
Chlorine ✗ scientist that said that lowering ocean
levels could be attributed to ocean
Calcium ✔ water actually changing into soil.
Other scientists “confirmed” this
hypothesis, claiming that a residue
4. Add coefficients to balance the equation.
that appeared after boiling water
Fortunately, one of the reactants is HCl, so we can add one more molecule inside a container was actually the
of HCl to the reactants side. In the equation, we put a 2 in front of the HCl water turning into soil. Lavoisier was
among the first scientists to perform
to indicate that we need 2 molecules. Remember, you cannot change the
truly quantitative chemistry
subscripts. In this case, you just need to put a coefficient of 2 in front of HCl experiments. He demonstrated, using
to balance the equation. careful measurements, that it was not
possible to change water into soil,
and that the sediment observed
after boiling the water actually came
from the container. He also did
experiments where he burned sulfur
in air and proved that the products of
the reaction weighed more than the
reactants, and that the weight gained
came from the air. Unfortunately,
because of his political involvements,
Lavoisier became suspicious to
leaders of the French Revolution and
was beheaded in 1794.
395
First try:
Solving Problems: Balancing Equations Cu2S + 2O2 → 2Cu2O + SO2
Atom Reactants Products

In this reaction, chalcocite (a mineral) reacts with oxygen in the presence of Cu 2 2(× 2) = 4
heat. The products are a type of copper oxide and sulfur dioxide. Balance S 1 1
this equation: Cu2S + O2 → Cu2O + SO2 (Figure 17.15). O 2(× 2) = 4 1(× 2) + 2 = 4
1. Looking for: Coefficients that will balance the chemical equation. Second try:
2. Given: The following information is based on the chemical equation. 2Cu2S + 2O2 → 2Cu2O + SO2
Type of Atom Reactants Products Balanced?
Cu 2 2 yes Cu 2(× 2) = 4 2(× 2) = 4
S 1 1 yes S 1(× 2) = 2 1
O 2 3 no O 2(× 2) = 4 1(× 2) + 2 = 4
3. Relationships: Coefficients can be added in front of any chemical formula in a chemical
equation. When a coefficient is added in front of a chemical formula, all Third try:
atoms in that formula are multiplied by that number. 2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu2O + 2SO2
4. Solution: First try: Add a 2 in front of O2 and in front of Cu2O so that there are four O
atoms on each side. However, this changes the number of Cu atoms.
Cu 2(× 2) = 4 2(× 2) = 4
Second try: Add a 2 in front of Cu2S so that there are four Cu atoms on each S 1(× 2) = 2 1(× 2) = 2
side. However, this changes the number of S atoms. O 2(× 3) = 6 1(× 2) + 2(× 2) = 6
Third try: Add a 2 in front of the SO2. Change the 2 in front of O2 to a 3.
Now, there are two S atoms and six O atoms on each side and the equation is Figure 17.15: Balancing the
equation.
balanced: 2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Your turn...
a. 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
a. KClO3 → KCl + O2
b. Al2S3 + 6H2O → 2Al(OH)3 +
b. Al2S3 + H2O → Al(OH)3 + H2S
3H2S
396
Section 17.2 Review

Some Chemical Formulas
1. What is the law of conservation of mass? How is it related to balancing
chemical equations? barium peroxide BaO2
2. Why is it important to study chemical reactions in closed containers? barium oxide BaO
3. In one of his experiments, Lavoisier placed 10.0 grams of mercury (II)
oxide into a sealed container and heated it. The mercury (II) oxide then oxygen O2
reacted in the presence of heat to produce 9.3 grams of mercury. Oxygen
gas was another product in the reaction. According to the law of Figure 17.16: Question 8.
conservation of mass, how much oxygen gas would have been produced?
4. Which answer below is the formula mass of a water molecule?
a. 18.02 amu c. 18.02 grams

b. 18.02 moles d. 6.02 × 1023 molecules
5. What is the difference between the formula mass and the molecular mass More about Coefficients
of a compound? A coefficient also represents the
6. What is the difference between a subscript and a coefficient in a chemical number of moles of a compound that
equation? are involved in a reaction. For
example, for the balanced methane
7. Are the following chemical equations balanced or unbalanced? Balance
reaction in the text, you can say:
any unbalanced equations.
One mole of methane reacts with
a. 2KClO3 → KCl + 3O2 two moles of oxygen to produce one
b. Fe + O2 → FeO mole of carbon dioxide and two moles
c. 2Li + Cl2 → 2LiCl of water.
d. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
8. BaO2 (s) → BaO (s) + O2 (g)
a. Balance the chemical equation above.
b. Use the information in Figure 17.16 to write the equation in words. Be
sure to describe the state of matter for each compound.
c. Challenge: Read the Science Fact at the right. How many moles of
barium peroxide would be needed to produce four moles of barium
oxide and two moles of oxygen?
397
17.3 Classifying Reactions

Most of the products you use every day are the result of one or more chemical reactions. As you addition reaction - a chemical
might imagine, there are many possible chemical reactions. This section provides you with reaction in which two or more
information on how to classify the different types of chemical reactions. substances combine to form a new
compound.
Addition reactions polymerization - the formation of
polymers by a series of addition
Making compounds In an addition reaction, two or more substances combine to form a new reactions.
compound. A good example of an addition reaction is the formation of rust.
From this example, how might you describe the reaction in general terms?
The answer to this question is below. In this general equation for an addition
reaction and the other reactions in this section, A and B represent ions,
atoms, or molecules. Addition Reactions and Acid Rain
Some fossil fuels, like coal, contain
A+B AB sulfur. When these fuels are burned,
Polymerization Recall that a polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating segments. the sulfur reacts with oxygen in the air
Polymerization, or the formation of polymers, is a series of addition to form sulfur dioxide in the following
addition reaction:
reactions taking place to produce a very large molecule. Polymers are made
by joining smaller molecules called monomers. S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
In air polluted with sulfur dioxide, acid
+ + rain is produced in the reaction
monomers polymer monomer larger polymer below:
SO2 (g) + H2O2 (g) → H2SO4 (aq)
Table 17.1: Polymers
H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide, a
Common Polymers Polymer Products substance that is produced in clouds
in a reaction between oxygen and
polystyrene foam containers water. H2SO4 is sulfuric acid.
polyethylene food packaging
polyester clothing
polyvinyl chloride plumbing (PVC pipes)
polyvinyl acetate chewing gum
Decomposition reactions
Breaking down As you might suspect, chemical reactions are used to make compounds.
decomposition reaction -
compounds However, a chemical reaction is also used to break down compounds. A a chemical reaction in which a
chemical reaction in which a single compound is broken down to produce two compound is broken down into two
or more smaller compounds is called a decomposition reaction. The or more smaller substances.
general equation for decomposition is:
Energy is required In most cases, energy is required to get a decomposition reaction going. The
most common form of energy used in these chemical reactions is heat. For
example, the reaction below was involved in the discovery of oxygen. Heat
was used in the decomposition of mercury (II) oxide.
For the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, the energy source
is electricity. In fact, this particular reaction, illustrated in Figure 17.17, is
called electrolysis.
The number of The simplest kind of decomposition is the breakdown of a binary compound
products formed into its elements. However, larger compounds can also decompose to produce
other compounds. The number of compounds that form as products in a
decomposition reaction depends on the number of elements in the reactant
compound. For example, baking soda (NaCO3) has four elements. When it
undergoes a decomposition reaction with heat, three products form. Figure 17.17: A diagram of the
experimental setup for performing the
electrolysis of water. Why do you think
the balloon for hydrogen gas is twice as
big as the one for oxygen gas?
Displacement reactions
Single- In a single-displacement reaction, one element replaces a similar
single-displacement reaction
displacement element in a compound. For example, if you place an iron nail into a beaker - a chemical reaction in which one
reactions of copper (II) chloride, you will begin to see reddish copper forming on the element replaces a similar element in
iron nail. In this reaction, iron replaces copper in the solution and the copper a compound.
falls out of the solution onto the nail as a metal. double-displacement reaction
- a chemical reaction in which ions
from two compounds in solution
exchange places to produce two new
The general equation for a single-displacement reaction is: compounds.
In this equation, A and B are elements, and AX and BX are compounds.

Double- In a double-displacement reaction, ions from two compounds in solution
displacement exchange places to produce two new compounds. One of the compounds
reactions formed is usually a precipitate that settles out of the solution, a gas that
bubbles out of the solution, or a molecular compound such as water. The
other compound formed often remains dissolved in the solution. Precipitates
are first recognizable by the cloudy appearance they give to a solution. A
precipitate is the result of one of the products in a double-displacement
reaction being insoluble in water (Figure 17.18). Depending on the
compound formed, the precipitate can be many different colors from white
to fluorescent yellow, as in the reaction between lead (II) nitrate and
potassium iodide.
Figure 17.18: The formation of a

The general formula for a double-displacement reaction is give below. Each cloudy precipitate is evidence that a
pairing of letters—AB and CD, and AD and CB—are ionic compounds in double-displacement reaction has
a solution. occurred. If left undisturbed in a beaker,
a precipitate will settle to the bottom.
The precipitate in the image is
potassium iodide.
Combustion reactions
In a combustion A combustion reaction, also called burning, occurs when a substance, such
combustion reaction -
reaction, energy as wood, natural gas, or propane, combines with oxygen and releases a large a chemical reaction that results in
is released amount of energy in the form of light and heat. The products of this kind of a large amount of energy being
combustion reaction are carbon dioxide and water. What do reactants like released when a carbon compound
wood, natural gas, and propane have in common? The answer is that they combines with oxygen.
are all carbon compounds. Following is the general equation for a
combustion reaction. Carbon Chemical
Compound Formula
methane CH4
Carbon compounds The methane reaction, which you have seen before, is a good example of a
combustion reaction. As you can see, a carbon compound is a mixture of ethane C2H6
carbon and hydrogen atoms. The general formula for a carbon compound propane C3H8
is CxHy where x and y represent different subscripts. Examples of carbon butane C4H10
compounds can be found in Figure 17.19. pentane C5H12
hexane C6H14
heptane C7H16
octane C8H18
Another kind of Not all combustion reactions use carbon compounds as a reactant. These
combustion reaction types of combustion reactions do not produce carbon dioxide. For example, Figure 17.19: Examples of carbon
when hydrogen gas is burned in oxygen, water is the only product. compounds.
The value of Perhaps, in the future, some of our cars will run by the reaction above. Instead
an alternative of using gasoline which is a mixture of carbon compounds, cars will run on Hydrogen Technology
combustion reaction hydrogen. Currently, automobile manufacturers are developing technologies
In the text, you learned about two
that utilize hydrogen combustion in the internal combustion engines of cars. forms of hydrogen technology used for
Another way hydrogen can be used to power cars is in an electrochemical running an automobile. Find out more
process that uses a “fuel cell.” In either case, the use of hydrogen fuel could about each one. Is hydrogen fuel a
help reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emissions related to transportation. viable alternative to fossil fuels?
However, it would still take energy, sometimes in the form of fossil fuels, to
make the hydrogen fuel. What do you think? Should hydrogen technologies
be developed for cars?
SC.912.P.8.8-Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base, synthesis, and single and double replacement reactions.
Reviewing the types of reactions

Table 17.2 provides a summary of the types of reactions you have learned. Consumer Chemistry: Preserving
Review the information in the table then practice identifying the different Dried Fruit
types of reactions by answering the problems below.
Have you ever opened up a box of
dried fruit such as golden raisins or
Table 17.2: Summary of the Types of Reactions
apricots and smelled a slight “sulfur”
odor, like a lit match? The odor is
Type General Equation Example caused by sulfur dioxide, a gas that is
used to preserve the color of dried
addition A + B → AB 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O fruits. This gas is produced in the
reaction between sodium sulfite and
2NaHCO3→ hydrochloric acid:
decomposition AB → A + B
2CO2 + H2O + Na2O Na2SO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) →
2NaCl (aq) +H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
single-
A + BX → AX + B Fe + CuCl2 → FeCl 2 + Cu The fruit is exposed to the gas, which
displacement is absorbed into the skin of the fruit.
When you open the box for the first
double-
AB + CD → AD + CB Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3 time, some of the gas that has
displacement escaped the fruit may not escape
your nose!
carbon compound + O2 →
combustion C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O Which type of reaction produces this
CO2 + H2O
gas?
Your turn... identifying types of reactions

a. decomposition
Identify each type of reaction.
b. single-displacement
a. CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
c. addition
b. Na (g) + KCl (l) → K (g) + NaCl (l)
c. C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
402
Section 17.3 Review

1. Why is polymerization a type of addition reaction? George Washington
Carver
2. You have learned about the different kinds of chemical reactions. Come
up with a set of simple rules that you can use to help you identify each George Washington
Carver was born around
kind of chemical reaction. There are no right or wrong answers. Write 1864 in Missouri toward
down rules that make sense to you. the end of the Civil War.
3. The graphic at the right shows George and his mother,
a slave for Moses and Susan Carver,
the electrolysis of water.
were kidnapped when he was an infant.
a. Come up with an explanation Only George was found and returned to
for why oxygen forms near the Carvers who then raised him. Due
the positively-charged metal to frail health, he spent a lot of time
exploring nature and developed his
and hydrogen forms near the talent for studying plants. He pursued
negatively-charged metal. plant studies in school and earned an
b. Why is a greater amount of agricultural degree from Iowa State
hydrogen gas collected in College. He became the first African
American faculty member at the college
this reaction? and earned his master's degree two
c. Is this reaction occurring in a years later. Soon afterward, Booker T.
closed container? Justify Washington, founder of Tuskegee
your answer. Institute in Alabama, recruited Carver to
lead the agricultural department. There,
4. How does the involvement of Carver taught students and local
energy in a decomposition farmers to rotate crops annually to
reaction compare to how energy enrich the soil. Benefits included
is involved in a combustion reaction? improving the cotton crop and adding
new cash crops such as peanuts and
5. Compare and contrast single-displacement and double-displacement sweet potatoes. Carver is especially
reactions. known for gathering a list of products
6. Identify the following reactions as addition, decomposition, single- or and recipes that utilized the peanut
plant. His many achievements include
double-displacement, or combustion. research on soy as a possible biofuel,
a. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g) displaying artwork at the 1893
b. NH4NO3 (s) → N2O (g) + 2H2O (g) World’s Fair, and meeting with three
American presidents.
c. AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
d. Fe (s) +H2SO4 (aq) → H2 (g) + FeSO4 (aq)
SC.912.L.17.19-Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of use and renewal limit availability. 403
SC.912.L.17.20-Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability.
Hydrogen-Powered Like a battery, a fuel cell

Chapter 17
has two electrodes: an Hydrogen

anode, to collect positive Fuel Cell
Cars charges; and a cathode,

to draw negative charges.
First, hydrogen gas flows
to the anode, where
Imagine driving to school in a sleek, super- hydrogen atoms are
quiet sports car. You turn on the radio, separated into protons
and electrons. The PEM is
and—surprise!—the news reporter isn’t
a solid organic compound
talking about the high price of oil or global
with the feel of plastic
climate change. You get stuck in a traffic wrap and a thickness of
jam, but roll down your windows anyway, two to seven sheets of
and breathe in the fresh, clean air. The only paper; it allows only protons to pass through. Electrons are repelled
emission coming from your car’s tailpipe is water vapor. That’s it! No carbon by the anode and directed toward an external circuit. This flow of
monoxide, no carbon dioxide, no nitrous oxides—just plain water. You electrons is the electricity used to power a motor that moves the car.
notice your fuel gauge is getting close to empty, so you pull into a filling At the cathode side, oxygen taken from the outside air flows in
station and refuel your car with pressurized hydrogen. and reacts with the hydrogen protons that have come through the
membrane and the electrons from the circuit to produce water and
Sound like a fairy tale? Some people think so. But others heat. There are no other by-products of this reaction.
believe that hydrogen fuel cell technology offers the best hope
for reducing vehicle greenhouse gas emissions and American A typical gasoline-fueled car, in contrast, is powered by a combustion
dependence on foreign oil supplies. reaction that produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous
oxides, and sulfuric acids along with water and heat.
Scientists and engineers from
government agencies, universities, Not only is the FCV less polluting than a gasoline-powered vehicle,
and all of the major automobile it’s also remarkably more efficient. Internal combustion engines
manufacturers are designing, are at best 20 percent efficient. This means that only 20 percent of
building, and testing hydrogen fuel the gasoline’s energy is converted into motion. Hydrogen fuel cell
cell vehicles, also known as FCVs. vehicles convert 40–60 percent of their fuel’s energy into motion.
Fuel cell power is dependent upon the size, type of membrane,
Under the Hood: How a operating temperature, and gas pressure for the hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Works oxygen gases. A typical PEM fuel cell produces approximately one
The most common kind of fuel cell placed in test vehicles is the volt of electricity; this is only one-third the voltage used to operate
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane, or PEM, fuel cell. Basically, a PEM a common flashlight. Therefore, fuel cells must be “stacked” to
fuel cell uses oxygen from the air and hydrogen gas to generate generate the power needed to propel a car. Some prototype vehicles
electricity to power the car’s motor. use hundreds of stacked cells. These stacks can get expensive because
each cathode and anode contains platinum, a costly metal.
water pollution.
Where Would We Get Hydrogen Fuel? if there’s nowhere to fill its tank? And who is going to manufacture
Chapter 17
a vehicle if nobody can use it?
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but it is
most commonly found in compounds like water or in hydrocarbons, Some FCVs (called Hydrogen Rich Fuel FCVs) are designed to take
including fossil fuels and natural gas. These compounds’ chemical in gasoline or methanol and store it in a conventional gas tank,
bonds must be broken to obtain hydrogen gas. eliminating the infrastructure problem. These FCVs need a reformer
to conduct gasification on board. The reformer breaks down the
Two of the main processes used to produce hydrogen are:
gasoline or methanol to extract hydrogen for the fuel cell. The
Electrolysis: An electric current splits water by-products of the reformer are carbon dioxide and water, yet the
into oxygen and hydrogen. If this electric total greenhouse gas emissions for this type of vehicle are less than
current is produced by a “clean” energy half of a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle. Some scientists see this
source such as wind or solar energy, then as an intermediate step that could get the technology on the road.
the hydrogen fuel cell car is truly a Others point out that you can achieve nearly the same reduction in
zero-emissions vehicle. However, if greenhouse gas emissions with hybrid gas–electric vehicles.
the electricity comes from a coal or
natural-gas-burning power plant, the Challenges and Breakthroughs
total greenhouse gas and particulate There is still a great deal of research and development ahead for
emissions used to extract the hydrogen FCVs. In order for this new mode of transportation to take hold,
can actually cancel out the benefit of zero infrastructure must be developed, and the vehicle design must
tailpipe emissions. be proven safe, reliable, and cost efficient. Under the president’s
Gasification: Natural gas is combined Hydrogen Fuel Initiative, the United States Department of Energy
with steam to extract hydrogen. Carbon is working with federal and international agencies and industry,
monoxide and carbon dioxide are also university, and national laboratories to see if these hurdles can
produced. However, using hydrogen be overcome.
produced in this manner to power an
Questions:
automobile still reduces the total greenhouse gas emissions involved
by about 50 percent, compared with the total emissions involved in 1. Compare and contrast hydrogen fuel cell vehicles with
operating a gasoline-powered automobile. vehicles that have internal combustion engines.
Once the hydrogen is produced, it has to be made available to drivers. 2. Explain two ways hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles can
Most FCVs store hydrogen on board in highly pressurized tanks. A be produced.
tank at 5,000 psi (that’s almost 100 times the pressure in most car
tires) allows a car to travel about 250 miles without refueling. 3. Research: Each of the major automobile manufacturers has
a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle in development. Use a library or
Currently, there are very few places in the United States where you
can fill a hydrogen tank. One of the biggest hurdles to switching to
the Internet to learn about one of these projects. Prepare
hydrogen-powered cars is getting the necessary infrastructure built. a report for your classmates. Include the timetable for the
Infrastructure is a term used to describe the support system needed project, a description of challenges and breakthroughs,
for a new technology—such as hydrogen refineries, transport how much money is invested in the project, and, if possible,
systems, and filling stations. After all, who is going to buy a vehicle illustrations of the vehicle(s).
water pollution.
12. A large molecule of repeating units is made by the process of
____.
reactant product formula mass
precipitate addition chemical reaction
13. A(n) ____ is used to make a compound from other
compounds or elements.
coefficient polymerization chemical equation
combustion law of conservation of mass decomposition 14. A carbon compound is usually one of the reactants in a(n)
mole Avogadro number molar mass ____.
Section 17.1 15. Water can be broken down into hydrogen gas and oxygen
gas by a(n) ____.
1. A(n) ____ is a process that involves reactants and products.
2. A starting ingredient in a chemical reaction is called a(n) Concepts
____.
Section 17.1
3. A substance that is the result of the forming of new bonds in
a chemical reaction is called a(n) ____. 1. Correct or incorrect? If the statement is incorrect, rewrite it
so it is correct.
4. An insoluble product in a double-displacement reaction is
a. Crushing ice and melting ice are examples of physical
called a(n) ____.
changes.
Section 17.2 b. The evaporation of water is an example of a chemical
5. A(n) ____ is the written form of a chemical reaction. change.
6. There are 6.02 × 1023 atoms in a(n)____ of the element c. The action of enzymes on food during digestion results
carbon. in chemical changes.
d. Both physical and chemical changes involve chemical
7. The ____ of a compound is measured in atomic mass units.
reactions and energy.
8. The ____ states that the mass of reactants always equals the e. Rolling out a lump of pizza dough into a pizza crust is
mass of the products. an example of a physical change.
9. You can change the number of atoms in a chemical equation f. Frying an egg in a pan causes a physical change in the
by placing a(n) ____ in front of a chemical formula. egg.
10. The number of molecules in a mole is equal to the ____. 2. Your body produces heat and maintains a stable, warm body
temperature of about 98°F (37°C). Is this evidence that your
11. The ____ is the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. body is undergoing chemical changes or physical changes?
406
3. Look at the ice cube in this picture. Section 17.3
Is it undergoing a physical change 7. Write the general equations for each type of
or a chemical change? Justify chemical reaction.
your answer.
8. You perform a reaction with two compounds. One of the
reactants contains oxygen. The products are oxygen gas and
another compound. What kind of reaction is this? Justify
your answer. Illustrate this reaction with symbols and
Section 17.2 a diagram.
4. In your chemistry lab, you mix
baking soda and vinegar in a beaker. You carefully find the Problems
mass of the baking soda and vinegar you use in the reaction. Section 17.1
However, after you are done with the reaction, you find that
1. Identify whether a physical or chemical change is occurring
the product of the reaction has much less mass than the
in each situation. State your evidence.
combined mass of the reactants. Evaluate your results. Are
they correct? How might you perform this reaction again to a. You place a beaker of water on a hot plate and heat it
up. Eventually, it starts to boil and you can see bubbles
make sure?
forming. You also see steam rising from the
5. Identify each of the following as the formula mass, a mole, water surface.
or the molar mass of a carbon monoxide (CO) molecule. One b. You mix two ionic solutions. After you mix them in a
item does not make sense. Identify it. beaker, the solution turns cloudy. After five minutes,
the solution becomes clear and a white powder has
a. 28.01 grams c. 28.01 amu settled on the bottom of the beaker.
b. 12.01 grams d. 6.02 x 1023 molecules c. You heat up some pure sugar in a beaker. In time, you
see a black substance and water droplets.
6. Answer the following for the reaction below. You should be
d. By accident you drop an empty beaker on the floor and
able to recognize three of the compounds. The compound
it breaks into pieces. You and your partner alert your
C6H12O6 is a molecule of glucose, a sugar.
teacher who safely cleans up the mess.
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) Section 17.2
2. Determine the formula mass and the molar mass of each
a. What are the reactants and products in this reaction? compound in this unbalanced reaction.
Give the state of matter for each. Cl2 + KBr → KCl + Br2
b. What does the arrow in a chemical equation mean? 3. How many molecules would be in two moles of bromine gas
c. Is this equation balanced? Justify your answer. (Br2)? Explain your answer.
407
4. A compound that contains both potassium and oxygen c. What kind of substance is an apple (or any food for that
formed when potassium metal was burned in oxygen gas. matter)?
The mass of the compound was 7.11 grams. The mass of the
potassium metal was 3.91 grams. What mass of oxygen was Applying Your Knowledge
involved in this reaction? Justify your answer.
Section 17.1
5. Which of the following equations is balanced? 1. The process of digestion of food begins in your mouth and
a. Al + Br2 → 2AlBr3 involves many other internal parts of your body such as your
b. 2Al + 2Br2 → 3AlBr3 stomach and intestines. Find out how physical changes and
c. 2Al + 3Br2 → 2AlBr3 chemical changes are part of the human digestion process.
d. Al + Br2 → AlBr3 Write up your findings as a descriptive essay or make a
detailed poster of the digestion process.
6. Balance the following equations. If an equation is already
balanced, say so in your answer. Section 17.2
a. Cl2 + Br → Cl + Br2 2. Balance this equation and then answer the questions.
b. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 Cl2 + KBr → KCl + Br2
c. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + NaCl a. You found the formula mass and the molecular mass of
d. ZnS + O2 → ZnO + SO2 the compounds in this reaction in question 2 in the
e. Cl2 + KBr → KCl + Br2 problem set. Using your balanced equation, does the
f. H2SO4 + NaOH → Na2SO4 + H2O reaction follow the law of conservation of mass?
b. Write this equation as a sentence in two ways. First,
Section 17.3
describe the reaction in terms of molecules, then
7. When your body “burns” describe the reaction in terms of moles.
food for energy, carbon
Section 17.3
dioxide and water are
released. This process is 3. Balance this equation and then answer the questions.
called respiration and it is SiI4 (g) + heat → Si (s) + I2 (g)
exactly like the respiration a. What kind of reaction is this?
process performed by yeast b. Pure silicon is very useful in the electronics industry.
in making pizza dough. Oxygen is needed for respiration to How is it used?
occur. Answer these questions: c. Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust.
a. Where do the carbon dioxide and water come from in How does silicon compare in abundance?
this reaction?
b. Classify this reaction. Justify your answer.
Chapter 18
Energy and Reactions
What do you think of when you hear the word chemistry? You might
think about making new substances from other substances or you
might think of mixing things. These ideas do apply to the topic of chemistry, but
chemistry is also all about energy. In this chapter, you will learn more about chemical
reactions and how energy is involved in them. You will also learn about nuclear
reactions—reactions that involve the nuclei of atoms. Nuclear reactions can produce
much more energy than chemical reactions. The field of nuclear science—which
ranges from energy production to medical technology—was pioneered by some
fascinating people. For example, Marie Curie and her husband were early pioneers, as
were their daughter, Irene, and her husband. Marie and Irene were the first and second
women, respectively, to win Nobel Prizes. To learn more about the work of these
women and more about the workings of chemical and nuclear reactions, read on!
How can you tell if a chemical reaction is

mostly using or producing energy?
How can you make a chemical reaction

go faster?
Why are nuclear reactions so powerful?

Chapter 18 ENERGY AND REACTIONS
18.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions involve energy. If you have ever sat near a campfire, you have exothermic - describes a chemical
reaction that releases more energy
experienced this energy as heat and light. In addition to producing energy, chemical reactions also than it uses.
use energy. For example, plants perform photosynthesis which is a chemical reaction that uses
energy from sunlight. endothermic - describes a
chemical reaction that uses more
energy than it releases.
The two types of reactions
Energy is involved Energy is involved in chemical reactions in two ways: (1) At the start of a
in two ways chemical reaction, energy is used to break some (or all) bonds between
atoms in the reactants so that the atoms are available to form new bonds; and
(2) Energy is released when new bonds form as the atoms recombine into the
new compounds of the products. We classify chemical reactions based on
how the energy used in (1) compares to the energy released in (2).
Exothermic If forming new bonds releases more energy than it takes to break the old
reactions bonds, the reaction is exothermic (Figure 18.1, top). Once started,
exothermic reactions tend to keep going because each reaction releases
enough energy to start the reaction in neighboring molecules. A good
example is the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen. If we include energy,
the balanced reaction looks like this:
Endothermic If forming new bonds in the products releases less energy than it took to
reactions break the original bonds in the reactants, the reaction is endothermic
(Figure 18.1, bottom). Endothermic reactions absorb energy. In fact,
endothermic reactions need more energy to keep going. An example of
an important endothermic reaction is photosynthesis. In photosynthesis,
plants use energy from sunlight to make glucose and oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water. Figure 18.1: Exothermic and
endothermic reactions.
SC.912.P.10.7-Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes.
ENERGY AND REACTIONS Chapter 18
Activation energy
An interesting Exothermic reactions occur because the atoms arranged as compounds of the
activation energy - energy
question products have lower energy and are more stable than they are when arranged as needed to break chemical bonds in
compounds of the reactants. Chemical reactions—like other systems—move the reactants to start a reaction.
toward more stable circumstances. If this is true, why don’t all the elements
combine into the molecules that have the lowest possible energy?
Activation energy The answer has to do with activation energy which is the energy needed to
begin a reaction and break chemical bonds in the reactants. Without enough
activation energy, a reaction will not happen even if it is exothermic. That is
why a flammable material like gasoline does not burn without a spark or
flame. The spark supplies the activation energy to start the reaction.
An example of The diagram above shows how the energy flows in the reaction of hydrogen
a reaction and oxygen. The activation energy must be supplied to break the molecules of
hydrogen and oxygen apart. Energy is then released when the four free
hydrogen and two free oxygen atoms combine to form two water molecules.
The reaction is exothermic because the energy released by forming water is
greater than the activation energy. Once the reaction starts, it supplies its own
activation energy and quickly grows (Figure 18.2).
Reactions only A reaction begins by itself when thermal energy is greater than the activation
occur when energy. However, any reaction that could start by itself probably already has! Figure 18.2: Because energy released
by one reaction supplies activation
conditions are right The compounds and molecules in substances around you need more
energy for new reactions, exothermic
activation energy to change into anything else. For example, table salt in a reactions can grow quickly once
dish will remain table salt for a long time unless the conditions change to activation energy has been supplied.
cause a chemical reaction between the salt and another compound.
SC.912.P.10.7-Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes. 411

Carbon reactions and energy

Respiration and At the beginning of this section, you learned that photosynthesis is an
photosynthesis endothermic reaction. Through photosynthesis, plants capture energy from Chemistry and Global Warming
the Sun. The way that humans and other life forms obtain this energy is by a Following is a balanced combustion
chemical reaction called respiration which is the reverse of photosynthesis. reaction.
Glucose is metabolically “burned” in the presence of oxygen and carbon
dioxide and water is released. Evidence that your body is performing
respiration includes the fact that you are breathing in oxygen and breathing You read about this reaction in
out carbon dioxide right now as you read this paragraph! What kind of Chapter 17. It’s the combustion of
methane (natural gas), a fossil fuel.
reaction is respiration—exothermic or endothermic? How do you know?
Answer the following questions.
1. Fill in the blank. For every ___
mole(s) of methane gas, ___ mole(s)
Fossil fuels and Fossil fuels are mainly ancient, decayed plant and animal material. Today, of carbon dioxide are produced.
combustion we extract this carbon-based fuel from the ground and process it so that it is 2. What is the molecular mass of
useful for many things. Energy is obtained from fossil fuels (like natural gas, methane and of carbon dioxide?
kerosene, and coal) by using combustion reactions, which are exothermic. In 3. Is the statement below correct or
addition to producing energy, combustion reactions yield carbon dioxide as a incorrect? Explain your answer.
product. Currently, there is worldwide concern about how much carbon The mass of carbon dioxide released
dioxide is being added to our atmosphere due to combustion reactions, is greater than the mass of fossil
mainly from sources of transportation such as cars. fuel burned.
Global warming Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere traps heat from the Sun to make Earth
warm and comfortable. This is why carbon dioxide and other atmospheric
gases are called “greenhouse gases.” But as more carbon dioxide is added, Global warming is a worldwide
Earth is experiencing “global warming.” Global warming refers to the concern. Find out what is being done
average increase in Earth’s surface temperature since the mid-1900s, due to to address this climate issue. Write a
list of 10 actions you can take to make
increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The temperature
a difference.
increase has not been much—1.0 to 1.7°F from 1906 to 2005—but scientists
believe this rise and the rise in the amount of greenhouse gases will continue.
Scientists also believe that the consequences of global warming will include
continually rising sea levels and changes in weather.
SC.912.L.17.16-Discuss the large-scale environmental impacts resulting from human activity, including waste spills, oil spills, runoff, greenhouse gases...
SC.912.P.10.7-Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes.
Examples of endothermic reactions

Endothermic Certainly, it’s useful for chemical reactions to produce more energy than they
dissolution reaction - an
reactions in industry use. But, how do we benefit from reactions that use more energy than they endothermic reaction that occurs
produce? It turns out that most of the reactions used in industry to produce when an ionic compound dissolves in
useful materials require more energy than they produce. This is one of the water to make an ionic solution.
reasons sources of energy are so important to industry. In other words,
exothermic reactions are needed to cause endothermic reactions to run! One
example of an industry process that frequently uses endothermic reactions is
the refining of ores to produce useful metals. Here is a specific example, the
refinement of aluminum ore from aluminum oxide.
This reaction requires the input of energy because it takes more energy to
break the bonds in the aluminum oxide than is released when the products
are formed.
Cold packs Have you ever used an “instant cold pack” as a treatment for a twisted ankle
or a bruise? These products, found in your local drugstore, work by using an
endothermic chemical reaction. The fact that more energy is used than
produced is what makes the cold pack “cold.” The reaction, shown below,
works as follows. The product usually comes in a plastic bag. Inside of the
bag is a sealed packet of water surrounded by crystals of ammonium nitrate.
To activate the cold pack, you squeeze the plastic bag to break the packet of
water. When the water contacts the ammonium nitrate crystals, a reaction
occurs and the pack becomes icy cold (Figure 18.3).
Dissolution The ice pack gets very cold because it takes energy to dissolve the ionic bonds
reactions in the ammonium nitrate. Besides being endothermic, this reaction is also a Figure 18.3: A cold pack works
dissolution reaction. A dissolution reaction occurs when an ionic because of an endothermic reaction.
compound (like ammonium nitrate) dissolves in water to make an ionic
solution. In the cold pack reaction, the ions are an ammonium ion (NH4+) and
a nitrate ion (NO3–).
SC.912.P.10.7-Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes. 413

Section 18.1 Review

1. List the two ways that energy is involved in chemical reactions. Marie Curie
2. Identify the following statements as describing either an exothermic or Later in this chapter, you
an endothermic reaction. will learn about nuclear
a. More energy is released than is used by the reaction. chemistry. This
biography introduces
b. The chemical reaction involved in burning wood you to a incredible
c. Less energy is released than is used by the reaction. woman who was a pioneer in this
d. Photosynthesis field—Marie Curie.
3. Once an exothermic reaction begins, the reaction tends to keep going. The field of nuclear chemistry began
Why? when Marie Curie and her husband,
Pierre Curie, discovered radioactivity.
4. Why is a “spark” of energy required to begin the chemical reaction of In 1898, Marie Curie, a Polish-born
burning a fossil fuel? What is another name for this spark of energy? chemist, coined the word “radio-
5. The reaction below is an exothermic reaction. activity” to describe the peculiar
K2O (s) + CO2 (g) → K2CO3 (s) behavior of elements she and her
husband had discovered. They
a. Rewrite this reaction and add “+ energy” in the correct location. shared a Nobel Prize in 1903 for their
b. Describe how the energy level of the reactants compares to the discovery of radioactivity. Marie Curie
energy level of the products. was awarded a second Nobel Prize in
1911 for her discovery of the elements
6. The reaction below is an endothermic reaction.
radium and polonium.
2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
Marie Curie was the first woman to
a. Rewrite this reaction and add “+ energy” in the correct location. graduate with a degree in physics
b. Describe how the energy level of the reactants compares to the (1893) from the University of
energy level of the products. Sorbonne in Paris. She was the
7. How is a combustion reaction like the respiration reaction? List as many first woman to receive a Nobel Prize
and the first person to receive two
similarities as you can. Nobel Prizes. She was also the first
8. What is the main cause of global warming? What are the consequences woman professor at the University
of global warming? of Sorbonne.
9. How are exothermic and endothermic reactions linked in the process of
refining metal ore?
10. Describe how you could perform a dissolution reaction with some table
salt (NaCl) and a beaker of water. What are the products of this reaction?
414
18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems

In Chapter 17, you learned that it’s important to have chemical reactions occur in a closed system.
When you study chemical reactions as systems, you are able to find out what types of products and
how much of each are produced. You are also able to measure the amount of energy used or
produced. In this section, you will look closer at chemical reaction systems.
Chemical equations are like recipes

Recipes and Have you ever tried to make something from a recipe—say, a chocolate
balanced chemical cake—and it didn’t turn out quite the way you hoped? A recipe requires you
equations to follow directions and add the correct amounts and types of ingredients
(Figure 18.4). If you left out the eggs, for example, your cake wouldn’t turn
out well at all. A balanced chemical equation is like a recipe. It tells you the
ingredients needed and the amount of each. It also tells you how much of each
product will result if the precise amounts of reactants are combined.
Ingredients and Figure 18.5 illustrates the chemical equation for making water. This is
quantities the correct way to write a “recipe” for making a compound in chemistry.
However, if you write the equation for making water as a recipe, you will see
it is similar to a real recipe for making chocolate cake. Both recipes give you
the ingredients needed, the instructions, and the product that will be produced.
Both recipes also give you the quantities of ingredients (reactants) needed and Figure 18.4: To successfully make a
the quantities of products that are produced. cake, you need to follow a recipe.
Recipe #1: Chocolate Cake Recipe #2: Water
1 cup flour 1 cup sugar 2 molecules of hydrogen gas

1/2 cup cocoa powder 1 teaspoon baking powder 1 molecule of oxygen gas
1/2 cup butter 1/2 cup milk
1 teaspoon vanilla 1 egg
In a bowl, combine flour, sugar, cocoa powder, and baking Combine the molecules in a closed
power. Add butter, milk, vanilla, and egg. Mix until smooth. container. Add a spark of electricity. Figure 18.5: A chemical equation,
Bake in a 350°F oven for 35 minutes. Makes 8 servings. Makes two molecules of water. such as this one for the formation of
water, is like a recipe.
Information from balanced chemical equations

The ratios of The recipe for chocolate cake on the previous page gives you ratios among
ingredients the ingredients needed to make eight servings. For example, if you double
the ingredients, you can make twice as many servings. How many servings
are possible if you only have half a cup of flour? To make a good-tasting
chocolate cake with half as much flour, you would have to use half as much
of the other ingredients, too. By halving the recipe, you can make four
servings of chocolate cake (Figure 18.6).
Proportional Like a recipe, a balanced chemical equation shows the ratios of the number
relationships of molecules of reactants needed to make a certain number of molecules of
products. The ratios are determined by the coefficients of the balanced
equation. In the formation of water, two molecules of H2 react with one
molecule of O2 to produce two molecules of H2O. If you reacted four
molecules of H2 with two molecules of O2, you would produce four Figure 18.6: Using half the amount
molecules of H2O instead of two (Figure 18.7). Doubling the reactants of each ingredient will make half as
doubles the amount of product formed. What happens if you only double the many servings of cake.
number of H2 molecules and not the number of O2 molecules? How many
H2O molecules could you make? Would you have anything left over?
Balanced equations If you had a beaker with 6.02 × 1023 molecules of water, the water would
also show the ratio have a molar mass of 18.02 grams. In the balanced chemical equation for
of relative masses water, you have a coefficient of 2 in front of the water molecule. This means
that you have two times the amount of water molecules. Therefore, the
formula mass of water would be 36.04 amu and 2 × (6.02 × 1023) molecules
would have an actual mass of 36.04 grams.
What doesn’t a A balanced equation does not describe the exact conditions under which a
balanced equation reaction will occur. For example, simply putting hydrogen and oxygen
tell you? molecules together does not produce water. A spark of energy is needed for
this reaction. In fact, many reactions require specific conditions to occur and
these are not shown in the balanced equation. Additionally, some reactions
may not occur at all, even though you can write a balanced equation for Figure 18.7: If you react four
them. The right conditions for most of the reactions that are used in science hydrogen gas molecules with two oxygen
molecules, you can make four water
and industry are the result of careful research and experimentation.
molecules.
Limiting and excess reactants

When a reactant is If a cookie recipe calls for two eggs and you only have one, you cannot make
limiting reactant - a reactant that
in short supply a whole batch of cookies. Having only one egg limits the amount of cookies is used up first in a chemical reaction.
you can make. The same is true of chemical reactions. When a chemical
excess reactant - a reactant that is
reaction occurs, the reactants are not always present in the exact ratio not completely used up in a chemical
indicated by the balanced equation. In fact, this is rarely the case unless the reaction.
reaction is performed in a laboratory. What usually happens is that a chemical
percent yield - the actual yield of a
reaction will run until the reactant that is in short supply is used up. product in a chemical reaction divided
Limiting reactants The reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction is called the limiting by the predicted yield and multiplied
by 100.
and excess reactant. The limiting reactant limits the amount of product that can be
reactants formed. A reactant that is not completely used up is called an excess
reactant because some of it will be left over when the reaction is complete.
Do reactions Not all reactions turn out exactly as planned. If you use a specific amount of a
always turn out limiting reactant and expect the exact amount of product to be formed, you
as expected? will usually be disappointed. Often the amount of product you are able to
collect and measure is less than the amount you would expect. This is because
there are various factors that affect reactions as they are performed
(Figure 18.8). For example, experimental error often affects how much
product is produced. Additionally, just like it is hard to get all the cookie
dough out of your bowl when you are ready to bake the cookies, some product
is hard to collect and measure.
Percent yield The amount of product you expect from a chemical reaction is called the
predicted yield. The predicted yield is determined from the balanced equation
for the reaction. The amount of product that you are able to measure is called
the actual yield. The actual yield is determined by measuring the mass of the
product produced in the actual reaction. The percent yield is the actual yield Figure 18.8: The measured amount
divided by the predicted yield and then multiplied by one hundred. of reactants for a reaction yield less than
the predicted amount of product in most
PERCENT YIELD cases. This is due to experimental error
Actual yield or other factors.
Percent yield = ( Predicted yield )
× 100
417
Solving Problems: Percent Yield

Molecular Mass Practice
Find the molecular mass values for
Aspirin can be made in the laboratory through a series of reactions. If the these compounds. Knowing these
actual yield for aspirin was 461.5 grams when the reactions were performed, values will help you with the practice
and the predicted yield was 500 grams, what was the percent yield? problems on this page.
1. Looking for: The percent yield for the reaction. NH4Cl

NH3
2. Given: The predicted yield was 500 grams. The actual yield is 461.5 grams.
HCl
3. Relationships: percent yield = (actual yield ÷ predicted yield) × 100
4. Solution: percent yield = (461.5 g ÷ 500 g) × 100 = 92.3%
The percent yield for this reaction is 92.3 percent.
Your turn... a. 74.5 percent

a. In another set of reactions for making aspirin, the predicted yield was b. 0.496 gram
32.6 grams and the actual yield was 24.3 grams. What was the percent c. When one mole of NH4Cl is
yield in this case? used in this reaction, you can
b. For the equation below, the percent yield for NH3 is 78.0 percent. If expect one mole of NH3 to be
2 grams of NH4Cl is used, then the predicted yield is 0.636 gram. What is produced. The molar mass or
the actual yield? the predicted yield of NH3
NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g) would be 17.04 grams.
c. If one mole of NH4Cl was used in the reaction above, what would be the d. 13.29 grams
predicted yield of NH3? e. The predicted yield was
d. Since the percent yield for the reaction above is 78 percent, what would be 24 cookies. The actual yield
the actual yield of NH3, if one mole of NH4Cl was used in the reaction? was 22 cookies. The percent
yield is 92 percent.
e. You make a cookie recipe that is designed to make 24 cookies. However,
when you finish with your baking, you find that you have made only
22 cookies. List the predicted and actual yields for the recipe. What is the
percent yield?
418
Reaction rate
Kinetic molecular In all phases of matter, atoms and molecules exhibit random motion. This
kinetic molecular theory - the
theory concept is part of the kinetic molecular theory. The speed at which atoms concept that all atoms and molecules
or molecules move depends on the state of matter and temperature. As you exhibit random motion.
know, gas molecules move faster than molecules in a solid, and warmer reaction rate - the change in
substances have greater molecular motion than cold ones. concentration of reactants or products
What is The reaction rate for a chemical reaction is the change in concentration in a chemical reaction over time.
reaction rate? of reactants or products over time. For a reaction involving two or more catalyst - a molecule added to a
reactants, the reaction only works if the molecules collide. If we want the chemical reaction that increases the
reaction rate without getting used up
reaction to go faster, what kinds of things could we do to increase the motion
in the process.
and number of collisions among the reactants?
inhibitor - a molecule that slows
Increasing collisions For starters, you can add heat to a reaction to increase molecular motion. For down a chemical reaction.
example, to dissolve salt faster in water in a dissolution reaction, you increase
the temperature of the water. Other ways to increase collisions include stirring
the reaction mixture and using powdered reactants. Fine particles in powders
have more available surface area for reacting.
Increasing Another way to increase collisions among atoms or molecules is to increase
concentration the concentration of the reactants. When you increase the concentration of a
of reactants reactant, it is like adding an extra team member to complete a project. If the
project involved many calculations, the team could complete them more
quickly with six people than with five. As you know, doing calculations by
hand takes a while. What if the team had a computer or calculator? A B
Catalysts and A catalyst is a molecule that can be added to a reaction to speed it up, but it
inhibitors doesn’t get used up. A catalyst is a little like using a computer or a calculator
to help you speed up the job of making calculations. Catalysts work by
increasing the chances that two molecules will be positioned in the right way
for a reaction to occur. Because a catalyst ensures the correct orientation of
colliding molecules, less energy is needed in the collision for the reaction to
occur. In effect, a catalyst provides a “shortcut” because a lower activation Figure 18.9: By bringing together
reactants, a catalyst lowers the
energy is needed for a reaction to proceed (Figure 18.9). Reactions can also activation energy needed.
be slowed down by molecules call inhibitors. Inhibitors bind with reactant
molecules and effectively block them from combining to form products.
SC.912.P.12.12-Explain how various factors, such as concentration, temperature, and presence of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction. 419
Chemical equilibrium
The direction of a Up until now, we have thought about chemical reactions as going in only
chemical equilibrium - the state
chemical reaction one direction. Reactants react to make products. This has been shown in at which the rate of the forward
chemical equations with a right-pointing arrow that points toward the reaction equals the rate of the reverse
products of the reaction. Therefore, chemical reactions are commonly reaction for a chemical reaction.
described as proceeding “to the right.” In some cases, once a reaction goes
“to the right,” the reaction reverses and goes “to the left.” The products
become reactants and the reactants become products (Figure 18.10).
Chemical Eventually, a reaction may reach chemical equilibrium, the state in which
equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. When
we talk about chemical equilibrium, we acknowledge that the reaction can go
left and right simultaneously. Chemical equilibrium is represented by arrows
going both ways, or a double-headed arrow (Figure 18.10).
Characteristics of Because chemical reactions are often open systems, the reactants and
chemical equilibrium products can easily react with other compounds. If this happens, the products
cannot revert back to reactants because they are unavailable. A gas that is
a product, for example, easily leaves the reaction system. Therefore, for
chemical equilibrium to be established, the chemical reaction has to occur
in a closed system. When a chemical reaction occurs in a closed system at
constant temperature, the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same
rate, and the amounts of reactants and products are constant. Figure 18.10: The direction of
An advanced topic: Let’s say you have a chemical reaction at chemical equilibrium in a closed reactions are indicated with arrows.
When a reaction is in chemical
Le Chatelier’s container in your laboratory. You leave the system alone but someone turns
equilibrium, a double-headed arrow
principle up the heat by accident and the room you are in gets hotter and hotter. What is used.
happens to the chemical reaction in the container? A change in temperature
is considered to be a “stress” on the system. In response to this stress, the
system reacts until chemical equilibrium is re-established. This phenomenon
is called Le Chatelier’s principle. This principle states that a chemical
reaction at chemical equilibrium reacts to any stress on the system until
equilibrium is re-established. A “stress” could include increasing the
concentration of a reactant or product, or a change in the temperature or
pressure conditions of the reaction.
420 SC.912.P.12.12-Explain how various factors, such as concentration, temperature, and presence of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
Section 18.2 Review

1. Is a recipe a good analogy for describing a chemical equation? Why or Many reactions in the human body
why not? require enzymes, a kind of catalyst, to
get reactions going. Not surprisingly,
2. A recipe that you have for making lasagna says that it will make the temperature of the human body,
10 servings. However, you have 20 people coming over for dinner. What 37°C or 98°F, is ideal for enzymes to
do you need to do to feed everyone a full serving? work well.
3. Here is the balanced chemical equation for making water: Getting a mild fever indicates that
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l). you might be sick. However, you are
dangerously ill if you have a high fever
a. What is the predicted yield for water based on this equation?
for too long. Based on the information
b. What would you have to do to triple the predicted yield? above, what might be a consequence
4. Find the following for this reaction: MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 of having a high fever in terms of how
your body works?
a. This reaction is carried out with one mole of MgO and three moles of
H2O. What is the predicted yield for Mg(OH)2?
b. The percent yield for this reaction is 83.2 percent. What is the actual
yield of Mg(OH)2?
c. In the reaction, which compound is the limiting reactant and which is Table 18.1 organizes information
related to the factors affecting reaction
the excess reactant?
rate.
Table 18.1: A Review of the Factors Affecting Reaction Rate (1) List the two most effective factors in
increasing reaction rate. Explain your
Does the Energy of the choices.
Do Collisions Increase?
Collisions Increase?
(2) What is the most effective way to
Stirring Yes No slow down a reaction rate? Explain
your choice.
Increasing temperature Yes Yes
(3) Would stirring affect a chemical
Increasing surface area Yes No reaction that has chemical equilibrium?
Increasing concentration Yes No
Improves the effectiveness of collisions
Adding a catalyst
so less energy is needed for a reaction
Prevents or diminishes the effectiveness of
Adding an inhibitor
collisions so more energy is needed for a reaction
421
18.3 Nuclear Reactions

What do you think of when you hear the terms nuclear reactions or nuclear science? You may nuclear reaction - a reaction in
think that anything involving nuclear reactions is considered controversial. Why might that be? which the number of protons and/or
For starters, a great deal of energy can be produced by nuclear reactions, and humans need energy neutrons is altered in one or more
atoms.
constantly. You were introduced to the basics of nuclear science in Chapter 14. Earlier in this
chapter, you learned that Marie Curie and her husband were pioneers in nuclear science. This
section will provide you with more information about this fascinating topic.
Chemical vs. nuclear reactions

Chemical reactions When you mix two compounds like calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl), something happens (Figure 18.11). In this case, you
get calcium chloride (CaCl), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). In the
Figure 18.11: A chemical reaction.
transition between the reactants and the products of a chemical reaction,
either energy is mostly released (as in an exothermic reaction) or used (as in
an endothermic reaction). The involvement of energy in chemical reactions
has to do with the breaking and forming of chemical bonds. As you have
learned, these bonds involve the outermost electrons of atoms.
Introducing nuclear In the case of nuclear reactions, the main events and source of energy occur
reactions in the nuclei of the atoms involved. A nuclear reaction involves altering
the number of protons and/or neutrons in an atom. Recall from Chapter 14
that protons have positive charge, opposite of electrons. The charge on a
proton (+e) and an electron (–e) are exactly equal and opposite. Neutrons
have zero electric charge (Figure 18.12).
Energy and A great deal of energy is needed to begin a nuclear reaction. However, a
reactions great deal of energy is also released by this kind of reaction. Although they
can produce a lot of energy, chemical reactions fall short of producing as
Figure 18.12: Electrons are involved
much energy as nuclear reactions. For example, a coal power plant uses in chemical reactions. Protons and
chemical reactions to produce energy and a nuclear plant uses nuclear neutrons are involved in nuclear
reactions. The fuel for a nuclear power plant, uranium-235, can produce reactions.
3.7 million times as much energy as an equivalent amount of coal!
A review of radioactivity
Why is so much Strong nuclear force, which you learned about in Chapter 14, is a special
energy generated by force inside the nuclei of atoms that holds them together (Figure 18.13). The
nuclear reactions? strong nuclear force is the strongest force known to science and it is crucial to
maintain the structure of atoms. Why? Remember, the positively charged
protons repel each other in the nucleus. Keeping a nucleus together, the strong
nuclear force is an attractive force between neutrons and protons that works at
extremely small distances. If there are enough neutrons in a nucleus, the
attraction from the strong nuclear force wins out over the repulsion between
protons (an electromagnetic force).
Why are isotopes In every atom heavier than helium, there is at least one neutron for every Figure 18.13: Strong nuclear force
radioactive? proton in the nucleus. For complex reasons, the nucleus of an atom becomes works at very small distances between
unstable if it contains too many or too few neutrons relative to the number of protons and neutrons.
protons. If the nucleus is unstable, it breaks apart and releases particles or
energy. This process is described as radioactivity or radioactive decay. For
example, radioactive decay results in an unstable, radioactive isotope like
carbon-14 becoming the more stable isotope nitrogen-14.
Reviewing the types In Chapter 14, you learned about three types of radioactive decay
of radioactivity (Figure 18.14). In alpha decay, the nucleus of an unstable atom ejects two
protons and two neutrons, essentially the nucleus of a helium-4 (4He) atom.
The atomic number is reduced by two and the atomic mass is reduced by four
when a nucleus undergoes alpha decay. For example, uranium-238 undergoes
alpha decay to become thorium-234. Beta decay occurs when a neutron in the
nucleus splits into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus,
but the high energy electron is ejected and is called beta radiation. What is the
consequence of beta decay? You are right if you said that the atomic number
increases by one because one new proton is created. However, the mass
number stays the same because the atom lost a neutron but gained a proton. Figure 18.14: A review of the three
types of radioactive decay.
Excess energy in an unstable isotope is released by gamma decay. In gamma
decay, the nucleus emits pure energy in the form of gamma rays. Does atomic
number or atomic mass change after gamma decay? No, since energy is
released and not particles, the number of protons and neutrons stays the same.
SC.912.P.10.10-Compare the magnitude and range of the four fundamental forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear). 423
Two types of nuclear reactions

Getting to the As you have just learned, the nucleus of an atom can change. All by itself, an
nuclear fusion - a nuclear reaction
nucleus of unstable isotope can experience radioactive decay and become a new, more in which the nuclei of lighter atoms
the matter stable isotope. Atoms that are unstable and prone to radioactive decay are are combined to make heavier atoms.
useful in nuclear reactions. There are two kinds of these reactions: fusion and nuclear fission - a nuclear
fission. reaction in which the nuclei of heavier
atoms are split to make lighter atoms.
Fusion Nuclear fusion is the process of combining the nuclei of lighter atoms to
make heavier atoms. This process is occurring all the time in a very familiar
object—the Sun. What exactly happens in nuclear fusion? The process that
occurs matches its name. Two nuclei are “fused” together, a particle is
emitted, and a lot of energy is released. The reaction below shows the fusion
of hydrogen-3 (1 proton + 2 neutrons) with hydrogen-2 (1 proton + 1 neutron)
to produce a helium nucleus, a neutron, and energy. This process occurs in the
Sun and the resulting energy released provides Earth with heat and light.
Fission Nuclear fission is the process of splitting the nucleus of an atom. A fission
reaction can be started when a neutron bombards a nucleus. A chain reaction
results. A free neutron bombards a nucleus and the nucleus splits, releasing
more neutrons. These neutrons then bombard other nuclei (Figure 18.15).
Performing fusion Both fusion and fission reactions can be performed in a special machine
and fission reactions called a particle accelerator. The particle accelerator bombards particles and
atoms in order to achieve these reactions. However, only a very small Figure 18.15: Nuclear fission can be
number of atoms can be made in this way at one time. Fission, and the started when a free neutron (blue ball,
step A) bombards a nucleus (step B). A
resulting energy production in nuclear reactors, is controlled by releasing
chain reaction results as the nucleus
neutrons to start a chain reaction or by capturing neutrons to slow or stop a splits, releasing more neutrons, which
chain reaction. As you have just learned, the largest nuclear reactor in our bombard other nuclei (step C).
solar system is the Sun.
Using nuclear reactions for our energy needs

Sun power is You have just learned that the Sun is a giant nuclear reactor. All life on Earth
Chien-Shiung Wu
nuclear power depends on the energy produced by the fusion reactions that occur in the Sun.
For example, plants rely on sunlight to photosynthesize and make sugars. During World War II,
Chinese-American
Animals and people, in turn, eat plant products like fruits and vegetables and
physicist Chien-
grains. By eating these plant products, we are eating the Sun’s energy! Shiung Wu played an
Additionally, our fossil fuels derived from the fossil remains of plants and important role in the
animals can be attributed to the Sun’s energy. All this energy that we depend Manhattan Project,
on is related to a nuclear reaction in which hydrogen isotopes are fused the army’s secret
together to make helium. work to develop the atomic bomb
which worked using fission reactions.
Can we produce The interior of the Sun, where fusion takes place, is about 15 million degrees In 1957, Wu overthrew what was
energy like the Sun? Celsius. On Earth, we would need to generate about 100 million degrees considered to be an indisputable law
Celsius to create fusion of hydrogen for producing energy. This high of physics, changing the way we
understand the weak nuclear force.
temperature is necessary to overcome the difficulty of forcing positively
charged protons together. Given this information, is fusion a possible energy Chien-Shiung Wu was born in 1912
source for humans? Not currently. It would take too much energy to actually near Shanghai, China. After
graduating first in her class from high
produce the energy for human needs. However, because fusion reactions do school, she was invited to attend a
not produce any waste, scientists are studying this kind of nuclear reaction to prestigious university in Nanjing. After
see if there are economical ways to produce energy using fusion. earning a physics degree, Wu
emigrated to the United States. She
How do nuclear A nuclear reactor is a power plant that uses fission to produce heat. Like the earned a Ph.D. from the University of
reactors work? heat that is produced in a coal power plant by the burning of coal, the heat in a California-Berkeley in 1940.
nuclear reactor is used to generate steam for running turbines. In turn, the
After working on the Manhattan
turbines generate electricity for homes and businesses. Project, Wu continued research in
Nuclear reactors Almost all of our energy technologies produce some harmful waste products. nuclear physics at Columbia
University. She won the National
produce hazardous Burning coal and oil creates waste gases that contribute to global warming
Medal of Science, the nation’s
nuclear waste and acid rain. Although nuclear reactors do not normally produce harmful
highest award for scientific
emissions related to global warming, they do produce nuclear waste. achievement, in 1975.
What is nuclear The radioactive element in nuclear reactor fuel is uranium. When a uranium
waste? atom breaks up (fission), giving off energy, the resulting lighter atoms (the
nuclear waste) are also radioactive and remain radioactive for a long time.
Substances that are radioactive are extremely harmful. The particles and
energy emitted from radioactive elements can cause diseases like cancer.

425
A plan for storing In 1974, the U.S. Congress established the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
nuclear waste (NRC) as a monitoring organization for nuclear fuel use and the storage of
nuclear waste. There is a proposed permanent storage facility for highly Blocking Radiation
radioactive nuclear waste that may be built by 2017 in Yucca Mountain,
You don’t always need thick walls of
Nevada. Presently, nuclear waste is stored in cooling pools or dry casks at lead or concrete to block radiation (the
nuclear power plants around the country. Storing nuclear waste is a very product of radioactive decay). For
controversial issue because the waste is radioactive, usable for making example, a simple sheet of paper or
nuclear weapons, and very costly to store. your skin can block alpha particles.
Your clothing or wood can block beta
particles. However, gamma rays and
high-speed neutrons will pass right
through you, potentially causing
damage along the way. Nuclear
reactor facilities and the dry casks
used to store nuclear waste use thick
walls of concrete to block neutrons
and gamma rays.
Find out more about protecting
yourself from radiation at the U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s
Web site.
How much energy The United States gets about 19 percent of its energy from nuclear fission
comes from reactors. The remaining energy comes from coal, natural gas, oil, and
nuclear reactors? hydroelectric dams. Many foreign countries get more of their electricity from
nuclear fission reactors. France is the most dependent on nuclear power.
About 78 percent of electricity generated in France comes from nuclear
fission. If you look at the European Union as a whole, 30 percent of its
energy comes from nuclear fission.
426 SC.912.L.17.15-Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.

Using nuclear reactions in medicine and science

Half-life On this page, you will learn more about why radioactive waste is harmful, but
half-life - a certain length of time
also how radioactivity is useful. Let’s begin by looking again at nuclear after which half the amount of a
waste. The atoms that are a part of nuclear waste from nuclear reactors have radioactive element has undergone
long half-lives ranging from thousands (as in the case of plutonium-239) to radioactive decay.
millions of years. A half-life is a certain length of time after which half of the
amount of radioactive element has decayed. For example, the half-life of
carbon-14 (one of the radioactive isotopes of carbon) is 5,730 years. This
means that if you start out with 100 atoms of carbon-14, 5,730 years from
now, only 50 atoms will still be carbon-14. The rest of the carbon will have
decayed to nitrogen-14 (a stable isotope). As a radioactive element decays, it
emits harmful radiation such as alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. By
breaking chemical bonds, radiation can damage cells and DNA. Exposure to
radiation is particularly harmful if it is intense or for a long time period.
Radioactive dating Radioactive dating is a process that is used to figure out the age of objects by
measuring the amount of radioactive material in a substance and by knowing
the half-life of that substance. For example, carbon dating is used to date
material made from plants or animals. Much of the carbon absorbed by plants
and animals is carbon-12 and carbon-13 because these are the most abundant
carbon isotopes. However, some carbon-14 is also absorbed. By measuring
the amount of carbon-14 remaining in a plant or animal fossil, the age of the
fossils that are between 50,000 and a few thousand years old can be
estimated. For older material, the amount of uranium-238 can be measured. It
takes 4.5 billion years for one half of the uranium-238 atoms in a sample to
turn into lead (Figure 18.16). If a rock contains uranium-238, scientists can
determine the rock’s age by the ratio of uranium-238 to lead atoms in the
sample. Understanding radioactive decay of uranium-238 has allowed
scientists to determine that the age of Earth is 4.6 billion years old.
Radioisotopes Radioisotopes (also called radioactive isotopes) are commonly used as tracers Figure 18.16: The radioactive decay
detect problems in medicine and science. By adding a radioactive isotope into a system (such of uranium to lead. Radioactive decay is
measured in half-lives. After one half-
in systems as the human body or an underground water supply), problems can be
life, 50 percent of the uranium-238
detected. The tracer’s radiation allows it to be detected using a Geiger counter atoms have decayed.
or other machine and followed as it travels through the system.
SC.912.L.15.2-Discuss the use of molecular clocks to estimate how long ago various groups of organisms diverged evolutionarily from one another. 427
Nuclear vs. chemical reactions

A summary of the differences between chemical and nuclear reactions is Radiation Is All Around
listed in the table below.
Because you cannot see or feel
radiation, you may not be aware that
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions it is all around you. Many common
objects contain radioactive isotopes.
Exposure to radiation can come from
space (radiation entering the Earth’s
What part of the Protons and neutrons in the
Outermost electrons atmosphere), having an X-ray, brick
atom is involved? nucleus
or stone buildings, or even Brazil
nuts! Fortunately, exposure to
radiation from these sources is
Atoms are brought close together
High temperature is required or very low.
How is the with high temperature or pressure,
atoms are bombarded with high-
reaction started? or catalysts, or by increasing
speed particles
concentrations of reactants
STUDY SKILLS
The number of protons and
What is the outcome Atoms form ionic or covalent Isotope Notation
neutrons in an atom usually
of the reaction? bonds Isotope notation is a way to write the
changes and/or energy is released
atomic mass number and atomic
number of the isotope of an element.
How much energy This particular notation is useful for
A small amount A huge amount tracking whether a radioactive isotope
is absorbed or released?
has undergone alpha decay, beta
decay, or gamma decay.
Generating nuclear energy, taking
Burning fossil fuels, digesting X-rays, treating cancer, irradiating
What are some examples? food, making medicines and food to sterilize it, the Sun
commercial products generating heat
and light
Section 18.3 Review

1. Why is so much energy required and released in a nuclear reaction? Irene Joliot-Curie
2. Explain the interaction and roles of electromagnetic force and strong Irene Joliot-Curie was a remarkable
nuclear force in the nucleus of an atom. woman. She was the oldest daughter
of Marie and Pierre Curie. Irene
3. Gold-185 decays to iridium-181. Is this an example of alpha or beta studied both mathematics (her forte)
decay? and physics at the University of
4. What has to happen, in terms of radioactive decay, for carbon-14 to decay Sorbonne in Paris. However, her
to nitrogen-14? education was interrupted by World
War I. Irene joined her mother in
5. How is gamma decay different from alpha or beta decay? military hospitals and on the
6. In your own words, describe the difference between fusion and fission. battlefield. Marie had developed
Why do certain elements undergo fusion or fission? portable X-ray machines which she
7. Which type of nuclear reaction is used in modern-day nuclear reactors? set up and used to treat wounded
soldiers. For her service, Irene was
Why is the other type of nuclear reaction not used in modern-day awarded France’s Military Medal. By
energy production? 1925, Irene had earned her Ph.D.,
8. When an atom of beryllium-9 is bombarded by an alpha particle, an atom studying alpha rays of the element
of carbon-12 is produced and a neutron is emitted. What kind of nuclear polonium, which was discovered by
reaction has just occurred? her parents. Around this time, she
also met her future husband and
9. What is the half-life of each of these radioactive isotopes? scientific collaborator, Frederic Joliot.
a. A radioactive isotope decreased to one-half its original amount in Frederic and Irene were both
18 months. passionate about science and also
shared interests in politics, art, and
b. A radioactive isotope decreased to one-fourth its original amount in sports. The couple married in
100 years. 1926 and had two children. They
10. For each scenario below, indicate whether a chemical reaction or a earned the Nobel Prize in 1935
nuclear reaction is occurring. for discovering that nonradioactive
elements could be turned into
a. When two compounds are combined heat is released. radioactive isotopes using
b. A sample of galium-68 is reduced to one-half of its original amount in alpha particles.
68.3 minutes.
c. Radium-226 decays to radon-222.
d. A spark of energy is used to begin the combustion of methane gas.
e. Hydrogen nuclei are fused in the Sun to make helium atoms.
429
Chapter 18
Your Footprint Your Personal Carbon Footprint

Every person on the planet is responsible for some of the
Matters
atmosphere’s carbon dioxide. Your contribution is known as your
personal “carbon footprint.” Most U.S. residents have a large carbon
footprint, an average of 22 tons per year per person, far more than
individuals in most other countries. In 2007, the U.S. Department of
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the concentration of carbon Energy reported that people in the United States are responsible for
almost 25 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions each year.
dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere in 2007 was 380 ppm (parts per million).
This means if you had a million kilograms of atmospheric gases, Why? The average American’s lifestyle choices (eating habits, driving
380 kilograms of that million would be carbon dioxide. That doesn’t habits, and leisure activities, for example) play a significant role.
seem like much, does it? But around 150 years ago, before the industrial The good news is that there are many ways that we can change our
revolution, the concentration was only 280 ppm. The concentration has habits to reduce our individual carbon footprints.
increased 36 percent over 150 years!
Making Choices Making a Difference
(Million Metric Tons Carbon)

380 7,000
The problem of
CO2 Concentrations
360 6,000
carbon dioxide
CO2 Emissions
340 5,000
emissions and
320 4,000 global climate
300 3,000 change is huge.
280 2,000 What can one
260 1,000 person do? This is
just what students
0 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 at a Rhode Island
Year high school asked
themselves. To
Atmospheric concentrations Human-produced emissions help find ways
Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center to reduce their
individual carbon
So what?, you ask. Here’s the issue: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse footprints, physical science students researched different carbon
gas, which means that it helps trap heat from the Sun near Earth’s dioxide reduction strategies and then shared their research with one
surface. Without naturally occurring carbon dioxide, Earth’s average another and members of their community at “Energy Night.”
surface temperature would be about 30ºC colder. But too much
One student decided to teach people about the impact of their food
carbon dioxide can cause too much solar energy to be trapped
choices. She explained, “Most of the food that we eat has traveled
as heat. Since the industrial revolution, Earth’s average surface
well over a thousand miles to get to our plates. The burning of all
temperature has risen about 0.67ºC. This is not a huge increase, but
that fuel for transportation puts a lot of carbon dioxide into the
it’s enough to have caused the sea level to rise 10 to 25 centimeters.
air. The solution is to eat more locally grown foods. I also compared
Further increases may impact global climate patterns.

water pollution.
Chapter 18
unprocessed foods versus highly processed foods. The unprocessed Another student taught
foods were less expensive, healthier, and required less energy to people about bioplastics.
produce.” “Unlike regular plastics
which are made from
Three students focused on how Americans choose to spend leisure petroleum, bioplastics can
time. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, in be made from plants or
2006, American males over the age of 15 spent an average of algae. So, they are made
5.7 hours per week engaged in leisure activities while women spent from renewable resources
an average of 4.9 hours. According to the study, the majority of that take carbon dioxide out
this time was spent watching television, an activity that increases of the atmosphere during
a person’s carbon footprint. To reduce this leisure time carbon part of their production.
footprint, one student suggested that families institute a game Plus, many bioplastics are
night. Pick a time every week when everyone in the house must turn compostable, which means
off their televisions and computers and get together as a family to that we don’t have to send
play a game, share stories, or make music. them to the landfill.” Bioplastics can be made from plants or algae.
Two students
wanted to relay a Doing Your Part
similar message. Every person can help address the problem of global warming by
To get their making changes in personal habits that reduce his or her individual
message out to carbon footprint. You can find an online personal carbon footprint
lots of people, calculator using an ;Internet keyword search: “carbon footprint”
they hosted + calculator.
a community
dance. “If kids Solving this problem will take the combined efforts of all people.
spend time with What will you do to help make the planet healthier for everyone?
people instead
of computers
or televisions, Questions:
To get the message out to lots of people, students hosted a
they can save
community dance. 1. How much has the amount of carbon dioxide in the
energy and form
better relationships,” they explained. “Other things like reading,
atmosphere changed since the industrial revolution?
exercising, or playing games that don’t use electricity can help make 2. What is meant by “carbon footprint”?
us smarter, stronger, and better connected to the people around
us. So, we organized a dance so that people in our community can 3. What are three things that you can do to reduce your
spend time together. It was contra dance, not the usual kind of high carbon footprint?
school dance. This was fun for all ages.” Over 100 people in the
community came to the dance, and it was written up in three local Energy statistics courtesy of Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy.
newspapers.

water pollution.
11. ____ occurs in the Sun, the largest nuclear reactor in our
solar system.
inhibitor excess reactant percent yield
nuclear reaction activation energy endothermic
12. The ____ of uranium-238 is 4.5 billion years.
exothermic dissolution reaction reaction rate 13. Fusion is an example of a(n) ____.
limiting reactant chemical equilibrium catalyst 14. A(n) ____ reaction can be started when a neutron bombards
nuclear fusion half-life a nucleus.
nuclear fission
Section 18.1 Concepts
1. A catalyst can lower the ____ of a reaction. Section 18.1
2. Once started, a(n) ____ reaction tends to keep going. 1. Write a general equation that illustrates the difference
between an exothermic reaction and an endothermic
3. A(n) ____ reaction uses more energy than it releases.
reaction. You only need to use the following items in your
4. A(n) ____ has occurred when an ionic compound dissolves in general equation: reactants, products, and energy. Be sure
water. to include an arrow in writing your equation.
Section 18.2 2. Your teacher asks you to mix two compounds to find out if
5. If the actual yield of a chemical reaction was 5 grams and the reaction is endothermic or exothermic. What will you do
the predicted yield was 10 grams, the ____ is 50 percent. to determine which type of reaction is occurring?
6. A(n) ____ slows down reaction rate whereas a(n) ____ can 3. Compare a dissolution reaction with a combustion reaction.
speed up the reaction rate. Section 18.2
7. A reactant that is left over after a reaction is complete is 4. Your lab partner did not take careful notes during today’s
called the ____. chemistry experiment. You see these numbers written
8. A reaction in an open system is less likely to achieve ____. without labels: 37.3 grams, 40 grams, 93.3 percent. Before
asking your partner, you decide to predict which number is
9. A reactant that is used up first in a reaction is called the
the predicted yield, the actual yield, and the percent yield.
____.
Justify your answer. Make a list of all the factors that will
10. One way to increase ____ is by increasing the temperature of increase the reaction rate of a chemical reaction.
the reaction.
432
5. You are investigating the reaction rate of a chemical 2. The U.S. Army developed an MRE (Meal, Ready to Eat) for
reaction. How might the required activation energy be the 1991 Gulf War. These meals have a special sleeve placed
affected if you add a catalyst to the reaction? If you add an around the food which is wrapped in aluminum foil. When
inhibitor to the reaction? water is added to the sleeve, a chemical reaction produces
6. Imagine you are a molecular-sized reporter and are able to enough heat to cook the food. The sleeve contains a pad with
witness a chemical reaction achieve chemical equilibrium. suspended particles of magnesium metal. When water is
Write down what you observe. Be sure to describe the added, the magnesium reacts with it to produce magnesium
actions of the reactants and products, and the setting! hydroxide and heat. The heat is conducted through the
aluminum foil to heat the food. What kind of reaction is
Section 18.3 this?
7. Explain why nuclear reactions produce so much energy. Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
8. Compare and contrast a nuclear power plant with a coal- Section 18.2
based power plant. 3. In the equation below, the actual yield of bromide (Br2) was
9. Say you know a certain fossil is more than a million years 19.8 grams when the reaction was performed with 10.0
old. Can you use carbon dating to date it? Why or why not? grams of chlorine (Cl2). The molecular mass of Br2 is 159.8
grams and the molecular mass of Cl2 is 70.9 grams.
10. Why are radioisotopes useful in detecting problems in the
Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
human body? Why might a technique involving a
radioisotope be a better option than surgery? a. What is the predicted yield for Br2?
b. What is the percent yield for Br2?
Problems 4. For the reaction in question 2 above, determine the
Section 18.1 predicted yield for Mg(OH)2 and H2. What is the actual yield
1. The graph below illustrates the change in energy for an for these products if the percent yield is 80 percent?
exothermic reaction. Section 18.3
a. Label A and B on the graph. 5. The half-life of cesium-137 is 30 years. Make a graph that
b. Make a sketch that would show the change of energy shows its radioactive decay over a period of 300 years. Show
that occurs for an endothermic reaction. Time on the x-axis of the graph and Number of Atoms on the
y-axis. The starting amount of cesium-137 is 100 atoms. Be
sure to title the graph and label the axes.
6. Write the isotope notation for the following isotopes:
a. carbon-14 c. hydrogen-3 e. gold-195

b. nitrogen-14 d. beryllium-9 f. polonium-209
433
7. The decay series for uranium-238 and plutonium-240 are a. What is the maximum number of sundaes you can make
listed below. Above each arrow, write a for alpha decay or b with each sundae having exactly the same amount of
for beta decay to indicate which type of decay took place at each ingredient?
each step. b. Which ingredient is the limiting component of the
a. 238 U → 234 Th → 234 Pa → 234 U → 230 Th → system?
92 90 91 92 90
c. What quantities of the other two “reactants” will be left
226 Ra → 222 Rn → 218 Po → 214 Pb → 214 Bi → over when you are finished?
88 86 84 82 83
Section 18.3
210 Pb 210 Po 206
214 Po
84 → 82 → 210 Bi
83
→ 84 → 82
Pb 3. For every atom heavier than helium, there needs to be at
least as many neutrons as protons to hold the nucleus
b. 240 Pu → 240Am
→ 236 Np
→ 232 Pa
→ 232 U
→ together. For example, calcium-40 has 20 protons and
94 95 93 91 92
20 neutrons. For heavier atoms, more neutrons are needed
228 Bi 224 Ra 224 Ac 220 Fr 216 At than protons. For atoms with more than 83 protons, even
→ → → → →
90 88 89 87 85 the added strong nuclear force from neutrons is not enough
to hold the nucleus together. How would you describe the
212 Bi 212 Po 208 Pb 208 Bi
83 → 84 → 82 → 83 elements that have more than 83 protons?
4. Theoretical physicist Hideki Yukawa was the first person
from Japan to receive a Nobel Prize. For what
Applying Your Knowledge accomplishment did he receive the Nobel Prize?
Section 18.1 5. In 1948, Roscoe L. Koontz, a young, African American
1. Many drain cleaners are a mixture of sodium hydroxide and chemist from Missouri, was invited to participate in the
aluminum filings. When these two substances mix in water, Atomic Energy Health Physics Fellowship Training
they react to produce enough heat to melt the fat in your Program at the University of Rochester. Eventually, he
became one of the world’s first health physicists. Find out
clogged drain. The bubbles produced are hydrogen gas.
more about the field of health physics. What does a “health
From this description, do your best to write the chemical
physicist” do? Also, find out more about Koontz and his
formulas for the reactants and products and their state of accomplishments.
matter. What kind of reaction is this? How do you know?
6. In 1977, Rosalyn Sussman Yalow was awarded the Nobel
Section 18.2
Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her work in developing
2. One chocolate sundae includes 1/2 cup of ice cream, 2 ounces radioimmunoassay or RIA. Find out about this important
of chocolate sauce, and 1 cherry. You have 10 cups of ice medical technique and how it involves the use of
cream, 25 ounces of chocolate sauce, and 10 cherries.
radioisotopes.
Chapter 19
Solutions
Let’s say you’re really thirsty. You go to a store and see a wide range of
beverages. You might pick a plain bottle of water or, if you want something
more interesting, you might buy carbonated water. Other types of drinks include; sports drinks,
sodas, fruit juice, dairy beverages, and even tea or coffee drinks. What do these drinks have
in common? For starters, they all contain a very precious element—water! And here’s
another thing they have in common: they are all types of solutions. In this chapter you
will learn about a solution. You will discover what makes plain water different from
carbonated water and that water is a special substance because it it has a neutral pH.
What does that mean? Here are some clues: it’s not acidic like orange juice and it’s
not basic like liquid soap. You definitely don’t want to drink liquid soap. Yuck!
What do we mean when we say “H-2-O”?
Is an unopened bottle of soda

a saturated solution?
What’s the difference between

an acid and a base?
Chapter 19 SOLUTIONS
19.1 Water
We live on a watery planet. All life on Earth depends on this combination of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. Fortunately, Earth has a lot of water—75 percent of our planet’s surface is covered with it!
Interestingly, our bodies are mostly water, too—about 60 to 75 percent (Figure 19.1). With these
facts in mind, let’s find out about the properties of water that make it so valuable.
The shape of a water molecule

How a water The chemical formula for water is H2O. Why is that?
molecule is formed From the formula, we know that for each water molecule
there are two hydrogen atoms that are each attached to an Figure 19.1: The Earth’s surface
oxygen atom by a chemical bond. Recall that oxygen has and our bodies are mostly water.
2-
1+ 1+ an oxidation number of 2– and has six valence electrons.
neutral molecule
Hydrogen, with an oxidation number of 1+, has only one
(2–) + (1+) + (1+) = 0 valence electron. When two hydrogen atoms share their electrons with one
oxygen atom, a neutral molecule is formed (shown at left). Note that the
oxygen atom in the molecule (shown at right) now has eight valence
electrons, the same number as a noble gas. Each hydrogen atom now has two
valence electrons, giving them the same number of valence electrons as a
helium atom.
The shape of a water A water molecule forms a pyramid shape called a tetrahedron. An oxygen Tetrahedron
molecule atom is in the middle of the tetrahedron, and the electron pairs form the legs.
Why does a water molecule form this shape? A water molecule has four
pairs of electrons around the oxygen atom. Only two of these pairs are
involved in forming the chemical bonds. These two pairs are called bonding
pairs. The other two pairs of electrons are not involved in forming chemical
bonds and are known as lone pairs. H H
Electron pairs repel Because negative charges repel, the four electron pairs around the oxygen
V shape
each other atom are located where they can be the farthest apart from each other,
forming the tetrahedron shape (Figure 19.2). If you draw the molecule Figure 19.2: The shape of a water
without the lone pairs, the oxygen and hydrogen atoms form a “V” (shown molecule.
upside down in the diagram).
SOLUTIONS Chapter 19
Water is a polar molecule

What is a polar Water is a polar molecule, meaning it has a negative end (pole) and a
polar molecule - a molecule that
molecule? positive end (pole). In a molecule of water, the oxygen atom attracts electrons has a negative and a positive end or
so that they are shared unequally between the oxygen and hydrogen. The pole.
electrons are actually pulled toward the oxygen atom and away from the two nonpolar molecule - a molecule
hydrogen atoms. Therefore, the oxygen side of the molecule (the side with the that does not have distinctly charged
lone pairs of electrons) has a partially negative charge and the hydrogen side poles.
of the molecule has a partially positive charge (Figure 19.3).
Ammonia is another Ammonia (NH3) is another example of a polar molecule. This molecule has
polar molecule one lone pair of electrons and three bonding pairs of electrons. This gives the
ammonia molecule a pyramid shape. Figure 19.3 shows the shape of the
molecule with the three hydrogens forming the base of the pyramid (the
positive pole). The top of the pyramid is the negative pole.
Nonpolar molecules Methane (CH4) is an example of a nonpolar molecule. Nonpolar molecules
do not have distinct positive and negative poles. Figure 19.3 shows a methane
molecule. This molecule does not contain any lone pairs of electrons. Since
there are no lone pairs of electrons, the electrons are shared equally between
the carbon atom and the four surrounding hydrogen atoms.
Comparing polar It takes energy to melt and boil compounds. The fact that the melting and
and nonpolar boiling points of a polar molecule (water) are much higher than those of a
molecules nonpolar molecule (methane) provides evidence that there are attractions
between polar molecules. This is because it takes more energy to pull apart
molecules that are polar compared to nonpolar molecules. The table below
compares the melting and boiling points of water and methane. Notice that the
melting and boiling points of water are much higher than those of methane.
Comparing Water and Methane

Compound Melting Point Boiling Point Figure 19.3: Examples of polar and
Water 0°C 100°C nonpolar molecules.
Methane –182°C –164°C
437
Water molecules are connected by hydrogen bonds

A water molecule is How can a water molecule be like a magnet? Think about what happens if
hydrogen bond - an intermolecular
like a magnet you place a group of magnets together. Recall that a magnet has two sides or force between the hydrogen on one
poles. This means that two side-by-side magnets are attracted to each other’s molecule to an atom on another
opposite pole. A group of magnets will form an arrangement so that they molecule.
alternate poles because similar poles repel each other. The same is true if you
put a group of water molecules together. The positive pole of one water
molecule is attracted to the negative pole of another. In a group of water
molecules, the positive and negative poles align among the molecules in the
group. These polar attractions create organization among water molecules.
Hydrogen bonds Recall that a water molecule has two strong covalent bonds between the
oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms. The force that holds neighboring
water molecules together is called a hydrogen bond. A hydrogen bond is Figure 19.4: A hydrogen bond
between two water molecules.
an intermolecular force between a hydrogen atom on one molecule to an
atom on another molecule. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak. They
constantly break and reform as water molecules collide.
A network of In Figure 19.4, you can see that the oxygen atom in a water molecule has two
molecules partially negative lone electron pairs. Each pair of electrons is available to
form a hydrogen bond with the partially positive hydrogen atom of a
neighboring water molecule. Many neighboring water molecules connected
by hydrogen bonds form a network of water molecules. As temperature
increases, the organized structure of the hydrogen bonds among water
molecules decreases. As temperature decreases, the organized structure
becomes greater.
Ice has a Frozen water, or ice, has a very organized structure that resembles a
honeycomb honeycomb because each water molecule forms hydrogen bonds with four
structure other water molecules (Figure 19.5). This creates a six-sided arrangement of
molecules that is evident if you examine snowflakes under a microscope. As
water freezes, molecules of water separate slightly from each other as a Figure 19.5: The honeycomb
structure of solid water (ice). Can you
result of hydrogen bonding. This causes the volume to increase slightly and
identify how each molecule forms four
the density to decrease. This explains why water expands when it is frozen hydrogen bonds with other molecules?
and why ice floats. The density of ice is about 0.9 g/cm3 whereas the density
of water is about 1 g/cm3.
Properties of water related to hydrogen bonding

Water has a high You learned in Chapter 11 that water has a high specific heat compared to
specific heat other substances. Recall that specific heat tells us how much heat is needed to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one degree Celsius. A
high specific heat means a lot of energy is needed for each degree of increase
in temperature. For example, water’s specific heat value is 4,184 J/kg°C
whereas the specific heat for steel is 470 J/kg°C.
Water resists Water has a high specific heat value because of hydrogen bonds. Between
temperature single molecules, hydrogen bonds are weak. However, at the group level, the
changes polar attractions of the molecules (the hydrogen bonds) make more heat
necessary to make water molecules move faster. The temperature finally rises
once the water molecules begin to move faster. The same amount of energy
that was used to heat a volume of water must be removed for it to cool. If a
large amount of energy is needed to heat water, the same amount will be have
to be taken away to cool it back to the starting temperature. This also explains
why water cools more slowly than other substances.
Figure 19.6: In order for water to
Water has a high Most of the water on Earth exists in liquid and solid states, rather than as a boil, enough energy must be added to
boiling point gas. This is because the hydrogen bonds hold the water molecules together separate the hydrogen bonds that hold
the water molecules together.
strongly enough so that individual molecules cannot easily escape as a gas at
ordinary temperatures. The hydrogen bonds in water explain why water has
such a high boiling point (100°C). In order for water to boil and turn into a
gas (water vapor), enough energy must be added to separate the hydrogen
bonds that hold the molecules of water together. Once these molecules are
separated, they are able to enter the gaseous state (Figure 19.6).
Hydrogen bonding You may know that plants obtain water from their roots. How does water get
and plants from a plant root to its leaves? The stem of a plant has microscopically thin,
straw-like structures that allow the water to rise up from the roots to the
leaves. The water is able to make the entire journey from the roots to the
leaves due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules (Figure 19.7). As
water molecules evaporate from the leaves, other water molecules are pulled
Figure 19.7: Hydrogen bonds help
into place. It is as if water molecules hold hands. If one molecule moves, the water travel from roots to stem to leaves.
ones behind follow because they are connected by hydrogen bonds!
Water is a universal solvent

Water dissolves Water is often called the “universal solvent.” While water doesn’t dissolve
many things everything, it does dissolve many different types of substances such as salt
and sugar. Water is a good solvent because it is a polar molecule. This gives
it the ability to dissolve ionic compounds and other polar substances.
How water An example of an ionic compound is table salt (sodium chloride or NaCl).
dissolves salt Recall that sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound that is made of
sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl–). Suppose a sodium chloride (table
salt) crystal is mixed with water. The polar water molecules surround the
sodium and chloride ions in the crystal. This causes the ions in the crystal to
separate. Because opposites attract, the negative ends of the water molecules
are attracted to the Na+ ions and the positive ends are attracted to the Cl–
ions. Water molecules surround the Na+ and Cl– ions and make a solution.
The process by which ionic compounds dissolve (become separated into Figure 19.8: Water dissolves sodium
positive and negative ions) is called dissociation (Figure 19.8). chloride to form a solution of ions.
How water Like water molecules, sugar (sucrose) molecules can form hydrogen bonds.
dissolves sugar In the case of sugar, these bonds hold the molecules together as solid
crystals. When sucrose is mixed with water, the individual molecules of Polar Nonpolar
sucrose become separated from each other and are attracted to the opposite Substances Substances
poles of the water molecules. Because sucrose is a covalent compound, the
sucrose molecules do not dissociate into ions but remain as neutral water vegetable oil
molecules in the solution. vinegar mineral spirits
Like dissolves like. For example, polar solvents like alcohol turpentine
water dissolve polar substances. sucrose wax
What doesn’t In general, “like dissolves like.” This
water dissolve? means water, a polar solvent, dissolves Figure 19.9: Examples of polar and
polar substances. Nonpolar solvents (like nonpolar substances.
mineral oil) dissolve nonpolar substances.
Mineral oil is insoluble in water because it
lacks the ability to form hydrogen bonds.
Figure 19.9 lists polar and nonpolar
substances.
Section 19.1 Review

1. Why does an oxygen atom only form two covalent bonds with The Importance of Water
hydrogen atoms? To understand why water is an
2. Draw the Lewis dot structure for water. Label lone pairs, bonding pairs, important resource, complete one or
positive pole, and negative pole. more of the following.
3. Why is a water molecule able to form four hydrogen bonds? Use a (1) Spend a day documenting how
much water you use.
diagram to explain your answer.
4. Identify which of the molecules below are polar molecules and which are (2) Find out how your city or state
government promotes water
nonpolar molecules. Justify your answer. conservation or protection of local
water areas.
(3) Find out about how the federal
government protects our water
resources.
(4) Identify an organization that is
involved in water conservation. Visit
their website and find out what the
organization does.
5. What is the difference between a bond in a polar molecule and a bond in a
nonpolar molecule?
6. A single covalent bond is stronger than a single hydrogen bond, so why
does a group of polar molecules tend to have a higher boiling point than a
group of nonpolar molecules?
7. Compare and contrast a pair of magnets and a pair of water molecules.
8. Why is the density of ice less than the density of liquid water?
9. Water’s specific heat value is 4,184 J/kg°C and the value for steel is
470 J/kg°C. Based on this information, compare water and steel with
regard to the time it would take to heat up or cool down these substances.
10. List three properties of water that are related to hydrogen bonding.
11. How is the process of evaporation of water from a plant leaf involved in
moving water up the stem of a plant? Use the term hydrogen bond in
your answer.
12. What does the phrase “like dissolves like” mean?
19.2 Solutions
If you walk down the beverage aisle of your local grocery store, you might see mineral water, solution - a mixture of two or more
spring water, flavored water, and seltzer (carbonated water) for sale. While the labels on the substances that is homogenous at
bottles might call what’s inside “water,” each bottle contains more than just pure water. These the molecular level.
varieties of water are actually solutions that also contain dissolved substances. alloy - a solution of two or more
solids.
Solutions
Homogeneous at the A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that is homogeneous at
molecular level the molecular level. The word homogeneous means the particles in the water
are evenly distributed. For example, in mineral water there are no clumps of
hundreds of mineral ions. Figure 19.10 illustrates some examples of other
solutions. The particles in a true solution exist as individual atoms, ions, or
molecules. Each has a diameter of between 0.01 and 1.0 nanometer (nm).
A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter.
Heterogeneous Muddy water is not
mixtures homogeneous and it is not a
solution. Muddy water is
heterogeneous because it
contains larger particles of soil
or plant debris. Of course,
muddy water also contains
individual atoms, ions, and
molecules too.
An alloy is a We often think of solutions as liquid. However, solutions exist in every
solution of two or phase: solid, liquid, and gas. A solution of two or more solids is called an
more solids alloy. Steel is an alloy (solution) of iron and carbon. Fourteen-karat gold is
Figure 19.10: Examples of solutions.
an alloy of silver and gold. “Fourteen-karat” means that 14 out of every
24 atoms in the alloy are gold atoms and the rest are silver atoms.
Carbonated water is a solution of a gas in a liquid. The sweet smell of
perfume is a solution of perfume molecules in air. This is an example of a
solution of gases.
Mixtures that are not solutions

Colloids A colloid is a mixture with particles formed in clusters of atoms or molecules
colloid - a mixture that contains
ranging in size from 1 to 1,000 nanometers. Colloids can look like solutions evenly distributed particles that are
because the particles are too small to settle to the bottom of their container. 1 to 1,000 nanometers in size.
Instead, they stay evenly distributed throughout the mixture because they are suspension - a mixture that
constantly tossed about by the movement of the particles. Examples of contains particles that are greater
colloids are mayonnaise, egg whites, and gelatin. than 1,000 nanometers.
Suspensions You may notice that when you step into a pond or lake to go swimming, the Tyndall effect - the scattering of
water suddenly becomes cloudy. Your feet cause the mud and other particles light by the particles in a colloid.
on the bottom of the pond or lake to mix with the water. However, if you stand
still, the water eventually becomes clear again because the individual particles
sink. In a suspension like muddy water, the particles are greater than
1,000 nanometers in diameter and can range widely in size. A suspension
will settle when it is left still for a period of time. Because a suspension is a
heterogeneous mixture, the different-sized particles in a suspension can be
separated by filtering.
The Tyndall effect It isn’t easy to separate colloids by filtering. However, there is a way to
visually distinguish colloids from true solutions. The Tyndall effect is the
scattering of light by the 1- to 1,000-nanometer particles in a colloid. The
Tyndall effect is occurring if you shine a flashlight through a jar of liquid and
see the light beam. The Tyndall effect helps distinguish a translucent colloid
from a true solution because the particles in a solution are too small to scatter
light (Figure 19.11). An example of the Tyndall effect is when a car’s
headlights are seen cutting through fog. Fog is an example of a colloid.
Table 19.1: Properties of Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions
Approximate Size Do solute particles Will filtering Do particles scatter
of Solute Particles settle? separate particles? light? Figure 19.11: The Tyndall effect
Solutions 0.01 to 1.0 nm no no no helps you tell the difference between a
only with special translucent colloid and a solution.
Colloids 1.0 to 1,000 nm no yes, if translucent
equipment
Suspensions > 1,000 nm yes yes yes, if translucent
Solvents and solutes

What are solvents A solution is a mixture of at least two substances: a solvent and a solute.
solvent - the component of a
and solutes? The solvent is the substance that makes up the biggest percentage of the solution that is present in the
mixture. For example, the solvent in grape soda is water. Each of the greatest amount.
remaining parts of a solution (other than the solvent) is called a solute. solute - any component of a
Sugar, coloring dyes, flavoring chemicals, and carbon dioxide gas are solutes solution other than the solvent.
in grape soda.
dissolve - to separate and disperse
Solutes dissolve When the solute particles are evenly distributed throughout the solvent, we a solid into individual particles in the
in a solvent say that the solute has “dissolved.” Solutes dissolve in a solvent to form a presence of a solvent.
solution. For example, the illustration below shows the preparation of a
sugar and water solution. The solute (sugar) is in the graduated cylinder on
the left. Water (the solvent) is added and the mixture is carefully stirred.
Once all the solid sugar has dissolved, the solution becomes clear.
Dissolving and Dissolving of a solid (like sugar) occurs when molecules of solvent interact
temperature with and separate molecules of solute (Figure 19.12). Most substances
dissolve faster at higher temperatures. You may have noticed that sugar
dissolves much faster in hot water than in cold water. This is because thermal
energy is used to break the intermolecular forces between the solute
molecules.
Figure 19.12: For dissolving to take
The importance of Dissolving only occurs where the solvent contacts the solute. A solute will place, molecules of solvent interact with
surface area dissolve faster if it has a large amount of exposed surface area. For this and carry away molecules of solute.
reason, most things that are meant to be dissolved, like salt and sugar, are
sold as powders. A substance in powder form has a high amount of exposed
surface area.
444 versatility as a solvent.
Solubility
What is solubility? Solubility describes the amount of solute (if any) that can be dissolved in a
solubility - the amount of solute
volume of solvent. Solubility is often listed in grams per 100 milliliters of that can be dissolved in a specific
solvent. Solubility is always given at a specific temperature since temperature volume of solvent under certain
strongly affects solubility. For example, Table 19.2 shows that 200 grams of conditions.
sugar can be dissolved in 100 milliliters of water at 25°C. insoluble - when a solute is unable
Insoluble Notice that there are no solubility values for chalk and talc in Table 19.2. to dissolve in a particular solvent.
substances do These substances are insoluble in water because they do not dissolve in saturated - describes a solution
not dissolve water. You can mix chalk dust and water and stir them vigorously, but you that has as much solute as the
solvent can dissolve under the
will still just have a mixture of chalk dust and water. The water will not
conditions.
separate the chalk dust into individual molecules because chalk does not
dissolve in water.
Saturation Suppose you add 300 grams of sugar to 100 milliliters of water at 25°C? What
happens? According to Table 19.2, 200 grams will dissolve in the water. The Dew point
rest will remain solid. That means you will be left with 100 grams of solid Sometimes there is more water
sugar at the bottom of your solution. Any solute added in excess of the vapor dissolved in the air in your
solubility does not dissolve. A solution is saturated if it contains as much home than you might want. To
solute as the solvent can dissolve under certain conditions. Dissolving 200 prevent mildew, for example, a
dehumidifier is used to remove water
grams of sugar in 100 milliliters of water at 25°C creates a saturated solution vapor dissolved in air. This device
because no more sugar will dissolve under these conditions. works by reducing the temperature of
Table 19.2: Solubility Values for Common Substances the air. The dew point is the
temperature at which air is saturated
Solubility with water vapor. If it becomes colder
Substance (grams per 100 mL H2O at 25°C) than the dew point, the air becomes
supersaturated with water. This
sugar (C12H22O11) 200 means there is more water than the
sodium nitrate (NaNO3) 94 air can hold. The excess water
condenses out of the air as liquid
calcium chloride (CaCl2) 90 water which is then collected by the
table salt (NaCl) 38 dehumidifier. This process is similar
baking soda (NaHCO3) approximately 10 to the process in nature which
causes dew to form on grass in the
chalk (CaCO3) insoluble morning and rain drops to form.
talc (Mg silicates) insoluble
Solving Problems: Solubility Solution Solutions!

(1) Come up with a hypothesis for why
Seawater is a solution of water, salt, and other minerals. How much salt can chalk and talc do not dissolve in water.
dissolve in 200 milliliters of water at 25°C? (2) How is a solvent–solute solution like
a “solution” to a problem? Research
1. Looking for: Grams of solute (salt) the origin of the word solution.
2. Given: Volume (200 mL) and temperature (25°C) of solvent

3. Relationships: 38 grams of salt dissolves in 100 milliliters of water at 25°C (Table 19.2).
4. Solution: If 38 grams dissolves in 100 milliliters, then twice as much, or 76 grams, will
dissolve in 200 milliliters. a. 19 grams
b. 600 grams
Your turn... c. 300 milliliters
a. How much table salt can dissolve in 50 milliliters of water at 25°C? d. 940 grams
b. How much sugar can dissolve in 300 milliliters of water at 25°C? e. 2 grams of sugar; 0.76 gram of
c. How much water would you need to dissolve about 30 grams of baking salt; 2.7 grams of CaCl2
soda?
d. You want to make one liter of a sodium nitrate solution at 25°C. How
much sodium nitrate will you need to make this solution?
e. In some laboratories, scientists only need to make a few milliliters or less
of a solution at a time. For 25°C, how much of each solute would you
need to make:
a 1-milliliter saturated solution of sugar?
a 2-milliliter saturated solution of table salt?
a 3-milliliter saturated solution of calcium chloride?
Temperature-solubility graphs
Solubility values on The solubility values for solutes are easily determined if you have a
a graph temperature-solubility graph like the one below. The y-axis on the graph
represents how many grams of solute will dissolve in 100 milliliters of water.
The x-axis represents temperature in degrees Celsius. You will notice that the
solutes (NaCl, KNO3, NaNO3) dissolve differently as temperature increases.
In order for something to dissolve in water, the water molecules need to break
the intermolecular forces between the solute molecules. Water dissolves
various substances differently because the chemical bond strengths between
atoms found in different solutes are not the same.
Figure 19.13: Using a temperature–

solubility graph helps you solve
problems like the one above.
Answer the following using the

Interpreting the The solutes on the graph above are sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate
temperature–solubility graph.
graph (KNO3), and sodium nitrate (NaNO3). Notice that the solubility of NaCl does
(1) How much NaCl dissolves in
not change much as temperature increases. The effect of temperature on the
200 mL at 80°C?
solubility of KNO3 and NaNO3 is more noticeable. More KNO3 and NaNO3
will dissolve in 100 milliliters of water at higher temperatures than NaCl. (2) Is a 100-mL solution saturated at
40°C if it has 40 grams of NaNO3?
Using the graph How many grams of potassium nitrate (KNO3) will dissolve in 200 mL of
water at 60°C? In this example, you are asked for the mass in grams of solute
and given temperature and volume. From the graph above, you see that 110
grams of KNO3 dissolve in 100 mL of water at 60°C. Therefore, 220 grams of
KNO3 will dissolve in 200 mL of water at this temperature (Figure 19.13).
versatility as a solvent. 447
Concentration
How to express The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in an
concentration - the ratio of solute
concentration amount of solvent. Two common ways of expressing the concentration of a to solvent in a solution.
solution are molarity and mass percent.
molarity - the moles of solute per
liter of solution.
CONCENTRATION
Amount of solute mass percent - the mass of the
Concentration = Amount of solution
solute divided by the total mass of
the solution multiplied by 100.
What is molarity? The most common way of expressing concentration in chemistry is to use
molarity (M). Molarity is equal to the moles of solute per liter of solution.
Recall that one mole of a substance contains 6.02 × 1023 particles (atoms or
molecules) and allows you to express the formula mass in grams. If you
dissolve 5.00 moles of NaCl (292 g) in enough water to make 1.0 L, what is
the molarity of the solution? It would be a 5.0 M solution. Do you see why?
What is mass The mass percent of a solution is equal to the mass of the solute divided by
percent? the total mass of the solution multiplied by 100. Suppose you dissolve 10.0
grams of sugar in 90.0 grams of water (Figure 19.14). What is the mass
percent of sugar in the solution?
MASS PERCENT Figure 19.14: Preparing a sugar

solution with a concentration of 10%.
Mass of solute 10 g sugar
Mass percent = Mass of solution × (100%) = (10 g + 90 g) solution × (100%) = 10%
STUDY SKILLS
You learned about the terms mole,
Describing low Parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and parts per trillion (ppt) are
and formula mass in Chapter 17.
concentrations used to describe small concentrations of substances. These terms are Review these terms and study how
measures of the ratio (by mass) of one material in a much larger amount of they apply to molarity.
another. For example, a pinch (gram) of salt in 10 tons of potato chips is
about 1 gram of salt per billion grams of chips, or a concentration of 1 ppb.
Solving Problems: Concentration Lead is toxic to humans and therefore

there are limits on the allowable
concentration of lead in drinking
How many grams of salt (NaCl) do you need to make 500 grams of a solution water. Research the answers to the
with a mass percent of 5 percent salt? The formula mass of NaCl is 58.4 g/ following questions.
mol. What is the molarity of this solution? (1) What is the maximum
concentration of lead in drinking water
1. Looking for: Mass of salt (solute) and molarity of the solution allowed by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA)?
2. Given: Mass percent (5%), total mass of solution (500 g), and formula mass
(2) What health problems are
3. Relationships: Mass percent = (mass of solute ÷ total mass of solution) × 100 associated with high concentrations of
lead in drinking water?
Molarity = moles of solution ÷ liter of solution
4. Solution: 0.05 = (mass of salt ÷ 500 g) t
mass of salt = 0.05 × 500 g = 25 g

moles of solute = (25 g) ÷ (58.4 g/mol) = 0.4 moles NaCl
Assume 1 L of solution. 0.4 moles/1 L = 0.4 M a. 0.75 M
b. 138 g
Your turn... c. 50 g of solution
a. What is the molarity 2.0 L of a calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution that d. I would need 200 g of sugar and
contains 166.5 g of CaCl2? The formula mass of CaCl2 is 110.99 g/mol. 800 g of water.
b. The formula mass for NaNO3 is 69.00 g/mol. How many grams of NaNO3 e. I would take 150 g of salt and
would you need to make 1 liter of a 2 M solution? add it to 350 g of water.
c. How many grams of solution would you have if you made a 20 percent salt
solution with 10 grams of salt?
d. How many grams of sugar would you need to make 1,000 grams of
solution with a mass percent of 20 percent? How many grams of water
would you need?
e. You want to make a 30 percent solution of table salt. Describe how you
would make 500 grams of this solution.
Equilibrium and supersaturation

Dissolving and When a solute like sugar is mixed with a solvent like water, two processes
unsaturated- describes a solution
undissolving are actually going on continuously: (1) molecules of solute dissolve and go with a concentration less than the
into solution; and (2) molecules of solute come out of solution and become maximum solubility.
“undissolved.” equilibrium - the state of a
When a solution is unsaturated, its concentration is lower than the solution in which the dissolving rate
equals the rate at which molecules
maximum solubility. For an unsaturated solution, the dissolving process puts
come out of solution.
molecules into solution faster than they come out. In time, the concentration
increases and the mass of undissolved solute decreases. However, the supersaturated - describes a
solution with a concentration greater
processes of dissolving and undissolving are still going on. than the maximum solubility.
Equilibrium The more molecules that are in solution (higher concentration) the faster
concentration molecules come out of solution. As the concentration increases, the
undissolving process also gets faster until the dissolving and undissolving
rates are exactly equal. When the rate of dissolving equals the rate of coming
out of solution, we say equilibrium has been reached. At equilibrium, a
solution is saturated because the concentration is as high as it can go.
Supersaturation According to the solubility table in Figure 19.15, at 80°C, 100 grams of
water reaches equilibrium with 360 grams of dissolved sugar. At lower
temperatures, less sugar can dissolve. What happens if we cool the saturated
solution? As the temperature goes down, sugar’s solubility also goes down
and the solution becomes supersaturated. A supersaturated solution means
there is more dissolved solute than the maximum solubility.
Growing crystals A supersaturated solution is unstable. The
excess solute comes out of solution and returns
to its undissolved state. This is how the large
sugar crystals of rock candy are made. Sugar is
added to boiling water until the solution is
saturated. As the solution cools, it becomes
supersaturated. Solid sugar crystals form as the Figure 19.15: A solubility graph
sugar comes out of the supersaturated solution. and table for sugar in water.
Solutions of gases and liquids

Gas dissolves Some solutions have a gas as the solute. For example, in carbonated soda, the
in water fizz comes from dissolved carbon dioxide gas (CO2). Table 19.3 lists the
solubility of some gases in water.
Table 19.3: Solubility of Gases in Water at 21°C and 1 atm
Gas Solubility (g/kg)
oxygen (O2) 0.04
Figure 19.16: The solubility of gases
nitrogen (N2) 0.02 in water decreases as temperature
carbon dioxide (CO2) 1.74 increases.
Solubility of gas The solubility of gases in liquids increases with pressure. Soda contains a lot
increases with of carbon dioxide because this gas is dissolved in the liquid at high pressure.
pressure You release the pressure when you open a can of soda. Due to the decrease in
pressure, the solution immediately becomes supersaturated. The result is that
the CO2 quickly bubbles out of the water and causes your drink to be fizzy.
Solubility of gas When temperature goes up, the solubility of gases in liquid goes down.
decreases with A graph of this relationship for carbon dioxide in water is shown in
temperature Figure 19.16. Since fish and other aquatic life depend on oxygen, it is
Figure 19.17: Aquatic life is
important that oxygen gas dissolves in water (Figure 19.17). The amount sustained by dissolved oxygen in water.
of dissolved oxygen in water decreases when the water temperature rises.
Oxygen enters a pond or river by being mixed in from the air, or it is produced
as a by-product of photosynthesis from underwater plants. When the weather
is warm, less oxygen is dissolved in the water near the surface, so fish stay
near the bottom where there is cooler, more oxygenated water.
Solubility of liquids Some liquids, such as alcohol, are soluble in water. Alcohol and water are
polar substances. Other liquids, such as oil, are not soluble in water.
Oil-and-vinegar salad dressing separates because oil is not soluble in
water-based vinegar (Figure 19.18). Liquids that are insoluble in water may
be soluble in other solvents. For example, vegetable oil is soluble in mineral Figure 19.18: Oil, a nonpolar
spirits, a petroleum-based solvent used to thin paint. Both of these substances substance, does not dissolve in vinegar,
are nonpolar. a polar substance.
451
Solubility rules
Ions versus water In addition to nonpolar substances like oil, some ionic compounds do not
solubility rules - a set of rules
molecules dissolve in water. Why do you think this might be? Since water has charged used to predict whether an ionic
poles, it is capable of attracting the positive or negative ions in an ionic compound will be soluble or insoluble
compound. However, sometimes, the attraction of the ions for each other is in water.
stronger than their attraction to water. As a result, the ionic compound is
insoluble in water. H
1
What are solubility A set of solubility rules helps predict when an ionic compound is soluble hydrogen
Li Be
rules? or insoluble (Table 19.4). Understanding the types of chemical reactions that 3
lithium
4
beryllium
can occur and knowing about solubility rules is useful for predicting the Na Mg
12
11
products of a chemical reaction. The Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2 sodium magnesium
Ca
Group 1 K Group 2
(alkali earth metals) elements are included in the first two columns of the 19
potassium
20
calcium
periodic table (Figure 19.19). Rb Sr

37 38
rubidium strontium
Table 19.4: Solubility Rules Cs Ba

55
cesium
56
barium
Fr Ra
Any ionic compound with... ... is... Exceptions Notes 87
francium
88
radium
Nitrate (NO3–) soluble None Figure 19.19: Group 1 and 2

elements on the periodic table.
AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and
Chloride (Cl–) soluble
PbCl2
BaSO4, PbSO4, and
Sulfate (SO42–) soluble
SrSO4 Use the solubility rules in Table 19.4
to determine whether these
NH4+ and those of the
Carbonate (CO32–) insoluble compounds are soluble or insoluble.
Group 1 elements
a. NH4OH
the Group 2 elements, However, Ca(OH)2
Hydroxide (OH–) insoluble b. Ca(NO3)2
Ba(OH)2, and Sr(OH)2 is slightly soluble
c. PbCl2
Group 1 and Group 2
Sulfides (S2–) insoluble d. CuS
elements and NH4+
Section 19.2 Review

Solution Solvent Solute(s)
1. Tell which of the following is NOT a solution and explain why. nitrogen
air other gases
a. ocean water c. steel e. 24-karat gold (gas)
carbonated water
b. water mixed with f. water with food CO2 (gas)
d. orange soda water (liquid)
chalk powder coloring
saline water
2. For each of the following solutions, name the solvent and the solute. salt (solid)
solution (liquid)
a. ocean water c. lemonade made from rubbing alcohol water
b. carbonated water
(salt water) powdered drink mix alcohol (liquid)
(liquid)
3. Why is water often called the “universal solvent”? sterling copper
silver (solid)
silver (solid)
4. When can you say that a solute has completely dissolved?
5. Does sugar dissolve faster in cold or hot water? Explain your answer. Figure 19.20: Question 9.
6. Is the solubility of oxygen higher in cold or hot water? Explain.
7. Jackie likes to put a lot of sugar in her hot tea. When she finishes drinking
her tea, she notices that there are sugar crystals at the bottom of the
teacup. Explain her observation in terms of saturation.
8. Describe exactly how you would make 100 grams of a saltwater solution
that is 20 percent salt. In your description, tell how many grams of salt
and how many grams of water you would need.
9. The table in Figure 19.20 lists the solvents and solutes for a variety of
solutions. Make a list of three statements you can make about solutions
based on the information in this table.
10. The concentration of ocean water is 35 ppt salt. What is this concentration
in grams of salt per grams of water?
11. Is the solution in Figure 19.21 in equilibrium? Why or why not?
12. Describe the solution in a can of soda before the can is opened and just Figure 19.21: Question 11.
after it is opened.
13. Use solubility rules to determine if these compounds will dissolve in
water: (a) FeSO4 and (b) K2CO3.
19.3 Acids, Bases, and pH

Acids and bases are among the most familiar of all chemical compounds. Some of the acids you acid - a substance that produces
may have encountered include acetic acid (found in vinegar), citric acid (found in orange juice), hydronium ions (H3O+) when
and malic acid (found in apples). You may also be familiar with some bases including ammonia dissolved in water.
in cleaning solutions and magnesium hydroxide found in some antacids. The pH scale is used to
describe whether a substance is an acid or a base. This section is about the properties of acids and
bases, and the pH scale.
What are acids?

Properties of acids An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to make a particular kind of
solution. Some properties of acids are listed below and some common acids
are shown in Figure 19.22. Note: You should never taste a laboratory
chemical!
•
Acids create the sour taste in foods like lemons.
•
Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas (H2).
•
Acids change the color of blue litmus paper to red.
•
Acids can be very corrosive, destroying metals and burning skin through
chemical action.
Acids make Chemically, an acid is any substance that produces hydronium ions (H3O+)
hydronium ions when dissolved in water. When hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolves in water, it
ionizes, splitting up into hydrogen (H+) and chlorine (Cl–) ions. Hydrogen
ions (H+) are attracted to the negative oxygen end of a water molecule,
combining to form hydronium ions.
Figure 19.22: Some weak acids you

may have around your home.
SC.912.P.8.11-Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH.
Bases
Properties of bases A base is a compound that dissolves in water to make a different kind of
base - a substance that produces
solution, opposite in some ways to an acid. Some properties of bases are listed hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved
below and some common bases are shown in Figure 19.23. in water.
•
Bases create a bitter taste.
•
Bases have a slippery feel, like soap.
•
Bases change the color of red litmus paper to blue.
•
Bases can be very corrosive, destroying metals and burning skin through
chemical action.
Bases produce A base is any substance that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide ions
hydroxide ions (OH–). A good example of a base is sodium hydroxide (NaOH), found in
many commercial drain cleaners. This compound dissociates in water to form
sodium (Na+) and hydroxide (OH–) ions.
Ammonia is a base Ammonia (NH3), found in cleaning solutions, is a base because it increases
the pH of water. It also is a base because it accepts a proton (H+). This is
another definition for a base—a proton acceptor. Notice that a hydroxide ion, Figure 19.23: Common bases
from water, is formed in this reaction. How is this different than NaOH? include ammonia, baking soda, and
soap.
455
Strength of acids and bases

The strength The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of the hydronium ions
of acids (H3O+) the acid produces when dissolved in water. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
is a strong acid because HCl completely dissolves into H+ and Cl– ions in
water. This means that every molecule of HCl that dissolves produces one
hydronium ion.
Acetic acid is Acetic acid (HC2H3O2) is vinegar, a weak acid. When dissolved in water,
a weak acid only a small percentage of acetic acid molecules ionize (break apart) and
become H+ and C2H3O2– ions. This means that only a small number of
hydronium ions are produced compared to the number of acetic acid
molecules dissolved (Figure 19.24).
The strength The strength of a base depends on the relative amount of hydroxide ions
of bases (OH–) produced when the base is mixed with water. Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is considered a strong base because it dissociates completely in Figure 19.24: Acetic acid dissolves
water to form Na+ and OH– ions. Every molecule of NaOH that dissolves in water, but only a few molecules ionize
creates one OH– ion (Figure 19.25). Ammonia (NH3), on the other hand, is a (break apart) to create hydronium ions.
weak base because only a few molecules react with water to form NH4+ and
OH– ions.
Water can be a weak One of the most important properties of water is its ability to act as both an
acid or a weak base acid and as a base. In the presence of an acid, water acts as a base. In the
presence of a base, water acts as an acid. In pure water, the H2O molecule
ionizes to produce both hydronium and hydroxide ions. This reaction is
called the dissociation of water.
What does the The double arrow in the illustration means that the dissociation of water can
double arrow mean? occur in both directions. This means that water molecules can ionize and Figure 19.25: Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is a strong base because every
ions can form water molecules. However, water ionizes so slightly that most
NaOH molecule contributes one
water molecules exist whole, not as ions. hydroxide (OH–) ion.
The pH scale and pH

What is pH? The pH scale is a range of values from 0 to 14 that describe the acidity of a
pH scale - the pH scale goes from
solution. The term pH is an abbreviation for “the power of hydrogen” and is a 1 to 14 with 1 being very acidic and
measure of the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution. The range of 14 being very basic.
hydronium ion concentrations is 1 to 10–14 M. Notice that the pH for a pH - a measure of the concentration
solution equals the negative of the exponent of the hydronium ion of hydronium ions in a solution.
concentration (Figure 19.26).
pH
pH = – (– exponent)
Negative exponent of H3O+ concentration
Determining pH Now, let’s use this equation to find pH. For example, a solution has a
hydronium ion concentration of 10–9 M. What is its pH?
pH = – (–9)
pH = 9
What would the pH be for a solution with a hydronium ion concentration of
10–1? It has a pH of 1! You may now be noticing a relationship—the higher
the hydronium ion concentration, the lower the pH value. The reverse is true
as well—the lower the hydronium ion concentration, the higher the pH value.
Why do we need a The pH scale describes the hydronium concentration of different solutions
pH scale? using whole numbers. In reality, the range of possible hydronium ion
concentrations in solutions is huge (from 1 M to 10–14 M), and the numbers
can be small and require decimals. A number like 7 is always much easier to Figure 19.26: The pH scale is based
work with than 0.0000001 (10–7). on the concentration of hydronium ions
in a solution.
.
versatility as a solvent. 457
Solving Problems: The pH Scale

In a more advanced course, you will
learn that pH is equal to the negative
logarithm of the hydronium ion
A solution contains a hydronium ion concentration of 10–4.5 M. What is the
concentration.
pH value of the solution? Is this solution acidic or basic?
pH = – log [H3O+]
1. Looking for: The pH value of a 10–4.5 M solution of hydronium ions. The brackets around the hydronium
ion mean “concentration.”
2. Given: The hydronium ion concentration is 10–4.5 M. The exponent is –4.5. Here’s how you would use this
3. Relationships: pH = – (exponent of the hydronium ion concentration) equation to set up the practice
problem at the left.
Acidic solutions have pH values that are less than 7 and basic solution have pH = – log [10–4.5]
pH values that are greater than 7.
You can use a calculator to solve for
4. Solution: pH = – (–4.5) pH this way. Try it!
pH = 4.5
Since the pH is less than 7, the solution is acidic.
Your turn...
a. 13; basic
a. A solution contains a hydronium ion concentration of 10–13 M. What is
b. 8
the pH value of the solution? Is the solution acidic or basic?
c. 10–10; basic
b. What is the pH of a solution with a hydronium ion concentration of
10–8 M? d. More
c. What is the hydronium ion concentration for a solution with a pH value of e. 0.001 M
10? Is this solution acidic or basic?
d. A pH meter (a device that measures the pH of solutions) indicates that the
pH value for your solution is 9.2 but you want it to be 8. Do you need
more or less hydronium ions?
e. Write the following hydronium ion concentrations as a decimal: 10–3 M.
More about pH
The numbers A pH of 7 is neutral, neither acidic nor basic. Distilled water has a pH of 7.
on the scale Acidic solutions have a pH less than 7. A concentrated solution of
hydrochloric acid, a strong acid, has a pH of 1. Seltzer water is a weak acid at
a pH of 4. Many foods we eat and many ingredients we use for cooking are
acidic. Basic or alkaline solutions have a pH greater than 7. A concentrated
solution of a strong base has the highest pH. For example, a strong sodium
hydroxide solution can have a pH close to 14. Weak bases, such as baking
soda, and weak acids have pH values that are close to 7. Many household
cleaning products are basic (Figure 19.27).
Table 19.5: The pH of Common Substances
Common Substances pH Acid or Base?
lemon juice 2 acid
vinegar 3 acid
soda water 4 acid
distilled water 7 neutral
baking soda 8.5 base
bar soap 10 base
ammonia 11 base
drain cleaner 14 base
pH indicators Certain chemicals turn different colors when pH changes. These chemicals
are called pH indicators and they are used to determine pH. The juice of
boiled red cabbage is a pH indicator that is easy to prepare. Red cabbage juice
is deep purple and turns various shades ranging from purple to yellow at
different values of pH. Litmus paper is another pH indicator that changes
color. Red and blue litmus paper are pH indicators that test for acid or base.
Figure 19.27: The pH scale showing

common substances.
459
pH in the environment
The best pH for The pH of soil directly affects nutrient availability for plants. Most plants
plants prefer a slightly acidic soil with a pH between 6.5 and 7.0. Azaleas,
blueberries, and conifers grow best in more acid soils with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5
(Figure 19.28). Vegetables, grasses, and most shrubs do best in less acidic
soils with a pH range of 6.5 to 7.0.
Effects of pH too In highly acid soils (pH below 4.5) too much aluminum, manganese, and
high or low other elements may leach out of soil minerals and reach concentrations that
are toxic to plants. Also, at these low pH values, calcium, phosphorus, and
magnesium are less available to plant roots. At more basic pH values of 6.5
and above, iron and manganese become less available.
Figure 19.28: Blueberries grow best
pH and fish The pH of water directly affects aquatic life. Most in soils with a pH between 4.5 and 5.5.
freshwater lakes, streams, and ponds have a natural
pH in the range of 6 to 8. Most freshwater fish can
tolerate pH between 5 and 9 although some negative
effects appear below pH of 6. Trout (like the Acid Rain
California Golden shown above) are among the most pH tolerant fish and Many environmental scientists are
can live in water with a pH from 4 to 9.5. concerned about acid rain. Do
research to answer the following
pH and amphibians Frogs and other amphibians are even more questions.
sensitive to pH than fish. This California tree
1. What kinds of acids are in acid
frog and other frogs prefer pH close to neutral
rain?
and don’t survive below pH of 5. Frog eggs 2. What is the typical pH of acid rain?
develop and hatch in water with no protection 3. What is the cause of acid rain?
from environmental factors. Research shows 4. What are some environmental
that even pH values below 6 has a negative impacts of acid rain?
effect on frog hatching rates. 5. What can be done to reduce acid
rain?
Acids and bases in your body

Acids and bases Many reactions, such as the ones that occur in your body, work best at
play a role in specific pH values. For example, acids and bases are very important in the
digestion reactions involved in digesting food. The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid
(HCl), a strong acid (pH 1.4). The level of acidity in your stomach is
necessary to break down the protein molecules in food so they can be
absorbed. A mucus lining in the stomach protects it from the acid produced
(Figure 19.29).
Ulcers and Deep fried foods, stress, or poor diet can cause the stomach to produce too
heartburn much acid, or allow stomach acid to escape from the stomach. An ulcer may
Figure 19.29: The stomach secretes
occur when the mucus lining of the stomach is damaged. Stomach acid can a strong acid (HCl) to aid with food
then attack the more sensitive tissues of the stomach itself. Infections by the digestion. A mucus lining protects the
bacteria H. pylori can also damage the mucus lining of the stomach, leading stomach tissue from the acid.
to ulcers. The uncomfortable condition called heartburn is caused by
excessive stomach acid backing up into the esophagus. The esophagus is the
tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach. The esophagus lacks
the mucus lining of the stomach and is sensitive to acid.
pH and your blood Under normal conditions, the pH of your blood is within the range of 7.3–7.5,
close to neutral but slightly basic. Blood is a watery solution that contains
many solutes including the dissolved gases carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen.
Dissolved CO2 in blood produces a weak acid. The higher the concentration
of dissolved CO2, the more acidic your blood becomes.
Blood pH is Your body regulates the dissolved CO2 level by breathing. For example, if
controlled through you hold your breath, more carbon dioxide enters your blood and the pH falls
breathing as your blood becomes more acidic. If you hyperventilate (breathe more
quickly than usual), less carbon dioxide enters your blood and the opposite
happens—blood pH starts to rise, becoming more basic. Your breathing rate
regulates blood pH through these chemical reactions (Figure 19.30). You can Figure 19.30: Under normal
learn more about pH and the human body in the Connection at the end of the conditions, your blood pH ranges
chapter. between 7.3 and 7.5. Holding your
breath causes blood pH to drop. High
blood pH can be caused by
hyperventilating.
SC.912.P.8.11-Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH. 461
Neutralization reactions
Mixing acid and When acid and base solutions are mixed in the right proportions, their
neutralization - the reaction of an
base solutions characteristic properties disappear. The positive ions from the base combine acid and a base to produce a salt and
with the negative ions from the acid and a new ionic salt forms. Water is also water.
a product of this type of reaction, called neutralization. The graphic below
shows what happens when sodium bicarbonate is mixed with hydrochloric
acid.
Test Your Soil
Most garden
centers carry soil
test kits. These
kits have pH test
papers inside and
are designed to
help gardeners
measure soil pH.
Get a soil test kit and test samples of
soil from around your home or school.
Neutralization in Neutralization goes on in your body every day. As food and digestive fluids Repeat the test taking new soil
samples after a rainfall to see if the
your body leave the stomach where the pH is very low, the pancreas and liver produce
pH changes.
bicarbonate (a base) to neutralize the stomach acid. Antacids, which happen
Answer the following questions.
to be composed of sodium bicarbonate, have the same effect. The graphic
above also illustrates what happens in your digestive system when you take 1. What kinds of plants thrive in the
an antacid. The antacid mixes with excess stomach acid to produce salt, pH of the soil samples you tested?
water, and carbon dioxide! 2. What kinds of treatments are
available at your local garden center
Adjusting soil pH Neutralization reactions are important in gardening and farming. For for changing soil pH?
example, having soil that is too acidic (pH less than 5.5) is a common
problem in the United States. Grass does not grow well in acidic soil. For
this reason, many people add lime to their yard. A common form of lime is
ground-up calcium carbonate (CaCO3) made from natural crushed
limestone. Lime is a weak base and undergoes a neutralization reaction with
acids in the soil to raise the pH.
462 SC.912.P.8.11-Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH.
Section 19.3 Review

1. What is a hydronium ion? Current Solutions
2. In this section, you learned about the properties of acids and bases. Make Svante August
a table that organizes this information. Arrhenius of Sweden
was noted for his
3. Both strong acids and strong bases are corrosive. Come up with a mathematical skills
hypothesis for why this is so. at an early age. In
4. Answer the following questions about water. 1884, he submitted
his dissertation
a. Is pure water an acid, a base, neither, or both?
which included the idea that ions in a
b. What is the pH of pure water? solution conduct electrical current
c. What does the double-headed arrow (rather than pure water or salt).
mean in this reaction? Although his professors rejected this
idea and barely passed him, other key
5. Nadine tests an unknown solution and discovers that it turns blue litmus scientists were supportive. In fact,
paper red, and it has a pH of 3.0. Which of the following could be the Arrhenius’s work was so important
unknown solution? Explain your choice. that he was awarded the Nobel Prize
a. sodium hydroxide in 1903!
b. vinegar Chemicals that dissociate into ions in
water are called electrolytes.
c. ammonia Solutions with electrolytes can
d. soap conduct current. All acids and bases
e. water and some salts are electrolytes.
6. What is the concentration of hydronium ions for the solution in question Find out more about how Arrhenius
5? Is this solution acidic or basic? contributed to our understanding of
acids, bases, and electrolytes.
7. Is tomato juice acidic or basic? Justify your answer.
8. Give two examples of a pH indicator.
9. Plants and animals live in environments that have conditions for which
they are adapted. Is pH an important environmental factor for plants and
animals? Why or why not?
10. Describe in your own words how the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved
in your blood affects your blood pH.
11. What are the main reactants and products in a neutralization reaction?
12. Neutralization is an important part of digestion. Why?
SC.912.P.8.11-Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH. 463
Medical8CONNECTION
Chapter 19
Are you Feeling Imbalances

The human body’s many different processes produce a great deal
A Little Sour?
of acid, which must then be removed. The lungs and kidneys handle
most of this work. Lungs help dispose of excess acid when we
breathe out carbon dioxide. Kidneys also remove excess acid from
the blood and dispose of it in urine. Disease or extreme conditions
can interfere with the body’s self-adjusting system. There are two
Have you ever heard someone describe a friend’s personality or emotional types of imbalance. We can have too much acid in our body fluids
state in terms usually used for food? “She’s so sweet.” “He’s a bitter (acidosis), or those fluids can be too alkaline (alkalosis). When the
person.” “Don’t be sour.” These expressions are figures of speech, but lungs are not functioning properly, the imbalance is respiratory.
When the body’s physical and chemical processing of substances is
they reflect an underlying reality: Our body chemistry affects how we feel,
not functioning properly, the imbalance is metabolic.
and our body chemistry is influenced by what we eat. Knowing how food
intake influences body chemistry can help you make choices that may keep
you from feeling sour! Acidosis and Its Causes
pH: A Balancing Act

You have learned that solutions
can be described as having
a certain pH. A solution can
be an acid (acidic), a base
(alkaline), or neutral. Acids
and bases are everywhere.
Many of our favorite foods are
acidic: Oranges and lemons, for
instance, contain citric acid. We
depend on gastric acid in our Respiratory acidosis occurs
stomachs to digest our food and when the lungs cannot remove
if we suffer from discomfort all of the carbon dioxide produced
caused by that same gastric by the body. As a result, body fluids
acid, we can help neutralize it become too acidic. This can be caused by
with a base like baking soda. almost any lung disease, such as asthma.
Your blood’s normal pH range Treatment may include drugs that expand
is between 7.35 and 7.45. You the air passages in the lungs.
can compare this with many
other ordinary solutions in the Metabolic acidosis is a pH imbalance that occurs when the body
chart to the right. Our bodies does not have enough bicarbonate needed to neutralize the excess
are constantly adjusting to keep
blood pH in a normal range.
464 SC.912.P.8.11–Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH.
Medical8CONNECTION
Chapter 19
acid. This can be caused by a Balancing Act
disease like diabetes, or by severe
diarrhea, heart or liver failure, By nature, our slightly alkaline
kidney disease, or even prolonged pH needs to remain balanced
exercise. Prolonged exercise can there. Yet what we eat and
result in a buildup of lactic acid, drink changes our pH. If
which causes the blood to become you eat a lot of meat such
acidic. Sports drinks containing as hamburgers, steak, and
electrolytes can help restore the chicken, your body produces
pH balance, which is why they are more acid than if you eat a lot
popular among athletes. Those of vegetables and fruits. If we
drinks are specially formulated don’t balance what we eat, the
to help the body maintain its pH body has to rely on reserves
balance under stress. to neutralize the excess acid.
For example, if you eat a lot
of meat and no vegetables,
Alkalosis and Its Causes your pH becomes acidic. Your
kidneys can handle only so
The opposite of acidosis, alkalosis is much acid and, if you have too
the result of too much base in the much acid, the body must use
body’s fluids. Respiratory alkalosis reserve bicarbonate from your
is caused by hyperventilation, bones to help neutralize the
that is, extremely rapid or deep acid. This is just one example
breathing that makes the body of how the food we eat can
lose too much carbon dioxide. It affect our bodies. Maintaining
can be provoked by exertion at a balanced diet is the first step
high altitudes, or even by anxiety. toward good health and a
In such a case, the person may normal pH level.
breathe (or be helped to breathe)
into a paper bag. Why? Because
the bag retains the exhaled carbon Questions:
dioxide and it can be taken back in.
1. What two organs regulate the acid-base balance?
Metabolic alkalosis is a result of too
much bicarbonate in the blood. Other types of alkalosis are caused
2. What is a common cause of hyperventilation?
by too little chloride or potassium. Alkalosis symptoms include: 3. How is the alkalosis caused by hyperventilation treated?
confusion, muscle twitching or spasms, hand tremors, nausea,
and light-headedness. 4. Name a leading cause of respiratory acidosis.
SC.912.P.8.11–Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH. 465
Vocabulary 10. A mixture of two or more substances that is uniform at the
molecular level is called a(n) ____.
11. A solution of two or more metals is known as a(n) ____.
pH scale acid nonpolar molecule
solvent pH solute 12. A solvent is used to ____ a solute to make a solution.
equilibrium solubility concentration 13. When the dissolving rate equals the rate at which molecules
colloid Tyndall effect supersaturated come out of solution, the solution is in ____.
base suspension insoluble 14. The exact amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of
alloy solution saturated solvent is the ____ of a solution.
polar molecule hydrogen bond molarity
15. A(n) ____ solution has a concentration greater than the
dissolve solubility rules mass percent
maximum solubility.
unsaturated
16. If you make a solution using the solubility value for a
Section 19.1 substance, you will make a(n) ____ solution.
1. A oil molecule is an example of a(n) ____.
17. Talc is ____ in water.
2. An attractive force between a hydrogen on one molecule and
18. Two ways to express a solution’s concentration are ____ and
an atom on another molecule is called a(n) ____.
____.
3. A water molecule is an example of a(n) ____. Section 19.3
Section 19.2 19. A substance that produces hydronium ions (H3O+) in
4. A solution with less than the amount of solute that can solution is called a(n) ____.
dissolve for a certain set of conditions is ____.
20. A substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH–) in solution
5. ____ help you predict if a compound is soluble or not. is called a(n) ____.
6. Muddy water is an example of a(n) ____. 21. The neutral value on the ____ is 7.
7. You can see the ____ if you shine a light through a(n) ____ 22. The ____ of acids is less than 7.
but not if you shine a light through a solution.
8. The substance that dissolves particles in a solution is called Concepts
the ____. Section 19.1
9. The substance that is dissolved in a solution is called the 1. The shape of a water molecule is a tetrahedron. Why?
____.
466
2. Describe two main differences between a water molecule 11. What happens to a supersaturated solution when more
(H2O) and a methane molecule (CH4). solute is added? Use the word equilibrium in your answer.
3. Describe a bond within a polar molecule and then describe 12. How might the fish in a lake be affected if large amounts of
how two polar molecules can “bond” with each other. hot water from a power plant or factory were released into
4. List two properties of water that are related to hydrogen the lake?
bonding. 13. When you open a can of room-temperature soda, why is it
Section 19.2 more likely to fizz and spill over than a can that has been
refrigerated?
5. Which of these substances is a colloid and which is a
suspension? 14. In your own words, describe the solubility rule for hydroxide
(OH–).
Section 19.3
15. What determines the strength of an acid?
16. What determines the strength of a base?
17. What is the pH of a neutral solution?
18. Indicate whether the following properties belong to an
acid (A), a base (B), or both (AB):
6. Water is a solvent in which of the following solutions? a. ____ Creates a sour taste in food.
a. air b. ____ Creates a bitter taste in food.
b. liquid sterling silver c. ____ Changes the color of red litmus paper to blue.
c. saline (salt) solution d. ____ Changes the color of blue litmus paper to red.
7. What would happen to the solubility of potassium chloride e. ____ Can be very corrosive.
in water as the water temperature increased from 25°C to 19. Substance X has a pH of 6.5 and tastes sour. Is it an acid or
75°C? Why? a base?
8. What are two ways to increase the dissolving rate of sugar 20. Which of the following pH values is the most acidic?
in water. a. 1
9. What is the difference between mass percent and molarity? b. 3
10. Very small concentrations are often reported in ppm. What c. 7
does “ppm” stand for? What does it mean? d. 8
21. When hydroxide ions are added to a solution, does the pH
increase or decrease?
467
22. Are hydronium ions contributed to a solution by an acid or a 4. You add 20 grams of baking soda (NaHCO3) to 100 mL of
base? water at 25°C.
23. If you add water to a strong acid, how will the pH of the a. Approximately how much of the baking soda will
diluted acid compare to the pH of the original acid? dissolve in the water?
a. lower b. What happens to the rest of the baking soda?
b. higher c. How could you increase the amount of baking soda that
c. the same will dissolve in 100 mL of water?
24. How can ammonia (NH3) be a base if it doesn’t contain any 5. How many grams of sugar do you need to make a 20 percent
hydroxide ions? solution by mass in 500 g of water?
25. What is the relationship between the values of the 6. What is the mass percent of table salt in a solution of
exponents for hydronium ion concentration and the 25 grams of salt dissolved in 75 g of water?
corresponding pH values? 7. The formula mass of KNO3 is 101 g/mol. Describe how you
26. Describe what should happen and why when you mix would make 1 L of a 2 M solution of this salt.
vinegar and baking soda. 8. Use the following graph to answer the questions below.
27. If you hold your breath for a while, how is your blood pH Solubility vs. Temperature for a Variety of Salts
affected? Why?
(g per 100 g of water)

90
80
70 Na2SO4
Problems
Solubility
60 NaCl
50
Ba(NO3)2
Section 19.1 40
30 Ce2(SO4)3 • 9H2O
1. How much energy in joules would you need to raise the 20 Na2HAsO4
temperature of one kilogram of water by 2°C? 10
0
2. Why is this molecule a polar molecule? 0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (ºC)
a. What is the solubility of Na2SO4 at 80°C?

Section 19.2 b. Would a solution of Ba(NO3)2 be saturated with
20 grams dissolved in 100 grams of water at 80°C?
3. How much of the following materials will dissolve in 300 mL
of water at 25°C? c. How does solubility vary with temperature for
Na2HAsO4? for Ce2SO4?
a. table salt
b. sugar
c. chalk
468
9. Figure 19.15 includes a temperature–solubility graph for b. Aside from it tasting bad, why is it not a good idea to
table sugar. Where on this graph would you find saturated drink ocean water? Answer this question in relation to
solution conditions? your own body which is mostly a watery solution.
Section 19.3 4. Larry opens a new bottle of soda. He quickly stretches a
10. Recall that oxygen has an oxidation number of 2– and balloon over the opening of the bottle. As he gently shakes
hydrogen has an oxidation number of 1+. Use this the bottle, the balloon expands! Explain what is happening
information to explain the charge on a hydroxide ion and a to cause the balloon to expand. Use at least three vocabulary
hydronium ion. words from this section.
11. Solution A has a pH of 3 and solution B has a pH of 10. Section 19.3
a. Which solution is a base? 5. Just because an acid or a base is classified as weak does not
b. Which solution is an acid? mean that it is not important. Most of the acid–base
c. What would happen if you combined both solutions? chemistry that occurs inside of your body occurs through
reactions involving weak acids and bases. For example, the
12. Predict products of a chemical reaction between coiling of a DNA molecule into a “double-helix” is due to
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). You hydrogen bonding between weak bases. Find out more about
may want to draw a diagram that illustrates what happens. the acid and base chemistry in your body. Possible topics
include DNA, blood chemistry, digestion, and how your
Applying Your Knowledge kidneys work.
Section 19.1 6. Luke and Sian want to plant a vegetable garden in their
1. About 75 percent of Earth’s surface is covered with water. yard. A soil testing kit measures the soil pH at 5.0, but the
Find out how much of this water is ice, how much is fresh lettuce they want to plant in their garden does best at a pH
water, and how much is part of the biggest solution of all— of 6.5. Should they add an acid or a base to the soil to make
our ocean water. it the optimum pH for growing lettuce?
2. Explain why ice forms on the top of ponds and lakes, not on 7. Two years ago, you joined a project to study the water
the bottom. Use the following terms in your explanation: quality of a local pond. During the second spring, you
water molecules, organized structure, hydrogen bonds, and noticed that there were not as many tadpoles (first stage in
density. How does this property of water help support life in frog development) as there were the previous year. You
lakes and ponds? want to know if the number of tadpoles in the pond is
related to the pH of the pond. The records that document the
Section 19.2
water quality and wildlife started 10 years ago. Describe the
3. The concentration of ocean water is 35 ppt. Ocean water steps you would take to determine whether a change in the
contains quite a bit of NaCl. Answer the following questions. pH of the pond water is affecting the population of frogs and
a. What other solutes are dissolved in ocean water? their ability to reproduce.
SC.912.L.17.11-Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources, such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests.
469
Unit
Electricity
7
and Magnetism
CHAPTER 20 Electric Circuits
CHAPTER 21 Electrical Systems
CHAPTER 22 Electricity
and Magnetism
Find a strong magnet and some breakfast

cereal that is advertised as "iron fortified."
Place a small amount of cereal in a freezer-
type zip top bag and gently crush the cereal into a fine powder.
Spread some of the powder out into a thin layer inside the bag. Hold
the magnet over the thin layer (outside the bag) and move it around.
You will see pieces of the cereal moving with the magnet! Iron-
fortified cereal actually has bits of iron metal in it, and the iron is
attracted to the magnet.
Chapter 20
Electric Circuits
Suppose you had a stationary bicycle that was connected to a light bulb, so that
when you pedaled the bicycle, the energy from the turning wheels lit the bulb.
How fast would you have to pedal to generate enough electrical energy to light the bulb? You
would be surprised at how hard you would have to pedal to do something that seems so simple.
Some science museums have interactive exhibits like this bicycle-powered light bulb to help
people see how much energy is needed to accomplish everyday tasks.
What would your life be like without electricity? You can probably name at least a dozen
aspects of your morning routine alone that would change if you didn’t have electricity. Do you
know how electrical circuits work? Do you know what voltage and current mean? This chapter
will give you the opportunity to explore electricity, electrical circuits, and the nature of
electrical energy. Electricity can be powerful and dangerous, but when you know some basic
facts about how electricity works, you can use electricity safely and with confidence.
What is inside a AA battery,

and how does it work?
Why is the shock from a household outlet

more dangerous if your skin is wet?
Are there electrical circuits in the

human body? In an electric eel?
Chapter 20 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
20.1 Charge
Mass is one of the more obvious properties of matter. However, matter has other properties that positive, negative - the two kinds
are often hidden. Charge is a fundamental property of all matter that can be overlooked. All of electric charge.
matter has electrical (and magnetic) properties because the atoms that make up matter are held coulomb (C) - the unit for electric
together by electromagnetic forces. charge.
Positive and negative charge

Two kinds of electric Virtually all the matter around you has electric charge because all atoms
charge contain electrons (–) and protons (+). Electrons have negative charge and
protons have positive charge. However, unlike mass, electric charge is
usually hidden inside atoms. Charge is hidden because atoms are made with
equal amounts of positive and negative charges. The forces from positive
charges are canceled by negative charges, the same way that +1 and –1 add
up to 0. Because ordinary matter has zero net (total) charge, most matter acts
as if there is no electric charge at all.
Like charges repel Whether two charges attract or repel depends on whether they have the same
and unlike charges or opposite sign. A positive and a negative charge will attract each other. Two
attract positive charges will repel each other. Two negative charges will also repel
each other. The force between charges is shown in Figure 20.1.
Charge is measured The unit of charge is the coulomb (C). The name was chosen in honor of
in coulombs Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806), the French physicist who
performed the first accurate measurements of the force between charges. One
coulomb is a huge amount of charge, as you will see on the next page.
Fundamental Electric charge, like mass, is a fundamental property of matter. An important
property of matter difference between mass and charge is that there are two types of charge,
which we call positive and negative. We know there are two kinds because
Figure 20.1: The direction of forces
electric charges can attract or repel each other. As far as we know, there is on charges depends on whether they
only one type of mass. All masses attract each other through gravity. have the same or opposite charges.
472
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS Chapter 20
Static electricity
Neutral objects Matter contains trillions and trillions of charged electrons and protons
electrically neutral - describes an
because matter is made of atoms. Neutral atoms have the same number of object that has equal amounts of
electrons and protons. Therefore, the charge of an atom is exactly zero. positive and negative charges.
Similarly, there is perfect cancellation between positive and negative in charged - describes an object
matter leaving a net charge of precisely zero. An object with a net charge of whose net charge is not zero.
zero is described as being electrically neutral. Your pencil, your textbook,
static electricity - a tiny imbalance
even your body are electrically neutral, at least most of the time. between positive and negative charge
Charged objects An object is charged when its net charge is not zero. If you have ever felt a on an object.
shock when you have touched a doorknob or removed clothes from a dryer,
you have experienced a charged object. An object with more negative than
positive charge has a net negative charge overall. If it has more positive than
negative charge, the object has a positive net charge. The net charge is also
sometimes called excess charge because a charged object has an excess of
either positive or negative charges.
Static electricity and A tiny imbalance in either positive or negative charge on an object is the
charge cause of static electricity. If two neutral objects are rubbed together, the
friction often pulls some electrons off one object and puts them temporarily
on the other. This is what happens to clothes in the dryer and to your socks
when you walk on a carpet. The static electricity you feel when taking clothes
from a dryer or scuffing your socks on a carpet typically results from an
excess charge of less than one-millionth of a coulomb, the unit of charge.
What causes shocks You get a shock because excess of charge of one sign strongly attracts charge
of the other sign and repels charge of the same sign. When you walk across a
carpet on a dry day, your body picks up excess negative charge. If you touch a
Figure 20.2: The shock you get from
neutral door knob some of your excess negative charge moves to the door touching a door knob on a dry day comes
knob. Because the door knob is a conductor, the charge flows quickly. The from moving charge.
moving charge makes a brief, intense electric current between you and the
door knob. The shock you feel is the electric current as some of your excess
negative charge transfers to the door knob (Figure 20.2).
473
Electrical forces
The force between Electric forces are incredibly strong. A millimeter cube of carbon the size of
charges is very a pencil point contains about 77 coulombs of positive and negative charge. If
strong you could separate all the positive and negative charges by a distance of one
meter, the attractive force between them would be about 50 thousand billion
newtons!
This is about the weight of three thousand million cars. This is all from the
charge in a single pencil point (Figure 20.3). The huge force between
charges is the reason objects are usually electrically neutral.
Lightning and Lightning is caused by a giant buildup of static charge. Before a lightning
charged particles strike, particles in a cloud collide and charges are transferred from one
particle to another. Positive charges tend to build up on smaller particles and
negative charges on bigger ones. Figure 20.3: If you could separate
the charges in a pencil point by one
Storm clouds The forces of gravity and wind cause the particles to separate. Positively meter, the force between the charges
charged particles accumulate near the top of the cloud and negatively would be HUGE!
charged particles fall toward the bottom. Scientists from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have measured enormous
buildups of negative charge in storm clouds. These negatively charged cloud
particles repulse negative charges in the ground, causing the ground to
become positively charged. This positive charge is why people who have
been struck by lightning sometimes say they first felt their hair stand on end.
Lightning bolt The negative charges in the cloud are attracted to the positively charged
ground. The cloud, air, and ground can act like a giant circuit. All the
accumulated negative charges flow from the cloud to the ground, heating the
air along the path (to as much as 20,000°C) so that it glows like a bright
streak of light. The air around a lightning bolt heats rapidly, and the
expanding air creates sound waves that we hear as thunder. Thunder travels
about 1 mile for every 5 seconds that you count between a flash of lightning
and its thunder. If you see lightning, and count 15 seconds before you hear Figure 20.4: Lightning is created
the thunder, divide 15 by 5 and you know that the lightning was about 3 when negative charges in the cloud are
miles away. attracted to the positively charged
ground.
474
Section 20.1 Review

1. Protons carry a _____ charge, and electrons carry a _____ charge. History of the terms positive
2. Like charges _____, and opposite charges _____. and negative charge
3. What does it mean to say an object is electrically neutral? The terms
positive and
4. Explain the difference between an electrically charged and a neutral negative were
object. Does a neutral object contain no electric charge at all? first used by
5. Why is mass usually a more obvious property of matter than charge? Benjamin
Franklin (1706–
6. What is a coulomb (C)?
1790). He and
7. If you rub an air-filled balloon on your hair, you can make it stick to a other scientists
wall. When the balloon and your hair are rubbed together, electrons are were seeking to describe their new
transferred from your hair to the balloon. observations about electricity. In
1733, French scientist Charles
a. What is the net charge on the balloon after it is rubbed on your hair? Is
DuFay had published a book
it positive, negative, or zero? describing how like charges repel
b. What do you think happens to the atoms near the wall’s surface when and unlike charges attract. He
the balloon is brought near the wall? (Hint: the balloon will stick to theorized that two fluids caused
the wall.) electricity: vitreous (positive) fluid
and resinous (negative) fluid.
c. What happens when you try to stick a charged balloon to a metal
object, like a doorknob? Try it or do some research to find the answer Later that century, Franklin invented
his own theory that argued that
and explain. Don’t forget to include a Web site or book citation. electricity is a result of the presence
d. The charged balloon experiments work better in dry weather than of a single fluid in different amounts.
in damp weather. Why do you think this is so? Do some research Although scientists no longer believe
to verify your answer. Don’t forget to include a Web site or that electricity is caused by different
book citation. kinds of fluids, the words positive and
negative are still used to describe the
8. What role do positive and negative charges play in the formation two types of charge.
of lightning?
475
20.2 Electric Circuits

Think of how often you use TV, radio, computers, refrigerators, and light bulbs. All of these electricity - the science of electric
things are possible because of electricity. The use of electricity has become so routine that most of charge and current.
us never stop to think about what happens when we switch on a light or turn on a motor. This electric current - the flow of
section is about electricity and electric circuits. Circuits are usually made of wires that carry electric charge.
electricity and devices that use electricity.
Electricity
What is electricity? Electricity usually means the flow of electric current in wires, motors,
light bulbs, and other inventions. Electric current is what makes an electric
motor turn or an electric stove heat up. Electric current is almost always
invisible and comes from the motion of electrons or other charged particles.
Electric current Electric current is similar to a current of water, but electric current is not
visible because it usually flows inside solid metal wires. Electric current can
carry energy and do work just as a current of water can. For example, a
waterwheel turns when a current of water exerts a force on it (Figure 20.5).
A waterwheel can be connected to a machine such as a loom for making
cloth, or to a millstone for grinding wheat into flour. Before electricity was
available, waterwheels were used to supply energy to many machines.
Today, the same tasks are done using energy from electric current. Look
around you right now and you probably see wires carrying electric current
into buildings.
Electricity can be Electric current can carry a great deal of energy. For example, an electric saw
powerful and can cut wood much faster than a hand saw. An electric motor the size of a
dangerous basketball can do as much work as five big horses or 15 strong people.
Electric current also can be dangerous. Touching a live electric wire can
result in serious injury. The more you know about electricity, the easier it is Figure 20.5: A waterwheel uses the
to use it safely. force of flowing water to run machines.
Electric circuits
Electricity travels in An electric circuit is a complete path through which electricity travels. A
electric circuit - a complete path
circuits good example of a circuit is the one in an electric toaster. Bread is toasted by through which electric charge can
heaters that convert electrical energy to heat. The circuit has a switch that flow.
turns on when the lever on the side of the toaster is pushed down. With the
switch on, electric current enters through one side of the plug from the socket
in the wall, and goes through the toaster and out the other side of the plug.
Wires are like pipes Wires in electric circuits are similar in some ways to pipes and hoses that
for electricity carry water (Figure 20.6). Wires act like pipes for electric current. Current
enters the house on the supply wire and leaves on the return wire. The big
difference between wires and water pipes is that you cannot get electricity to
leave a wire the way water leaves a pipe. If you cut a water pipe, the water
flows out. If you cut a wire, the electric current stops immediately.
Examples of circuits Circuits are not confined to appliances, wires, and devices built by people.
in nature The first experience humans had with electricity was in the natural world.
These are some examples of natural circuits:
• The tail of an electric eel makes a circuit when it stuns a fish with a jolt of
electricity.
• The Earth makes a gigantic circuit when lightning carries electric current
between the clouds and the ground.
• The nerves in your body are an electrical circuit that carries messages from
your brain to your muscles.
Figure 20.6: Comparing “circuits”
for water and electricity.
477
Circuit diagrams and electrical symbols

Circuit diagrams Circuits are made up of wires and electrical parts such as batteries, light
resistor - a component that is used
bulbs, motors, and switches. When designing a circuit, people make to control current in many circuits.
drawings to show how the parts are connected. Electrical drawings are called
circuit diagrams. In a circuit diagram, symbols are used to represent each
part of the circuit. These electrical symbols make drawing circuits quicker
and easier than drawing realistic pictures.
Electrical symbols A circuit diagram is a shorthand method of describing a working circuit. The
electric symbols used in circuit diagrams are standard so that anyone familiar
with electricity can build the circuit by looking at the diagram. Figure 20.7
shows some common parts of a circuit and their electrical symbols. The
picture below shows an actual circuit on the left and its circuit diagram on
the right. Can you identify the real parts with their symbols? Note that the
switch is open in the circuit diagram, but closed in the photograph. Closing
the switch completes the circuit so the light bulb lights.
Resistors A resistor is an electrical device that uses the energy carried by electric
Figure 20.7: These electrical
current in a specific way. In many circuit diagrams any electrical device that symbols are used when drawing circuit
uses energy is shown with a resistor symbol. A light bulb, heating element, diagrams.
speaker, or motor can be drawn with a resistor symbol. When you analyze a
circuit, many electrical devices may be treated as resistors when figuring out
how much current is in the circuit.
478 SC.912.P.10.15-Investigate and explain the relationships among current, voltage, resistance, and power.
Open and closed circuits

Batteries All electric circuits must have a source of energy. Circuits in your home get
closed circuit - a circuit with the
their energy from power plants that generate electricity. Circuits in flashlights, switch in the on position, so there are
cell phones, and portable radios get their energy from batteries. Some no breaks and charge can flow.
calculators have solar cells that convert energy from the sun or other lights open circuit - a circuit with the
into electrical energy. Of all the types of circuits, those with batteries are the switch in the off position, so there is a
easiest to understand. We will focus on battery circuits for now and will break and charge cannot flow.
eventually learn how circuits in buildings work. switch - a device for alternately
Open and closed It is necessary to be able to turn off light bulbs, radios, and most other devices allowing and not allowing charge to
flow in a circuit.
circuits in circuits. One way to turn off a device is to stop the current by “breaking”
the circuit. Electric current can only flow when there is a complete and
unbroken path from one end of the circuit to the other. A circuit with no
breaks is called a closed circuit (Figure 20.8). A light bulb will light only
when it is part of a closed circuit. Opening a switch or disconnecting a wire
creates a break in the circuit and stops the current. A circuit with any break in
it is called an open circuit.
Switches Switches are used to turn electricity on and off. Flipping a switch to the off
position creates an open circuit by making a break in the wire. The break
stops the current because electricity cannot normally travel through air.
Flipping a switch to the on position closes the break and allows the current to
flow again, to supply energy to the bulb, radio, or other device.
Breaks in circuits A switch is not the only way to make a break in a circuit. An incandescent
light bulb burns out when the thin wire that glows inside it breaks. This
creates an open circuit and explains why a burned-out bulb cannot light.
Today, incandescent bulbs are being replaced with compact fluorescent light
bulbs (CFLs) which use less electrical energy to put out the same amount of
light. CFLs work differently than incandescent bulbs. Instead of a heating a
thin wire inside, a CFL is a coiled glass tube that contains a gas. When the Figure 20.8: There is current in a
circuit is closed, electricity passes through the gas-filled tube and causes the closed circuit but not in an open circuit.
atoms in the gas to emit light. Just like incandescent bulbs however, when a
CFL bulb does finally quit working, the circuit will be broken and the CFL
will need to be replaced.
479
Section 20.2 Review

1. How are electric circuits and systems for carrying water in buildings
similar?
2. Give one example of a circuit found in nature and one example of a
circuit created by people.
3. Draw a circuit diagram for the circuit in Figure 20.9.
4. What is the difference between an open circuit and a closed circuit?
5. What does a resistor do in a circuit? Give an example.
6. Use the circuit diagram below to answer the following questions.
a. How many bulbs are there in this circuit?

b. How many batteries?
c. How many resistors?
d. How many switches?
e. Is this circuit open or closed? Justify your answer.
7. When you turn “on” a light switch in a room, does this open or close the
circuit? Explain.
480
20.3 Current and Voltage

Current is what carries energy in a circuit. Like water current, electric current only flows when ampere (A) - the unit of electric
there is a difference in energy between two locations that are connected. Water flows downhill current.
from higher gravitational potential energy to lower energy. Electric current flows “downhill” from
higher electrical potential energy to lower electrical potential energy.
Current
Measuring electric Electric current is measured in units called amperes (A), or amps, for short.
current The unit is named in honor of Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836), a French
physicist who studied electricity and magnetism. A small battery-powered
flashlight bulb uses about 1/2 amp of electric current.
Current flows from Examine a battery and you will find a positive and a negative end. The
positive to negative positive end on a AA, C, or D battery has a raised bump, and the negative end
is flat. A battery’s electrical symbol uses a long line to show the positive end
and a short line to show the negative end.
Current in equals Electric current from a battery flows out of the positive end and returns back
current out into the negative end. An arrow can be used to show the direction of current
on a circuit diagram (Figure 20.10). In most electric circuits, negative charge
flows, and you would think the correct direction would be negative to
positive. It is practical and conventional, however, to describe current as Figure 20.10: Direction of electric
current.
flowing from positive to negative, or from high voltage to low voltage. The
amount of electric current coming out of the positive end of the battery must
always be the same as the amount of current flowing into the negative end.
You can picture this with steel balls flowing through a tube. When you push Either positive or negative charges
can make an electric current,
one in, one comes out. The rate at which the balls flow in equals the rate at depending on the circuit materials. In
which they flow out. the human body, current is the
movement of both positive and
negative charges. In ordinary electric
circuits, current is the movement of
negative charge in metal conductors.
SC.912.P.10.15-Investigate and explain the relationships among current, voltage, resistance, and power. 481
Voltage
Energy and voltage Voltage is a measure of electric potential energy, just like height is a
voltage - a measure of electric
measure of gravitational potential energy. Voltage is measured in volts (V). potential energy.
Like other forms of potential energy, a voltage difference means there is
volt (V) - the measurement unit for
energy that can be used to do work. With electricity, the energy becomes voltage.
useful when we let the voltage difference cause current to flow through a
circuit. Current is what actually flows and does work. A difference in voltage multimeter - a measuring
instrument for current, voltage, and
provides the energy that causes current to flow (Figure 20.11). resistance.
What voltage means A voltage difference of 1 volt means 1 amp of current does 1 joule of work in
1 second. Since 1 joule per second is a watt (power), voltage is the power per
amp of current that flows. Every amp of current flowing out of a 1.5 V
battery carries 1.5 watts of power. The voltage in your home electrical
system is 120 volts, which means each amp of current carries 120 watts of
power.
Using a meter to A voltmeter measures voltage. A more useful meter is a multimeter, which
measure voltage can measure voltage or current, and sometimes also resistance. To measure
voltage, the meter’s probes are touched to two places in a circuit or across a
battery. The meter shows the difference in voltage between the two places.
Figure 20.11: A change in height

Meters measure The meter reads positive voltage if the red (positive) probe is at a higher causes water to flow in a pipe. Current
voltage difference voltage than the black probe. The meter reads negative when the black probe flows in this circuit because a battery
is at the higher voltage. The meter reads voltage differences between its creates a voltage difference.
probes. If both probes are connected to the same place, the meter reads zero.
SC.912.P.10.15-Investigate and explain the relationships among current, voltage, resistance, and power.
Batteries
Batteries A battery uses chemical energy to create a voltage difference between its two
battery - a device that transforms
terminals. When current leaves a battery, it carries energy. The current gives chemical energy to electrical energy,
up its energy as it passes through an electrical device such as a light bulb. and provides electrical force in a
When a bulb is lit, the electrical energy is taken from the current and is circuit.
transformed into light and heat energy. The current returns to the battery,
where it gets more energy.
Batteries are like Consider the water system shown below. The water pump raises the water Batteries and Cells
pumps level, increasing the potential energy of the water. As the water flows down,
Battery voltage depends on how the
its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy at the water wheel. How battery is constructed and what
is a simple circuit similar? The pump keeps the water level different in the chemicals it uses. A simple household
water system, and in the electrical circuit, the battery keeps the positive and zinc-carbon (alkaline) battery is 1.5
negative charges separate. As long as the water level is different in the water volts, and it is technically called a cell,
system, the water can flow. As long as there is an area of charge separation in not a battery. A, AA, AAA, C, and D
an electrical circuit, current can flow. This is why the battery is a sort of cells all have 1.5 volts each. The D
cell is the largest, and carries the most
“pump.” Chemical reactions in a battery give the energy to the current. The energy, so a D cell can last longer
current then flows through the circuit, carrying the energy to any motors or than a smaller 1.5-volt cell.
bulbs (which are like the water wheel in the water system). The current gets a
If you have a device made up of more
“refill” of energy each time it passes through the battery, for as long as the than one cell, you have a battery. A
battery’s stored energy lasts. 9 volt battery is made up of three
1.5-volt alkaline cells. A car battery is
usually 12 volts, and is made up of 6
lead acid cells that are 2 volts each.
It is acceptable, although not entirely
scientifically correct, to use the term
battery when referring to A, AA, AAA,
C, or D cells.
Measuring current in a circuit

Measuring current Electric current can be measured with a multimeter. However, if you want to
with a meter measure current you must force the current to pass through the meter. That
usually means you must break your circuit somewhere and rearrange wires
so that the current must flow through the meter. For example, Figure 20.12
shows a circuit with a battery and bulb. The meter has been inserted into the
circuit to measure current. If you trace the wires, the current comes out of the
positive end of the battery, through the light bulb, through the meter, and
back to the battery. The meter in the diagram measures 0.37 amps of current.
Some electrical meters, called ammeters, are designed specifically to
measure only current.
Setting up the meter If you use a multimeter, you also must remember to set its dial to measure
the type of current in your circuit. Multimeters can measure two types of
electric current, called alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). You
will learn about the difference between alternating and direct current in the
next chapter. For circuits with light bulbs and batteries, you must set your
meter to read direct current, or DC. The symbols for AC and DC are shown
in Figure 20.13.
Protect the meter A meter can be damaged if too much current passes through it. Always be
sure there is a light bulb or some other resistor in the circuit with the meter. Figure 20.12: Current must pass
through the meter when it is being
This way, you are unlikely to overload the meter with too much current. measured.
To protect its delicate electronics, most meters contain a circuit breaker or
fuse. Circuit breakers and fuses are fast-acting, automatic switches that open
a circuit if they sense too much current.
A circuit breaker can be reset the way a switch can be flipped. A broken fuse,
however, is similar to a burned out light bulb and must be replaced for the
meter to work again. The meter you use in your electric circuit investigations
has a fuse inside. To replace the fuse, you will need a replacement fuse and a
small screwdriver to open up the back of the meter. Your teacher can show
you how this is done. To make your investigations easier, be careful when Figure 20.13: A multimeter often
uses these symbols for AC and DC
connecting current measurements and you won’t have to replace the fuse! settings.
Section 20.3 Review
1. List the units for measuring current and voltage.
2. What is the difference between current and voltage, besides their units of
measurement?
3. Why does a multimeter display a reading of zero when both of its probes
are touched to the same end of a battery?
4. Study Figure 20.15 and answer the following questions. All batteries and
bulbs are identical.
a. Compare the voltage drop across the bulb in the one-bulb circuit with Figure 20.14: Question 8.
the voltage drops across each bulb in the four-bulb circuit.
b. Which circuit will have more current, and why?
c. Will there be a difference between the two circuits in bulb brightness?
Why or why not?
5. The direction of electric current is away from the _____ end of the battery
and toward the _____end.
6. What voltage would the electrical meter show in each of the diagrams
below?
7. Which of the following diagrams shows the correct way to measure

current in a circuit?

8. A flashlight needs three C batteries. How many volts of electricity does it
need (Figure 20.14)?
485
20.4 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

You can apply the same voltage to different circuits and different amounts of current will flow. resistance - determines how much
For example, when you plug in a desk lamp, the current through it is 1 amp. If a hair dryer is current flows for a given voltage.
plugged into the same outlet (with the same voltage) the current is 10 amps. For a given voltage, Higher resistance means less current.
the amount of current that flows depends on the resistance of the circuit.
Electrical resistance
Current and Resistance is the measure of how strongly a wire or other object resists
resistance current flowing through it. A device with low resistance, such as a copper
wire, can easily carry a large current. An object with a high resistance, such
as a rubber band, can only carry a current so tiny it can hardly be measured.
A water analogy The relationship between electric current and resistance can be compared
with water flowing from the open end of a bottle (Figure 20.16). If the
opening is large, the resistance is low and lots of water flows out quickly. If
the opening is small, the resistance is greater and the water flow is slow.
Circuits The total amount of resistance in a circuit determines the amount of current
in the circuit for a given voltage. Every device that uses electrical energy
adds resistance to a circuit. The more resistance the circuit has, the less the
current. For example, if you string several light bulbs together, the resistance
in the circuit increases and the current decreases, making each bulb dimmer
than a single bulb would be.
Figure 20.16: The current is less

when the resistance is great.
Measuring resistance
The ohm Electrical resistance is measured in units called ohms. This unit is
ohm (Ω) - the unit of measurement
abbreviated with the Greek letter omega (Ω). When you see Ω in a sentence, for resistance.
think or read “ohms.” For a given voltage, the greater the resistance, the lesser
the current. If a circuit has a resistance of one ohm, then a voltage of one volt
causes a current of one ampere to flow.
Figure 20.17: A multimeter can be

used to measure resistance of a device.
How Resistance is Measured

Resistance of wires The wires used to connect circuits are made of metals such as copper or
A multimeter measures resistance by
aluminum that have low resistance. The resistance of wires is usually so low forcing a precise amount of current to
compared with other devices in a circuit that you can ignore wire resistances flow through an electrical device. The
when measuring or calculating the total resistance. The exception is when meter then measures the voltage
there are large currents. If the current is large, the resistance of wires may across the device and calculates
be important. the resistance. The currents used
to measure resistance are quite
Measuring You can use a multimeter to measure the resistance of wires, light bulbs, and small, so any other current might
resistance other devices (Figure 20.17). You must first remove the device from the interfere. That is why a device must
circuit. Then set the dial on the multimeter to the resistance setting and touch be removed from the circuit to
measure its resistance.
the probes to each end of the device. The meter will display the resistance in
ohms (Ω), kilo-ohms (× 1,000 Ω), or mega-ohms (× 1,000,000 Ω).
Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law The current in a circuit depends on the battery’s voltage and the circuit’s
Ohm’s law - states that the current
resistance. Voltage and current are directly related. Doubling the voltage is directly related to the voltage and
doubles the current. Resistance and current are inversely related. Doubling inversely related to the resistance.
the resistance cuts the current in half. These two relationships form Ohm’s
law (Figure 20.18). The law relates current, voltage, and resistance with one
formula. If you know two of the three quantities, you can use Ohm’s law to
find the third.
OHM'S LAW
I= V
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
R Resistance (Ω)
Applying Ohm’s law Ohm’s law shows how resistance is used to control the current. If the
resistance is low, then a given voltage will result in a large amount of current.
Devices that need a large amount of current typically have lower resistance.
For example, a small electric motor might have a resistance of only 1 ohm.
When connected in a circuit with a 1.5-volt battery, the motor draws 1.5
amps of current. By comparison, a small light bulb with a resistance of 2.5
ohms in the same type of circuit would draw only 0.6 amps.
Figure 20.18: An example of Ohm’s
law in action.
Equation Gives you... If you know...

I = V/R current (I) voltage and resistance
V = IR voltage (V) current and resistance
R = V/I resistance (R) voltage and current
Solving Problems: Using Ohm’s law

Superconductivity
A superconductor allows current to
A toaster oven has a resistance of 12 ohms and is plugged into a 120-volt flow without losing any energy as heat
outlet. How much current does it draw? or light. What kinds of technology
have been developed on the
principles of superconductivity?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the current in amperes. What future technologies are
2. Given: You are given the resistance in ohms and voltage in volts. being explored?
3. Relationships: Ohm’s law: I = V

R
4. Solution: Plug in the values for V and R: I = 120 V =10 A
12 Ω
Your turn...
a. A laptop computer runs on a 24-volt battery. If the resistance of the circuit
inside is 16 ohms, how much current does it use?
b. A motor in a toy car needs 2 amps of current to work properly. If the car
runs on four 1.5-volt batteries, what is the motor’s resistance? The LDX experiment at MIT uses a
superconducting coil to explore
c. What is the current in the circuit below? fusion technology.
a. 1.5 A
b. 3 Ω
c. 3 A
The resistance of common objects

Resistances match The resistance of electrical devices ranges from small (0.001 ohms) to large
operating voltage (10 × 106 ohms). Every electrical device is designed with a resistance that
causes the right amount of current to flow when the device is connected to
the proper voltage. For example, a 100-watt light bulb has a resistance of
144 ohms. When connected to 120 volts from a wall socket, the current is
0.83 amps and the bulb lights (Figure 20.19). If you connect the same light
bulb to a 1.5-volt battery it will not light. According to Ohm’s law, the
current is only 0.01 amps when 1.5 volts is applied to a resistance of 144
ohms. This amount of current will not light the bulb. All electrical devices
draw the right amount of power only when connected to voltage they were
designed for.
The resistance of Electrical outlets are dangerous because you can get a fatal shock by
skin touching the wires inside. So why can you safely handle a 9-volt battery?
The reason is Ohm’s law. The typical resistance of dry skin is 100,000 ohms Figure 20.19: A light bulb designed
for use in a 120-volt household circuit
or more. According to Ohm’s law, 9 V ÷ 100,000 Ω is only 0.00009 A. This
does not light when connected to a 1.5-
is not enough current to be harmful. On average, nerves in the skin can feel a volt battery.
current of around 0.0005 amps. You can get a dangerous shock from 120
volts from a wall socket because that is enough voltage to force 0.0012 amps
(120 V ÷ 100,000 Ω) through your skin, and you certainly can feel that!
Water lowers skin Wet skin has much lower resistance than dry skin. Because of the lower
resistance resistance, the same voltage will cause more current to pass through your
body when your skin is wet. The combination of water and 120-volt
electricity is especially dangerous because the high voltage and lower
resistance make it possible for large (possibly fatal) currents to flow.
Changing The resistance of many electrical devices varies with temperature. For
resistance example, the amount of resistance a light bulb contributes to a circuit
increases as its temperature increases (due to the current running through it).
Devices that have a variable resistance like this are referred to as non-ohmic, Figure 20.20: The resistance of
because you can’t use Ohm’s law to predict the current when there is an ever- many materials, including those in light
changing resistance (Figure 20.20). The small light bulbs in your circuit kit bulbs, increases as temperature
are non-ohmic, so you will use fixed resistors to apply Ohm’s law to your increases. A light bulb is said to be “non-
simple circuits. Ohmic” for this reason.
Conductors and insulators

Conductors Current passes easily through some materials, such as copper, which are
conductor - a material with low
called conductors. A conductor can conduct, or carry, electric current. The electrical resistance. Metals such as
electrical resistance of wires made from conductors is low. Most metals are copper and aluminum are conductors.
good conductors. insulator - a material with high
Insulators Other materials, such as rubber, glass, and wood, do not allow current to electrical resistance. Plastic and
easily pass through them. These materials are called insulators, because they rubber are good insulators.
insulate against, or block, the flow of current. semiconductor - a material
between conductor and insulator in its
Semiconductors Some materials are in between conductors and insulators. These materials are ability to carry current.
called semiconductors because their ability to carry current is higher than
an insulator but lower than a conductor. Computer chips, televisions, and
portable radios are among the many devices that use semiconductors. You
may have heard of a region in California called Silicon Valley. Silicon is a
semiconductor commonly used in computer chips. An area south of San
Francisco is called Silicon Valley because there are many semiconductor and
computer companies located there.
Comparing materials No material is a perfect conductor or insulator. Some amount of current will
always flow in any material if a voltage is applied. Even copper (a good
conductor) has some resistance. Figure 20.21 shows how the resistances of
various conductors, semiconductors, and insulators compare.
Applications of Both conductors and insulators are
conductors and necessary materials in human
insulators technology. For example, a wire has
one or more conductors on the inside
and an insulator on the outside. An
electrical cable may have 20 or more
conductors, each separated from the
others by a thin layer of insulator. The
Figure 20.21: Comparing the
insulating layer prevents the other wires or other objects from being exposed resistance of materials.
to the current and voltage carried by the conducting core of the wire.
SC.912.P.10.14-Differentiate among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. 491

Resistors
Resistors are used Resistors are electrical components that are designed to have a specific
potentiometer - a type of variable
to control current resistance that remains the same over a wide range of currents. Resistors are resistor that can be adjusted to give
used to control the current in circuits. They are found in many common resistance within a certain range.
electronic devices such as computers, televisions, telephones, and stereos.
Fixed resistors There are two main types of resistors: fixed and variable. Fixed resistors
have a resistance that cannot be changed. If you have ever looked at a circuit
board inside a computer or other electrical device, you have seen fixed
resistors. They are small skinny cylinders or rectangles with colored stripes
on them. Because resistors are so tiny, it is impossible to label each one with
the value of its resistance in numbers. Instead, the colored stripes are a code
that tells you the resistance (see below).
Variable resistors Variable resistors, also called potentiometers, can be adjusted to have a
resistance within a certain range. If you have ever turned a dimmer switch or
volume control, you have used a potentiometer. When the resistance of a
dimmer switch increases, the current decreases, and the bulb gets dimmer.
Inside a potentiometer is a circular resistor and a little sliding contact called a
wiper (Figure 20.22). If the circuit is connected at A and C, the resistance is Figure 20.22: The resistance of this
always 100 Ω. But if the circuit is connected at A and B, the resistance can potentiometer can vary from 0 Ω to
vary from 0 Ω to 100 Ω. Turning the dial changes the resistance between A 100 Ω.
and B and also changes the current (or voltage) in the circuit.
492 SC.912.P.10.14-Differentiate among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

Section 20.4 Review

1. List the units and their abbreviations for resistance, voltage, and current. Extension Cord Safety
2. What happens to the current if a circuit’s resistance increases? The label on an extension cord will tell
3. What happens to the current if a circuit’s voltage increases? you how many amps of current it can
safely carry. The length and wire
4. A circuit contains one light bulb and a battery. What happens to the total thickness are both important. Always
resistance in the circuit if you replace the one light bulb with a string of check to see if the extension cord can
four identical bulbs? Why? carry at least as much current as the
5. Why can you safely handle a 1.5-V battery without being electrocuted? device you plug in will require. Many
fires have been caused by using the
6. A flashlight bulb has a resistance of about 6 Ω. It works in a flashlight wrong extension cord!
with two AA alkaline batteries. About how much current does the
bulb draw? Extension cords are
made from 2 or 3 wires
7. What voltage produces a 6 A current in a circuit that has a total resistance
of 3 Ω?
8. What is a circuit’s resistance if 12 V produces 2 A of current?
9. If you plug a device that has a resistance of 15 Ω into a 120-V outlet, how 12-gauge wire
much current does it draw?

14-gauge wire
10. What is the difference between a conductor and an insulator? Give an
example of each. 16-gauge wire
11. Do some research to find out why semiconductors are so important to
18-gauge wire
computer technology. Don’t forget to include Web site or book citations.
12. What is a fixed resistor, and where could you find fixed resistors in
Wire Current
your home? Gauge (amps)
13. What is a variable resistor, and where could you find variable resistors in 12 20
your home? 14 15
14. Look on the back or underside of different appliances and devices in your 16 10
home. Find two that list the current and voltage each uses. Calculate the 18 7
resistance of each.
SC.912.P.10.14-Differentiate among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. 493

BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 20
The Shocking Truth

reaches the end of the axon, a chemical called a neurotransmitter
is released. The chemical is picked up by receptors on the next
neuron’s dendrites. The dendrites then activate their own cell body
to continue sending the signal along the axon.
You Are Wired! Electricity in your home works because negatively charged electrons
in the wires are free to carry the electrical current. This doesn’t
happen in the electric circuits of your body. Instead, the electrical
Did you know that there are electric circuits
current is carried by positively charged ions.
in your body? Obviously, they aren’t the kind
made from batteries, bulbs, and wires—and
How Does a Nerve Impulse Work?
there certainly isn’t anything like lightning
When a neuron is at rest, the inside of the cell membrane is
flashing around in there. However, there are
electrically negative compared with the outside.
electric circuits of a different type inside your
body, and you couldn’t survive without them. 1. An outside stimulus, like touching a hot stove, causes the neuron’s
cell membrane to open tiny channels that let positively charged ions
Withdrawal Reflexes into the cell. One area of the neuron now has a positively charged
inside relative to the outside.
Have you ever accidentally touched a hot stove? The first thing you
do is pull your hand back quickly—without even thinking about it.
A withdrawal reflex like this happens because electrical signals are

sent through the nerve network in your body. When you touch a
hot stove, nerve endings in your fingers send a signal to nerves in
your spinal cord. From the spinal cord, the signal is transferred to
nerve fibers that control muscles in your hand and arm, causing
them to contract, jerking your hand away from the stove. All of this
happens in a split second!
Neurons
Your nervous system
uses specialized cells
called neurons to
transfer electrical
signals from one
part of your body to
another. A neuron has three basic parts: the cell body; a long, thin
portion called the axon; and finger-like projections called dendrites. 2. In a type of chain reaction, depolarization occurs along the
entire neuron. As downstream channels open to let positive ions
in, the previously depolarized areas let positive ions back out. As
Battery Circuits vs. Body Circuits
the ions leave, the membrane once again becomes negatively
Unlike the components of the electric circuits you built in class, most charged compared with the outside, as it was before the outside
neurons don’t touch one another. Instead, as the electrical signal stimulus occurred.
494 SC.912.P.10.14–Differentiate among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

BIOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 20
3. The nerve impulse continues from neuron to neuron, across the If you have ever seen doctors working in an emergency room on
gaps (synapses) between neurons, like a row of falling dominoes. television or in a movie, you have probably seen a device called
The positive ions move in and out of one neuron, and at the gap a defibrillator. A defibrillator uses an electric current to make a
between neurons, a chemical neurotransmitter is released to allow patient’s heart start beating again after a heart attack or other
the depolarization to continue along the next neuron. In this way, trauma. Small, portable defibrillators are now being placed in
nerve impulses or messages are conducted from one area of the schools, airports, and other public buildings. These devices have
body to another. saved many lives by allowing trained people to help heart attack
victims before paramedics arrive.
4. In a split second, your muscle receives the message to contract
and pull your hand away from the source of heat. It all happens
because of the flow of charged material. Your nervous system and
Electricity and
your muscles are controlled by electrical impulses; some of them can Living Things
move at upwards of 250 miles per hour! Many processes inside you (and
other living things) depend on
Withdrawal reflexes are just one of many actions in your body that internal electric circuits. Most
happen as a result of electrical signals. Your emotions, decisions, and organisms keep this “shocking
physical actions all happen when nerve impulses transmit electrical truth” to themselves, but not
signals through neurons in your brain, spinal cord, and body. the electric eel! These South
American river fish can stun
What Makes Your Heart Beat? unsuspecting prey with a 500-volt, 1 amp electric current generated
Did you know that electrical through a flow of positive ions in specialized abdominal organs.
signals cause your heart to beat?
There is specialized electrical
tissue in your heart called the Questions:
sinoatrial node. This specialized
group of cells releases positive 1. Compare and contrast battery and bulb circuits with the
ions that carry an electrical circuits of your nervous system. How are they alike?
message to the muscle cells all How are they different?
over the heart. This stimulates
the heart to contract and pump 2. Why would someone need to have a pacemaker? What
blood throughout the body. do defibrillators do, and why are they made available in
People often refer to heart somepublic places?
contractions as the “heartbeat.” 3. There are hundreds of organisms that, like the electric eel,
For your heart to pump blood use electricity for more than just internal body processes.
effectively, it must beat Do an Internet search. Choose two of the animals (other
regularly, in a rhythmic pattern. The sinoatrial node is usually very than the electric eel), name them, and write a brief
good at sending rhythmic electrical impulses to the muscle cells, description of how much electricity they produce and how
so the contractions happen steadily and regularly. However, if the they use it.
sinoatrial node needs extra help, a surgeon can implant an artificial
pacemaker to send the regular electrical impulses. Neuron image courtesy of Wei-Chung Allen Lee, Hayden Huang, Guoping Feng, Joshua R.
Sanes, Emery N. Brown, Peter T. So, and Elly Nedivvi.
SC.912.P.10.14–Differentiate among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. 495

Vocabulary 11. A circuit diagram uses electrical symbols to represent a(n)
____.
12. ____ is the science of electric current and charge.
ampere electrically neutral positive
battery electricity potentiometer 13. When a light switch is in the “off” position, you have a(n)
charged insulator resistance ____.
closed circuit multimeter resistor Section 20.3
conductor negative semiconductor 14. The unit for current is the ____.
coulomb ohm static electricity
15. A(n) ____ provides voltage for a circuit.
electric circuit Ohm’s law switch
electric current open circuit volt
16. ____ is a measure of electric potential energy.
voltage 17. Use a(n) ____ to measure current or voltage in a circuit.
Section 20.1 18. The ____ is the unit for measuring voltage.
1. The unit in which charge is measured is the ____. Section 20.4
2. An object is ____ when it has equal numbers of positive and 19. The ____ is the unit for measuring resistance.
negative charges. 20. ____ explains the relationship between current, voltage, and
3. All atoms have protons, which carry a(n) ____ charge. resistance in a circuit.
4. All atoms have electrons, which carry a(n) ____ charge. 21. Wires in a circuit are made of a material that is a(n) ____,
such as copper.
5. ____ is caused by a tiny imbalance of positive or negative
charge. 22. ____ is the measure of how strongly a material resists
current.
6. A(n) ____ object is not electrically neutral.
23. A(n) ____ like rubber or plastic has high electrical
Section 20.2
resistance.
7. ____ is what flows and carries energy in a circuit.
24. Silicon is an example of a(n) ____.
8. A(n) ____ is used to create a break in a circuit.
25. A(n) ____ is a type of variable resistor.
9. A(n) ____ has a complete path for the current and contains
no breaks.
10. A light bulb, motor, or speaker acts as a(n) ____ in a circuit.
496
Concepts 9. Draw the electrical symbol for each of the following devices.
Section 20.1
a. battery
b. resistor
1. Like charges ____ and opposite charges ____.
c. switch
2. What does it mean to say an object is electrically neutral? d. wire
3. Is an object’s net charge positive or negative if it loses Section 20.3
electrons?
10. How does voltage cause current to do work?
4. Why don’t you usually notice electric forces between objects?
11. Explain how a battery in a circuit is similar to a water
5. What unit is used for measuring charge, and where did the pump.
name come from?
12. What are the differences between a multimeter, an
6. Why do clothes sometimes stick together when you pull ammeter, and a voltmeter?
them out of the dryer?
13. Suppose you have a closed circuit containing a battery that
Section 20.2 is lighting a bulb.
7. Use the illustrations below to answer the following a. Explain how you would use a multimeter to measure
questions. the voltage across the bulb.
b. Explain how you would use a multimeter to measure
the current in the circuit.
14. What should you do to protect the multimeter when you
measure current?
Section 20.4
15. What does it mean to say that current and resistance in a
circuit are inversely related?
16. What does it mean to say that current and voltage in a
a. Which of the circuit(s) is/are closed? circuit are directly related?
b. Which circuit(s) will not light a bulb?
17. According to Ohm’s law, the current in a circuit increases if
c. For any open circuits in the illustration, explain why
the ____ increases. The current decreases if the ____
the circuit is open.
increases.
8. Why are symbols used in circuit diagrams?
497
18. A battery is connected to a light bulb, creating a simple circuit. Section 20.4
Explain what will happen to the current in the circuit if 4. What happens to the current in a circuit if the resistance
a. the bulb is replaced with a bulb having a higher triples? If the voltage triples?
resistance. 5. A hair dryer draws a current of 10 A when plugged into a
b. the battery is replaced with a battery having a greater 120 V outlet. What is the resistance of the hair dryer?
voltage.
6. A digital camera uses one 6 V battery. The circuit that runs
19. Explain why electrical wires are made of copper covered in a the flash and takes the pictures has a resistance of 3 Ω.
layer of plastic. Use the terms insulator and conductor in What is the current in the circuit?
your answer.
Problems
Section 20.1
Section 20.1
1. On very dry days, when you use a comb or a brush, your hair
1. Describe the forces between the positive and negative sometimes stands on end and maybe even sticks to the comb
electric charges in each pair below. or brush. Explain why this happens in terms of electric
charge.
Section 20.2
2. A wire carrying an electric current is often likened to a pipe
carrying water. What part of this analogy is incorrect?
2. Draw a circuit diagram of a circuit containing a battery, 3. Design an experiment to determine whether more expensive
three wires, a light bulb, and a switch. household batteries last longer than cheaper ones. Don’t
Section 20.3 forget to carefully select your controls! With your teacher’s
approval, try your experiment and report your findings.
3. What voltage would the multimeter show in each of the
diagrams below? 4. Standard voltage for electrical circuits in the United States
is 120 volts. Is this the standard voltage in other countries?
Do some research and report your findings.
Section 20.4
5. Why can’t you use an electric blender purchased in the
United States in another country, like Spain or China?
Chapter 21
Electrical Systems
You may recognize the abbreviations AC and DC. There is a classic rock band
called AC/DC that helped make the acronyms famous. This Chapter however, is
about the scientific meaning of AC and DC. Did you know that in the late 1800s, a major
disagreement over the use of AC and DC methods for transmitting electricity erupted between two
famous inventors? Thomas Edison favored the direct current (DC) method of moving electrical
energy from electrical generation stations to homes and buildings. George Westinghouse argued that
the alternating current (AC) method worked better. The feud became quite public, as each inventor
tried to win support. The DC method works well over short distances, as between buildings in a
densely populated city. AC works well over long distances but uses higher voltages than DC
technology. Edison used some morbid methods for demonstrating his views of the danger involved
with high voltage electrical transmission through his opponent’s AC method.
Which inventor won the AC/DC debate? Does the United States rely on AC or DC technology for
transmitting electrical energy? In this chapter, you will find out how our country distributes
electricity, and what the difference is between AC and DC current. You will also learn how
electricity is “purchased” and paid for, as well as how simple electrical circuits are constructed and
how they work.
What is the difference between cheap holiday

lights and more expensive ones?
Why aren’t birds electrocuted when

they sit on power lines?
What happens if you plug too many

appliances into an electrical outlet?
Chapter 21 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
21.1 Series Circuits

We use electric circuits for thousands of things from flashlights to computers, cars, and satellites. series circuit - an electric circuit
There are two basic ways circuits can be built to connect different devices. These two types of that has only one path for current.
circuits are called series and parallel. Series circuits have only one path for the current. Parallel
circuits have branching points and multiple paths for the current. This section discusses series
circuits. You will learn about parallel circuits in the next section.
What is a series circuit?

A series circuit has A series circuit contains only one path for electric current
one path to flow. That means the current is the same at all points in
the circuit. All the circuits you have studied so far have been
+ –
series circuits. For example, a battery, three bulbs, and a
switch connected in a loop form a series circuit because
there is only one path through the circuit (Figure 21.1). The Figure 21.1: A series circuit.
current is the same in each bulb, so they are equally bright.
A series circuit has only one path for the current so
the current is the same at any point in the circuit.
Series circuit in If there is a break at any point in a series circuit, the current will stop
holiday lights everywhere in the circuit. Inexpensive strings of holiday lights are wired
with the bulbs in series. The bulbs are only rated for 2.5 volts, but with 50 of
them wired in series, the string runs well when plugged into a 120-volt outlet
(48 x 2.5 = 120, but manufacturers just add 2 bulbs to round out the number).
If you remove one of the bulbs from its socket, the whole string of mini bulbs
will go out. However, if a bulb’s filament burns out, but the bulb is still in the
socket, the string will stay lighted. How does this work? Modern 2.5-volt
mini bulbs have a special backup wire to carry the current when a filament
breaks (Figure 21.2). As long as the burned-out bulb is still in the socket, the Figure 21.2: A set of 50-strand mini
series circuit will not be broken, because the current can travel through the bulbs have a backup wire inside, so if
the filament burns out, current can flow
backup wire (often called a shunt). through the backup wire and the rest of
the bulbs in the strand can stay lit.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Chapter 21
Current and resistance in a series circuit

Use Ohm’s law You can use Ohm’s law to calculate the current in a circuit if you know the
voltage and resistance. If you are using a battery you know the voltage from
the battery. If you know the resistance of each device, you can find the total
resistance of the circuit by adding up the resistance of each device.
Adding resistances You can think of adding resistances like adding pinches to a hose
(Figure 21.3). Each pinch adds some resistance. The total resistance is the
sum of the resistances from each pinch. To find the total resistance in a series
circuit, you add the individual resistances.
Figure 21.3: Adding resistors in a
circuit is like adding pinches in a hose.
Ignoring resistances Everything has some resistance, even wires. However, the resistance of a wire
in simple circuits is usually so small compared with the resistance of light bulbs and other
devices that we can ignore the resistance of the wire in the simple circuits we
build and analyze.
Solving Problems: Current in a Series Circuit
A series circuit contains a 12-V battery and three bulbs with resistances of
1Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω. What is the current in the circuit (Figure 21.4)?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the current in amps.

2. Given: You are given the voltage in volts and resistances in ohms.
3. Relationships: Rtot=R1+R2+R3
Ohm’s law: I=V/R

4. Solution: Rtot = 1 Ω + 2 Ω + 3 Ω = 6 Ω
Figure 21.4: What is the current in
the circuit?
I = (12 V)/(6 Ω) = 2 A
Your turn...
a. A string of 5 lights runs on a 9-V battery. If each bulb has a resistance of
2 Ω, what is the current?
b. A series circuit operates on a 6-V battery and has two 1 Ω resistors. What
is the current?
a. 0.9 A
c. A string of 50 mini-bulbs is wired in series. Each bulb has a resistance of
7 Ω. The string is plugged into a 120-V outlet. How much current does b. 3 A
the string of lights draw? c. 0.3 A
502
Energy and voltage in a series circuit

Energy changes Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The devices in a circuit convert
voltage drop - the difference in
forms electrical energy carried by the current into other forms of energy. As each voltage across an electrical device
device uses power, the power carried by the current is reduced. As a result, that has current flowing through it.
the voltage is lower after each device that uses power. This is known as the
voltage drop. The voltage drop is the difference in voltage across an
electrical device that has current flowing through it.
Charges lose their Consider a circuit with three bulbs and two batteries (illustration C below). STUDY SKILLS
energy The voltage is 3 V so each amp of current leaves the battery carrying 3 watts.
Voltage in a series circuit
As the current flows through the circuit, each bulb changes 1/3 of the power
into light and heat. Because the first bulb uses 1 watt, the voltage drops from To remember how voltage works in a
3 V to 2 V as the current flows through the first bulb. Remember, the current series circuit, think of the word share
(series/share). If circuit components
in a series circuit is the same everywhere! As power gets used, voltage drops. are wired in series, the components
Voltage If the three bulbs are identical, each gives off the same amount of light and share the total voltage available.
heat. Each uses the same amount of power. A meter will show the voltage
drop from 3 V, to 2 V, to 1 V, and finally down to 0 V after the last bulb. After
passing through the last bulb, the current returns to the battery where it is
given more power and the cycle starts over.
Voltage drops and Ohm’s law

Voltage drops Each separate bulb or resistor creates a voltage drop. The voltage drop across
Kirchhoff’s voltage law - the total
a bulb is measured by connecting an electrical meter’s leads at each side of of all voltage drops in a series circuit
the bulb (Figure 21.5). The greater the voltage drop, the greater the amount must equal the voltage supplied by the
of power being used per amp of current flowing through the bulb. battery.
Ohm’s law The voltage drop across a resistance is determined by Ohm’s law in the form
V = IR. The voltage drop (V) equals the current (I) multiplied by the
resistance (R) of the device. In a series circuit, the current is the same at all
points, but devices may have different resistances. In the circuit below each
bulb has a resistance of 1 ohm, so each has a voltage drop of 1 volt when
1 amp flows through the circuit.
Applying Kirchhoff’s In the circuit below, three identical bulbs are connected in series to two
law 1.5-volt batteries. The total resistance of the circuit is 3 Ω. The current
flowing in the circuit is 1 amp (I = 3 V ÷ 3 Ω). Each bulb creates a voltage
drop of 1 V (V = IR = 1 A x 1 Ω). The total of all the voltage drops is 3 V,
which is the same as the voltage of the battery.
Figure 21.5: Using a multimeter to

measure the voltage drop across a bulb
Energy conservation The law of conservation of energy also applies to a circuit. Over the entire in a circuit.
circuit, the power used by all the bulbs must equal the power supplied by the
battery. This means the total of all the voltage drops must add up to the
battery’s voltage. This rule is known as Kirchhoff’s voltage law, after
German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).
Finding voltage Ohm’s law is especially useful in series circuits where the devices do not have
drops the same resistance. A device with a larger resistance has a greater voltage
drop. However, the sum of all the voltage drops must still add up to the
battery’s voltage. The example below shows how to find the voltage drops in
a circuit with two different light bulbs.
Solving Problems: Voltage in Series Circuits
The circuit shown at right (Figure 21.6) contains a 9-volt battery, a 1-ohm
bulb, and a 2-ohm bulb. Calculate the circuit’s total resistance and current.
Then find each bulb’s voltage drop.
1. Looking for: You are asked for the total resistance, current, and voltage drops.
2. Given: You are given the battery’s voltage and the resistance of each bulb.
3. Relationships: Total resistance in a series circuit: Rtot = R1 + R2
Figure 21.6: What is the circuit’s
Ohm’s law: I=V/R or V=IR total resistance and current?
4. Solution: Calculate the total resistance: Rtot = 1 Ω + 2 Ω = 3 Ω

Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current:
I = (9 V)/(3 Ω) = 3 A
Use Ohm’s law to find the voltage across the 1 Ω bulb:
V = (3 A)(1 Ω) = 3 V
Use Ohm’s law to find the voltage across the 2 Ω bulb:
V = (3 A)(2 Ω) = 6 V
a. 4 A, 4 V across 1 Ω bulb, 8 V
Your turn... across 2 Ω bulb
a. The battery in the circuit above is replaced with a 12-volt battery. b. 2 V, 10 V
Calculate the new current and bulb voltages.
b. A 12-volt battery is connected in series to 1 Ω and 5 Ω bulbs. What is the
voltage across each bulb?
505
Section 21.1 Review

1. What do you know about the current at different points in a series
circuit?
2. Three bulbs are connected in series with a battery and a switch. Do all of
the bulbs go out when the switch is opened? Explain.
3. What happens to a circuit’s resistance as more resistors are added in
series?
4. A series circuit contains a 9-volt battery and three identical bulbs. What
is the voltage drop across each bulb?
5. A circuit with three 1.5-volt batteries has two matching light bulbs Figure 21.7: Question 5.
(Figure 21.7).
a. What is the voltage drop across each bulb?
b. What would you have to know to find the value for the circuit’s Why aren’t birds electrocuted?
current?
6. A student builds a circuit using three 1-ohm resistors in series. The
current in the circuit is 1.5 amps.
a. How many D-cells are in the circuit? (Hint: use Ohm’s law.)
b. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
7. A student builds a series circuit with four 1.5-volt batteries, a 5-ohm If high-voltage wires are so
resistor, and two 1-ohm resistors. dangerous, how do birds sit on them
without being instantly electrocuted?
a. What is the total resistance in the circuit? First, the bird’s body has a higher
b. Use Ohm’s law to find the value of the current in the circuit. resistance than the electrical wire.
8. How does Kirchoff’s voltage law relate to the law of conservation of The current tends to stay in the wire
because the wire is an easier path.
energy?
The most important reason, however,
is that the bird has both feet on the
same wire. That means the voltage is
the same on both feet and no current
flows through the bird.
506
21.2 Parallel Circuits

It would be a problem if your refrigerator went off when you switched off the overhead kitchen parallel circuit - an electric circuit
light! That is why houses are wired with parallel circuits instead of series circuits. Parallel circuits with more than one path or branch.
provide each device with a separate path back to the power source. This means each device can be Kirchhoff’s current law - states
turned on and off independently from the others. It also means that each device sees the full voltage that all of the current entering a circuit
of the power source without voltage drops from other devices. branch must exit again.
What is a parallel circuit?

Parallel branches A parallel circuit is a circuit with more than one path for the current. Each
path in the circuit is sometimes called a branch. The current through a branch
is also called the branch current. The current supplied by the battery in a
parallel circuit splits at one or more branch points.
Example: three All of the current entering a branch point must exit again. This rule is known
bulbs in parallel as Kirchhoff’s current law (Figure 21.8). For example, suppose you have
three identical light bulbs connected in parallel as shown below. The circuit
has two branch points where the current splits (green dots). There are also two
branch points where the current comes back together. You measure the branch
currents and find each to be 1 amp. The current supplied by the battery is the
sum of the three branch currents, or 3 amps. At each branch point, the current
entering is the same as the current leaving.
Figure 21.8: All the current entering

a branch point in a circuit must also exit
the point.
Voltage and current in a parallel circuit

Each branch has the The voltage is the same anywhere along the same wire. This is true as long as
same voltage the resistance of the wire itself is very small compared to the rest of the
circuit. If the voltage is the same along a wire, then the same voltage appears
across each branch of a parallel circuit. This is true even when the branches
have different resistances (Figure 21.9). Both bulbs in this circuit see 3 V
from the battery since each is connected back to the battery by wires without
any other electrical devices in the way.
The voltage is the same across each branch of a
parallel circuit.
Parallel circuits have two big advantages over series circuits.
1. Each device in the circuit has a voltage drop equal to the full battery
voltage.
Figure 21.9: The voltage across each
2.
Each device in the circuit may be turned off independently without branch of a parallel circuit is the same.
stopping the current in the other devices in the circuit.
Parallel circuits in Parallel circuits need more wires to connect, but are used for most of the
homes wiring in homes and other buildings. Parallel circuits allow you to turn off
one lamp without all of the other lights in your home going out. They also
allow you to use many appliances at once, each at full power.
Current in branches Because each branch in a parallel circuit has the same voltage, the current in
a branch is determined by the branch resistance and Ohm’s law, I = V/R
(Figure 21.10). The greater the resistance of a branch, the smaller the
current. Each branch works independently, so the current in one branch does
not depend on what happens in other branches.
Total current The total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the currents in each
branch. The only time branches have an effect on each other is when the total
current is more than the battery or wall outlet can supply. A battery has a
maximum amount of current it can supply at one time. If the branches in a
circuit try to draw too much current the battery voltage will drop and less Figure 21.10: The current in each
current will flow. branch may be different.
Calculating current and resistance in a parallel circuit

More branches mean In series circuits, adding an extra resistor increases the total resistance of the
less resistance circuit. The opposite is true in parallel circuits. Adding a resistor in a parallel
circuit provides another independent path for current. More current flows for
the same voltage so the total resistance is less.
Example of a parallel Compare the series and parallel circuits in Figure 21.11. In the series circuit,
circuit the current is 6 amps (I = V/R = 12 V ÷ 2 Ω). In the parallel circuit, the
current is 6 amps in each branch. The total current is 12 amps. So what is the
total resistance of the parallel circuit? Ohm’s law solved for resistance is
R = V ÷ I. The total resistance of the parallel circuit is the voltage (12 V)
divided by the total current (12 A), which equals 1 ohm. The resistance of the
parallel circuit is half that of the series circuit!
Parallel vs. series It can get confusing to keep track of what happens to three variables (current,
voltage, and resistance) in different types of circuits. There is an easy way to
remember the difference between series and parallel circuits. In a series
circuit, current is the same everywhere, but voltage drops occur. In a parallel
circuit, voltage is the same everywhere, but branch currents can be different.
Voltage drops in series circuits and branch current differences in parallel
circuits all depend on the resistance values for circuit resistors. So remember:
series/same/current; parallel/same/voltage. You can use Ohm’s law for both.
Voltage Current Resistance
Resistors must “share” total Current is the same Resistance increases as

Series
voltage available everywhere in the circuit you add resistors in series
Figure 21.11: The parallel circuit
has twice the current and half the total
Branch current can vary Resistance decreases as resistance of the series circuit.
Each branch sees the full within the same circuit; add you add resistors in
Parallel
voltage available up branch currents to get parallel, because current
total current increases
Solving Problems: Current in Parallel Circuits

What if you plug in too many
things?
All of the electrical outlets in Jonah’s living room are on one parallel circuit.
The circuit breaker cuts off the current if it exceeds 15 amps. Will the
breaker trip if he uses a light (240 Ω), stereo (150 Ω), and an air conditioner
(10 Ω)?
1. Looking for: You are asked whether the current will exceed 15 amps.
2. Given: The resistance of each branch and the circuit breaker’s maximum current
3. Relationships: Ohm’s law: I=V/R
4. Solution: Because the devices are plugged into electrical outlets, the voltage is In a parallel circuit, each connection
120 volts for each. uses as much current as it needs. If
Ilight = (120 V)/(240 Ω) = 0.5 A you plug in a coffee maker that uses
Istereo = (120 V)/(150 Ω) = 0.8 A 10 amps and a toaster oven that uses
IAC = (120 V)/(10 Ω) = 12 A 10 amps, a total of 20 amps needs to
The total is 13.3 A, so the circuit breaker will not trip. come through the wire. If you plug too
many appliances into the same outlet,
you will eventually use more current
Your turn... than the wires can carry without
overheating. You will learn how circuit
a. Will the circuit breaker trip if Jonah also turns on a computer (R = 60 Ω)? breakers prevent this on the next
page.
b. What is the total current in a parallel circuit containing a 12-V battery, a
2 Ω resistor, and a 4 Ω resistor?
a. Yes. The additional current is

2 A, so the total is 15.3 A.
b. 9 A
Short circuits, circuit breakers, and fuses

Heat and wires When electric current flows through a resistor, some of the power carried by
short circuit - a branch in a circuit
the current becomes heat. Toasters and electric stoves are designed to use with zero or very low resistance.
electric current to make heat. Although the resistance of wires is low, it is not
circuit breaker - an automatic
zero, so wires heat up when current flows through them. If too much current device that trips like a switch to turn
flows through too small a wire, the wire overheats and may melt or start a fire. off an overloaded circuit.
Short circuits A short circuit is a parallel path in a fuse - a device with a thin wire that
circuit with very low resistance. A melts and breaks an overloaded
short circuit can be created circuit.
accidentally by making a parallel
branch with a wire. A plain wire may
have a resistance as low as 0.001Ω.
Ohm’s law tells us that with a
resistance this low, 1.5 V from a
battery results in a (theoretical)
current of 1,500 A! A short circuit is
dangerous because currents this large
can melt wires.
Circuit safety in Appliances and electrical outlets in homes are connected in many parallel
homes circuits. Each circuit has its own fuse or circuit breaker that stops the current
if it exceeds the safe amount, usually 15 or 20 amps (Figure 21.12). If you
turn on too many appliances in one circuit at the same time, the circuit breaker
or fuse cuts off the current. To restore the current, you must first disconnect
some or all of the appliances. Then, either flip the tripped circuit breaker (in
newer homes) or replace the blown fuse (in older homes). Fuses are also used
in car electrical systems and in electrical devices such as televisions. Figure 21.12: Houses and other
buildings use either circuit breakers or
fuses to cut off the current if it gets too
high.
Section 21.2 Review

1. Is the voltage across each branch of a parallel circuit the same? Is the Lewis Latimer
current in each branch the same? Lewis Latimer was
2. Give two reasons why parallel circuits are used for distributing born in Chelsea,
electricity around homes and buildings instead of series circuits. Massachusetts in
1848, six years after
3. What happens to the total current in a parallel circuit as more branches his parents escaped
are added? Why? from slavery in
4. What is the total resistance of two 12-ohm resistors in parallel? What is Virginia.
the total for three 12-ohm resistors in parallel? As a child, Lewis
loved to read and
5. For each diagram below, label the circuit series, parallel, or short circuit. draw. When he was 16, Lewis joined the
The arrows show the flow of current. One circuit type is not shown. U.S. Navy, fighting for the Union in the
Civil War. Afterward, He worked in a law
office in Boston that specialized in
helping people patent their inventions.
There he taught himself how to use
draftsmen’s tools to make scale
drawings of machines.
Latimer met Alexander Graham Bell at
that office. Working late, Latimer made
blueprints and helped Bell file the
papers for his telephone patent—just
hours before a rival.
6. A circuit breaker in your house is set for 15 amps. You have plugged in a A new job as a mechanical draftsman
coffee maker that uses 10 amps. Plugging which of the four items into for the U.S. Electric Lighting company
the same circuit will cause the circuit breaker to trip (because the current helped Latimer learn about
incandescent lighting. Four years later,
is too high)?
Thomas Edison hired Latimer as an
a. a light that uses 1 amp electrical engineer and patent advisor.
b. a can opener that uses 2 amps Latimer was later invited to join the
prestigious research team known as
c. a mixer that uses 6 amps Edison’s pioneers. Latimer improved
d. an electric knife that uses 1.5 amps incandescent bulb design by replacing a
paper filament with a carbon one. He
also wrote the first engineer’s handbook
on electric lighting.
512
21.3 Electrical Power, AC, and DC Electricity

If you look at a stereo, hair dryer, or other household appliance, you may find a label giving its electrical power - the rate at which
power in watts. In this section you will learn what the power ratings on appliances mean, and how electrical energy is changed into other
to figure out the electricity costs of using various appliances. forms of energy.
watt (W) - unit used to measure
Electric power power, one watt equals one joule per
second.
A watt is a unit of Electrical power is measured in watts, just like mechanical power. Electrical
power power is the rate at which electrical energy is changed into other forms of
energy such as heat, sound, or light. Anything that “uses” electricity is
actually converting electrical energy into some other type of energy. The watt
is an abbreviation for one joule per second. A 100-watt light bulb uses
100 joules of energy every second (Figure 21.13).
The three electrical We have now learned three important electrical quantities:
quantities
Current is what carries power in a circuit. Current is
Current (I)
measured in amperes (A).
Voltage measures the difference in electrical potential
energy between two points in a circuit. Voltage is
Voltage (V)
measured in volts (V). A difference in voltage causes
current to flow. One volt is one watt per amp of current.
Resistance measures the ability to resist current.
Resistance (R) Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). One amp of current
flows if 1 V is applied across a resistance of 1 Ω.
Figure 21.13: One watt equals one
Paying for electricity Electric bills from utility companies don’t charge by the volt, the amp, or the joule per second.
ohm. Electrical appliances in your home usually include another unit—the
watt. Most appliances have a label that lists the number of watts or kilowatts.
You may have purchased 60-watt light bulbs, a 1,000-watt hair dryer, or a
1,200-watt toaster oven. Electric companies charge for the energy you use,
which depends on how many watts each appliance consumes and the amount
of time each is used during the month.
Calculating power in a circuit

Calculating power Power in a circuit can be measured using the tools we already have.
kilowatt (kW) - unit used to
Remember that one watt equals an energy flow of one joule per second. measure large amounts of power, 1
kilowatt equals 1,000 watts.
Amps One amp is a flow of one coulomb of charge per second
Volts One volt is an energy of one joule per coulomb of charge
If these two quantities are multiplied together, you will find that the units of
coulombs cancel out, leaving the equation we want for power.
Figure 21.14: Most appliances have

a label that lists the power in watts.
. . . gives
. . . if you
Equation
you . . .
know . . .
current and
P=I×V power (P)
voltage
power and
I=P÷V current (I)
voltage
Watts and kilowatts Most electrical appliances have a label that lists the power in watts (W) power and
(Figure 21.14) or kilowatts (kW). The kilowatt is used for large amounts of V=P÷I voltage (V)
current
power. One kilowatt (kW) equals 1,000 watts. Another common unit of
power, especially on electric motors, is the horsepower. One horsepower is Figure 21.15: Different forms of the
power equation.
746 watts. The range in power for common electric motors is from 1/25th of
a horsepower (30 watts) for a small electric fan to 1 horsepower (746 watts)
for a garbage disposal.
Solving Problems: Calculating Power
A 12-volt battery is connected in series to two identical light bulbs

(Figure 21.16). The current in the circuit is 3 amps. Calculate the power
output of the battery.
1. Looking for: You are asked for the power in watts supplied by the battery.
2. Given: You are given the battery voltage in volts and current in amps.
3. Relationships: Power: P = I × V
4. Solution: Battery: P = (3 A)(12 V) = 36 W
Figure 21.16: What is the power

Your turn... output of the battery?
a. A 12-volt battery is connected in parallel to the same identical light bulbs

as used in the example. The current through each bulb is now 6 amps.
Calculate the power output of the battery.
b. The label on the back of a television states that it uses 300 watts of power.
How much current does it draw when plugged into a 120-volt outlet? a. 144 W
A compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL) uses a much different b. 2.5 A
process than an incandescent bulb to produce light. As a c. CFL draws less current than the
result, the resistance of a CFL bulb is much less than that of an incandescent bulb that puts out
incandescent bulb that puts out the same amount of light. the same amount of light
d. CFL uses less power than the
incandescent bulb that puts out
c. What does this mean about the amount of current a CFL draws compared the same amount of light
to the incandescent bulb?
d. What does this mean about the power a CFL uses compared to the
incandescent bulb?
515
Buying electricity
Kilowatt-hours Utility companies charge customers for the
kilowatt-hours (kWh) - a unit of
number of kilowatt-hours (abbreviated energy equal to one kilowatt of power
kWh) used each month. One kilowatt-hour used for one hour, equals 3.6 million
means that a kilowatt of power has been joules.
used for one hour. A kilowatt-hour is not a
unit of power but a unit of energy like
joules. A kilowatt-hour is a relatively large
amount of energy, equal to 3.6 million Power
Appliance
joules. If you leave a 1,000-watt hair dryer (watts)
on for one hour, you have used one kilowatt- Electric stove 3,000
hour of energy. You could also use 1
kilowatt-hour by using a 100-watt light bulb for 10 hours. The number of Electric heater 1,500
kilowatt-hours used equals the number of kilowatts multiplied by the number Toaster 1,200
of hours the appliance was turned on. If you start with watts, be sure to move Hair dryer 1,000
the decimal point to the left three places (divide by 1,000) before expressing
Iron 800
your answer in kWh.
Washing machine 750
You pay for kilowatt- Electric companies charge for kilowatt-hours used during a period of time,
hours often a month. Your home is connected to a meter that counts up total Television 300
number of kilowatt-hours used and a person comes to read the meter once a Light 100
month. If you know the cost per kilowatt-hour the utility company charges, Small fan 50
you can estimate the cost of operating any electrical appliance.
Clock radio 10
Save money on How can you save money on your household’s electric bill? Use less
electricity electricity, of course! There are many simple things you can do to use less
Figure 21.17: Typical power usage
of some common appliances.
electricity. When added up, these simple things can mean many dollars of
savings each month, which adds up to a large amount of money over a one-
year period. What can you do? Make sure your windows are locked so they
seal properly. Turn off lights when you are not using them. Switch off
electronic equipment that uses standby power. Electric utility companies will
send an energy consultant to your home to give suggestions on how to
conserve electricity. Conserving electricity means lower bills and a cleaner
environment.
516 SC.912.L.17.20-Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability.
Solving Problems: Estimating Electricity Costs Hidden costs?

Which appliances
How much does it cost to run an electric stove for 2 hours? Use the power in in your home are
Figure 21.17 and an electricity cost of $0.15 per kilowatt-hour. expensive to run?
Electric water
heaters use a lot
1. Looking for: You are asked for the cost to run a stove for 2 hours. of electricity.
Many people
2. Given: You are given the time, the power, and the price per kilowatt-hour. don’t even think of
3. Relationships: 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts; number of kilowatt-hours = (# of kilowatts) × (hours that appliance,
because it is
appliance is used) usually hidden away in the basement of
4. Solution: a house or apartment building, and it
$0.15
3000 W = 3 kW 3 kW × 2 hr = 6 kWh 6 kWh × = $0.90 operates automatically. An average
kWh cost of running a water heater per day
is $2.50. Multiply that by 30 days in a
month, and you have to pay $75 just to
Your turn... heat water! You can subtract a
a. Suppose you run the electric stove in the example problem above for significant amount from the electricity
2 hours a day, five days a week, for one 4-week month. What would the bill if you limit the time you spend in the
shower.
total cost of electricity be?
b. At $0.15 per kilowatt-hour, what is the cost of running an electric heater
for 4 hours?
c. At $0.15 per kilowatt-hour, what is the cost of running a clock radio for
24 hours? a. $18.00
d. What is the cost of running the clock radio in the previous question for one b. $0.90
year?
c. $0.04 (rounded to nearest cent)
d. $13.14
SC.912.L.17.20-Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how human lifestyles affect sustainability. 517
Alternating (AC) and direct (DC) current

Direct current The current from a battery is always
direct current (DC) - electrical
in the same direction, from the current that flows in one direction, as
positive to the negative end of the with a battery.
battery. This type of current is called alternating current (AC) -
direct current or DC. Although the electrical current that reverses
letters “DC” stand for “direct direction at repeated intervals, as with
current” the abbreviation “DC” is household electricity.
used to describe both voltage and
current. A DC voltage is one that
stays the same sign over time. The
Peak and average voltages
terminal that is positive stays
positive and the terminal that is negative stays negative. Your experiments in
the lab use DC since they use batteries.
Alternating current The electrical system in your house
uses alternating current or AC.
Alternating current constantly
switches direction. You can
theoretically create alternating
current with a battery if you keep
reversing the way it is connected in
a circuit. In the electrical system The 120 volt AC electricity used in
used in the United States, the current homes and businesses in the United
reverses direction 60 times per States alternates between peak
values of +170 V and -170 V at a
second. It would be hard to flip a
frequency of 60 Hz. This kind of
battery this fast! electricity is called 120 VAC because
Electricity in other We use alternating current because it is easier to generate and to transmit +120 V is the average positive voltage
countries over long distances. All the power lines you see overhead carry alternating and -120 V is the average negative
voltage. AC electricity is usually
current. Other countries also use alternating current. However, in many other defined by the average voltage, not
countries, the current reverses itself 50 times per second rather than 60, and the peak voltage.
wall sockets are at a different voltage. When visiting Asia, Africa, Europe,
and many other places, you need special adapters to use electrical appliances
from the United States.
518
Electricity in homes and buildings

Circuit breaker panel Electricity comes into most homes or buildings through a circuit breaker
ground fault interrupt (GFI)
service panel. The circuit breakers prevent wires from overheating and outlet - an outlet with an automatic
causing fires. Each circuit breaker protects one parallel circuit which may device that protects you against
connect many wall outlets, lights, switches, or other appliances. electric shock.
Hot, neutral, and Each wall socket has three wires feeding it. The hot wire carries 120 volts
ground wires AC. The neutral wire stays at zero volts. When you plug something in, current
flows in and out of the hot wire, through your appliance (doing work) and
back through the neutral wire. The ground wire is for safety and is connected
to the ground (0 V) near your house. If there is a short circuit in your
appliance, the current flows through the ground wire rather than through you.
Figure 21.18: A ground fault
Ground fault Electrical outlets in bathrooms, kitchens, or outdoors are now required to interrupt outlet can be found in
interrupt (GFI) have ground fault interrupt (GFI) outlets installed (Figure 21.18). A GFI bathrooms and kitchens where water
outlets outlet contains a circuit that compares the current flowing out on the hot wire may be near electricity.
and back on the neutral wire. If everything is working properly, the two
currents should be exactly the same. If they are different, some current must
be flowing to ground through another path, such as through your hand. The
ground fault interrupter detects any difference in current and immediately
breaks the circuit. GFI outlets are excellent protection against electric shocks,
especially in wet locations.
519
Distributing electricity
Why electricity is Electricity is a valuable form of energy because electrical power can be
transformer - converts high-voltage
valuable moved easily over large distances. You would not want a large power plant electricity to lower voltage electricity.
in your backyard! One large power plant converts millions of watts of
chemical or nuclear energy into electricity. The transmission lines carry the
electricity to homes and businesses, often hundreds of miles away.
Power transmission Overhead power lines use a much higher voltage than 120V. That is because
lines the losses due to the resistance of wires depend on the current. At 100,000
volts, each amp of current carries 100,000 watts of power, compared to the
120 watts per amp of household electricity. Big electrical transmission lines
operate at very high voltages for this reason (Figure 21.19). The wires are
supported high on towers because voltages this high are very dangerous. Air
can become a conductor over distances of a meter at high voltages. Never go
near a power line that has fallen on the ground in a storm or other accident.
Transformers A device called a transformer converts high-voltage electricity to lower
voltage electricity. Within a few kilometers of your home or school the
voltage is lowered to 13,800 V or less. Right near your home or school the
voltage is lowered again to the 120 V or 240 V that actually come into the
circuits connecting your wall outlets and appliances.
Changing AC to DC Many electronic devices, like cell phones or laptop computers, use DC Figure 21.19: Electrical power lines
electricity inside, but also can be plugged into the AC electricity from a wall may operate at high voltages.
outlet with an AC adapter (Figure 21.20). An “AC adapter” is a device that
changes the AC voltage from the wall outlet into DC voltage for the device.
The adapter also steps the voltage down from 120 volts to the battery
voltage, which is usually between 6 and 20 volts.
Why do some plugs The third round hole on an outlet is connected to grounding rods in the earth
have 3 prongs? near your home or to a metal cold water pipe. When a plug with a third prong
is plugged into the outlet, the ground prong allows an alternate pathway for
electricity to flow. If a wire inside a metal-cased appliance should come
loose and touch the metal case, the whole appliance becomes electrically
charged. However, with the third safety prong plugged into a grounded Figure 21.20: Special adapters can
circuit, the electricity follows the ground path and does not go through you! change AC to DC and lower the voltage.
520
Section 21.3 Review

1. How is an appliance’s power related to the amount of energy it uses? Using power ratings, estimate how
2. Which of the following does the electric utility company charge for each much your family spends to run the
following each month:
month?
• microwave
a. electrical power used
• television
b. electrical energy used • refrigerator
c. electrical current used • electric clothes dryer
3. What is the major difference between direct current and alternating
current?
4. If a toaster oven draws 6 amps of current when plugged into a 120-volt Recycle your cell
outlet, what is the power rating of the appliance? phone!
5. What is the current through a 60-watt light bulb if it is connected to a 120- What do you do with your
volt circuit in your house? old cell phone? Every
part of the phone,
6. A student used three appliances in her dormitory room: a 1,200-watt iron,
including the battery, can
which she uses 3.5 hours per month; a lamp with a 100-watt bulb she uses be recycled! Simply take
125 hours per month; and a 700-watt coffee maker, which she uses 15 your old phone (after all
hours per month. data has been erased) to
a. How many kilowatt-hours of electrical energy are consumed in one a cell phone retailer or
office supply store chain,
month by each appliance?
and they will send the device off to be
b. If the local utility company charges 15 cents per kilowatt-hour of recycled. You can even purchase
electrical energy consumed, how much does it cost per month to remade phones that have been
operate each appliance? recycled by other consumers. Do a
keyword search on recycling cell
7. Why are overhead power lines dangerous?
phones. The Environmental
8. What is a transformer, and where would one be found? Protection Agency (EPA) has
9. List all the devices you own that have an AC adapter to convert AC to produced a podcast to educate you on
DC. what happens to a cell phone when it
is recycled.
521
TeCHNOLOGY8CONNECTION
Chapter 21
Rating Efficiency
Bright So, what makes one bulb more efficient than another? All three kinds
of light bulbs convert electrical energy into light energy, and bulb
efficiency is a measure of how much light can be produced using
Ideas a particular amount of electricity. Scientists measure the perceived

brightness of a light source with a unit called the lumen. The brighter
an object appears, the more lumens it is rated to have. A 60-watt
The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) was introduced in the early 1980s and incandescent light bulb puts out about 1,000 lumens. This same
amount of light can be produced by a CFL that only uses 18 watts.
advertised as a highly efficient replacement for the standard incandescent
Lumens per watt (lumens/watt) are what really matter in light bulb
light bulb. CFLs were slow to catch on, but by the year 2000 they began
efficiency; it’s the measure of how much light is produced per watt
cutting into the market dominance of incandescent bulbs, which had been used. After all, the electric company is selling you kilowatt-hours. The
the preferred lighting source in homes across America for almost 100 years. more watts (or kilowatts) you use, the more you will pay.
As public interest in conservation and efficiency grew, people began to see Producing the same amount of
the value of this new technology. CFLs help the environment by reducing light using fewer watts means the
energy needs, and they help consumers save money on their electric bills. light bulb is more efficient. The
However, it may not take 100 years to come up with something even more classic incandescent bulb produces
efficient than the CFL. Watch out CFLs, LEDs are here! 1,000 lumens/60 watts, or about
17 lumens/watt. The CFL produces
LED stands for light emitting diode. A diode is an electronic device
1,000 lumens/18 watts, or about
usually made out of layers of silicon that allow electric current
56 lumens/watt. That means you
to flow in one direction through a circuit while blocking current
could get the same amount of light
flowing in the opposite direction. Diodes are found in almost every
for less than one-third the amount
electronic device in use today. The diode was invented in the 1870s,
of electricity, a huge savings. No
and by 1907 it was discovered that
wonder people now use CFLs in
some diodes emit light when current
great numbers to light their homes.
passed through them. Since the 1960s,
LEDs have been used as indicator So, how much more efficient are the
lights on appliances and electronic LEDs? The same 1,000 lumens of light
equipment, and as number displays can be generated with an LED bulb that only uses 6 watts. That’s
on alarm clocks, watches, televisions, about 167 lumens/watt, over three times the efficiency of the CFL!
and calculators. If you’ve ever pushed a
button on a device and a little colored
light lit up, it was probably an LED. Saving Energy, Saving Money
What kind of savings does this mean in terms of electricity? Let’s
One of the LED’s best qualities is that it needs very little current to look at one day and one month of electricity usage at a cost of $0.15
produce light. Recent technological breakthroughs have enabled per kilowatt-hour, and one light bulb used for five hours each day.
LEDs to create more and more light. Designers have assembled How much does one light bulb cost to light?
arrays of LEDs into bulb shapes, and these new LED bulbs are even
more efficient than CFLs.

Chapter 21
And that’s just for one bulb! CFLs save a lot of energy compared to is much greater than incandescent and CFL bulbs. However, the
incandescent bulbs, but LEDs are by far the most efficient. Think savings over the life of the LED are tremendous. As more bulbs are
about how many bulbs are in your house. Now consider there produced, the cost per bulb will undoubtedly decrease, much like
are approximately 100,000,000 households in the United States the initial high cost of CFLs has decreased over the last few years.
alone. Imagine how much energy we could save if every household For these reasons, you will probably be seeing the LED bulb pop up
swapped just one incandescent bulb for an LED bulb! in new places all around you very soon.
$$$ $$ $
Incandescent CFL LED
Watts of equal light 60 W 18 W 6W
Hours used 5 5 5
Watt hours used

300 Wh 90 Wh 30 Wh
per day
Watt hours used 9,000 Wh 2,700 Wh 900 Wh

per month or or or
(30 days per month) 9 kWh 2.7 kWh 0.9 kWh Traffic signals, scoreboards, and electronic billboards all use LED technology.
Cost of use per month Questions:

$1.35 $0.41 $0.14
at $0.15 per kWh
1. How much more efficient is the 6 W LED bulb compared to
Cost of use per year
at $0.15 per kWh
$16.20 $4.86 $1.62 the 60 W incandescent bulb?
2. How much energy could the United States save per day if all
The efficiency of the LED is not the only benefit it offers. Since households switched one 60 W incandescent bulb that is lit
the LED is a silicon chip, it can’t break like its glass bulb rivals the for five hours a night to a 6 W LED bulb?
CFL and the incandescent bulb. It also has amazing powers of
endurance. The typical lifespan of an incandescent bulb is 3. Assuming you pay $0.15/kWh for electricity, your household
1,500 hours. That seems pretty long, but when compared to the uses 500 kWh per month, and 50 percent of the electricity
CFL’s lifespan of 10,000 hours, it’s very short. But at the top is the you use each month is from lighting, how much money would
LED at 60,000 to 100,000 hours of use. you save each month if you switched all the bulbs in use
from incandescent to LED? How much would you save
Not only will you spend less money to power the LED bulb, it will over one year?
last much longer, saving even more in replacement costs. Since
LED bulb technology is relatively new, the cost for each bulb now Photos of traffic and billboard signs courtesy of David Pinsent

Vocabulary
Section 21.3
alternating current GFI outlet parallel circuit
9. Use a(n) ____ near water sources in the kitchen or bathroom
for electrical safety.
circuit breaker kilowatt series circuit
direct current kilowatt-hour short circuit 10. A device that converts high voltages to lower voltages is a(n)
electrical power Kirchhoff’s current law transformer ____.
fuse Kirchhoff’s voltage law voltage drop 11. The unit of power that equals 1 joule per second is the ____.
watt 12. Electrical current supplied by a battery is called ____.
Section 21.1 13. Electric utility companies charge by the ____.
1. In a(n) ____, there is one path for current and the value for
14. ____ is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to
current is the same everywhere.
other forms of energy.
2. ____ states that the sum of the voltage drops in a circuit
15. Electrical appliances in your home use ____.
must equal the battery voltage.
16. A(n) ____ is equal to 1,000 watts.
3. The ____ is the difference in voltage across an electrical
device that has current flowing through it.
Concepts
Section 21.2
Section 21.1
4. ____ states that all current entering a branch point in a
circuit must exit. 1. Why is current the same everywhere in a series circuit?
5. In a(n) ____, there is more than one path or branch for 2. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit containing a battery and
current, and the voltage is the same everywhere. two bulbs in series.
6. A(n) ____ is an automatic device that trips like a switch to 3. As more bulbs are added to a series circuit, what happens to
turn off an overloaded circuit. the resistance of the circuit? What happens to the current?
What happens to the brightness of the bulbs?
7. A(n) ____ is used in car electrical systems, televisions, and
electrical meters to protect the circuits from current 4. Explain what is meant by a voltage drop.
overload. 5. How is Kirchhoff’s voltage law useful for analyzing series
8. A branch in a circuit with zero or very low resistance is a(n) circuits?
____.
524
Section 21.2 5. Calculate the total resistance of each circuit shown below.
6. A parallel circuit contains two bulbs in parallel. Why do the Then calculate the current in each.
bulbs have the same voltage?
7. Draw the circuit diagram for a circuit containing two bulbs
in parallel.
8. List two advantages of parallel circuits over series circuits.
9. What happens to the total resistance of a parallel circuit as
more branches are added? Why? 6. A circuit contains two 1-ohm bulbs in series. The current in
10. What is a short circuit, and why can it be dangerous? the circuit is 1.5 amperes. What is the voltage provided by
the batteries?
Section 21.3
7. A circuit contains two identical resistors in series. The
11. Explain how to calculate the power of an appliance.
current is 3 amperes, and the batteries have a total voltage
12. What is the difference between alternating current and of 24 volts. What is the total resistance of the circuit? What
direct current? is the resistance of each resistor?
13. What is the definition of a kilowatt-hour? Section 21.2
14. What is the purpose of the AC adapter on the end of the cord 8. Find the amount and direction of the current through point
used for mobile phones? P in each of the circuits shown below.
Problems
Section 21.1
1. A circuit contains a 5-ohm, a 3-ohm, and an 8-ohm resistor
in series. What is the total resistance of the circuit?
2. A circuit contains a 9-volt battery and two identical bulbs. 9. A parallel circuit contains a 24-volt battery, 4-ohm bulb and
What is the voltage drop across each bulb? a 12-ohm bulb.
3. A circuit contains a 12-volt battery and two 3-ohm bulbs in a. Draw the circuit diagram for this circuit.
series. Draw a circuit diagram and use it to find the current b. Calculate the current through each branch.
in the circuit and the voltage drop across each bulb. c. Calculate the total current in the circuit.
4. A circuit contains a 12-volt battery and three 1-ohm bulbs in d. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the total resistance of the
series. Draw the circuit diagram and find the current in the circuit.
circuit.
525
10. Do the following for each of the three circuits shown. 14. A portable MP3 player requires 1.5 amps of current and has
a power of 15 watts. What is the voltage of the rechargeable
battery it uses?
15. A flashlight contains a 6-watt bulb that draws 2 amps of
current. How many 1.5-volt batteries does it use?
16. Alex uses a 1,000-watt heater to heat his room.
a. What is the heater’s power in kilowatts?
a. Find the voltage across each resistor. b. How many kilowatt-hours of electricity does Alex use if
b. Use Ohm’s law to find the current through each he runs the heater for eight hours?
resistor. c. If the utility company charges $0.15 per kilowatt-hour,
c. Find the total current in the circuit. how much does it cost to run the heater for 8 hours?
d. Find the total resistance of the circuit.
11. Find the unknown quantity in each of the circuits below.
Section 21.1
1. Some appliances contain components that are connected in
series. For example, many microwave ovens have a light
that turns on while the microwave is running. Look around
your house and see how many appliances you can find that
use series circuits.
Section 21.3 2. Many circuits contain resistors in series and in parallel.

Apply what you have learned about circuits to find the total
12. Calculate the power of each of the following appliances when
resistance of each of the sets of resistors below.
plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
a. an iron that draws 10 A of current
b. a stereo that draws 2 A of current
c. a light bulb that draws 0.5 A of current
13. Calculate the current each of the following appliances draws
when plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
a. a 100-watt computer 3. Look at the backs or undersides of appliances in your home.
b. a 1,200-watt microwave Find the power of three appliances. Calculate the amount of
current each draws when plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
c. a 30-watt radio
Chapter 22
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism may not seem very similar. You don’t get a shock
from picking up a magnet! However, you can create magnetism with electric
current in an electromagnet. Why does electric current create magnetism?
In 1819, a teacher named Hans Christian Øersted tried an experiment in front of his students for
the first time. He passed electric current through a wire near a compass. To his surprise, the
compass needle moved! A few years later Michael Faraday built the first electric motor. Today
we know electricity and magnetism are two faces of the same basic force: the force between
charges. In this chapter you will see how our knowledge of electricity and magnetism allows us
to build both an electric motor and also an electric generator. It would be hard to imagine
today’s world without either of these important inventions.
As you read this chapter, you will see that our study of the atom, electricity, and magnetism has
come full circle! This chapter will help you understand exactly how the electricity that we use in
our homes, schools, and offices is generated. It is actually all about magnets! Isn’t that amazing?
How are electricity and magnetism related?
Why are there magnets in an electric motor?
How is the electricity that powers all

of the appliances in your home generated?
Chapter 22 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
22.1 Properties of Magnets

Magnetism has fascinated people since the earliest times. We know that magnets stick to
refrigerators and pick up paper clips and pins. They are also found in electric motors, computer magnetic - describes a material that
disk drives, alarm systems, and many other common devices. This chapter explains some of the can respond to forces from magnets.
properties of magnets and magnetic materials. What is the source of Earth’s magnetism? How
permanent magnet - a material
does a compass work? Read on to find out. that retains its magnetic properties,
can attract or repel other magnets,
What is a magnet? and can attract magnetic materials.
Magnets and Magnets are usually made of the elements iron, cobalt, nickel, or some
magnetic materials combination of these, such as steel (a mixture of iron and carbon). A magnet
has an invisible force field that can attract or repel other magnets. A
magnetic material, like a paperclip, can be attracted to a magnet, but is
never repelled. Thus, magnetic materials are affected by magnets but do not
actively create their own magnetic field.
Permanent magnets A permanent magnet is a material that keeps its magnetic properties, even
when it is not close to other magnets. Bar magnets, refrigerator magnets, and
horseshoe magnets are good examples of permanent magnets.
Figure 22.1: If a magnet is cut in

half, each half will have both a north
pole and a south pole.
Poles All magnets have two opposite magnetic poles, called the north pole and the
south pole. If a magnet is cut in half, each half will have its own north and
south poles (Figure 22.1). It is impossible to have only a north or south pole
by itself. The north and south poles are like the two sides of a coin. You
cannot have a one-sided coin, and you cannot have a north magnetic pole
without a south pole.
ELECTRICITYAND
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
MAGNETISM Chapter 22
The magnetic force

Attraction and When they are near each other, magnets exert forces. Two magnets can
repulsion either attract or repel. Whether the force between two magnets is attractive
or repulsive depends on which poles face each other. If two opposite poles
face each other, the magnets attract. If two of the same poles face each other,
the magnets repel.
Figure 22.2: Many materials, like

this piece of wood, are transparent to
magnetic forces.
Most materials are Magnetic forces can pass through many materials with no apparent decrease
transparent to in strength. For example, one magnet can drag another magnet even when
magnetic forces there is a piece of wood between them (Figure 22.2). Plastics, wood, and most
insulating materials are transparent to magnetic forces. Conducting metals,
such as aluminum, also allow magnetic forces to pass through, but may
change the forces. Iron and a few metals near it on the periodic table have
strong magnetic properties. Iron and iron-like metals can either block or
concentrate magnetic forces, and they are discussed later in this chapter.
Using magnetic Magnetic forces are used for many applications because they are relatively
forces easy to create and can be very strong. There are large magnets that create
forces strong enough to lift a car or even a moving train (Figure 22.3). Small
magnets are everywhere; for example, some doors are sealed with magnetic
weather-stripping that blocks out drafts. There are several patents pending for
magnetic zippers, and many handbags, briefcases, and cabinet doors close Figure 22.3: Powerful magnets are
with magnetic latches. Magnetic repulsion is the principle behind how used to lift discarded cars in a
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) works. MRI is a process that uses junkyard.
magnetism and radio waves to scan the body for disease or injury.
SC.912.P.10.18-Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy, and relate them to 529
phenomena and applications.
The magnetic field

How to describe How does the force from one magnet get to another magnet? Does it happen
magnetic field - the influence
magnetic forces instantly? How far does the force reach? These questions puzzled scientists created by a magnet that exerts forces
for a long time. Eventually, they realized that the force between magnets on other magnets and magnetic
acts in two steps. First, a magnet fills the space around itself with a kind materials.
of potential energy called a magnetic field. Then the magnetic field makes
forces that act on other nearby magnets (and act on the original magnet, too).
The speed of When you move a magnet, the magnetic field spreads out around the magnet
magnetic forces at the speed of light. The speed of light is nearly 300 million meters per
second. That means the force from one magnet reaches a nearby magnet so
fast it seems like it happens instantly. However, it actually takes a tiny
fraction of a second.
Magnetic forces get The force from a magnet gets weaker as it gets farther away. You can feel
weaker with distance this when you hold two magnets close together, then compare the force when
you hold them far apart (Figure 22.4). Try this, and you will find that the
force loses strength very rapidly with increasing distance. Separating a pair
of magnets by twice the distance reduces the force by eight times or more.
The magnetic field All magnets create a magnetic field in the space around
Figure 22.4: The force between two
them, and the magnetic field creates forces on other magnets quickly gets weaker as the
magnets. Imagine you have a small test magnet that you magnets are separated.
are moving around another magnet (Figure 22.5). The
north pole of your test magnet feels a force everywhere
in the space around the source magnet. To keep track of
the force, imagine drawing an arrow in the direction in
which the north pole of your test magnet is pulled or
pushed as you move it around the source magnet. The
arrows that you draw show you the magnetic field. If
you connect all the arrows, you get lines called
magnetic field lines. You can actually see the pattern of
the magnetic field by sprinkling magnetic iron filings
Figure 22.5: The magnetic field lines
on cardboard with a magnet underneath (shown at left). show the force exerted by one magnet on
the north pole of another magnet.
ELECTRICITYAND
Earth’s magnetic field and compasses

A compass needle is A compass needle is a freely spinning magnet. If you bring the south pole of a
a magnet permanent magnet near the compass needle, the needle’s north pole
(identified by a red-painted tip) will spin around and point toward the south
pole of the permanent magnet (Figure 22.6). This is because opposite poles
attract.
North and The planet Earth itself has a magnetic field that comes from the core of the
south poles planet. A compass needle spins around until the north-seeking pole of the
needle points toward Earth’s North Pole. This action has been helpful to
explorers for centuries. But doesn’t this contradict Figure 22.6? Yes, it is
contradictory to say that the north end of the compass needle points north,
when you know that, scientifically, the north pole of the needle is always Figure 22.6: How a compass needle
interacts with a magnet. Remember, the
attracted (and points toward) a south magnetic pole. This is an example of an compass needle is a magnet itself, and
old naming convention that was decided long before people understood how a the red-painted end of the needle is a
compass needle really worked. It is customary to say that the north pole of a north pole.
compass needle points to Earth’s North Pole, but technically, it does this
because it is attracted to a south magnetic pole.
Geographic and The true geographic North and South Some Animals have Biological
magnetic poles Poles are where the Earth’s axis of Compasses
rotation intersects its surface. The Many organisms, including some
North Pole is the northernmost point species of birds, frogs, fish, turtles,
and bacteria, can sense the planet’s
on Earth’s surface. However, as you
magnetic field. Migratory birds are the
can see on the illustration at left, best known examples. Magnetite, a
Earth’s internal magnetic field poles magnetic mineral made of iron oxide,
are actually the opposite of the has been found in bacteria and in the
geographic poles. Now, here is one brains of birds. Tiny crystals of
more interesting point of confusion. magnetite may act like compasses
and allow these organisms to sense
Scientists still stick to the old naming
the small magnetic field of Earth. You
convention, and refer to the magnetic can find more information about this
pole that is near the geographic topic by using your favorite search
North Pole as the magnetic north pole (even though, technically, it’s a south engine and the keywords “magnetite
pole). Read on to find out why we make a distinction between Earth’s in birds.”
geographic and magnetic poles.
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Magnetic declination and “true north”

Magnetic declination Because Earth’s geographic North Pole (true north) and magnetic south pole
magnetic declination - the
are not located at the exact same place, a compass will not point directly to difference between true north and
the geographic North Pole. Depending on where you are, a compass will the direction a compass points.
point slightly east or west of true north. The difference between the direction
a compass points and the direction of true north is called magnetic
declination. Magnetic declination is measured in degrees and is indicated
on topographical maps.
Finding true north Most good compasses contain an adjustable ring with a degree scale and
with a compass an arrow that can be turned to point toward the destination on a map
(Figure 22.7). The ring is turned the appropriate number of degrees to
compensate for the declination. Suppose you are using a compass and the
map shown below and you want to travel directly north. You would not
simply walk in the direction of the compass needle. To go north, you must
walk in a direction 16 degrees west of the way the needle points.
Figure 22.7: An orienteering
compass.
Position of Magnetic North Pole

Long.
Year Lat. (°N)
(°W)
2001 81.3 110.8
2002 81.6 111.6
2003 82.0 112.4
2004 82.3 113.4
2005 82.7 114.4
Figure 22.8: The Canadian Geologic

Survey reports that magnetic north is
moving northwest at 40 km per year.
The data above starts with the 2001
observed position of the magnetic north
pole, and then shows the estimated
positions for 2002–2005.
ELECTRICITYAND
The source of the Earth’s magnetism

Earth’s magnetic While Earth’s core is magnetic, we know it is not a solid permanent magnet.
core Studies of earthquake waves reveal that Earth’s core is made of hot, dense,
molten iron, nickel, and possibly other metals that slowly circulate around a
solid metal core (Figure 22.9). Huge electric currents flowing in the molten
iron produce Earth’s magnetic field, much like a giant electromagnet.
The strength The magnetic field of Earth is weak compared to the magnetic field of the
of Earth’s ceramic magnets you have in your classroom. For this reason, you cannot
magnetic field trust a compass to point north if any other magnets are close by. The gauss is
a unit used to measure the strength of a magnetic field. A small ceramic
permanent magnet has a field between 300 and 1,000 gauss at its surface. By
contrast, Earth’s magnetic field averages only about 0.5 gauss at the surface.
Reversing poles Historical data shows that both the strength of Earth’s magnetic field and
the location of the north and south magnetic poles change over time. Studies Figure 22.9: Scientists believe
of magnetized rocks in Earth’s crust provide evidence that the poles have moving charges in the molten core create
reversed many times over the last tens of millions of years. The reversal has Earth’s magnetic field.
happened every 500,000 years on average. The last field reversal occurred
roughly 750,000 years ago, so Earth is overdue for a pole reversal.
The next reversal Earth’s magnetic field is currently losing approximately seven percent of its
strength every 100 years. We do not know whether this trend will continue,
but if it does, the magnetic poles could reverse sometime in the next 2,000
years. During a reversal, Earth’s magnetic field would not completely
disappear. However, the main magnetic field that we use for navigation would
be replaced by several smaller fields with poles in different locations.
Movements of the The location of Earth’s magnetic poles is always changing—slowly—even
magnetic poles between full reversals. Currently, the magnetic north pole is located about
1,000 kilometers from the geographic North Pole. During the last century, the
magnetic north pole has moved over 1,000 km (Figure 22.10). Just
remember—if you are using a handheld compass, and the red tip of the Figure 22.10: The location of the
magnetic north pole is moving
compass needle lines up with the north direction on the compass housing, you approximately northwest at about 40
must adjust the compass to compensate for the fact that Earth’s magnetic km per year, according to the Canadian
north and geographic north are in different places! Geological Survey.
533
Section 22.1 Review

1. What is a magnetic material able to do? Antigravity Magnets!
2. Suppose you put a magnet on a refrigerator door. Is the magnet a You can “float” a tethered magnet by
magnetic material or a permanent magnet? Is the door a magnetic attracting it to another magnet that
has been glued to the bottom of a
material or is it a permanent magnet? Explain. shelf or table. See if you can do it!
3. Describe three common uses of magnets. How far apart can you get the two
4. What happens to a magnet if it is cut in half? magnets before the lower one falls?
5. Is it possible to have a magnetic south pole without a north pole?
Explain.
6. What happens to the strength of a magnetic field as you move away from
a magnet?
7. Why does a compass point north?
8. How does the strength of Earth’s magnetic field compare to the strength
of the field of an average permanent magnet?
9. What is the cause of Earth’s magnetism?
10. Is Earth’s magnetic north pole at the same location as the geographic
North Pole? Explain.
Using a compass Suppose you want to find a windowsill in your house that faces east and
would provide good light for growing African violets. Here’s how to use a
handheld compass to find an east-facing window.
• Turn the moveable ring so east is lined up with the direction arrow, as in
Figure 22.11.
• Walk up to a window in your house.
• With the compass flat on your hand, turn until the red end of the compass
needle is lined up with north on the compass housing.
• The direction arrow now points directly east. Is this pointing toward the
window? If not, keep checking different windows in your house until you
find one that faces east, in the direction of the arrow on the compass base. Figure 22.11: Using a compass.
534
ELECTRICITYAND
22.2 Electromagnets
In the last section, you learned about permanent magnets and magnetism. There is another type of electromagnet - a magnet created
magnet, one that is created by electric current. This type of magnet is called an electromagnet. by a wire carrying electric current.
What is an electromagnet? Why do magnets and electromagnets act the same way? In this section,
you’ll learn about electromagnets and how they helped scientists explain how magnetism works.
What is an electromagnet?
Searching for a For a long time, people thought about electricity and magnetism as different
connection and unrelated topics. Around the beginning of the 19th century, scientists
started to suspect that the two were related. As scientists began to understand
electricity better, they searched for relationships between electricity and
magnetism.
The principle of an In 1819, Hans Christian Øersted, a Danish physicist and chemist, noticed that
electromagnet a current in a wire caused a compass needle to deflect. He had discovered that
moving electric charges create a magnetic field! A dedicated teacher, he made
this discovery while teaching his students at the University of Copenhagen.
He suspected there might be an effect and did the experiment for the very first
time in front of his class. With his discovery, Øersted was the first to identify
the principle of an electromagnet.
How to make an Electromagnets are magnets that are created when there is electric current Figure 22.12: A simple
electromagnet flowing in a wire. The simplest electromagnet uses a coil of wire, often electromagnet uses a coil of wire, often
wrapped around a piece of iron or steel.
wrapped around a piece of iron (Figure 22.12). Because iron is magnetic, If you curl the fingers of your right hand
it concentrates the magnetic field created by the current in the coil. in the direction of the current, your
thumb will point toward the north pole
The north and The north and south poles of an electromagnet are located at the ends of the
of the electromagnet.
south poles of coil (Figure 22.12). Which end is the north pole depends on the direction of
an electromagnet the electric current. If you curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction
of the current, your thumb will point toward the magnet’s north pole. This
method of finding the magnetic poles is called the right-hand rule. You can
switch the north and south poles of an electromagnet by reversing the
direction of the current. This is a great advantage over permanent magnets.
You can’t easily change the poles of a permanent magnet.
SC.912.N.1.7-Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods and correlations. 535
Applications of electromagnets
Current controls By changing the amount of current, you can easily change the strength of an
electromagnets electromagnet or even turn its magnetism on and off. Electromagnets can
also be much stronger than permanent magnets because the electric current
can be large. For these reasons, electromagnets are preferable in many
applications.
Magnetically Magnetically levitated (maglev) train technology uses electromagnetic force
levitated trains to lift a train a few inches above its track (Figure 22.13). By “floating” the
train on a powerful magnetic field, the friction between wheels and rails is
eliminated. Maglev trains can achieve high speeds using less power than
normal trains. In 1999, in Japan, a prototype five-car maglev train carrying
15 passengers reached a world-record speed of 552 kilometers (343 miles)
per hour. Maglev trains are now being developed and tested in Germany, Figure 22.13: A maglev train track
has electromagnets in it that both lift
Japan, and the United States. the train and pull it forward.
Electromagnets The sliding switch on a toaster does several things. First, it turns the heating
and toasters circuit on. Second, it activates an electromagnet that then attracts a spring-
loaded metal tray to the bottom of the toaster (Figure 22.14). When a timing
device signals that the bread has been toasting long enough, current to the
electromagnet is cut off. This releases the spring-loaded tray that then pushes
up on the bread so that it pops out of the toaster.
Electromagnets A doorbell contains an electromagnet. When
and doorbells the button of the doorbell is pushed, current
is sent through the electromagnet. The
electromagnet attracts a piece of metal called
the striker. The striker moves towards the
electromagnet but hits a bell that is in the Figure 22.14: A toaster tray is
way. The movement of the striker away from pulled down by an electromagnet while
bread is toasting. When the toast is
the contact breaks the circuit after it hits the
done, current is cut off and the tray pops
bell. A spring pulls the striker back and up. The cutaway shows the heating
reconnects the circuit. If a finger is still element—nichrome wires wrapped
pressing on the button, the cycle starts over around a sheet of mica.
again and the bell keeps ringing.
ELECTRICITYAND
Building an electromagnet
Making an You can easily build an electromagnet from wire and a piece of iron, such as a
electromagnet from nail. Wrap the wire in many turns around the nail and connect a battery as
wire and a nail shown in Figure 22.15. When current flows in the wire, the nail becomes a
magnet. Use the right-hand rule to figure out which end of the nail is the north
pole and which is the south pole. To reverse north and south, reverse the
connection to the battery, making the current flow the opposite way.
Increase the You might expect that more current would make an electromagnet stronger.
strength of an You would be right, but there are, in fact, two ways to increase the current.
electromagnet
1. You can apply more voltage by adding a second battery.
2. You can add more turns of wire around the nail.
Why adding The second method works because the magnetism in your electromagnet Figure 22.15: Making an
turns works comes from the total amount of current flowing around the nail. If there is electromagnet from a nail and wire.
1 amp of current in the wire, each loop of wire adds 1 amp to the total amount
that flows around the nail. Ten loops of 1 amp each make 10 total amps
flowing around. By adding more turns, you use the same current over and
over to get stronger magnetism (Figure 22.16).
More turns also Of course, nothing comes for free. By adding more turns, you also increase
means more the resistance of your coil. Increasing the resistance makes the current a little
resistance lower and generates more heat. A good electromagnet has enough turns to get
a strong enough magnet without too much resistance.
Factors affecting The magnetic force exerted by a simple electromagnet depends on three
the force factors:
1. the amount of electric current in the wire;
2. the amount of iron or steel in the electromagnet’s core; and
3. the number of turns in the coil. Figure 22.16: Adding turns of wire
increases the total current flowing
In more sophisticated electromagnets, the shape, size, material in the core, around the electromagnet. The total
and winding pattern of the coil also have an effect on the strength of the current in all the turns is what
magnetic field produced. determines the strength of the
electromagnet.
Similarities between permanent magnets and electromagnets

Electric currents Why do permanent magnets and electromagnets act the same way? The
cause all magnetism discovery of electromagnets helped scientists to determine why magnetism
exists. Electric current through loops of wire creates an electromagnet.
Atomic-scale electric currents create a permanent magnet.
Electrons move, Atoms contain two types of charged particles, protons (positive) and
creating small loops electrons (negative). The charged electrons in atoms behave like small loops
of current of current. These small loops of current mean that atoms themselves act like
tiny electromagnets with north and south poles! We don’t usually see the
magnetism from atoms for two reasons.
1. Atoms are very tiny and the magnetism from a single atom is far too
small to detect without very sensitive instruments.
2. The alignment of the atomic north and south poles changes from one
atom to the next. On average, the atomic magnets cancel each other out
(Figure 22.17).
How permanent If all the atomic magnets are lined up in a similar direction, the magnetism of
magnets work each atom adds to that of its neighbors and we observe magnetic properties
on a large scale. This is what makes a permanent magnet. Permanent
magnets have the magnetic fields of individual atoms aligned in a similar
direction.
Why iron In magnetic materials (like iron), the atoms are free to rotate and align their
always attracts individual north and south poles. If you bring the north pole of a magnet near
magnets and iron, the south poles of all the iron atoms are attracted. Because they are free
never repels them to move, the iron near your magnet becomes a south pole and it attracts your
magnet. If you bring a south pole near iron, the opposite happens. The iron Figure 22.17: Atoms act like tiny
magnets. Permanent magnets have their
atoms nearest your magnet align themselves to make a north pole, which also
atoms partially aligned, creating the
attracts your magnet. This is why magnetic materials like iron always attract magnetic forces we observe. The
your magnet, and never repel, regardless of whether your test magnet magnetic properties of iron occur
approaches with its north or south pole. because iron atoms can easily adjust
their orientation in response to an
Nonmagnetic The atoms in nonmagnetic materials, like plastic, are not free to move and outside magnetic field.
materials change their magnetic orientation. This is why most objects are not affected
by magnets.
538 SC.912.P.8.4-Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these particles
in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within.
ELECTRICITYAND
Section 22.2 Review

1. Which of the following will not increase the strength of an electromagnet Magnetism in Materials
made by wrapping a wire around an iron nail? Materials can have different magnetic
a. increasing the number of turns of the wire classifications based on their atomic
structure. Do a keyword search on the
b. increasing the current in the electromagnet
following classifications. Explain how
c. removing the nail from the center of the electromagnet the atoms of each type of material
2. Explain why an electromagnet usually has a core of iron or steel. behave, and give examples of each.
3. Name two devices that use electromagnets. Explain the purpose of the • diamagnetic
electromagnet in each device. • paramagnetic
• ferromagnetic
4. In your own words, explain how atoms give rise to magnetic properties in
certain materials.
5. Which picture shows the correct location of the north and south poles of
the electromagnet? Choose A or B and explain how you arrived at your
choice.
6. The north pole of a magnet is brought near a refrigerator door, and the
magnet sticks. If the magnet is removed and the south pole is brought near
the door instead, will it also stick? Explain.
7. What would happen if you placed a compass near an electromagnet when
there is an electric current in the coil of the electromagnet? Why would
this happen? What if you flipped the electromagnet around so the end that
was closest to the compass is now farthest away?
539
22.3 Electric Motors and Generators

Permanent magnets and electromagnets work together to make electric motors and generators. In electric motor - a device that
this section, you will learn about how an electric motor works. The secret is in the ability of an converts electrical energy into
electromagnet to reverse its north and south poles. By changing the direction of electric current, mechanical energy.
the electromagnet attracts and repels other magnets in the motor, causing the motor to spin. rotor - the rotating disk of an electric
Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. motor or generator.
Using magnets to spin a disk

Imagine a spinning Imagine you have a disk that can spin on an axis at its center. Around the
disk with magnets edge of the disk are several magnets. You have cleverly arranged the
magnets so they have alternating north and south poles facing out.
Figure 22.18 shows a picture of your disk.
Making the disk spin Imagine you also have another magnet which is not attached to the disk. You
bring this loose magnet close to the disk’s edge. The loose magnet attracts
one of the magnets on the disk while at the same time repelling an adjacent
magnet on the disk. These attract-and-repel forces make the disk spin a little
way around (Figure 22.18).
Reversing the To keep the disk spinning, you need to reverse the magnet in your fingers as
magnet is the key soon as the magnet that was attracted passes by. This way, you first attract
the magnet on the disk, and then reverse the loose magnet to repel that
magnet and attract the next one in line on the disk. You make the disk spin
Figure 22.18: Using a single magnet
by using the loose magnet to alternately attract and repel the magnets on to spin a disk of magnets. Reversing the
the disk. magnet in your fingers attracts and
repels the magnets in the rotor, making
Knowing when to The disk is called a rotor because it can rotate. The key to making the rotor
it spin.
reverse the magnet spin smoothly is to reverse your magnet when the disk is at just the right
place. You want the reversal to happen just as each magnet in the rotor passes
by. If you reverse too early, you will repel the magnet on the rotor backward
before it reaches the loose magnet. If you reverse too late, you will attract the
magnet backward after it has passed. For the best results, you need to change
your magnet from north to south just as each magnet on the rotor passes by.
ELECTRICITYAND
How the electromagnets in a motor operate

How electromagnets In a working electric motor, an electromagnet replaces the magnet you
commutator - the device that
are used in reversed with your fingers. The switch from north to south is done by switches the direction of electrical
electric motors reversing the electric current in the electromagnet. The sketch below shows current in the electromagnet of an
how an electromagnet switches its poles to make the rotor keep turning. electric motor.
The commutator is Just as with the magnet you flipped, the electromagnet must switch from
a kind of switch north to south as each rotor magnet passes by to keep the rotor turning. The
device that makes this happen is called a commutator. As the rotor spins, the
commutator reverses the direction of the current in the electromagnet. This
makes the electromagnet’s side facing the disk change from north to south,
and then back again. The electromagnet attracts and repels the magnets in the
rotor, and the motor turns.
Three things All types of electric motors must have three parts (Figure 22.19). They are: Figure 22.19: An electric motor has
three main parts.
you need to
make a motor • a rotating part (rotor) with magnets that have alternating polarity;
• one or more electromagnets; and
• a commutator that switches the direction of current in the electromagnets
back and forth in the correct sequence to keep the rotor spinning.
541
How a battery-powered electric motor works

Inside a small If you take apart an electric motor that runs on batteries, it doesn’t look like
electric motor the spinning disk motor illustrated on the previous page. However, the same
three mechanisms are still there. The difference is in the arrangement of the
electromagnets and permanent magnets. The illustration below shows a
small battery-powered electric motor and what it looks like inside with one
end of the motor case removed. The permanent magnets are on the outside,
and they stay fixed in place.
Electromagnets The electromagnets are in the rotor, and they turn. The rotating part of the
and the armature motor, including the electromagnets, is called the armature. The armature in
the illustration above has three electromagnets, corresponding to the three
coils you see in Figure 22.20.
Figure 22.20: A simple battery-
How the switching The wires from each of the three coils are attached to three metal plates powered motor has three
happens (the commutator) at the end of the armature. As the rotor spins, the three electromagnets.
plates come into contact with positive and negative brushes. Electric current
flows through the brushes into the coils. As the motor turns, the plates rotate
past the brushes, reversing the positive and negative connections to the coils.
As you know, when you change the direction of current through a coil, the
electromagnet’s magnetic poles switch positions. The turning electromagnets
with alternating poles are thus attracted and repelled by the permanent
magnets, and the motor turns.
AC motors Motors that run on AC electricity are easier to make because the current
switches direction all by itself. Almost all household, industrial, and power
tool motors are AC motors. These motors use electromagnets for both the
rotating and fixed magnets.
ELECTRICITYAND
Electromagnetic induction
Motors and Motors transform electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric
generator - a device that converts
generators generators do the opposite. They transform mechanical energy into kinetic energy into electrical energy
electrical energy. Generators are used to create the electricity that powers using the law of induction.
all of the appliances in your home. electromagnetic induction - the
Magnetism and An electric current in a wire creates a magnetic field. The reverse is also true. process of using a moving magnet to
electricity If you move a magnet near a coil of wire, an electric current (or voltage) is create a current.
induced in the coil. The word induce means “to cause to happen.” The process
of using a moving magnet to create electric current is called
electromagnetic induction. A moving magnet induces electric current to
flow in a circuit.
Symmetry in physics Many laws of physics display symmetry. In physics, symmetry means a
process works in both directions. Earlier in this chapter you learned that
moving electric charges create magnetism. The symmetry is that changing
magnetic fields also cause electric charges to move. Nearly all physical laws
display symmetry in one form or another.
Making current flow Figure 22.21 shows an experiment demonstrating electromagnetic induction.
In the experiment, a magnet can move in and out of a coil of wire. The coil is
attached to a meter that measures the electric current. When the magnet
moves into the coil of wire, as the magnet is moving, electric current is
induced in the coil and the meter swings to the left. The current stops if the
magnet stops moving.
Reversing the When the magnet is pulled back out again, as the magnet is moving, current is
current induced in the opposite direction. The meter swings to the right as the magnet
moves out. Again, if the magnet stops moving, the current also stops.
Current flows Current is produced only if the magnet is moving, because a changing
only when the magnetic field is what creates current. Moving magnets induce current
magnet is moving because they create changing magnetic fields. If the magnetic field is not
changing, such as when the magnet is stationary, the current is zero.
Figure 22.21: A moving magnet
produces a current in a coil of wire.
Generating electricity
A simple generator A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using the law
of induction. Most large generators use some form of rotating coil in a
magnetic field (Figure 22.22). You can also make a generator by rotating
magnets past a stationary coil (see the diagram below). As the disk rotates,
first a north pole and then a south pole pass the coil. When a north pole is
approaching, the current is in one direction. After the north pole passes and a
south pole approaches, the current is in the other direction. As long as the
disk is spinning, there is a changing magnetic field through the coil and
electric current is created.
Figure 22.22: Current is created when

a coil rotates in a magnetic field.
Alternating current The generator shown above makes AC electricity. The direction of current is
one way when the magnetic field is becoming “more north” and the opposite
way when the field is becoming “less north.” It is impossible to make a
situation where the magnetic field keeps increasing (becoming more north)
forever. Eventually the field must stop increasing and start decreasing.
Therefore the current always alternates. The electricity in your home is
produced by AC generators.
Figure 22.23: A power plant
Energy for The electrical energy produced by a generator must have a source. Energy generator contains a turbine that turns
generators must continually be supplied to keep the rotating coil (or magnetic disk) magnets inside loops of wire, generating
turning. In a hydroelectric generator, falling water turns a turbine which electricity. Some other form of energy
spins the generator and generates electricity. Windmills can generate must be continually supplied to turn the
electricity in a similar way. Other power plants use gas, oil, or coal to heat turbine.
steam to high pressures. The steam then spins turbines that convert the
chemical energy stored in the fuels into electrical energy (Figure 22.23).
544 SC.912.L.17.15-Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.

ELECTRICITYAND
Section 22.3 Review

1. A(n) _____ is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electrical Wiring
2. A(n)_____ is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
3. Using a magnet to create electric current in a wire is called _____.
4. Why is it necessary to use at least one electromagnet in a motor instead of
only permanent magnets?
5. At a certain instant, the electromagnet in the motor shown below has its
north pole facing the rotor that holds the permanent magnets. In which
direction is the rotor spinning?
There is a magnetic field around all
the wires that carry current, but you
don’t notice magnetic fields created
by electrical wiring in your house.
N Why not?
Well, the wires in your home are
actually made of two parallel wires. If
you look at an appliance wire, you will
notice the two wires inside the plastic
6. The rotor in the motor below is spinning clockwise. Is the direction of the covering. At any instant, the current in
current in the electromagnet from A to B or from B to A? one wire is opposite the other. Each
creates a magnetic field, but the fields
are in opposite directions so they
mostly cancel each other out.
Because the wires are not at exactly
the same location, and field strength
depends on distance, the fields do not
completely cancel each other right at
the wire, but quickly fall off to nothing
a short distance away.
7. In most electric power plants, the energy stored in gas, coal, oil, or
nuclear energy is transformed into the movement of a turning turbine.
Why is the turning turbine necessary in a power plant?
545
CAREER8CONNECTION
Chapter 22
A Walk on the
Jim assists in monitoring the device as it
sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This
may take several hours and engineers
Wild Side take turns viewing the descent on a

television screen. If a problem arises,
they can attend to it immediately.
Under the Sea! Jason II requires a lot of energy to power
Have you ever wondered what it would be like to take a “walk” on the sea its lights, thrusters, hydraulics, and
other systems. Power is produced by the
floor? Engineer Jim Varnum gets to go “down under” regularly, because
Jim at the control station shipboard generators (recall the power
he is a pilot of an extremely complex robot called Jason II. This robot dives
equation from your text).
deep into the ocean and is used to take pictures and collect data from the
sea floor. Jason II is owned by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, in However, there is a series of steps needed to make sure the correct
Woods Hole, Massachusetts. flow of electricity is transferred to the submersible. First, the
shipboard generator output is applied to a transformer, which
Although Jim resides in Seattle, Washington, he works wherever the increases the voltage to a level that is favorable to transmission
unmanned submersible is needed for exploration. Scientists from all along the 10 kilometer (6 mile) cable that connects Jason II to the
over the world use Jason II to explore the sea floor, but they need ship. Another transformer drops the voltage to a level useful to
the expertise of pilots and engineers like Jim to “drive” the machine. Jason II, as the power reaches the submersible.
Just getting the submersible from the ship’s deck and into the water Why all this increase and decrease in voltage? It has to do with the
can be a feat of its own! The 9,000-pound machine is lifted with fact that electricity is being transmitted over a very long distance,
a huge crane, settled into the water, and then it takes the plunge with a potential loss of energy
down to the sea floor. (in the form of heat) in the
cable. Copper conductors have
low resistance to the flow of
electricity, but with such a long
cable the resistance becomes
significant. In fact, not only
would excessive heating and
destruction of the cable occur,
but also a huge amount of
energy would be lost. If the
voltage is increased at the
shipboard generator, then
the required power could be
obtained using a lower current,
which results in less power and
heat loss in the cable.
The arrow is pointing to the fiber optics/insulated cable
that sends immediate information to the scientists.

CARRER8CONNECTION
Chapter 22
Once Jason II is on the sea floor, Jim works As mentioned, the wrist is
diligently to maneuver the sub around attached to a robotic arm that
pillars, over caverns, atop ridges, and is used to perform data sample
through fissures. He sits in a room on the collection while on the sea
ship and uses a box with a joystick and floor. External instruments
levers to manipulate the robot in different that utilize electrical and
directions. When he has to retrieve magnetic properties to provide
something from the sea floor, such as a rock measurements and information
or biology sample, he uses a robotic arm needed by scientists are
A typical fissure in the sea floor abundant on the sub.
with a claw hand to accomplish the task.
One half of the electromagnet on the wrist (red arrow)
At times, he must take a temperature
reading of a hydrothermal vent using a
temperature probe. Jim enjoys his job as a Jason II pilot
even though he could be away from
Jason II collects a tremendous amount home for as much as eight weeks at
of data. Jim explains that getting the a time! It’s all good though, because
data from the sea floor to the ship is also there are other times when he is
interesting. As Jim says, “While we can do home for several months in succession,
an incredible amount of physical work with spending time writing software or
Jason II, it’s the system’s ability to collect creating new instruments to attach to
and transmit large amounts of sensor and Jason for a special experiment.
Jason II’s robotic arm taking video data that makes it appealing to the
a sample
scientific community as a tool for discovery. On deck, Jason II picks up and
The physical work ends when the job ends, manipulates a temperature probe.
but data will be studied by scientists, in their labs, for years.”
Jim and his fellow engineers understand

how each part of the Jason II robot works Questions:
and are able to repair any electrical and 1. If Jason II needs 15 kW of power at 300 volts to operate,
mechanical problem as it arises. He and what amperage of current must flow through the cable?
other engineers are responsible for fixing
and maintaining all parts of the robot 2. If the vehicle voltage is increased to 3,000 volts, and
when the research cruise is complete. the power still needed is still 15 kW, what happens to the
Some of the pieces of the robot, like the Jim (right) and another pilot fix amperage? (I = P/V)
the wrist.
arms, include miniature gears and small
electrical wires that can be broken when 3. If the resistance of the cable is 60 ohms (W), at 300 volts,
the moveable wrist is used. Each piece what amperage will flow through the cable? (I = V/R) What
is carefully cleaned and analyzed by the will the power be if you use these values? Is it enough
engineering team. power for Jason II?
Go to: www.WHOI.edu for more information on Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Source: University of Washington. Control station photo courtesy of University of Washington.
Remember Ohm’s law? Jason II photos courtesy of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution - Atlantis 15-17, and
Laura Preston.

Vocabulary 10. A(n) ____ can switch the direction of electrical current in the
electromagnet of an electric motor.
commutator generator magnetic field Concepts
electric motor magnetic permanent magnet
Section 22.1
electromagnet magnetic declination rotor
electromagnetic induction 1. Name a metal that has strong magnetic properties.
Section 22.1 2. Describe the types of forces that magnetic poles exert on
each other.
1. A(n) ____ material can create or respond to forces from
magnets. 3. Earth’s magnetic north pole is:
2. The region around a magnet is filled with a(n) ____. a. aligned with the north star.
b. near Earth’s geographic North Pole.
3. The difference between the direction a compass points and
c. near Earth’s geographic South Pole.
the direction of true north is called ____.
d. at the equator.
4. A bar magnet, refrigerator magnet, or a horseshoe magnet is
Section 22.2
a good example of a(n) ____.
4. If you reverse the direction of electrical current in an
Section 22.2
electromagnet, what happens to the electromagnet?
5. A simple ____ uses a coil of wire, often wrapped around a
5. What are three ways you can increase the strength of an
piece of iron or steel.
electromagnet?
Section 22.3
6. Explain why an electromagnet usually has a core of iron or
6. The process by which a moving magnet creates voltage and steel.
current in a loop of wire is called ____.
7. Only a few materials show magnetic properties because:
7. A device that uses electromagnetic induction to make
a. their atomic magnets must line up with Earth’s
electricity is called a(n) ____.
geographic South and North Poles, and this is rare.
8. A(n) ____ is a device that converts electrical energy into b. they contain a rare substance.
mechanical energy. c. their atomic magnets are much stronger than the atoms
9. A(n)____ is the rotating disk of an electric motor. of other materials.
d. we see magnetic properties only if atomic magnets line
up in the same direction throughout a material.
548
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Chapter 22
8. Name two examples of machines that use electromagnets. b. Next, she put one of the magnets on her wooden desk
Explain the purpose of the electromagnet in each machine. with the north pole down. If the desk top is 2.5 cm thick,
9. Plastic and wood are not magnetic materials. Explain, in do you think she could move the magnet by placing
terms of their atoms, why they are not magnetic. another magnet under the desk? Explain.
Section 22.3 2. The graph below shows the force between two magnets
when they are at different distances from each other.
10. What are the three key parts of any electric motor?
11. You can say that the battery used to power a DC motor is
not directly responsible for making the rotor spin. What,
then, is the battery directly responsible for? What actually
causes the rotor to spin?
12. What is the purpose of a commutator in an electric motor?
13. A bar magnet is suspended so it is free to rotate. When you
hold a second bar magnet near the suspended magnet, the
suspended magnet begins to rotate. What do you have to do
to keep the suspended magnet rotating?
Problems
Section 22.1 a. What does this graph show about the force between
1. A student places two magnets with their north poles facing magnets that are very close together?
each other, about 50.0 cm apart. When she moves one b. What should you do to two magnets to decrease the
magnet toward the other, the first magnet repels the second force between them?
at a distance of 26.0 cm. She repeats the procedure, but now
Section 22.2
places the magnets so the south pole of one faces the north
pole of the other (see below). 3. The atoms of a permanent magnet can’t move, and the
electrons in the atoms are lined up so that a magnetic field
is created around the magnet. The atoms in iron or steel can
move. Describe what you think happens to the atoms of a
steel paperclip when the paperclip is near a permanent
magnet.
4. Draw an electromagnet. Label all parts including the
magnetic poles.
a. What is she likely to observe?
549

5. A working electric motor needs to have three things. Which Section 22.1
of the following are the three?
1. Would a magnetic screwdriver be useful? Why or why not?
a. a device to switch the electromagnets at the right time
b. a moving element with magnets 2. Neodymium magnets are very strong. Do a keyword
c. an even number of magnets Internet search to find the answers to the following
questions.
d. a stationary element with magnets
a. What materials does this type of magnet contain?
6. Two parallel, current-carrying wires
b. What are two uses for neodymium magnets?
placed next to each other on a table are Current
c. Why should someone use extreme caution when using
shown in the diagram at the right. If
these magnets?
their currents are in opposite
directions: Section 22.2
Wire Wire
a. the wires will lift off the table. 3. Suppose you are walking in a wooded park and you want to
A B
b. the wires will move away from each use a handheld compass to walk directly west from your
other. current position. Describe, using numbered steps, exactly
c. the wires will move toward each how you would use the compass to direct you.
other. 4. Why does Earth act like a giant magnet?
d. nothing will happen. Section 22.3
7. The diagram below represents the rotor of an electric motor. 5. In 1996, NASA
To cause the rotor to turn in a counterclockwise direction, scientists worked with
the north pole of a magnet should be placed at which Italian scientists to
position (A, B, C, or D)? carry out an
interesting
experiment. They
made a special
satellite and
connected it to the
space shuttle with
over 20 kilometers of
a special insulated
copper cable. As the
shuttle orbited Earth,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Chapter 22
scientists released the tethered satellite and conducted 12 8. A clever inventor claims that he invented an electric car
different experiments while dragging the cable through that makes its own electricity and never needs gas or
Earth’s magnetic field at speeds over 15,000 mph! The recharging. The inventor claims that as the car moves, the
satellite was equipped with many instruments to study the wind created by its motion spins a propeller that turns a
effects on the special copper cable. Based on your generator to make electricity and power the wheels. Do you
understanding of electromagnetic induction, what do you believe the car can work? Why or why not? (Hint: Think
suppose happened to the copper cable? about conservation of energy.)
6. Speakers and microphones use electromagnets to turn
electric currents into sound, and vice versa. Research how
electromagnets are used in sound systems. Draw a diagram
that shows the location of permanent magnets and
electromagnets in a speaker. How does the electromagnet
produce vibrations that create sound?
7. A bicycle light generator is a device that you place on the
wheel of your bike. When you turn the wheel, the generator
powers a light. When you stop, the light goes out. Explain
how you think the bike generator makes electricity. 9. Some electric toothbrushes
contain rechargeable
batteries that are charged
by placing the toothbrush
on a plastic charging base.
Both the bottom of the
toothbrush and the base are encased in plastic, so there is no
connection between the circuits in the toothbrush and the
base. How do you think the battery in the toothbrush gets
charged?
Unit
Waves, Sound,
8
and Light
CHAPTER 23 Waves
CHAPTER 24 Sound
CHAPTER 25 Light
What affects the pitch of a sound? Find a rectangular

container, like a baking pan, plastic food storage
container, or a shoebox. You will also need a few large
rubber bands of different sizes and a pencil or long handled wooden spoon.
Place the rubber bands around the container lengthwise. Pluck each rubber
band and listen to the sound it makes. Insert the pencil or spoon so it runs
widthwise under the rubber bands. Now pluck the rubber bands; do they
make higher or lower pitched sounds? Why? Finally, try moving the stick up
and down the length of the box. Does the position of the stick make a
difference in the sound you get? Why do you think so?
Chapter 23
Waves
The word waves might cause you to think of many things. Does
going to a beach pop into your head? At the beach, you
can enjoy the warm sunshine and swimming in water waves. Water
waves come at regular intervals and seem to move up and down even as
they move toward the shore. In this chapter, you will learn about water
waves. You will also learn that you are surrounded by waves! Light and sound
are waves. Our electronic devices depend on the transmission of waves. Whether a
wave is occurring in water or in the air, it follows certain rules that you will learn about
in this chapter. For example, wave-like motion is a type of harmonic, or repetitive, motion.
A swing, a rocking chair, and all waves exhibit this kind of motion. Harmonic motion also
includes motion that goes go around and around, such as a ferris wheel turning or Earth
orbiting the Sun. In this sense, anywhere you go it’s possible
to “catch” a wave!
What is an oscillator?
How can you describe the speed of a wave?
How are sound waves and water
waves similar and different?
Chapter 23 WAVES
23.1 Harmonic Motion

When you travel from one place to another—either on foot, by bicycle, or by car—you use linear linear motion - motion that
goes from one place to another
motion. Linear motion goes from one place to another without repeating (Figure 23.1A). This without repeating.
chapter is about another kind of motion. Harmonic motion is motion that repeats over and over
(Figure 23.1B). For example, our four seasons are caused by Earth’s harmonic motion. Other harmonic motion - motion that
repeats in cycles.
types of harmonic motion cause your heartbeat and create sounds.
cycle - a unit of motion that repeats.
Motion in cycles pendulum - a device that swings
back and forth due to the force
What is a cycle? To describe harmonic motion we need to learn how to describe a repeating of gravity.
action or motion. A cycle is one unit of harmonic motion. This motion can
be back-and-forth or a full revolution or rotation. One full swing of a child
on a swing is one cycle. As the child continues to swing, the back-and-forth
motion or cycle repeats over and over again.
Looking at one cycle A pendulum is a device that swings back and forth. We can use a pendulum
to better understand a cycle. Each box in the diagram below is a snapshot of
the motion at a different time in one cycle.
Figure 23.1: (A) A sprinter is a good

example of linear motion. (B) A person
on a swing is a good example of
harmonic motion.
The cycle of a The cycle starts with (1) the swing from left to center. Next, the cycle
pendulum continues with (2) center to right, and (3) back from right to center. The
cycle ends when the pendulum moves (4) from center to left because this
brings the pendulum back to the beginning of the next cycle. Once a cycle is
completed, the next cycle begins without any interruption in the motion.
WAVES Chapter 23
Oscillators
What is an An oscillator is a physical system that has repeating cycles (harmonic
oscillator - a physical system that
oscillator? motion). A child on a swing is an oscillator, as is a vibrating guitar string. A has repeating cycles.
wagon rolling down a hill is not an oscillator. Which properties determine
restoring force - any force that
whether a system will oscillate or not? always acts to pull a system back
Equilibrium Systems that oscillate move back and forth around a center or equilibrium toward equilibrium.
position. You can think of equilibrium as the system at rest, undisturbed, with
zero net force. A wagon rolling down a hill is not in equilibrium because the
force of gravity that causes it to accelerate is not balanced by another force. A
child sitting motionless on a swing is in equilibrium because the force of
gravity is balanced by the tension in the ropes.
Restoring forces A restoring force is any force that always acts to pull a system back toward
equilibrium. Restoring force is related to the force of gravity or weight and
the lift force (or tension) of the string of a pendulum (Figure 23.2). If a
pendulum is pulled forward or backward, gravity creates a restoring force that
pulls it toward equilibrium. Systems with restoring forces become oscillators.
Inertia causes an The motion of an oscillator is the result of the interaction between a restoring
oscillator to go past force and inertia. For example, the restoring force pulls a pendulum toward
equilibrium equilibrium. But, because of Newton’s first law, the pendulum does not just
stop at equilibrium. According to the first law, an object in motion tends to
stay in motion. The pendulum has inertia that keeps it moving forward so it
overshoots its equilibrium position every time.
Figure 23.2: Restoring force keeps a

pendulum swinging. Restoring force is
related to weight and the lift force (or
tension) of the string of a pendulum.
Chapter 23 WAVES
Frequency and period

A period is the Harmonic motion can be fast or slow, but we don’t use speed to tell the
period - the time it takes for each
time to complete difference. This is because the speed of a pendulum constantly changes complete cycle.
one cycle during its cycle. We use the terms period and frequency to describe how
frequency - how often something
quickly cycles repeat themselves. The time it takes for one cycle to occur repeats, expressed in hertz.
is called a period. A clock pendulum with a period of one second will
complete one full back and forth swing each second. hertz (Hz) - the unit of frequency.
One hertz is one cycle per second.
Frequency is the The frequency is the number of complete cycles per second. The unit of
number of cycles per one cycle per second is called a hertz (Hz). Something that completes
second 10 cycles each second has a frequency of 10 Hz. A guitar string playing the
note A vibrates back and forth at a frequency of 220 Hz (Figure 23.3).
Your heartbeat has a frequency between one-half and two cycles per second
(0.5 Hz–2 Hz).
Frequency is the Frequency and period are inversely related. The period is the number of
inverse of period seconds per cycle. The frequency is the number of cycles per second. For
example, if the period of a pendulum is 2 seconds, its frequency is 0.5 cycles
per second (0.5 Hz).
When to use period While both period and frequency tell us the same information, we usually
or frequency use period when cycles are slower than a few per second. A simple
pendulum has a period between 0.9 and 2 seconds. We use frequency when
cycles repeat faster. For example, the vibrations that make sound in musical Figure 23.3: All musical
instruments have frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz. instruments use harmonic motion to
create sound.
WAVES Chapter 23
Solving Problems: Frequency and Period
The period of an oscillator is 2 minutes. What is the frequency of this

oscillator in hertz?
1. Looking for: You are asked for the frequency in hertz.

2. Given: You are given the period in minutes.
3. Relationships: Convert minutes to seconds using the conversion factor 60 seconds/1 minute;
Use the formula: f = 1/T.
4. Solution: 2 minutes × 60 seconds/1 minute = 120 seconds
The period (T) is 120 seconds. Figure 23.4: The parts of a
pendulum clock.
f = 1/120 s = 0.008 Hz
Your turn...
a. Every 5 seconds, a pendulum completes one cycle. What are the period a. The period is 5 seconds and the
and frequency of this pendulum? frequency is 0.2 Hz.
b. The period of an oscillator is 1 minute. What is the frequency of this b. The frequency is 0.02 Hz.
oscillator in hertz? c. You would need to push once
c. How often would you push someone on a swing to create a frequency of every 2.5 seconds.
0.4 hertz? d. There are 30 cycles/second so
d. Figure 23.4 shows the parts of a pendulum clock. The minute hand moves the frequency is 30 Hz. The
1/60 of a turn after 30 cycles. What is the period and frequency of this period is 0.03 second.
pendulum? e. The frequency is 0.008 Hz.
e. A Ferris wheel spins 5 times in 10 minutes. Calculate the period and The period is 120 seconds or
frequency of the Ferris wheel. 2 minutes.
557
Chapter 23 WAVES
Amplitude
Amplitude describes The “size” of a cycle is called amplitude. Figure 23.5 shows a pendulum
amplitude - the amount that a
the “size” of a cycle with a small amplitude and one with a large amplitude. With a moving object cycle moves away from equilibrium.
like a pendulum, the amplitude is often a distance or angle. With other kinds
of oscillators, the amplitude might be voltage or pressure. The amplitude of
an oscillator is measured in units appropriate to the kind of harmonic motion
being described.
How do you measure The amplitude is measured as the
amplitude? maximum distance the oscillator
moves away from its equilibrium
position. For the pendulum in
Figure 23.6, the amplitude is
20 degrees because the pendulum
moves 20 degrees away from the
equilibrium position in either
direction. The amplitude can also be found by measuring the distance Figure 23.5: Small amplitude
between the farthest points the motion reaches. The amplitude is half this versus large amplitude.
distance. The amplitude of a water wave is often found this way.
Damping and friction Look at the illustration below. Friction slows a pendulum down, just as it
slows all motion. That means the amplitude gets reduced until the pendulum
is hanging straight down, motionless. We use the word damping to describe
the gradual loss of amplitude. If you wanted to make a clock with a
pendulum, you would have to find a way to keep adding energy to counteract
the damping of friction so the clock’s pendulum would work continuously.
Figure 23.6: A pendulum with an

amplitude of 20 degrees swings
20 degrees away from the center in
either direction.
WAVES Chapter 23
Graphs of harmonic motion

Graphing harmonic It is easy to recognize cycles on a graph of harmonic motion. Figure 23.7
motion illustrates the difference between a graph of linear motion and a graph of
harmonic motion. The most common type of harmonic motion graph places
time on the horizontal (x) axis and position on the vertical (y) axis. The graph
below shows how the position of a pendulum changes over time. The
repeating “wave” on the graph represents the repeating cycles of motion of
the pendulum.
Figure 23.7: A harmonic motion

graph shows repeating cycles.
Finding the period In the graph above, the pattern repeats every 1.5 seconds. This repeating
pattern represents the period of the pendulum, which is 1.5 seconds. If you
were to cut out any piece of the graph and slide it left or right 1.5 seconds it
Measuring Amplitude
would line up exactly.
Use a protractor to find the amplitude
Using positive and Harmonic motion graphs often use positive and negative values to represent (in degrees) of the pendulum in the
negative positions motion on either side of a center (equilibrium) position. Zero usually graphic below.
represents the equilibrium point. Notice that zero is placed halfway up the
y-axis so there is room for both positive and negative values. This graph is
in centimeters, but the motion of the pendulum could also have been graphed
using the angle measured relative to the center (straight down) position.
Showing amplitude The amplitude of harmonic motion can also be seen on a graph. The graph
on a graph above shows that the pendulum swings back and forth from +20 centimeters
to –20 centimeters. The equilibrium position is represented as the zero line.
Therefore, the amplitude of the pendulum is 20 centimeters.
Chapter 23 WAVES
Natural frequency and resonance

Natural frequency An oscillator will have the same period and frequency each time you set it
natural frequency - the
moving. This phenomenon is called natural frequency, the frequency at frequency at which a system
which a system naturally oscillates. Musical instruments use natural oscillates when disturbed.
frequency. For example, guitar strings are tuned by adjusting their natural periodic force - a repetitive force.
frequency to match musical notes (Figure 23.8).
resonance - an exceptionally large
Changing natural The natural frequency of an oscillator changes according to its length. In the amplitude that develops when a
frequency case of a vibrating guitar string, you can shorten the string to increase the periodic force is applied at the
force pulling the string back toward equilibrium. Higher force means higher natural frequency.
acceleration so the natural frequency is higher and the period is shorter.
Lengthening an oscillator results in a lower frequency and a longer period.
How mass affects For oscillators with side-to-side movement, increasing the mass means the
oscillators oscillator moves slower and the period gets longer. This is because of
Newton’s second law of motion—as mass increases, the acceleration
decreases proportionally. However, for a pendulum, changing the mass does
not affect its period (also because of Newton’s second law). The restoring
force on a pendulum is created by gravity. Like in free fall, if you add mass
to a pendulum, the added inertia is exactly equal to the added force from
gravity. The acceleration is the same and therefore the period stays the same.
Periodic force and A force that is repeated over and over is
resonance called a periodic force. A periodic force
supplies energy to an oscillator and has a
cycle with an amplitude, frequency and
period. Resonance happens when a Figure 23.8: This guitarist is tuning
periodic force has the same frequency as his guitar by adjusting the natural
the natural frequency. For example, small frequency of the strings to match
pushes (a periodic force) to someone on a particular musical notes.
swing add together if they are applied at
the right time (once each cycle). In time,
the amplitude of the motion grows and can
become very large compared to the
strength of the force!

WAVES Chapter 23
23.1 Section Review

1. Which is the best example of a cycle: a turn of a wheel or a slide down a
ski slope?
2. Describe one example of an oscillating system you would find at an
amusement park.
3. What is the relationship between period and frequency?
4. Every 10 seconds a pendulum completes 2 cycles. What are the period
and frequency of this pendulum?
5. What is the difference between a graph of linear motion and a graph of
harmonic motion?
6. A graph of the motion of a pendulum shows that it swings from +5 Figure 23.9: Question 8.
centimeters to –5 centimeters for each cycle. What is the amplitude of
the pendulum?
7. What is the period of the oscillation shown in the diagram above?

8. Figure 23.9 shows a sliding mass on a spring. Assume there is no friction.
Will this system oscillate? Explain why or why not.
9. Which pendulum in Figure 23.10 will have the longer period? Justify
your answer.
10. Why does mass not affect the period of a pendulum? Figure 23.10: Question 9.
11. Resonance happens when:
a. a periodic force is applied at the natural frequency.
b. an oscillator has more than one natural frequency.
c. a force is periodic and not constant.
d. the amplitude of an oscillator grows large over time.
Chapter 23 WAVES
23.2 Properties of Waves

A wave is an oscillation that travels from one place to another. A musician’s instrument creates wave - a traveling oscillation that
has properties of frequency,
waves of sound that move through air to your ears. When you throw a stone into a pond, the wavelength, and amplitude.
energy of the falling stone creates waves in the water that carry energy to the edge of the pond.
You are familiar with waves, but what are they exactly?
What is a wave?
Defining a wave If you poke a floating ball, it oscillates up and down. But something also
happens to the water as the ball oscillates. The surface of the water oscillates
in response and the oscillation spreads outward from where it started. An
oscillation that travels is a wave.
Why do waves When you drop a ball into water, some of the water is pushed aside and up by
travel? the ball (A). The higher water pushes the water next to it (B). The water that
has been pushed then pushes on the water next to it, and so on. The waves
spread or propagate through the connection between each drop of water and
the water next to it (C).
Energy and Waves are a traveling form of energy because they can cause changes in the Figure 23.11: There are many types
of waves in our environment.
information objects they encounter. Waves also carry information, such as sound,
pictures, or even numbers. Waves are used in many technologies because
they quickly carry information over great distances. All the information you
receive in your eyes and ears comes from waves. Figure 23.11 illustrates the
many types of waves in our environment.
WAVES Chapter 23
Frequency, amplitude, and wavelength

Waves are Like all oscillators, waves have cycles, frequency, and amplitude. The
wavelength - the distance from
oscillators frequency of a wave is a measure of how often it goes up and down at any one any point on a wave to the same
place (Figure 23.12). The frequency of one point on the wave is the frequency point on the next cycle of the wave.
of the whole wave. Distant points on the wave oscillate up and down with the
same frequency. A wave carries its frequency to every place it reaches. Like
other frequencies, the frequency of a wave is measured in hertz (Hz). A wave
with a frequency of one hertz (1 Hz) causes everything it touches to oscillate
at one cycle per second.
Wavelength You can think of a wave as a moving series of high points and low points. A
crest is the high point of the wave, a trough is the low point. Wavelength is Figure 23.12: The frequency of a
the distance from any point on a wave to the same point on the next cycle of wave is the rate at which every point on
the wave (Figure 23.13). The distance between one crest and the next crest is the wave moves up and down.
a wavelength. So is the distance between one trough and the next trough. We
use the Greek letter “lambda” for wavelength. A lambda (λ) looks like an
upside down y.
Figure 23.13: The wavelength can

be measured from crest to crest. This is
the same as the distance from one point
Amplitude You have learned that the amplitude of an on a wave to the same point on the next
oscillator—such as a wave—is measured as the cycle of the wave.
maximum distance it moves away from its
equilibrium position. For a wave, equilibrium is
the average, or resting, position. You can measure
amplitude as one-half the distance between the
crest and the trough of a wave.
Chapter 23 WAVES
The speed of waves

Waves spread Wave motion is due to the spreading of the wave from where it begins. For a
water wave, the water itself stays in the same average place. Therefore, to
gauge the speed of a wave you measure how fast the wave spreads, not how
fast the water surface moves up and down.
Measuring The graphic below shows what happens in water when you begin a wave in
wave speed one location. You can measure the speed of this spreading wave by timing
how long it takes the wave to affect a place some distance away. The speed
of a typical water wave is about 1 m/s. Light waves are extremely fast—
300,000 km/s (or 186,000 mi/s). Sound waves travel at about 1,000 km/hr
(or 660 mph).
Speed is frequency In one complete cycle, a wave moves one wavelength (Figure 23.14). The
times wavelength speed is the distance traveled (one wavelength) divided by the time it takes
(one period). We can also calculate the speed of a wave by multiplying
wavelength and frequency. This is mathematically the same because
multiplying by frequency is the same as dividing by period. These formulas
work for all kinds of waves, including water waves, sound waves, light Figure 23.14: A wave moves one
wavelength in each cycle.
waves, and even earthquake waves!
Remember these relationships...
period = T
frequency = 1/T
Speed = wavelength ÷ period
Speed = frequency × wavelength
WAVES Chapter 23
Solving Problems: Wave Speed

Making Waves
Make a harmonic motion graph of a
The wavelength of a wave on a string is 1 meter and its speed is 5 m/s. wave. Place time on the x-axis and
Calculate the frequency and the period of the wave. position on the y-axis. The period is 2
seconds and the amplitude is 5
centimeters. On your graph, label a
1. Looking for: You are asked to find the frequency (f) and period (T) of a wave. crest, trough, and the wavelength.
2. Given: You know the wavelength of the wave is 1 meter and its speed is 5 m/s.
3. Relationships: The formulas you know include:
speed = frequency × wavelength
f = 1/T and T = 1/f

4. Solution: Solve for frequency.
frequency = speed ÷ wavelength
frequency = 5 m/s ÷ 1 m = 5 Hz
Then solve for period.
period = 1/f = 1/5 Hz = 0.20 s a. The speed is 1 m/s.
The frequency of the wave is 5 Hz and the period is 0.20 second. b. The speed is 2,500 m/s. The
period is 0.04 second.
Your turn... c. two minutes = 120 seconds
a. The wavelength of a wave is 0.5 meter and its period is 2 seconds. What is 120 s ÷ 15 s/cycle or
the speed of this wave? wavelengths = 8 cycles or
wavelengths pass the point
b. The wavelength of a wave is 100 meters and its frequency is 25 hertz.
What is the speed of this wave? What is its period?
c. If the period of a wave is 15 seconds, how many wavelengths pass a
certain point in 2 minutes?
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Chapter 23 WAVES
23.2 Section Review

1. A wave and a pendulum are both oscillators. Why isn’t a pendulum a Waves and Earthquakes
wave? The outer layer of Earth is broken
2. Make a list of three types of waves that you encountered today. up into huge slabs called “plates.”
Sometimes a sudden slip happens
3. The distance from the crest of a wave to the next crest is 10 centimeters. between two plates and an earth-
The distance from a crest of this wave to a trough is 4 centimeters. quake occurs. The quake releases
a. What is the amplitude of this wave? powerful seismic waves that travel
along the surface and through
b. What is the wavelength of this wave?
Earth. Because these waves travel
4. The wavelength of the through the planet, they are used to
wave shown in this investigate Earth’s internal structure.
harmonic motion graph is For example, the way that seismic
about: waves refract and reflect within Earth
provided scientists with the clues they
a. 1.2 meters needed to prove that Earth has a
b. 2.5 meters liquid core.
c. 5.0 meters Investigate!
5. Which is the fastest way to send information, using sound waves, light (1) Find out more about seismic
waves, or water waves? waves by doing research in your local
6. Is a wave that travels slower than 50 m/s most likely to be a sound wave, library or the Internet. Write up your
findings in one or two paragraphs.
a light wave, or a water wave?
7. How far does a wave travel in three cycles? (2) Is your city or town ever affected
by seismic waves? If so, how do you
8. How is the formula for finding the speed of a wave like the formula for know?
finding the speed of a person running a race?
9. You are given the speed of a wave and its period. What kind of
information can you also find out about this wave? Justify your answer.
10. You are watching a water wave in a long tank. Describe how you could
determine the speed of the wave.
11. What is the speed of a wave that has a wavelength of 0.4 meter and a
frequency of 10 hertz?
12. What is the period of a wave that has a wavelength of 1 meter and a
speed of 20 m/s?
566
WAVES Chapter 23
23.3 Wave Motion

Sometimes your car radio fades out. Why? It’s because the radio waves are affected by objects. For wave front - the leading edge of a
example, if you drive into a tunnel, some or all of the radio waves get blocked. In this section, you moving wave.
will learn how waves move and discover what happens when they encounter objects or collide with plane wave - moving waves that
other waves. have crests in parallel straight lines.
circular wave - moving waves that
When a wave encounters objects have crests that form circles around a
single point where the wave began.
Wave fronts A wave front is the leading edge of a moving wave and is often considered
to be a wave crest rather than a trough. You can make waves in all shapes but
plane waves and circular waves are easiest to create and study (Figure 23.15).
The crests of a plane wave look like parallel lines. The crests of a circular
wave are circles. A plane wave can be started by disturbing water in a line. A
circular wave can be started by disturbing water at a single point.
The direction a wave The shape of the wave front determines the direction the wave moves.
moves Circular waves have circular wave fronts that move outward from the center.
Plane waves have straight wave fronts that move in a line perpendicular to the
wave fronts.
The four wave Both circular and plane waves eventually hit surfaces. Four interactions are
interactions possible when a wave encounters a surface—reflection, refraction,
diffraction, or absorption.
Figure 23.15: Plane waves move

perpendicular to the wave fronts. Circular
waves radiate outward from a single point.
Chapter 23 WAVES
Wave interactions
Boundaries A boundary is an edge or surface where one material meets a different
reflection - the process of a wave
material. The surface of a glass window is a boundary. A wave traveling in bouncing off an object.
the air experiences a sudden change when it encounters the boundary
refraction - the process of a wave
between the air and the glass of a window. Reflection, refraction, and bending as it crosses a boundary
diffraction usually occur at boundaries. Absorption also occurs at a between two materials.
boundary, but happens to a greater extent within the body of a material.
diffraction - the process of a wave
Reflection When a wave bounces off an object we call it reflection. A reflected wave is bending around a corner or passing
like the original wave but moving in a new direction. The wavelength and through an opening.
frequency are usually unchanged. An echo is an example of a sound wave absorption - what happens when
reflecting from a distant object or wall. People who design concert halls pay the amplitude of a wave gets smaller
careful attention to the reflection of sound from the walls and ceiling. and smaller as it passes through a
material.
Refraction Refraction occurs when a wave bends as it crosses a boundary. We say the
wave is refracted as it passes through the boundary. The process of refraction
of light through eyeglasses helps people see better. The lenses in a pair of
glasses bend incoming light waves so that an image is correctly focused
within the eye.
Diffraction The process of a wave bending around a corner or passing through an
opening is called diffraction. We say a wave is diffracted when it is changed
by passing through a hole or around an edge. Diffraction usually changes the
direction and shape of the wave. When a plane wave passes through a small
hole, diffraction turns it into a circular wave (Figure 23.16). Diffraction
explains why you can hear sound through a partially closed door. Diffraction
causes the sound wave to spread out from any small opening.
Absorption Absorption is what happens when the amplitude of a wave gets smaller and
smaller as it passes through a material. The wave energy is transferred to the Figure 23.16: An illustration of
absorbing material. A sponge can absorb a water wave while letting the diffraction.
water pass. Theaters often use heavy curtains to absorb sound waves so the
audience cannot hear backstage noise. The tinted glass or plastic in the lenses
of your sunglasses absorbs some of the energy in light waves. Cutting down
the energy of light makes your vision more comfortable on a bright, sunny
day so you don’t have to squint!
568
WAVES Chapter 23
Transverse and longitudinal waves

p
Wave pulses A wave pulse is a short “burst” of a traveling wave. A pulse can be produced
transverse wave - a wave is
with a single up-down movement. The illustrations below show wave pulses transverse if its oscillations are not in
in springs. You can see the difference between the two basic kinds of waves— the direction it moves.
transverse and longitudinal—by observing the motion of a wave pulse. longitudinal wave - a wave is
Transverse waves The oscillations of a transverse wave are not in the direction the wave longitudinal if its oscillations are in
moves. For example, the wave pulse in the illustration below moves from left the direction it moves.
to right. The oscillation (caused by the boy’s hand) is up and down. Water
waves are an example of a transverse wave (Figure 23.17 top).
Longitudinal waves The oscillations of a longitudinal wave are in the same direction that the
wave moves (Figure 23.17 bottom). A sharp push-pull on the end of the
spring makes a traveling wave pulse as portions of the spring compress then
relax. The direction of the compressions are in the same direction that the
wave moves. Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Figure 23.17: Transverse and

longitudinal waves.
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Chapter 23 WAVES
Constructive and destructive interference

Wave pulses If you have a long elastic string attached to a wall, you can make a wave
constructive interference -
pulse. First you place the free end of the string over the back of a chair. The when waves add up to make a larger
string should be straight so that each part of it is in a neutral position. To amplitude.
make the pulse, you pull down a short length of the string behind the chair destructive interference - when
and let go. The pulse then races away from the chair all the way to the wall. waves add up to make a smaller, or
You can see the wave pulse move on the string. Each section of string zero, amplitude.
experiences the pulse and returns to the neutral position after the wave pulse
has moved past it.
Constructive Suppose you make two wave pulses on a stretched string. One comes from
interference the left and the other comes from the right. When the waves meet, they
combine to make a single large pulse. Constructive interference happens
when waves combine to make a larger amplitude (Figure 23.18). Figure 23.18: This is an example of
constructive interference.
Destructive There is another way to add two pulses. Sometimes one pulse is on top of the
interference string and the other is on the bottom. When these pulses meet in the middle,
they cancel each other out (Figure 23.19). One pulse pulls the string up and
the other pulls it down. The result is that the string flattens and both pulses
vanish for a moment. In destructive interference, waves add up to make a
wave with smaller or zero amplitude. After interfering, both wave pulses
separate again and travel on their own. This is surprising if you think about
it. For a moment, the middle of the cord is flat, but a moment later, two wave
pulses come out of the flat part and race away from each other. Waves still
store energy, even during destructive interference. Noise cancelling
headphones are based on technology that uses destructive interference. Figure 23.19: This is an example of
destructive interference.
WAVES Chapter 23
23.3 Section Review

1. How does the motion of a plane wave differ from the motion of a circular Noise-Cancelling Headphones
wave? The graphic below illustrates how
2. For each of the examples below, identify whether reflection, refraction, noise-cancelling headphones work.
diffraction, or absorption is happening. Study the graphic and write a
description that explains why noise-
a. During a total solar eclipse, the Moon is in front of the Sun but you cancelling technology is a good way
can still see some sunlight around the edges of the Moon. to reduce noise. Verify your
b. The black surface of a parking lot gets hot in the summer when description by doing some research
exposed to sunlight. about these special headphones.
c. The image at the right of a straw in a glass looks

funny.
d. When you look in a mirror, you can see yourself.
e. Sound seems muffled when it is occurring on the
other side of a wall.
f. Light waves bend when they move from water to
air.
g. A ball bounces back when you throw it at a wall.
3. When a wave is being absorbed, what happens to the
amplitude of the wave? Use the term energy in your explanation.
4. Compare and contrast transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
5. Two waves combine to make a wave that is larger than either wave by
itself. Is this constructive or destructive interference?
6. When constructive interference happens between two sound waves, the
sound will get louder. What does this tell you about the relationship
between amplitude and volume of sound?
7. One wave on a string is moving toward the right and another is moving
toward the left. When, they meet in the middle, half of the cycle of the
wave from the right overlaps with half of the cycle of the wave from the
left. The result is that the string gets flat when the two waves meet. What
happened? What will happen after the waves meet?
571
Chapter 23
Cell Phones
How They Work
See if you can solve this puzzle: You dial

a friend’s number, and she answers on
her cell phone. Name a three-word
question that you can ask her only Transmitting and Receiving
because she is on a cell phone. Sound is translated into an electromagnetic wave at the desired
Thirty years ago, people never called frequency by a transmitter through a process called encoding.
someone and asked this question. The electromagnetic wave is created by a rapidly changing electric
Why? They already knew the answer! current in a wire. Any device that creates a changing current creates
electromagnetic waves. In theory, you can create radio waves by
Give up? The question is: “Where are you?” making a simple circuit with a battery, switch, and wire. Quickly
flipping the switch would cause the current to flow and then stop in
the wire. This process would create very low energy electromagnetic
Using Electromagnetic Waves waves that would sound like crackles of static if you could detect
them on a radio!
By now you know that waves of all kinds exist
around us and that they are the result of the When a cell phone, radio tower, or walkie-talkie sends out a signal,
harmonic motion of an oscillator. You should it travels at the speed of light (300,000 km/s) to the recipient. An
also be familiar with the kinds of waves that antenna detects the wave because it causes electrons to move in the
make up the electromagnetic spectrum. antenna. A tuner sorts through the thousands of electromagnetic
Cell phones use electromagnetic waves in the waves coming into the antenna to find the correct one. Once the
low end of the microwave range of frequencies to send correct signal is detected, the information is taken from the signal,
and receive signals. This does not mean that your cell phone called decoding. An electric current is then sent to the speaker,
can cook your food! The frequencies used by cell phones are lower where it is translated back into a sound wave.
in frequency and at a much lower power than the electromagnetic
waves produced by microwave ovens. A radio is only able to receive signals, while walkie-talkies and cell
phones can both transmit and receive. A walkie-talkie uses only
The process that allows a cell phone to communicate is the same as one frequency, so a transmitting and receiving must take place
for a radio or walkie-talkie. All of these devices use electromagnetic individually. You can’t talk and listen at the same time. Cell phones
waves of within a specific frequency range to send information. use a more sophisticated type of technology called full-duplex radio.
Walkie-talkies commonly use frequencies of 400–500 MHz This process uses two separate frequencies at the same time, so a
(megahertz, or million hertz). FM radios use frequencies of person can transmit on one frequency and receive on a different
88–108 MHz, and cell phones are between 800 and 1,900 MHz. frequency simultaneously.

SC.912.N.4.2–Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental.
SC.912.P.10.18–Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy, and relate
572 them to phenomena and applications.
Chapter 23
The solution to this problem was to divide regions into small areas
called cells. The name “cell phone” comes from this idea. Each cell
contains its own tower that sends and receives signals from the
phones located within that cell. Attached to each cell tower is a base
station that connects the tower to the telephone system. The size
of each cell depends on the population
density. In a city, cell towers may be as
close as one half mile apart, while in rural
areas with flat terrain, towers can be
separated by up to 50 miles.
Dividing a city into small cells means that

the same frequency can be reused in
different locations, similar to the way a
radio station frequency can be reused in a
different state. Each cell phone company
has a set of hundreds of frequencies used
for their customers. The company divides
their frequencies into several different
groups. Each cell uses frequencies in only
one of these groups. The diagram at left
Catching the Wave shows the arrangement of cells that use
The distance the electromagnetic wave can travel depends on the four groups of frequencies. A person in
power of the signal, which is measured in watts. When taking the top green cell can be using the same
a long trip in a car, you may have noticed that you can listen frequency as a person in the bottom
to your favorite radio station for an hour or so, and then the green cell without the signals interfering.
signal gradually fades out. A city in another state can use the But what happens if you make a call and then move from one
same frequency as the radio station in your hometown without cell to another? As you travel, your signal is handed off from
interference, as long as the cities are farther apart than the reach of one cell phone tower to the next. The frequencies your cell phone
their signals. transmits and receives on can change many times changes without
Many people can receive the same radio broadcast, so all of the you ever noticing.
radio stations in one city can transmit within a narrow range of
Questions:
frequencies and not interfere with each other. This is not true of
cell phones, because each caller needs two frequencies to make his 1. How are cell phones, walkie-talkies, and radios similar?
or her call–one to transmit and one to receive. When cell phones How are they different?
began to get popular, people quickly realized that there are not
enough cell phone frequencies available for thousands of people in 2. How are electromagnetic waves created?
a city to be talking at the same time.
3. Why are cities divided into regions called cells?

SC.912.N.4.2–Weigh the merits of alternative strategies for solving a specific societal problem by comparing a number of different costs and benefits, such as human, economic, and environmental.
SC.912.P.10.18–Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy, and relate
them to phenomena and applications. 573
Chapter 23 WAVES
Vocabulary 11. When I hit a drum, it will vibrate at its ____.
Select the correct term to complete the sentences. Section 23.2

12. A(n) ____ is a travelling oscillation.
wave cycle diffraction
period reflection absorption 13. The distance from one crest to the next is a wave’s ____.
refraction pendulum linear motion Section 23.3
frequency constructive interference harmonic motion 14. The process of a wave bouncing off a surface is called ____.
oscillator amplitude hertz 15. ____ is the process of the amplitude of a wave diminishing as
resonance wavelength wave front it enters another material.
circular wave restoring force plane wave 16. The ___ of a plane wave is perpendicular to the direction of
transverse wave longitudinal wave natural frequency motion of this wave.
periodic force destructive interference 17. The crests of ____(s) look like parallel lines.
Section 23.1 18. ____ is when waves bend when they enter another material
1. This kind of force pulls a system back to equilibrium: ____. and ____ is when waves bend around an object or outward
2. The harmonic motion of a boy on a swing is like the motion after exiting a hole.
of a(n) ____. 19. If you disturb water in a single point, ____(s) will be created.
3. A pendulum is a kind of ____ in that it has repeating cycles 20. The amplitude of two waves will cancel when ____ occurs.
of motion. 21. The amplitude of two waves gets larger when ____ occurs.
4. The note A in the musical scale has a(n) ____ of 220 Hz. 22. Sound waves are an example of this kind of wave: ____.
5. One unit of harmonic motion is called a(n) ____. 23. Water waves are an example of this kind of wave: ____.
6. The motion of a girl running is called ____ and the motion of
a girl riding a Ferris wheel is called ____. Concepts
7. The formula for ____ is the inverse of the formula for Section 23.1
frequency.
1. State whether the following are linear or harmonic motions.
8. One ____ equals one cycle per second. a. skiing downhill c. riding on a merry-go-round
9. When the periodic force matches the natural frequency of an b. hiking uphill d. jumping on a trampoline
object, the object experiences ____.
10. To have a high ____ on a swing, your friend needs to push
you with a large ____.
574
WAVES Chapter 23
2. How is the force of gravity involved in the motion of a 11. How many wavelengths of a wave pass a point if the
pendulum? Use the words equilibrium and restoring force in frequency of the wave is 4 hertz?
your answer. 12. For the wave in the diagram,
3. The motion of an oscillator is related to the interaction of which measurement shows
what two factors? Describe each of these. the amplitude? Which
4. If the frequency of a heartbeat is 1 hertz, what is the period measurement shows the
of this heartbeat? wavelength?
5. Describe how you find the amplitude of a pendulum and of a Section 23.3
water wave. 13. Describe the shape of the light waves that would be created
6. What information can you learn about the harmonic motion from a single, uncovered light bulb.
of an object by looking at a graph of its motion? 14. At the beach, describe where or when you would see wave
7. What will happen to the period of a pendulum if you: fronts. How are wave fronts useful to surfers?
a. increase its mass? 15. Below are diagrams representing interactions between
b. increase its length? waves and boundaries. Identify each interaction by name.
c. Challenge: increase the amplitude?
Section 23.2
8. Identify how each of the following situations involves waves.
Explain each of your answers.
a. A person is talking to someone on a cell phone. 16. Read the descriptions below and indicate which of the four
b. An earthquake causes the floor of a house to shake.
types of wave interactions (absorption, reflection, refraction,
c. A person listens to her favorite radio station on the car
stereo. or diffraction) has occurred for each.
d. A doctor makes an X-ray to check for broken bones. a. The distortion of your partially submerged arm makes it
e. You turn on a lamp when you come home in the look “broken” when viewed from the air.
evening. b. You hear the music even though you are seated behind
9. Arrange the equation relating wave speed, frequency, and an obstruction at a concert.
c. You see yourself when you look at a highly polished car
wavelength for each of the following scenarios. Let v = wave
hood.
speed, f = frequency, and l = wavelength. d. Water ripples passing through a sponge become
a. You know frequency and wavelength. Solve for v. smaller.
b. You know frequency and wave speed. Solve for l. e. Heavy curtains are used to help keep a room quiet.
c. You know wave speed and wavelength. Solve for f. 17. Can two waves interfere with each other so that the new
10. Write a formula relating the speed of a wave to its period wave formed by their combination has NO amplitude?
and wavelength. Explain your answer.
575
Chapter 23 WAVES
Problems Section 23.3

11. A wave with a period of 1 second comes from the left. At the
Section 23.1
same time, a wave with a period of 2 seconds comes from the
1. The frequency of an oscillator is 20 hertz. What is its period? right. The amplitude of each wave is 5 centimeters. Draw a
How long does it take this oscillator to complete one cycle? harmonic motion graph for each of these waves with time on
2. A bicycle wheel spins 25 times in 5 seconds. Calculate the the x-axis and position on the y-axis. Overlay two
period and frequency of the wheel. wavelengths of the 1-second wave on one wavelength of the
3. The piston in a gasoline engine goes up and down 3,000 2-second wave. How do these two waves interfere—by
times per minute. For this engine, calculate the frequency constructive interference, destructive interference, or both?
and period of the piston.
4. What is the period and frequency of the second hand on a Applying Your Knowledge
clock? (Hint: How long does it take for the second hand to Section 23.1
go around?)
1. Explain how Newton’s laws of motion are helpful in
5. The frequencies of musical instruments range between 20 understanding harmonic motion.
and 20,000 Hz. Give this range in units of seconds per cycle.
2. Does friction affect the amplitude of a pendulum as it is
6. Make a harmonic motion graph for a pendulum. Place time swinging? Does it affect the frequency? You may want to
in seconds on the x-axis and position on the y-axis. The experiment to figure this out.
period of the pendulum is 0.5 second and the amplitude is
3. How might the period and
2 centimeters.
frequency of the two rubber band
a. What is the frequency of this pendulum? oscillators at the right be different?
b. If you shortened the string of this pendulum, would the Justify your answer.
period get shorter or longer?
Section 23.2
Section 23.2 4. When you watch fireworks,
7. A wave has a frequency of 10 hertz and a wavelength of sometimes you see the explosion
2 meters. What is the speed of the wave? and then hear the sound. Why do
8. A sound wave has a speed of 400 m/s and a frequency of you think this is?
200 Hz. What is its wavelength? Section 23.3
9. If the frequency of a wave is 30 hertz, how many 5. One of the four wave interactions is very important to how
wavelengths pass a certain point in 30 seconds? plants use light to grow. Guess which interaction this is, and
10. Draw two cycles of a transverse wave with an amplitude of write a couple of sentences justifying your answer.
4 cm and a wavelength of 8 cm. If the frequency of this wave
is 10 Hz, what is its speed?
Chapter 24
Sound
What is sound? Is it something you hear? For many people, the answer is
yes. However, for professional percussionist Evelyn Glennie, sound is
something she feels. Glennie lost most of her hearing at age 12, but that didn’t stop her from
becoming the world’s only full-time classical percussion soloist. As a professional musician,
she travels four months of every year to give about 100 performances to awestruck
audiences. Without hearing her music, how is she able to play so well?
First of all, she plays barefoot and feels the vibrations through her feet!
She can distinguish notes based on where on her body she feels the
sound. In other words, sound is more than something to be heard. As
you have learned, it’s a type of wave. The next time you rap your
pencil on your desk or play an instrument, pay attention to the sound
waves you are making. Can you feel them? In this chapter, you will
learn more about the special kinds of waves we call sound.
Source: Evelyn Glennie, http://www.evelyn.co.uk used with permission.
What does a sound wave look like?

How many sounds can we detect?
What is a musical note?
J.Wilson/©EG Images
Chapter 24 SOUND
24.1 Properties of Sound

Like other waves, sound has frequency, wavelength, and speed. Because sound is part of your pitch - the perception of high or low
daily experience, you already know its properties—but by different names. For example, the that you hear at different frequencies
loudness of sound is related to its amplitude. Read on to find out more about sound’s properties. of sound.
The frequency of sound

Frequency and pitch Your ears are very sensitive to the frequency of sound. The pitch of a sound
is how you hear and interpret its frequency. A low-frequency sound has a Voice A
Loudness
low pitch, like the rumble of a big truck or a bass guitar. A high-frequency
sound has a high pitch, like the scream of a whistle or siren. Humans can
generally hear frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Animals may hear
a wider range of frequencies, or higher or lower frequencies than humans. 0 2.000
Frequency (Hz)
4.000
Most sound has Almost all the sounds you hear contain many frequencies at the same time. In Voice B
Loudness
more than one fact, the sound of the human voice contains thousands of different
frequency frequencies—all at once (Figure 24.1).
0 2.000 4.000
Frequency (Hz)
Voice C
Loudness
0 2.000 4.000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 24.1: The frequencies in three

people’s voices as they say the word
hello. Each person’s voice is made up of
The frequency Why is it easy to recognize one person’s voice from another’s, even when
a mixture of frequencies.
spectrum both are saying the same word? The reason is that people have different
mixtures of frequencies in their voices. A frequency spectrum shows
loudness on the vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal axis.
Figure 24.1 shows the frequency spectrum for three people saying hello. Can
you see any difference between the graphs?
578
SOUND Chapter 24
Intensity and loudness of sound

Decibels The unit for the intensity or strength of a sound is the decibel (dB). We can
decibel (dB) - a unit of measure
measure sound intensity with scientific instruments just like we can measure for the intensity or strength of a
mass with a balance. The decibel scale (shown below) is convenient to use sound.
because most sounds fall between 0 and 100. The amplitude of a sound
increases 10 times for every 20-decibel increase (Figure 24.2).
Figure 24.2: The decibel scale

measures amplitude (loudness).
Loudness When you experience a loud sound, you experience the effects of its intensity
and frequency. An equal loudness curve compares how loud you hear sounds
of different frequencies (Figure 24.3). As you can see, the human ear
responds differently to high and low frequencies. This curve shows that low
frequency sounds (below 100 Hz) need to have higher decibel values for you
to hear them than the same as sounds between 100 and 1,000 Hz. Notice that
the numbers are not evenly spread out on the x-axis of this graph. This type of
spacing is called a logarithmic scale. You read the graph in the same way that
you would read an evenly spaced graph.
Acoustics Acoustics is the science and technology of sound. Knowledge of acoustics is
used to design facilities like libraries, recording studios, and concert halls. A Figure 24.3: All points on an equal
design might address how to reduce sound intensity and/or whether sound loudness curve have the same loudness.
needs to be absorbed, amplified, or even prevented from entering a room.
Chapter 24 SOUND
The speed of sound

Sound is slower than You have may have noticed that the sound of thunder often comes many
supersonic - a term to describe
light seconds after you see lightning. Lightning is what creates thunder so they speeds faster than the speed of
really happen at the same time. You hear a delay because sound travels much sound.
slower than light. The speed of sound is about 1,000 km/h (660 mph). Light
travels at 300,000 km/s (186,000 mi/s).
Subsonic and Objects that move faster than sound are called supersonic. If you were on
supersonic the ground watching a supersonic plane fly toward you, there would be
silence (Figure 24.4). The sound would be behind the plane, racing to catch
up. Some military jets fly at supersonic speeds. Passenger jets are subsonic
because they travel at speeds from 600 to 800 kilometers per hour.
Figure 24.4: The boundary between

hearing and not hearing the plane is the
“shock wave.” The person in the middle
hears a sonic boom as the shock wave
passes over him.
Sound Speed
Material
Sonic booms A supersonic jet compresses the sound waves that are created as its nose cuts (m/s)
through the air. A cone-shaped shock wave forms behind the point where the Air 330
waves “pile up” at the nose of the plane. As a result, you only hear noise Helium 965
from a supersonic plane once it has passed overhead. At the boundary of Water 1,530
hearing and not hearing the plane—the shock wave—the amplitude changes Wood (average) 2,000
abruptly causing a very loud sound called a sonic boom. Gold 3,240
Sound in liquids and Sound travels through most liquids and solids faster than through air Steel 5,940
solids (Figure 24.5). Sound travels about 5 times faster in water, and about 18 times
Figure 24.5: The speed of sound in
faster in steel. This is because sound is a traveling oscillation. Like other various materials (helium and air at
oscillations, sound depends on restoring forces. The forces holding steel 0°C and 1 atmospheric pressure).
atoms together are much stronger than the forces between the molecules in
air. Stronger restoring forces increase the speed of sound.
580 SC.912.P.10.21-Qualitatively describe the shift in frequency in sound or electromagnetic waves due to the relative motion of a source or a receiver.
SC.912.P.12.7-Recognize that nothing travels faster than the speed of light in vacuum which is the same for all observers no matter how they or the light source are moving.
SOUND Chapter 24
The Doppler effect

The Doppler effect is The Doppler effect is a shift in the frequency of an oscillation caused by
Doppler effect - an increase or
caused by motion motion of the source of the oscillation. If a stationary object is producing decrease in frequency caused by the
sound, listeners on all sides will hear the same frequency. However, when the motion of the source of an oscillation
object is in motion, the frequency will not be the same to all listeners. People (such as sound).
moving with the object or to the side hear the frequency as if the object were
at rest. People in front hear a higher frequency. People behind hear a lower
frequency. The Doppler effect occurs at speeds below the speed of sound.
Doppler Radar
Doppler radar is a way to measure
the speed of a moving object at a
distance. A transmitter sends a pulse
of microwaves. The waves reflect
from a moving object, such as a car.
The frequency of the reflected wave
is increased if the car is moving
toward the oncoming microwaves
and decreased if the car is moving
away. The difference in frequency
The cause of the The Doppler effect occurs because an observer hears the frequency at which between the reflected and
Doppler effect wave crests arrive at his or her ears. For the moving sound source, observer transmitted wave is proportional to
speed.
(A) in the graphic above hears a higher frequency. This is because the object’s
motion causes the crests in front to be closer together. The opposite is true
behind a moving object, where the wave crests are farther apart. Observer (C)
in back hears a lower frequency because the motion of the object makes more
space between successive wave crests. The greater the speed of the object, the
larger the difference in frequency between the front and back positions.
Hearing the Doppler You hear the Doppler effect when you hear a police or fire siren coming
effect toward you, then going away from you. The frequency shifts up when the
siren is moving toward you. The frequency shifts down when the siren is
moving away from you.
SC.912.P.10.21-Qualitatively describe the shift in frequency in sound or electromagnetic waves due to the relative motion of a source or a receiver. 581
Chapter 24 SOUND
Recording sound
The microphone To record a sound, you must store the pattern of vibrations in a way that can
be replayed and be true to the original sound. A common way to record sound
starts with a microphone. A microphone transforms a sound wave into an
electrical signal with the same pattern of vibration (Figure 24.6, top).
Analog to digital In modern digital recording, a sensitive circuit called an analog to digital
conversion converter measures the electrical signal 44,100 times per second. Each
measurement consists of a number between 0 and 65,536 corresponding to
the amplitude of the signal. One second of compact-disc-quality sound is a
list of 44,100 numbers. The numbers are recorded as data on the disc.
Playback of To play the sound back, the string of numbers on the CD is read by a laser and
recorded sound converted into electrical signals again by a second circuit. This circuit is a
digital to analog converter, and it reverses the process of the first circuit. The
playback circuit converts the string of numbers back into an electrical signal.
The electrical signal is amplified until it is powerful enough to move the coil
in a speaker and reproduce the sound (Figure 24.6, bottom).
Stereo sound Most of the music you listen to has been recorded in stereo. A stereo
recording is actually two recordings, one to be played from the left speaker,
and the other from the right. Stereo sound seems almost “live” because it
creates slight differences between when the sound reaches your left and right
ears. Sound from all sources tends to reach you this way. The slight
differences in how sound reaches your ears lets you know where sound is
coming from. Another way to describe two sound waves that arrive at slightly
different times is to say they are slightly out of phase.
Figure 24.6: The process of digital

sound reproduction.
582
SOUND Chapter 24
24.1 Section Review

1. What is the relationship between pitch and frequency?
Ultrasound
2. If you looked at the frequency spectrums of two friends saying the word
dog, would they look the same or different? Explain your answer.
3. Do two sound waves that seem equally loud always have the same
amplitude? Explain.
4. What two variables affect how loud you hear sound?
5. How do the amplitudes of a 120-decibel sound and a 100-decibel sound
compare?
6. Make a graph of the relationship between the amplitude (x-axis) and
decibel level (y-axis) of sound. Describe this relationship.
We cannot hear or see ultrasound
7. Would an object moving at 750 km/h be supersonic or subsonic? waves, but they can pass through the
8. Would an object moving at 100 miles per hour be supersonic or subsonic? human body. Doctors use ultrasound
Use the conversion factor 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers. images to see “inside” patients, the
same way they use X-rays. The
9. Is it possible that a commercial passenger plane traveling at normal ultrasound image pictured above is
speeds could produce a shock wave or a sonic boom? Why or why not? a heart.
10. Why does sound travel faster through water than through air? Research the answers to the following
11. A paramedic in an ambulance does not experience the Doppler effect of questions.
the siren. Why? What exactly is ultrasound?
12. You hear an ambulance in your neighborhood that is traveling a few How do the frequency and
blocks from where you are. The pitch of the siren seems to be getting wavelength of ultrasound compare to
lower and lower. Is the ambulance traveling toward you or away from sounds you can hear?
you? How do you know?
13. Research: Find out how Doppler radar is used in weather forecasting.
14. What is the role of a microphone in recording sound?
15. The process of recording music involves converting between analog and
digital information. Infer from the text what the terms analog and digital
mean. Write a definition of these terms in your own words.
16. What about stereo sounds makes it seem like you are hearing the
musicians play “live”?
Chapter 24 SOUND
24.2 Sound Waves

How do we know that sound is a wave? For starters, it has both frequency and wavelength. We also
know sound is a wave because it does all the things other waves do. Sound can be reflected,
refracted, and absorbed. Sound also shows diffraction and interference. Resonance occurs with
sound waves and is especially important for understanding how musical instruments work.
Figure 24.7: Air is made of
molecules in constant random motion,
What is a sound wave? bumping off each other and the walls of
Sound in solids and Sound is a traveling oscillation of atoms. If you push on one atom, it pushes their container.
liquids on its neighbor. That atom pushes on the next atom, and so on. The push
causes atoms to oscillate back and forth like tiny beads on springs. The
oscillation spreads through the connections between atoms to make a sound
wave. This is how sound moves through liquids and solids.
Sound in air and In air, the situation is different. Air molecules are spread far apart and
gases interact by colliding with each other (Figure 24.7). The pressure is highest
where atoms are closest together and lowest where they are farthest apart
(Figure 24.8). Imagine pushing the molecules on the left side of the picture
below. Your push squeezes atoms together creating a layer of higher Figure 24.8: If temperature is
constant, high pressure means more
pressure. That layer pushes on the next group of atoms and causes those
molecules per unit volume. Low pressure
atoms to squeeze together. This pattern repeats. The result is a traveling means fewer molecules per unit volume.
oscillation in pressure, which is a sound wave. Sound is a longitudinal wave
because the oscillations are along the same direction that the wave travels.
What Can You Hear?

Take a few minutes to sit quietly and
listen to all the sounds around you.
Make a list of what you hear. Be sure
to record your perceived frequency of
the sounds—whether they are high or
The frequency range Anything that vibrates creates sound waves, as long as there is contact with low frequency. When you are done,
of sound waves other atoms. However, not all “sounds” can be heard. Humans can hear in write down any observations that
the range between 20 and 20,000 Hz. Bats can hear high-frequency sounds surprised you.
from 2,000 to 110,000 Hz and elephants hear lower-frequency sounds from
16 to 12,000 Hz.

SOUND Chapter 24
Sound and air pressure

Speakers If you touch the surface of a speaker, you can feel the vibration that creates
a sound wave. Figure 24.9 shows an illustration of a speaker as well as an
exaggerated sound wave and the oscillation of pressure. When music is
playing, the surface of the speaker moves back and forth at the same
frequencies as the sound waves. The back-and-forth motion of the speaker
creates a traveling sound wave of alternating high and low pressure.
Air pressure The change in air pressure created by a sound wave is incredibly small. An
80 dB sound, equivalent to a loud stereo, changes the air pressure by only
one part in a million. Our ears are very well structured to detect the small
changes in pressure created by sound waves.
Frequency and The frequency of sound indicates how fast air pressure oscillates back and
pressure change forth. The purr of a cat, for example, might have a frequency of 50 hertz. This
means the air pressure alternates 50 times per second. The frequency of a fire
truck siren may be 3,000 hertz. This corresponds to 3,000 vibrations per
second in the pressure of the air.
Sound speed In air, the energy of a sound wave is carried by moving atoms and molecules
depends on bumping into each other. Anything that affects the motion of atoms affects the
temperature speed of sound. Molecules move more slowly in cold air and the speed of
sound decreases. For example, at 0°C, the speed of sound is 330 meters per Figure 24.9: This is what a sound
second, but at 21°C, the speed of sound is 344 meters per second. wave might look like if you could see the
atoms. The effect of sound on air
Sound speed and At higher air pressures, molecules become more crowded. The speed of sound molecules is exaggerated.
pressure increases because collisions between atoms increase. Therefore, if the
pressure goes down, the speed of sound decreases. This phenomenon affects
airplanes. A plane that is subsonic at low altitudes may become supersonic at
higher altitudes where the temperature and pressure are lower.
How many vibrations of air pressure
Sound speed and Lighter atoms and molecules move faster than heavier ones at the same occur per second when the note A
molecular weight temperature. The speed of sound is higher in helium gas because helium (440 Hz), is played?
atoms are lighter (and faster) than either the oxygen (O2) or nitrogen (N2)
molecules that make up air.
585
Chapter 24 SOUND
The wavelength of sound

Range of The wavelengths of sound in air can be compared to the size of everyday
wavelengths of objects (Table 24.1). As with other waves, the wavelength of a sound is
sound inversely related to its frequency (Figure 24.10). A low-frequency, 20-hertz
sound has a wavelength the size of a large classroom. At the upper range of
hearing, a 20,000-hertz sound has a wavelength about the width of a finger.
Table 24.1: Frequency and Wavelength for Some Typical Sounds
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength Typical Source
20 17 m rumble of thunder
100 3.4 m bass guitar
500 70 cm (27”) average male voice
1,000 34 cm (13”) female soprano voice
2,000 17 cm (6.7”) fire truck siren
5,000 7 cm (2.7”) highest note on a piano
10,000 3.4 cm (1.3”) whine of a jet turbine
20,000 1.7 cm (0.67”) highest-pitched sound you can hear
Wavelengths of Differences in sound are due to differences in
sounds are both frequency and wavelength. If you want to
important make a sound of a certain wavelength (or
frequency), you need to have a vibrating object
that is similar in size to the wavelength of that
sound. So, how is a French horn able to produce
so many different sounds? A French horn makes
sound by vibrating the air trapped in a long
coiled tube. Short tubes only fit short
Figure 24.10: The frequency and
wavelengths and make higher-frequency sounds. wavelength of sound are inversely
Long tubes fit longer wavelengths and make related. When the frequency goes up, the
lower-frequency sounds (Figure 24.10). Opening wavelength goes down proportionally.
and closing the valves on a French horn allows
the player to add and subtract different-length
tubes, changing the frequency of the sound.
586
SOUND Chapter 24
Standing waves
What is a You just learned that a French horn makes sounds by confining waves within
standing wave - a wave that is
standing wave? tubes of different lengths. A wave that is confined in a space is called a confined in a space.
standing wave. It is possible to make standing waves of almost any kind,
fundamental - the lowest natural
including sound, water, and even light. You can experiment with standing frequency of an oscillator.
waves using a vibrating string. Vibrating strings create sound on a guitar or
piano. harmonic - one of many natural
frequencies of an oscillator.
Harmonics A string with a standing wave is a kind of
oscillator. Like all oscillators, a string has
natural frequencies. The lowest natural
frequency is called the fundamental. A
vibrating string also has other natural
frequencies called harmonics. The diagram at
the left shows the first three harmonics. You
can find the harmonic number by counting the
number of “bumps” or places of greatest
amplitude. The first harmonic has one bump,
the second has two, the third has three, and so
on. The place of highest amplitude on a string
is the antinode. The place where the string does
not move is called a node.
Resonance of Spaces enclosed by boundaries can create resonance with sound waves. Like a
sound French horn, a panpipe makes music when sound resonates in tubes of
different lengths (Figure 24.11). One end of each tube is closed and the other
end is open. Blowing across the open end of a tube creates a standing wave
inside the tube. The closed end of a pipe is a closed boundary and it makes a
node in the standing wave. The open end of a pipe is an open boundary to a
standing wave and makes an antinode. The pipe resonates to a certain
frequency when its length is one-fourth the wavelength of that frequency. If Figure 24.11: A panpipe is made
the pipe resonates at the fundamental frequency, then the wavelength of the from tubes of different lengths. The
fundamental is four times the length of the pipe. diagram shows the fundamental for a
standing wave of sound in a panpipe.
587
Chapter 24 SOUND
Interaction between sound waves and boundaries

Interactions of Like other waves, sound waves can be reflected by hard surfaces and
reverberation - multiple echoes of
sound and materials refracted as they pass from one material to another. Diffraction causes sound sound caused by reflections of sound
waves to spread out through small openings. Carpet and soft materials can building up and blending together.
absorb sound waves. Figure 24.12 illustrates these four sound interactions.
Reverberation In a good concert hall, the reflected sound and direct sound from the
musicians, along with sound reflected from the walls, creates a multiple echo
called reverberation. The right amount of reverberation makes the sound
seem livelier and richer. Too much reverberation and the sound gets
“muddy.” Concert hall designers choose the shape and surface of the walls
and ceiling to provide the best reverberation. Some concert halls have
movable panels that can be raised or lowered from the ceiling to help shape
the sound.
Constructing a good Direct sound (A) reaches the
concert hall listener along with reflected
sound (B, C) from the walls. The Figure 24.12: Sound displays all
the properties of waves in its
shape of the room and the interactions with materials and
surfaces of its walls must be boundaries.
designed and constructed so that
there is some reflected sound, but
not too much.
Using Your Ears
Interference can Reverberation also causes
Go to a concert hall, an auditorium, or
also affect sound interference of sound waves. When two waves interfere, the total can be even a smaller space. Make a map of
quality louder or softer than either wave alone. The diagram above shows a musician the place. Play music from one
and an audience of one person. The sound reflected from each wall interferes location. While the music is playing,
as it reaches the listener. If the distances are just right, one reflected wave walk around and identify where you
might be out of phase with the other. The result is that the sound is quieter at hear the music well and where you
hear dead spots. Add these details to
that spot. An acoustic engineer would call it a dead spot in the hall. Dead
your sketch.
spots are areas where destructive interference causes some of the sound to
cancel with its own reflections. It is also possible to make very loud spots
where sound interferes constructively. The best concert halls are designed to
minimize both dead spots and loud spots.
588
SOUND Chapter 24
24.2 Section Review

1. How could you increase the air pressure inside a bag containing a group
of air molecules?
2. Is sound a longitudinal or transverse wave? Justify your answer.
3. A 200-Hz sound has a wavelength about equal to the height of an adult.
Would a sound with a wavelength equal to the height of a two-year-old
child have a higher or lower frequency than 200 Hz?
4. For each situation, identify when sound would travel faster and why.
a. Outside on a winter day or outside on a summer day?
b. Through water or air? Figure 24.13: Question 5.
c. When air pressure is high or low?
d. Through a piece of wood that floats in water or through a piece of
steel that sinks in water?
e. Through a gas that is 90 percent nitrogen (N2) and 10 percent helium
(He) or through a gas that is 90 percent helium (He) and 10 percent How Long Does a Pipe Have to Be to
nitrogen (N2)? Play the Note E?
5. The first five harmonics for a vibrating string are shown in Figure 24.13. You wish to make a pipe that makes a
a. For each harmonic, identify the number of wavelengths represented. sound with a frequency of 660 Hz (the
note E). Use the relationship between
b. For each harmonic, identify the number of nodes and antinodes that wave speed and frequency to
are present (include the ends of the string in your count). determine the wavelength of this note.
c. Which of the five harmonics has the highest natural frequency? The pipe length needs to be one-fourth
the wavelength to make a resonance in
d. Make a drawing that shows what the sixth harmonic would look like. the fundamental mode. Assume the
6. A panpipe is made of five pipes. The longest pipe is 25 centimeters long speed of the sound is 340 m/s.
and the shortest is 5 centimeters long. Which of these pipe produces the .
highest-frequency sound and why?

7. Would a full concert hall have different reverberation from an empty
hall? Explain.
8. It is extremely difficult to play, record, and hear live music in a park or other
open space. Explain why this is so. Use the word reverberation in your answer.
9. You and your band want to record a CD in your basement. What might you
need to do to make your basement a good place for recording music?
589
Chapter 24 SOUND
24.3 Sound, Perception, and Music

Sound is everywhere in our environment. We use sound to communicate and we listen to sound for
information about what is going on around us. Our ears and brain are constantly receiving and
processing sound. In this section, you will learn about how we hear a sound wave and how the ear
and brain construct meaning from sound. This section will also introduce some of the science
behind music. Musical sound is a rich language of rhythm and frequency, developed over
thousands of years of human culture.
The perception and interpretation of sound

Constructing As you read this paragraph, you subconsciously recognize individual letters.
meaning from However, the meaning of the paragraph is not in the letters themselves. The
patterns meaning is in the patterns of how the letters make words and the words make
sentences. The brain does a similar thing with sound. A single frequency of
sound is like one letter. It does not have much meaning. The meaning in Figure 24.14: The recorded wave
form from 0.02 seconds of music.
sound comes from patterns of many frequencies changing together.
Ears hear many When you hear a sound, the nerves in your ear respond to more than 15,000
frequencies different frequencies at once. This is like having an alphabet with 15,000
at once letters! The brain interprets all 15,000 different frequency signals from the
You have probably
ear and creates a “sonic image” of the sound. heard of Johann
Complex sound Imagine listening to live music from a singer and a band. Your ears can easily Sebastian Bach. He
waves distinguish the voice from the instruments. How does this occur? The is considered one of
microphone records a single “wave form” of how pressure varies with time. the greatest western
composers. He was
The recorded wave form is very complex, but it contains all the sound from known for writing contrapuntal, or
the instruments and voice (Figure 24.14). counterpoint, music. An example of
How the brain finds The brain makes sense of this sound because the ears separate the sound into this style occurs when you sing “Row,
meaning different frequencies. Your brain, receiving signals from your ears, has Row, Row Your Boat” as a round. Find
out more about counterpoint and
learned to recognize certain patterns of how each frequency changes and gets Bach’s music. Then, listen to Bach’s
louder and softer over time. One pattern might be a sung word. Another The Art of Fugue. Write about your
might be a musical note from a guitar. Inside your brain is a “dictionary” that impressions of this music.
associates a meaning with a pattern of frequency the same way an ordinary
dictionary associates a meaning from a pattern of letters (a word).
590 SC.912.N.1.7-Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods and correlations.
SOUND Chapter 24
The frequency spectrum and the sonogram

Frequency spectrum A frequency spectrum is a graph that shows the amplitudes of different
frequency spectrum - a graph
frequencies present in a sound. Amplitude, or loudness, is represented on the that shows the amplitudes of different
y-axis, and frequency is shown on the x-axis. Sound containing many frequencies present in a sound.
frequencies has a wave form that is jagged and complicated. The wave form in sonogram - a graph that shows the
the Figure 24.15 is from an acoustic guitar playing the note E. The frequency frequency, amplitude, and time length
spectrum shows that the complex sound of the guitar is made from many for a sound.
frequencies, ranging up to 10,000 Hz and beyond.
What is a More information about a sound is available when a graph combines the
sonogram? variables—frequency, amplitude, and time. A sonogram shows frequency
on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. The loudness (amplitude)
is shown by a color range.
Reading a sonogram The sonogram below (left) shows the word hello lasting from 1.4 to
2.2 seconds. A sonogram of your voice (or anyone else’s) saying hello would
look different because every voice is unique. In this example, you can see that
there are many frequencies almost filling up the space between 0 and
5,000 Hz. The sonogram on the right is a simpler version of this type of graph.
Which bar represents a loud sound of 100 Hz lasting from 1 to 3 seconds
(A, B, C, or D)?
Complex sonogram A simple version of
of the word “hello” a sonogram
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 24.15: Each peak in the

spectrum represents the frequency and
amplitude of a wave that makes up the
wave form.
Time (s) Time (s)
Key
Soft Loud
Chapter 24 SOUND
How we hear sound

The cochlea The cochlea provides us with our ability to interpret sound—in other words,
our sense of hearing. However, the cochlea is in the inner ear (Figure 24.16).
Sound has to reach the cochlea by first entering the ear canal where it
encounters the eardrum. Here, the sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate.
Then, three delicate bones of the inner ear transmit these vibrations to the
side of the cochlea. In turn, fluid in the spiral channel of the cochlea vibrates
and creates waves. Nerves along the channel have tiny hairs that shake when
the fluid vibrates. Near the entrance, the channel is relatively large so the
nerves respond to longer-wavelength, lower-frequency sound. The nerves at
the small end of the channel respond to shorter-wavelength, higher-
frequency sound.
The semi-circular As you know, the function of our ears is hearing. But did you know that your
canals ears also provide you with your sense of balance? Near the cochlea in the
inner ear are three semicircular canals. Like the cochlea, each canal contains
fluid. The movement of this fluid in the canals indicates how the body is
moving (left–right, up–down, or forward–backward).
Human hearing In general, the combination of the eardrum, bones, and the cochlea limit the
range of human hearing to between 20 hertz and 20,000 hertz. However,
hearing varies greatly among different people and changes with age. Some
people can hear sounds above 15,000 Hz and other people can’t. On average,
people gradually lose high-frequency hearing with age. Most adults cannot
hear frequencies above 15,000 hertz, while children can often hear to
20,000 hertz.
Hearing can be Hearing is affected by exposure to loud or high-frequency
damaged by loud noise. Listening to loud sounds for a long time can cause
noise the hairs on the nerves in the cochlea to weaken or break Figure 24.16: The structure of the
inner ear. When the eardrum vibrates,
off, causing permanent damage. Therefore, it is important three small bones transmit the
to always protect your ears by keeping the volume of noise vibrations to the cochlea. The vibrations
at a low or reasonable level. It is also important to wear ear make waves inside the cochlea, which
protection if you have to stay in a loud place. In concerts, shake hairs attached to nerves in the
many musicians wear earplugs on-stage to protect their hearing. spiral. Each part of the spiral is
sensitive to a different frequency.
SOUND Chapter 24
Music
Pitch The pitch of a sound describes how high or low we hear its frequency. A
rhythm - a regular time pattern in a
higher frequency sound is heard as a higher pitch. However, because pitch series of sounds.
depends on the human ear and brain, the way we hear a sound can be affected
musical scale - a pattern of
by the sounds we heard before and after. frequencies.
Rhythm Rhythm is a regular time pattern in a series of sounds. Here is a rhythm you note - one frequency in a musical
can “play” on your desk: TAP-TAP-tap-tap-TAP-TAP-tap-tap. Play “TAP” scale.
louder than you play “tap.” Rhythm can be made with sound and silence or octave - a range defined as being
with different pitches. People respond naturally to rhythm. Cultures are between a single frequency value and
distinguished by their music and the special rhythms used in music. twice that frequency value. On a
The musical scale Music is a combination of sound and rhythm. Styles of music are vastly musical scale, these two notes would
have the same name.
different but all music is created from carefully chosen frequencies of sound.
Most of the music you listen to is created from a pattern of frequencies called a
musical scale. Each frequency in the scale is called a note. The C major
musical scale that starts on the note C (262 Hz) is shown in the diagram below.
The approximate frequencies of the notes in this scale are listed. Notice
that this scale begins and ends with C and that the higher C is twice the
frequency of the lower C. These two Cs are an octave apart. An octave is the Getting to Know Octaves
range between any given frequency and twice that frequency. Notes that are an 1. What is the frequency and name of
octave apart in frequency share the same name because they sound similar to the note that is one octave lower than
the ear. C-262 Hz?
2. What is the name and frequency of

the note that is two octaves higher
than A-440 Hz?
Chapter 24 SOUND
Consonance, dissonance, and beats

Harmony Harmony is the study of how sounds work together to create effects desired
beat - the oscillation between two
by the composer. From experience, you know that music can have a profound sounds that are close in frequency.
effect on people’s moods. For example, the tense, dramatic soundtrack of a
consonance - a combination of
horror movie is a vital part of the audience’s experience. Harmony is based on frequencies that sound pleasant.
the frequency relationships of the musical scale.
dissonance - a combination of
Beats When two frequencies of sound are not exactly equal in value, the loudness of frequencies that sound unpleasant.
the total sound seems to oscillate or beat. The diagram below illustrates how
beats occur for two waves occurring simultaneously. The superposition
principle states that when sound waves occur at the same time, they combine
to make a complex wave. The sound (amplitude) of this wave is louder than
either wave separately when the waves are in phase due to constructive
interference. When the waves are out of phase, the sound is quieter due to Bats and Beats
destructive interference. We hear the alternation in amplitude as beats. Bats use echolocation to navigate and
find insects for food. Like a “sonic
flashlight,” the bat’s voice “shines”
ultrasound waves into the night. The
sound occurs as “chirps,” short bursts
of sound that rise in frequency. When
the sound reflects off an insect, the
bat’s ears receive the echo. Since the
frequency of the chirp is always
changing, the echo comes back with a
slightly different frequency. The
difference between the echo and the
chirp makes beats that the bat can
hear. The beat frequency is
proportional to how far the insect is
Consonance and When we hear more than one frequency of sound and the combination sounds from the bat. A bat can even
dissonance pleasant, we call it consonance. When the combination sounds unsettling, determine where the insect is by
we call it dissonance. Consonance and dissonance are related to beats. comparing the echo it hears in the left
When frequencies are far enough apart that there are no beats, we get ear with what it hears in the right ear.
consonance. When frequencies are too close together, we hear beats that are
the cause of dissonance. In music, dissonance is often used to create tension
or drama. Consonance can be used to create feelings of balance and comfort.
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SOUND Chapter 24
Making sounds
Voices The human voice is a complex sound that starts in the larynx, a small, hollow
chamber at the top of your windpipe. The term vocal cords is a little
misleading because the sound-producing structures are not really cords but
folds of expandable tissue that extend across the larynx. The sound that starts
in the larynx is changed by passing through openings in the throat and mouth
(Figure 24.17). Different sounds are made by changing both the vibrations in
the larynx and the shape of the openings.
The guitar The guitar has become a central instrument in
popular music. Guitars come in many types
but share the common feature of making
Figure 24.17: Notice how the
sound from vibrating strings. A standard shape of the structures in the throat
guitar has six strings that are stretched along and mouth change as the human
the neck and body of the guitar. The strings voice creates the sounds AH, EE, EH,
have different weights and therefore different and OH.
natural frequencies.
For a guitar in standard tuning, the heaviest
string has a natural frequency of 82 hertz and
the lightest a frequency of 330 hertz. Each
string is stretched by a tension force of about
125 newtons (28 pounds). The combined
force from six strings on a folk guitar is more
than 750 newtons (170 pounds). The guitar is
tuned by changing the tension in each string.
Tightening a string raises its natural
frequency and loosening lowers it.
Each string can A typical guitar string is 63 centimeters long. To make different notes, the
make many notes vibrating length of a single string can be shortened by holding it down
between one of many metal bars across the guitar’s neck called frets
(Figure 24.18). The frequency goes up as the vibrating length of the string gets Figure 24.18: A guitarist can play a
shorter. A guitar with 20 frets and six strings can play 126 different notes, note by playing an “open string” or he
can shorten the length of a string by
some of which are duplicates. pressing down between frets.
Chapter 24 SOUND
Harmonics and the sound of instruments

Same note, different The same note sounds different when played on different instruments. As an
sound example, suppose you listen to the note C (262 Hz) played on a guitar and the
same C (262 Hz) played on a piano. A musician would recognize both notes
as being C because they have the same frequency and pitch. However, as you
know, a guitar sounds like a guitar and a piano sounds like a piano. If the
frequency of the note is the same, what gives each instrument its
characteristic sound?
Instruments make A guitar and a piano have recognizable sounds because each note played
mixtures of is not a single pure frequency. The most important frequency is still the
frequencies fundamental note (C-262 Hz, for example). The variation comes from the
harmonics. Remember, harmonics are frequencies that are multiples of the
fundamental note. We have already learned that a string can vibrate at many
harmonics. This is true for all instruments. A single C note from a grand
piano might include 20 or more different harmonics.
Recipes for sound Consider that every instrument has its own recipe for the frequency content
of its sound. Another word for “recipe” in this context is timbre. In Figure 24.19: The sound of the note
Figure 24.19, you can see how the mix of harmonics for a guitar compares to C (262 Hz) played on a piano and on a
guitar. Notice that the fundamental
the mix for a piano when both instruments play the note C (262 Hz). Here,
frequencies are the same but the
you can see that the timbre of a guitar is different from that of a piano. harmonics have different amplitudes.
Tuning and beats A tuning fork is a useful tool for tuning an instrument because it produces a
single frequency (Figure 24.20). Here’s how a tuning fork is used. Let’s say
the A string on a guitar is out of tune and its natural frequency is 445 hertz.
The correct frequency for A is 440 hertz. To tune the guitar, you need an A
tuning fork which will produce vibrations at 440 hertz when it is struck.
When you play the guitar string and listen to the tuning fork, you will hear a
beat frequency of 5 beats per second, or 5 hertz. The beat frequency becomes
zero when the string is tuned to the tuning fork so that both it and the guitar
string have a natural frequency of 440 hertz. The beats go away when the
string is in tune.
Figure 24.20: A tuning fork

produces a single frequency.
SOUND Chapter 24
24.3 Section Review

1. Do you hear sounds around you as one frequency at a time or as many
frequencies at once?
2. Which of the frequencies in Figure 24.21 is a soft sound that lasts five
seconds? What is the frequency of this sound?
3. What is the difference between a sonogram and a frequency spectrum?
4. If sound B has twice the amplitude of sound A, sound A is:
a. louder
b. softer
c. higher pitched Figure 24.21: Question 2.
d. lower pitched
5. How does the cochlea allow us to hear both low-frequency and high-
frequency sound?
6. What is the range of frequencies for human hearing?
7. If you were talking to an elderly person who was having trouble hearing
you, would it be better to talk in a deeper voice (low-frequency sound) or
a higher voice (high-frequency sound)?
8. What is one way that your body knows if it is upside down or not?
9. If two sound waves have exactly the same frequency, will you hear beats?
Why or why not?
10. A musician in a group plays a “wrong” note. Would this note disrupt the
harmony or the rhythm of the song being played? Explain your answer. Figure 24.22: Question 12.
11. The note G is 392 Hz. What is the frequency of this note one octave
higher?
12. Explain the appearance of the complex wave in Figure 24.22. In
particular, explain the areas of higher amplitude and lower amplitude.
13. Why does an A played on a violin sound different from the same note
played on a guitar?
14. How is the length of a string on a stringed instrument related to the length
of a pipe on panpipe? Use the words frequency and wavelength in your
answer.
597
MUSIC8CONNECTION
Chapter 24
Hearing
Deafness is poorly understood in general. For instance, there is a
common misconception that deaf people live in a world of silence.
To understand the nature of deafness, first one has to understand
the nature of hearing.
An Essay by Dame Evelyn Glennie Hearing is basically a specialized form of
Reprinted from www.evelyn.co.uk touch. Sound is simply vibrating air which
the ear picks up and converts to electrical
signals, which are then interpreted by the
Music represents life. A particular piece of music may describe a real, fictional brain. The sense of hearing is not the only
or abstract scene from almost any area of human experience or imagination. sense that can do this, touch can do this
It is the musicians job to paint a picture which communicates to the audience too. If you are standing by the road and
a large truck goes by, do you hear or feel
the scene the composer is trying to describe. I hope that the audience will
the vibration? The answer is both. With very low frequency vibration
be stimulated by what I have to say (through the language of music) and will the ear starts becoming inefficient and the rest of the body’s sense
therefore leave the concert hall feeling entertained. If the audience is instead of touch starts to take over. For some reason we tend to make a
only wondering how a deaf musician can play percussion then I have failed distinction between hearing a sound and feeling a vibration, in
as a musician. For this reason my deafness is not mentioned in any of the reality they are the same thing. It is interesting to note that in the
information supplied Italian language this distinction does not exist. The verb ‘sentire’
by my office to the means to hear and the same verb in the reflexive form ‘sentirsi’
press or concert means to feel. Deafness does not mean that you can’t hear, only
that there is something wrong with the ears. Even someone who is
promoters.
totally deaf can still hear/feel sounds.
Unfortunately, my
If we can all feel low frequency vibrations why can’t we feel higher
deafness makes
vibrations? It is my belief that we can, it’s just that as the frequency
good headlines. I
gets higher and our ears become more efficient they drown out the
have learnt from
more subtle sense of ‘feeling’ the vibrations. I spent a lot of time in
childhood that if
my youth (with the help of my school Percussion teacher Ron Forbes)
I refuse to discuss
refining my ability to detect vibrations. I would stand with my hands
my deafness
against the classroom wall while Ron played notes on the timpani
with the media
(timpani produce a lot of vibrations).
they will just
Eventually I managed to distinguish
make it up. The J.Wilson/©EG Images
the rough pitch of notes by associating
several hundred
where on my body I felt the sound with
articles and reviews written about me every year add up to a total
the sense of perfect pitch I had before
of many thousands, only a handful accurately describe my hearing
losing my hearing. The low sounds I feel
impairment. More than 90% are so inaccurate that it would seem
mainly in my legs and feet and high
impossible that I could be a musician. This essay is designed to set
sounds might be particular places on my
the record straight and allow people to enjoy the experience of
face, neck and chest.
being entertained by an ever evolving musician rather than some
freak or miracle of nature.
MUSIC8CONNECTION
Chapter 24
It is worth pointing out so we group all these processes together and call it simply
at this stage that I am not listening. The same is true for me. Some of the processes or original
totally deaf, I am profoundly information may be different but to hear sound all I do is to listen. I
deaf. Profound deafness have no more idea of how I hear than you do.
covers a wide range of
symptoms, although it is You will notice that more and more the answers are heading
commonly taken to mean towards areas of philosophy. Who can say that when two normally
that the quality of the sound hearing people hear a sound they hear the same sound? I would
heard is not sufficient to suggest that everyone’s hearing is different. All we can say is
be able to understand the that the sound picture built up by their brain is the same, so that
spoken word from sound J.Wilson/©EG Images
outwardly there is no difference. For me, as for all of us, I am better
alone. With no other sound at certain things with my hearing than others. I need to lip-read to
interfering, I can usually hear someone speaking although I cannot understand speech but my awareness of the acoustics in a concert
understand them without the additional input of lip-reading. In venue is excellent. For instance, I will sometimes describe an acoustic
my case the amount of volume is reduced compared with normal in terms of how thick the air feels.
hearing but more importantly the quality of the sound is very poor.
To summarize, my hearing is something that bothers other people
For instance when a phone rings I hear a kind of crackle. However, it
far more than it bothers me. There are a couple of inconveniences
is a distinctive type of crackle that I associate with a phone so I know
but in general it doesn’t affect my life much. For me, my deafness is
when the phone rings. This is basically the same as how normally
no more important than the fact I am female with brown eyes. Sure,
hearing people detect a phone, the phone has a distinctive type of
I sometimes have to find solutions to problems related to my hearing
ring which we associate with a phone. I can in fact communicate over
and music but so do all musicians. Most of us know very little
the phone. I do most of the talking whilst the other person can say a
about hearing, even though we do it all the time. Likewise, I don’t
few words by striking the transmitter with a pen, I hear this as clicks. I
know very much about deafness, what’s more I’m not particularly
have a code that depends on the number of strikes or the rhythm that
interested. I remember one occasion when uncharacteristically I
I can use to communicate a handful of words.
became upset with a reporter for constantly asking questions only
So far we have the hearing of sounds and about my deafness. I said: ‘If you want to know about deafness, you
the feeling of vibrations. There is one other should interview an audiologist. My speciality is music.’
element to the equation, sight. We can also see
In this essay I have tried to explain something which I find very
items move and vibrate. If I see a drum head
difficult to explain. Even so, no one really understands how I do
or cymbal vibrate or even see the leaves of a
what I do. Please enjoy the music and forget the rest.
tree moving in the wind then subconsciously
my brain creates a corresponding sound. A common and ill informed
Questions:
question from interviewers is ‘How can you be a musician when
you can’t hear what you are doing?’ The answer is of course that 1. Which two of your senses can convert sound waves to
I couldn’t be a musician if I were not able to hear. Another often electrical signals? Which do you use more frequently?
asked question is ‘How do you hear what you are playing?’ The
logical answer to this is; how does anyone hear?. An electrical signal 2. How did Evelyn Glennie’s percussion teacher help her refine
is generated in the ear and various bits of other information from her ability to distinguish pitch?
our other senses all get sent to the brain which then processes the
3. Describe an occasion when you have been able to see
data to create a sound picture. The various processes involved in
vibration caused by a sound wave.
hearing a sound are very complex but we all do it subconsciously
Chapter 24 SOUND
Vocabulary 11. ____ is a regular time pattern in a series of sounds.
12. A(n) ____ is a pattern of frequencies used by musicians.
13. The range between a frequency on a musical scale and a
consonance frequency spectrum note
frequency that is twice as great is called a(n)____.
decibel Doppler effect beat
standing wave musical scale reverberation
14. A graph that shows the frequency, amplitude, and time of a
sound such as a person saying a word is called a(n) ____.
octave supersonic pitch
fundamental rhythm harmonic 15. A combination of sounds of different frequencies that sound
sonogram dissonance
pleasant is called ____.
16. A combination of sounds of different frequencies that sound
Section 24.1
unpleasant is called ____.
1. A moving object that makes a sound will sound differently if
17. Each frequency on a musical scale is called a(n) ____.
the object is moving toward or away from you due to the
____.
2. The unit for measuring the loudness of a sound is the ____.
Concepts
3. How your ears hear and interpret a sound of a certain Section 24.1
frequency is called the ____. 1. Give an example of a sound with a high pitch and example of
4. ____ objects move faster than the speed of sound waves. a sound with a low pitch.
2. Explain how you can tell the difference between the voices of
Section 24.2
two people if they are saying the same word.
5. You can tell which ____ a vibrating string is experiencing by
counting the nodes and antinodes. 3. Approximately how many decibels is each of the following
sounds?
6. A(n) ____ is a wave confined or trapped in a certain space.
a. the cafeteria at your school at lunch
7. The ____ is the lowest natural frequency of an oscillator.
b. an alarm clock
8. A multiple echo in a concert hall or other room is called a(n)
____. c. a running sink faucet
4. Do all frequencies of sounds at 40 decibels seem equally loud
Section 24.3
to your ears? Explain.
9. A(n) ____ is a graph that shows the amplitudes of different
frequencies that make up a sound. 5. How fast do sound waves travel in air? How does this
compare to the speed of light waves?
10. As two sounds of slightly different frequencies go in and out
of phase, ____ can be heard. 6. What is a sonic boom?
600
SOUND Chapter 24
7. Why do sound waves travel faster in steel than in air or 18. The diagram to the right shows a harmonic of
water? a vibrating string.
8. A car honking its horn moves toward you. Does the horn’s a. Which harmonic is shown?
pitch sound higher or lower than it would if the car were b. How many wavelengths does the standing
parked? Explain. wave contain?
9. What does it mean to say a recording is in stereo? c. What is the wavelength of the standing
wave?
Section 24.2
10. Draw a diagram that shows what air molecules look like 19. List the four ways sound waves can interact
when a sound wave is traveling through the air. with materials and boundaries.
11. Does sound travel faster in warm or cold air? Why? Section 24.3
12. Does a person’s voice sound higher or lower after inhaling 20. How many different frequencies do nerves in
helium gas? Why? your ear sense at the same time when you hear a sound?
13. How is the wavelength of a sound wave related to its 21. Which type of graph gives more information, a frequency
frequency? spectrum or a sonogram? Explain.
14. Which would create sound waves with longer wavelengths, a 22. What do your ears sense in addition to sounds?
cat meowing or a bear growling? 23. Does the outer, larger part of the cochlea hear higher or
15. Why does a flute produce higher-pitched sounds than a lower frequencies?
tuba? 24. What can happen if a person listens to loud sounds for a long
16. What is the difference between a node and an antinode on a time?
standing wave? 25. What causes the alternation of loud and soft sounds that
17. Draw a standing wave on a string with six nodes and occur when similar frequencies are played together?
five antinodes. Which harmonic did you draw? 26. Which of the following guitar strings would have the highest
natural frequency?
a. a thick string that is very loose
b. a thick string that is tight
c. a thin string that is very loose
d. a thin string that is tight
27. What is the purpose of frets on a guitar?
28. How is the sound created by a tuning fork different from the
sound created by plucking a guitar string?
601
Chapter 24 SOUND
Problems Applying Your Knowledge

1. While you are at home, you hear the dishwasher with a 1. People can usually hear sounds with frequencies between 20
loudness of 40 dB and a siren outside with a loudness of and 20,000 Hz. Some animals can hear higher or lower
60 dB. How much greater is the amplitude of the siren’s frequencies than people can. Research to find out the
sound than the amplitude of the dishwasher’s sound? hearing ranges of several different animals.
2. A 100-hertz sound and a 10,000-Hz sound are heard at an 2. The Doppler effect is used to figure out whether stars are
equal loudness. If the 100-Hz sound is at 40 decibels, what is moving toward or away from Earth. Red light has a lower
the intensity of the 10,000-Hz sound? frequency than blue light. If the color of a star’s light shifts
3. A sound wave takes 0.2 seconds to travel 306 meters. What to red, is it moving toward or away from Earth?
is the speed of sound in this material? Through which of the 3. Light waves travel at 300,000 km/s. Sound waves in warm
materials in Figure 24.5 is the wave traveling? air travel at approximately 0.34 km/s. During a
Section 24.2 thunderstorm, a lightning bolt strikes 2 kilometers away
from you. How long does it take you to see the lightning?
4. Suppose you stand in front of a tall rock wall that is
How long does it take you to hear the thunder?
170 meters away. If you yell, how long does it take for the
echo to get back to your ears if the speed of sound is 340 m/s? Section 24.2
5. A sound wave has a speed of 340 m/s and a wavelength of 4. Science fiction movies sometimes show explosions in outer
10 meters. What is its frequency? Would you be able to hear space that make loud sounds. Explain why this is not
this sound? scientifically correct.
6. The range of human hearing is between 20 Hz and Section 24.3
20,000 Hz. If the speed of sound is 340 m/s, what is the 5. The beat frequency is the frequency of the loud and soft
longest wavelength you can hear? What is the shortest? sounds heard when two sounds create beats. It is calculated
Section 24.3 by subtracting the frequencies of the two different sound
waves. For example, playing 322-Hz and 324-Hz sounds will
7. The note E has a frequency of 330 Hz. What is the frequency
result in a beat frequency of 2 Hz. Suppose you strike two
of the E note one octave higher?
tuning forks and hear a beat frequency of 4 Hz. One tuning
8. A note has a frequency of 988 Hz. What is the frequency of fork has a frequency of 440 Hz. Can you determine the
the note one octave lower? What note is this? frequency of the other fork? Explain.
6. How do noise cancelling headphones work? Do they work
equally well for all types of sounds? Review the chapters in
this unit and do research to find the answers to these
questions.
602 LA.910.4.2.2-The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these sources and attributing sources
of information.
Chapter 25
Light
Why do people catch colds? For thousands of years people believed that
colds and other illnesses came from evil spirits. The world changed in
1673 when Anton Leeuwenhoek peered through a primitive microscope he had made.
To his astonishment he saw tiny creatures swimming around! Leeuwenhoek’s
discoveries revealed a miniature universe no human had ever seen before. He was
the first to see that a drop of pond water contains a tiny world of plants and animals.
Once the microscopic world was discovered, the causes of sickness could be
investigated. Today, we know that small forms of life, bacteria and viruses, are
usually what make you sick. Microscopes and telescopes are based on optics, the
science and technology of light. By manipulating light, optical devices greatly
enhance our eyesight so that we can see things that are miniscule or
astronomically far away.
Why can I see myself in a mirror but not

when I look at the floor or a bare wall?
Is it possible to make an object disappear?

How do lenses work?
Chapter 25 LIGHT
25.1 Properties of Light

Every time you “see,” you are using light. You can’t see anything in complete darkness! Whether light - a form of electromagnetic
you are looking at a light bulb, a car, or this book, light brings information to your eyes. In fact, energy that makes things visible.
seeing means receiving light and forming images in your mind from the light received by your
eyes. This chapter is about light—where it comes from, its many useful properties, how it is
related to color.
What is light?
Light is a form Light, like sound and heat, is a form of energy. Our understanding of light
of energy starts with what light does and what its properties are (Figure 25.1). We
know that light:
• travels extremely fast and over long distances;
• carries energy and information;
• travels in straight lines;
• bounces and bends when it comes in contact with objects;
• has color; and
• has different intensities, and can be bright or dim.
Seeing with What happens when you “see” this page? Light in the room reflects off the
reflected light page and into your eyes. The reflected light carries information about the
page that your brain uses to make a mental picture of the page. You see
because light in the room reflects from the page into your eyes. If you were
sitting in a perfectly dark room with no light, you would not be able to see Figure 25.1: Here are some words
this page at all because the page does not give off its own light. We see most and properties that are associated with
light. What words do you use to describe
of the world by reflected light.
light?
LIGHT Chapter 25
Most light comes from atoms

The electric light For most of human history, people relied on the Sun, the Moon, and fire
incandescence - a process that
to provide light. Thomas Edison’s electric light bulb (1879) changed our makes light with heat.
dependence on fire and daylight forever. The electric light is one of the
fluorescence - a process that
most important inventions in the progress of human development. makes light directly from electricity.
Light is produced Whether in an electric bulb or in the Sun, light is mostly produced by atoms.
by atoms Here’s an analogy. When you stretch a rubber band, you give the rubber band
elastic energy. You can use that energy to launch a paper airplane. In this case,
the energy is released as kinetic energy of the flying airplane. In this same
way, atoms release energy by giving off light.
Incandescent In order to get light out of an atom, you must first put some energy into the
light bulbs atom. One way to do this is with heat. Making light with heat is called
incandescence. Incandescent bulbs use electric current to heat a thin wire,
or filament. Atoms in the filament convert electrical energy to heat and then
to light. Unfortunately, incandescent bulbs are not very efficient. Only a
fraction of the energy of electricity is converted into light. Most of the energy
becomes heat (Figure 25.2). Some incandescent bulbs are actually designed to Figure 25.2: An incandescent bulb
make heat. makes light by heating a metal filament.
Fluorescent A better kind of electric light comes from a fluorescent bulb (Figure 25.3).
light bulbs Fluorescent bulbs are used in schools, businesses, and homes because they are
much more efficient than incandescent bulbs. Compared with a standard
incandescent bulb, you get four times as much light from a fluorescent bulb
for the same amount of electrical energy.
How fluorescent To make light, fluorescent bulbs use high-voltage electricity to energize
bulbs make light atoms of gas in the bulb. These atoms release the electrical energy directly as
light (not heat), in a process called fluorescence. The atoms in a fluorescent
bulb give off high-energy ultraviolet light, the same kind of light that causes
sunburn. The ultraviolet light is absorbed by other atoms in a white coating on
the inside surface of the bulb. This coating re-emits the energy as white light
that we can see. Even with this two-step process, fluorescent bulbs are still
four times more efficient at producing light than incandescent bulbs. Figure 25.3: How fluorescent bulbs
generate light.
Chapter 25 LIGHT
Color and energy

White light When all the colors of the rainbow are combined, we see light without any
white light - light containing an
color. We call the combination of all colors white light. The light that is all equal mix of all colors.
around us most of the time is white light. The light from the Sun and the light
color - the sensation created by the
from most electric lights is white light. different energies of light falling on
your eye.
photon - the smallest possible
amount of light, in the form of a
wave-bundle.
What is color? Not all light has the same energy. Color is how we perceive the energy of
light. This definition of color was proposed by Albert Einstein. All of the
colors in the rainbow are light of different energies. Red light has the lowest
energy we can see, and violet light has the highest energy. As we move
through the rainbow from red to yellow to blue to violet, the energy of the
light increases.
Color and energy What do we mean when we talk about the energy of light? Compare the blue
flame from a gas stove to the orange flame of a match. The gas flame has
more energy than the cooler flame of the match. The light from a gas flame is
blue (high energy) and the light from a match is red-orange (low energy)
(Figure 25.4).
Photons Just as matter is made of atoms, light
energy comes in tiny wave-bundles
called photons. In some ways,
photons act like jellybeans of
different colors. Each photon has its
own color (energy), no matter how
you mix them up. The lowest-energy Figure 25.4: High-energy flames
photons we can see are dull red and such as the ones from a gas stove
the highest-energy photons are blue- produce blue light. Fire flames are lower
violet. energy and produce yellow-red light.
LIGHT Chapter 25
The speed of light

Comparing the Think about what happens when you shine a flashlight on a wall that is far
Light is Faster than Sound
speeds of sound away. You don’t see a time delay as the light leaves your flashlight, travels to
and light the wall, bounces off, and comes back to your eyes. But that is exactly what The speed of light is about 300 million
meters per second, or 186,000 miles
happens. You don’t notice it because it happens so fast. Suppose the wall is
per second. At 15°C, the speed of
170 meters away. The light travels to the wall and back in about one millionth sound is about 340 meters per second
of a second (0.000001 s). Sound travels much slower than light. If you shout, or one mile every five seconds. You
you will hear an echo one full second later from the sound bouncing off can use the speed of sound to
the wall and back to your ears. Light travels almost a million times faster determine how far away a lightning
than sound! strike has occurred.
When you see lightning, begin
counting seconds until you hear
thunder. Divide the number of
seconds you count by 5. The result is
the distance in miles between where
you are and where the lightning
struck.
The speed of light, The speed at which light travels through air is about 300 million meters per
c = 3 × 108 m/s second. Light is so fast, it can travel around the entire Earth 7.5 times in
1 second. The speed of light is so important in physics that it is given its own
symbol, a lower case c. When you see this symbol in a formula, remember
that it means the speed of light (c = 300,000,000 m/s).
Why you hear The speed of light is so fast that when lightning strikes a few miles away, we
thunder after you hear the thunder several seconds after we see the lightning. At the point of the
see lightning lightning strike, the thunder and lightning are simultaneous. But just a mile
away from the lightning strike, the sound of the thunder is already about
5 seconds behind the flash of the lightning. You can use this information to
calculate how far you are away from a thunderstorm (see the sidebar at right).
SC.912.P.12.7-Recognize that nothing travels faster than the speed of light in vacuum which is the same for all observers no matter how they or the light source are moving. 607
Chapter 25 LIGHT
The wavelength and frequency of light

Wavelength of light The wavelength of visible light is very small. For example, waves of orange
nanometer - a unit of length equal
light have a length of only 0.0000006 meter. Because the wavelength of light to one billionth of a meter
is so small, scientists use nanometers to measure it. One nanometer (nm) is (0.000000001 m).
one billionth of a meter (0.000000001 m). Figure 25.5 shows the size of a
light wave relative to other small things. Thousands of wavelengths of red
light would fit in the width of a single hair on your head!
Frequency of light The frequency of light waves is very high. For example, red light has a
frequency of 460 trillion, or 460,000,000,000,000 cycles per second. To
manage these large numbers, scientists use units of terahertz (THz) to
measure light waves. One THz is a trillion Hz (1,000,000,000,000 Hz).
Wavelength, As with other waves, the wavelength and frequency of light are inversely
frequency, color, related. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases. Red light has a lower
and energy frequency and longer wavelength than blue light. Blue light has a higher
frequency and shorter wavelength than red light.
As you can see from the table above, energy and frequency are directly
related. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy. Since color is Figure 25.5: The sizes of some
related to energy, the table also shows the relationships between color, objects compared to the wavelength
frequency, and wavelength. of a light wave.
LIGHT Chapter 25
What kind of wave is light?

Light comes from A sound wave is an oscillation of air. A water wave is an oscillation of the
electromagnetic wave - a wave
electricity and surface of water. What is oscillating in a light wave? The answer is electricity of electricity and magnetism that
magnetism and magnetism. Imagine you have two magnets. One hangs from a string travels at the speed of light. Light is
and the other is in your hand. If you wave the magnet in your hand back an electromagnetic wave.
and forth, you can make the magnet on the string sway back and forth, too
(Figure 25.6). How does the oscillation of one magnet get to the other one? In
Chapter 22 you learned that magnets create an invisible magnetic field around
themselves. When you move a magnet in your hand back and forth, you make
a change in the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field causes the other
magnet to move. In a similar way, the force between two electric charges is
carried by an electric field.
Electromagnetic Any change in the electric or magnetic field travels at the speed of light. If
waves you could shake your magnet (or electric charge) back and forth 100 million
times per second you would make an electromagnetic wave. In fact, it would
be an FM radio wave at 100 million Hz (100 MHz). An electromagnetic
wave is a traveling oscillation in the electric and magnetic field.
The hard way to If you could shake the magnet up and down
make red light 450 trillion times per second, you would
make waves of red light. Red light is a
traveling oscillation (wave) in the electric
and magnetic fields with a frequency of
about 450 THz.
Oscillations of Anything that creates an oscillation of electricity or magnetism also creates

electricity or electromagnetic waves. If you switch electricity on and off repeatedly in a
magnetism create wire, the oscillating electricity makes an electromagnetic wave. This is
light waves exactly how radio towers make radio waves. Electric currents oscillate up and
down the metal towers and create electromagnetic waves of the right Figure 25.6: Magnets influence
each other through the magnetic field.
frequency to carry radio signals. Charges influence each other through
the electric field.
Chapter 25 LIGHT
The electromagnetic spectrum

Waves in the The entire range of electromagnetic waves, including all possible
electromagnetic spectrum -
electromagnetic frequencies, is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic the entire range of electromagnetic
spectrum spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, waves, including all possible
X-rays, and gamma rays. As you can see from the chart below, we use frequencies, such as radio waves,
electromagnetic waves for all kinds of human technologies. microwaves, X-rays, and gamma
rays.
X-rays
X-rays are
high-energy
electro-
magnetic
waves used in
medicine and
industry. The
wavelength
range is from about 10 nanometers
to about 0.001 nm (or 10-trillionths of
a meter). When you get a medical
X-ray, the film darkens where bones
are because calcium and other
elements in your bones absorb the
X-rays before they reach the film.
X-rays show the extent of an injury
Properties of You can see that visible light is a small group of frequencies in the middle of such as a broken bone.
electromagnetic the spectrum, between infrared and ultraviolet. The rest of the spectrum is
waves invisible for the same reason you cannot see the magnetic field between two
magnets. The energies are either too low or too high for the human eye to Who discovered that white light
detect. Visible light includes only the electromagnetic waves with the range contains all colors? How was the
of energy that can be detected by the human eye. Some insects and animals discovery made? When was it made?
can see other frequencies, including some infrared and some ultraviolet light. This famous scientist is mentioned
in this book, but not in connection
with light!
LIGHT Chapter 25
25.1 Section Review

1. Which of the following is not a property of light? The speed of light is frequency
a. light is a form of matter less dense than air multiplied by wavelength, the same as
for other waves. Suppose you make
b. light travels in straight lines light with a frequency of 600 THz.
c. light has different colors a) What is the wavelength of this light?
d. light has different intensities, and can be bright or dim b) Describe what color the light would
2. If a room were completely dark, could you see your hand? Could you see appear to your eye.
a television screen? Explain the difference. You will have to use scientific notation
3. Most light comes from to solve this problem with your
a. vibrating surfaces calculator. If necessary, ask your
teacher or a friend for help.
b. atoms
c. conversion of frequency to wavelength
4. Compared to sound waves, the frequency of light waves is:
a. much lower
b. about the same
c. much higher
5. Which electromagnetic wave has less energy than visible light and more
energy than radio waves?
a. microwaves
b. ultraviolet light
c. gamma rays
d. X-rays
6. How are all electromagnetic waves similar? How are they different?
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Chapter 25 LIGHT
25.2 Color and Vision

The energy of light explains how different colors are physically different. But it doesn’t explain
how we see colors. How does the human eye see color? The answer to this question also explains
why computers and TVs can make virtually all colors by combining only three colors!
The human eye

Photoreceptors Light enters your eye through the lens then lands on the retina. On the
surface of the retina are light-sensitive cells called photoreceptors
(Figure 25.7). When light hits a photoreceptor cell, the cell releases a
chemical signal that travels along the optic nerve to the brain. In the brain,
the signal is translated into a perception of color.
Cone cells respond Our eyes have two kinds of photoreceptors, called cones and rods. Cones
to color (or cone cells) respond to color (Figure 25.7). There are three types of cone
cells. One type responds best to low-energy (red) light. Another type
responds best to medium-energy (green) light. The third type responds
best to higher-energy (blue) light.
Rod cells respond to The second kind of photoreceptors are called rods or rod cells. Rods respond
light intensity to differences in light intensity, but not to color (Figure 25.7). Rod cells
“see” black, white, and shades of gray. However, rod cells are much more
sensitive than cone cells. At night, colors seem washed out because there is
not enough light for cone cells to work. When the light level is very dim, you
see “black and white” images from your rod cells.
Black-and-white A human eye has about 130 million rod cells and 7 million cone cells. Each Figure 25.7: The human eye has two
vision is sharper cell contributes a “dot” to the image assembled by your brain. Because there types of photoreceptors—cones and rods.
than color vision are more rod cells, things look sharpest when there is a big difference Cones respond to color and rods respond
between light and dark. That’s why black letters on a white background are to the intensity of light.
easier to read than colored letters. Each cone cell “colors” the signals from
the surrounding rod cells. Because there are fewer cone cells, our color
vision is less sharp than our black-and-white vision.
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LIGHT Chapter 25
How we see colors

The additive Because there are three kinds of cone cells, our eyes work by adding three
color process signals to “see” different colors. The color you “see” depends on how much
energy is received by each of the three different types of cone cells. The brain
thinks “green” when there is a strong signal from the green cone cells but no
signal from the blue or red cone cells (Figure 25.8).
How we What color would you see if light creates
perceive color signals from both the green cones and the red
cones? If you guessed yellow, you are right.
We see yellow when the brain sees yellow
light or when it gets an equally strong signal
from both the red and the green cone cells at
the same time. Whether the light is actually
yellow, or a combination of red and green, the Figure 25.8: If the brain gets a
cones respond the same way and we perceive signal from only the green cone, we see
yellow. If the red signal is stronger than the green.
green signal we see orange (Figure 25.9). If all three cones send an equal
signal to the brain, we see white.
Two ways to The human eye can be “tricked” into seeing any color by adding different
see a color percentages of red, green, and blue. For example, an equal mix of red and
green light looks yellow. However, the light itself is still red and green! The
mix of red and green creates the same response in your cone cells as does true
yellow light.
Do animals To the best of our knowledge, primates (such as chimpanzees and gorillas) are
see colors? the only animals with three-color vision similar to that of humans. Some birds
and insects can see ultraviolet light which humans cannot see. Dogs, cats, and
some squirrels are thought to have only two color photoreceptors. Although
both octopi and squid can change their body color better than any other
animal, we believe they cannot detect color with their own eyes!
Figure 25.9: If there is a strong red

signal and a weak green signal, we see
orange.
Chapter 25 LIGHT
Making an RGB color image

The RGB color Color images in TVs and computers are based on the RGB color model.
RGB color model - a model for
process RGB stands for “Red-Green-Blue.” If you look at a TV screen with a tricking the eye into seeing almost
magnifying glass, you see thousands of tiny red, green, and blue pixels any color by mixing proportions of
(Figure 25.10). A television makes different colors by lighting red, green, red, green, and blue light.
and blue pixels to different percentages. For example, a light brown tone is pixel - a single dot that forms part of
88 percent red, 85 percent green, and 70 percent blue. A computer monitor an image made of many dots.
works the same way.
Pixels make TVs, digital cameras, and computers make images from thousands of pixels.
up images An ordinary TV picture is 640 pixels wide × 480 pixels high, for a total of
243,200 pixels. A high-definition picture looks sharper because it contains
more pixels. In the 720p format, HDTV images are 1,280 pixels wide × 720
pixels high, for a total of 921,600 pixels. This is four times as sharp as a
standard TV image.
How video cameras Like the rods and cones in your retina, a video camcorder has tiny light
create color images sensors on a small chip called a CCD (Charge-Coupled Device). There are
three sensors for each pixel of the recorded image, red, green, and blue. In
HDTV that means each recorded image contains 921,600 × 3 = 2,764,800
numbers. To create the illusion of motion, the camera records 30 images
per second. In terms of data, the HDTV movie you watch represents
2,764,800 × 30, or about 83 million numbers every second.
Figure 25.10: A television makes
colors using tiny glowing dots of red,
green, and blue.
614 SC.912.N.3.5-Describe the function of models in science, and identify the wide range of models used in science.
LIGHT Chapter 25
How objects appear to be different colors

What gives objects Your eye creates a sense of color by responding to red, green, and blue
their color? light. You don’t see objects in their own light, you see them in reflected
light! A blue shirt looks blue because it reflects blue light into your eyes
(Figure 25.11). However, the shirt did not make the blue light. The color blue
is not in the cloth. The blue light you see is blue light mixed into white light
that shines on the cloth. You see blue because the other colors in white light
have been subtracted out (Figure 25.12).
The subtractive Colored fabrics and paints get color from a
color process subtractive color process. Chemicals
known as pigments in dyes and paints
absorb some colors and reflect other
colors. Pigments work by taking away
colors from white light, which is a mixture
of all the colors. Figure 25.11: Why is a blue shirt
blue?
The subtractive To make all colors by subtraction we need three primary pigments. We need
primary colors one that absorbs blue (reflects red and green). This pigment is called yellow.
We need another pigment that absorbs green (reflects red and blue). This is a
pink-purple pigment called magenta. The third pigment is cyan, which
absorbs red (reflects green and blue). Cyan is a greenish shade of light blue.
Magenta, yellow, and cyan are the three subtractive primary colors (see
illustration above). Different proportions of the three subtractive primary
colors change the amount of reflected red, green, and blue light.
How white is white? A blue shirt won’t look blue in red light! It will look black! The subtractive
color model assumes a painted or dyed surface is seen in white sunlight
containing a precise mix of colors. If the “white” has a different mix than
sunlight, colors don’t look right. This is why home videos made under Figure 25.12: The pigments in a
fluorescent lights often look greenish. The white from fluorescent lights has a blue cloth absorb all colors except blue.
slightly different mix of colors than the white from sunlight. You see blue because blue light is
reflected to your eyes.
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Chapter 25 LIGHT
The CMYK color process

A subtractive The subtractive color process is often called CMYK for the four pigments it
CMYK - the subtractive color
color process uses. CMYK stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The letter K process using cyan, magenta,
stands for black because the letter B is used for the color blue in RGB. Color yellow, and black to create colors in
printers and photographs use CMYK. reflected light.
CMYK are pigments The three pigments—cyan, magenta, and yellow—can combine in different
proportions to make any color of reflected light. Figure 25.13 shows how
CMYK pigments make green. Theoretically, mixing cyan, magenta, and
yellow should make black, but in reality the result is only a muddy gray. This
is why a fourth color, pure black, is included in the CMYK process.
Figure 25.13: Creating the color

green using cyan and yellow paints.
LIGHT Chapter 25
Why plants are green

Light is necessary Plants absorb energy from light and convert it to chemical energy in the form
for photosynthesis of sugar. This process is called photosynthesis. The vertical (y) axis of the
graph in Figure 25.14 shows the percentage of different colors of light that are
absorbed by a plant. The x-axis on the graph shows the colors of light. The
graph line shows how much and which colors of visible light are absorbed by
plants. Based on this graph, can you explain why plants look green?
Why most plants The important molecule that absorbs
are green light in a plant is called chlorophyll.
There are several forms of chlorophyll.
They absorb mostly blue and red light,
and reflect green light. This is why most
plants look green. The graph in
Figure 25.14 shows that plants absorb
red and blue light to grow. A plant will
die if placed under only green light!
Figure 25.14: Plants absorb
Plants reflect some Why don’t plants absorb all colors of light? The reason is the same reason you energy from light. The plant pigment
light to keep cool wear light-colored clothes when it’s hot outside. Like you, plants must reflect chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light,
some light to avoid absorbing too much energy and overheating. Plants use and reflects green light. This is why
plants look green!
visible light because the energy is just enough to change certain chemical
bonds, but not enough to completely break them. Ultraviolet light has more
energy but would break chemical bonds. Infrared light has too little energy to
What About Red Plants?
change chemical bonds.
All plants that use sunlight to grow
Why leaves The leaves of some plants, such as sugar maple trees, turn brilliant red or gold have chlorophyll, but some do not
change color in the fall. Chlorophyll masks other plant pigments during the spring and look green. Come up with a
summer. In the fall, when photosynthesis slows down, chlorophyll breaks hypothesis to explain this observation.
down and red, orange, and yellow pigments in the leaves are revealed.
Chapter 25 LIGHT
25.2 Section Review

1. If humans have only three kinds of color photoreceptors, how can we see
so many different colors?
2. Why is it easier to read black text on a white background than to read
green text or text of any light color?
3. Why might it be a good idea to put a light in your clothes closet? (Hint:
What kind of vision do we have in dim light?)
4. Do you think this text book was printed using the CMYK color process
or the RGB color process? Explain your answer.
5. If you were going to design the lighting for a play, would you need to
understand the CMYK color process, the RGB color process, or both?
6. Suppose you have cyan, magenta, yellow, and black paint. Which colors
would you mix to get blue?
7. Why does static on a television screen appear white? Figure 25.15: Question 12.
8. How is the color black produced in the CMYK color process? How does
this differ from the RGB color process?
Pictures from Dots
9. A red shirt appears red because
a. the shirt reflects red light A color printer, such as an inkjet
printer, makes color images by
b. the shirt absorbs red light printing small dots. If there were only
c. the shirt emits green and blue light four dots per inch, your eye would see
d. the shirt reflects magenta and blue light the individual dots instead of the
picture the dots are supposed to
10. Some plants that grow in shady areas have dark green or even purple make. How many dots must there be
leaves. Come up with a hypothesis to explain this observation. (per inch) to trick the eye into seeing a
11. What would happen if you tried to grow a green plant in pure green smooth image? How many dots per
light? Would the plant live? Explain your answer. inch do printers around your home or
office use?
12. Propose an explanation for how the top image in Figure 25.15 is related
to the four images below it.
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LIGHT Chapter 25
25.3 Optics
Optics is the science and technology of light. Almost everyone has experience with optics. For lens - an optical device for bending
light rays.
example, trying on new glasses, checking your appearance in a mirror, or admiring the sparkle
from a diamond ring all involve optics. mirror - a surface that reflects light
rays.
Basic optical devices prism - a glass shape with flat,
polished surfaces that can both bend
Lenses A lens bends light in a specific way. A converging lens bends light so that the and reflect light.
light rays come together in a point. This is why a magnifying glass makes a
hot spot of concentrated light (Figure 25.16). A diverging lens bends light so
it spreads light apart instead of bringing it together. An object viewed through
a diverging lens appears smaller than it would look without the lens.
Mirrors A mirror reflects light and allows you to see yourself. Flat mirrors show a
true-size image. Curved mirrors distort images. The curved surface of a fun
house mirror can make you look appear thinner, wider, or even upside down!
Prisms A prism is usually made of a solid piece of glass with flat polished surfaces.
A common triangular prism is shown in the picture below. Prisms can both
bend and/or reflect light. Telescopes, cameras, and supermarket laser scanners
use prisms of different shapes to bend and reflect light in precise ways. A
diamond is a prism with many flat, polished surfaces. The “sparkle” that
makes diamonds so attractive comes from light being reflected many times as
it bounces around the inside of a cut and polished diamond. Figure 25.16: A magnifying glass
is a converging lens. This is why a
magnifying glass can be used to make
a hot spot of concentrated light. You
should not try this yourself—the science
is interesting, but can be unsafe.
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Chapter 25 LIGHT
Four ways that light is affected by matter

The four interactions When light interacts with matter, such as glass, wood, or anything else, there
transparent - allows light rays to
are four things that can happen (Figure 25.17). pass through without scattering.
• The light can go through almost unchanged (transparency). translucent - allows light rays
• The light can go through but be scattered (translucency). through but scatters them in all
• The light can bounce off (reflection). directions.
• The light can transfer its energy to the material (absorption).
Transparency Materials that allow light to pass through are called transparent. Polished
glass is transparent, as are some kinds of plastic. Air is also transparent. You
can see an image though a transparent material if the material’s surface is
smooth, like a glass window.
Translucency An object is translucent if some light can pass through but the light is
scattered in many directions. Tissue paper is translucent, and so is frosted
glass. Try holding a sheet of tissue paper up to a window. You can’t see an
image through it.
Reflection and Almost all surfaces reflect some light. A mirror is a very good reflector but a
absorption sheet of white paper is also a good reflector. The difference is in how they
reflect. When light is absorbed, its energy is transferred. That is why a black
road surface gets hot on a sunny day. A perfect absorber looks black because
it reflects no light at all.
All interactions All four interactions almost always happen
at once together. A glass window is mostly
transparent but also absorbs about 10
percent of light. The glass scatters some
light (translucency) and reflects some light.
The same material also behaves differently
depending on how well the surface is
polished. Frosted glass has a rough surface Figure 25.17: The four interactions
and is translucent. Look at the illustration at the left. Green colored paper of light with matter.
absorbs some light, reflects some light, and is partly translucent. Can you tell
which colors are absorbed and which are reflected?
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LIGHT Chapter 25
Light rays
What are light rays? When light moves through a material, it travels in straight lines. Diagrams
light ray - an imaginary line that
that show how light travels use straight lines and arrows to represent light represents a beam of light.
rays. Think of a light ray as a thin beam of light, like a laser beam. The arrow
reflection - the process of light
shows the direction the light is moving. rays bouncing off a surface. Light
Reflection and When light rays move from one material to another, the rays may bounce or reflects from a mirror.
refraction bend. Reflection occurs when light bounces off a surface. Refraction occurs refraction - the process of bending
when light bends while crossing a surface or moving through a material. while crossing a surface. Light
Reflection and refraction cause many interesting changes in the images we refracts passing from air into water
or back.
see.
Reflection creates When you look in a mirror, objects that are in front of the mirror appear as if
images in mirrors they are behind the mirror. Light from the object strikes the mirror and
reflects to your eyes. The image reaching your eyes appears to your brain as if
the object really was behind the mirror. This illusion happens because your
brain “sees” the image where it would be if the light reaching your eyes had
traveled in a straight line.
Refraction changes When light rays travel from air to water, they refract. This is why a straw in a
how objects look glass of water looks broken or bent at the water’s surface (Figure 25.18).
Figure 25.18: Refraction bends light
Look at some objects through a glass of water; move the glass closer and rays so the straw appears to be in a
farther away from the objects. What strange illusions do you see? different place!
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Reflection
What is reflection? When you look directly into a mirror, your image appears to be the same
specular reflection - “shiny”
distance from the other side of the mirror as you are on your side of the surface reflection, where each
mirror. If you step back, so does your image. Reflected light forms images in incident ray produces only one
mirrors. reflected ray.
The angle of Imagine a ray of light striking a mirror. The incident ray is the light ray that diffuse reflection - “dull” surface
incidence equals the strikes the surface of the mirror. The reflected ray is the light ray that reflection, where each incident ray
produces many scattered rays.
angle of reflection bounces off the surface of the mirror (Figure 25.19, top).The lower part of
Figure 25.19 shows the reflection of a light ray. The angle of incidence is the
angle between the incident ray and an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to
the surface of the mirror called the normal line. Perpendicular means “at a
90 degree angle,” also called a right angle. The angle of reflection is the
angle between the reflected light ray and the normal line. The Law of
Reflection which states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
Regular and When you look in a mirror, you can see your image because when parallel
scattered reflection light rays hit the mirror at the same angle, they are all reflected at the same
angle. This is called specular reflection. You can’t see your image when
you look at a white piece of paper because even though it seems smooth, its
surface has tiny bumps on it. When parallel light rays hit a bumpy surface,
the bumps reflect the light rays at different angles. Light rays reflected at
different angles cause scattered reflection. Many surfaces, for example,
polished wood, are in-between rough and smooth and create both types of
reflection.
Figure 25.19: The Law of Reflection

states that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
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LIGHT Chapter 25
Refraction
The index of Eyeglasses, telescopes, binoculars, and fiber optics are a few inventions that
index of refraction - a number
refraction use refraction to change the direction of light rays. Different materials have that measure how much a material is
different abilities to bend light. Materials with a higher index of refraction able to bend light.
bend light by a greater angle. The index of refraction for air is approximately
1.00. Water has an index of refraction of 1.33. A diamond has an index of
refraction of 2.42. Diamonds sparkle because of their high index of refraction.
Table 25.1 lists the index of refraction for some common materials. A Trick of Refraction
Table 25.1: The Index of Refraction for Some Common Materials If two materials have the same index
of refraction, light doesn’t bend at all.
Material Index of Refraction Here’s a neat trick you can do with a
Air 1.00 glass rod. You see the edges of a
glass rod because of refraction. The
Water 1.33 edge appears dark because light is
Ice 1.31 refracted away from your eyes.
Glass 1.45–1.65 Vegetable oil and glass have almost
Diamond 2.42 the same index of refraction. If you put
a glass rod into a glass cup containing
The direction a When light goes from air into glass (A), it bends toward the normal line vegetable oil, the rod disappears
light ray bends because glass has a higher index of refraction than air. When the light goes because light is not refracted around
from glass into air again (B), it bends away from the normal line. Coming its edges!
out of the glass, the light ray is going into air with a lower index of refraction
than glass.
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Chapter 25 LIGHT
Lenses
A lens and its An ordinary lens is a polished, transparent disc, usually made of glass. The
converging lens - a lens that
optical axis surfaces are curved to refract light in a specific way. The exact shape of a bends exiting light rays toward the
lens’s surface depends on how strongly and in what way the lens needs to focal point.
bend light. diverging lens - a lens that bends
How light travels The most common lenses, converging lenses, have surfaces shaped like part exiting light rays outward, away from
through a of a sphere. Any radius of a sphere is also a normal line to the surface. When the focal point.
converging lens light rays fall on a spherical surface from air, they bend toward the normal
line (Figure 25.20). For a converging lens, the first surface (air to glass)
bends light rays toward the normal line. At the second surface (glass to air),
the rays bend away from the normal line. Because the second surface “tilts”
the other way, it also bends rays toward the focal point.
Focal point and Light rays that enter a converging lens parallel to its axis bend to meet at a
focal length point called the focal point (see illustration below). Light can go through a
lens in either direction, so there are always two focal points, one on either
side of the lens. The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point is
the focal length. The focal length is usually (but not always) the same for
both focal points of a lens.
Figure 25.20: Most lenses have
spherically shaped surfaces.
Converging and Figure 25.21 shows how light rays enter and exit two types of lenses. The
diverging lenses entering rays are parallel to the optical axis. A converging lens bends
exiting rays toward the focal point. A diverging lens bends the rays
outward, away from the focal point.
Figure 25.21: Converging and
diverging lenses.
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LIGHT Chapter 25
25.3 Section Review

1. What process does a lens use to deflect light rays passing through it? Twinkling of Stars
a. reflection Another example of the refraction of
b. refraction light is the twinkling of a star in the
night sky. To reach your eyes, starlight
c. absorption must travel from space through
d. transparency Earth’s atmosphere, which varies in
2. Can light be reflected and refracted at the same time? If so, give an temperature and density. Cold
pockets of air are more dense than
example. warm pockets. Starlight is refracted as
3. Make a list of all the optical devices you use on an average day. it travels through the various air
4. Name an object that is mostly transparent, one that is translucent, one that pockets. Since the atmosphere is
is mostly absorbent, and one that is mostly reflective. constantly changing, the amount of
refraction also changes. The image of
5. Windows that look into bathrooms are often translucent instead of a star appears to “twinkle,” or move
transparent. Why? because the light coming to your eye
6. Why can you see your own reflected image in a mirror but not on a dry, follows a zig-zag path due to
painted wall? refraction.
7. Why is the true surface of a perfect mirror invisible?

8. The index of refraction determines:
a. the color of glass
b. the ratio of thickness to focal length for a lens
c. the amount a material bends light rays
d. whether a material is transparent or translucent
9. A clear plastic rod seems to disappear when it is placed in water. Based
on this observation and Table 25.1, predict the index of refraction for the
plastic.
10. Fill in the blank. When light travels from water into the air, the refracted
light ray bends __________ (away from or toward) the normal line.
11. What is the difference between a converging lens and a diverging lens?
625
Astrophysics8CONNECTION
When Hakeem arrived at the fair, he found that

Chapter 25
Searching the his display board had been left behind at school. A
Cosmos
friend told him, “Hakeem, you’re our best chance to win
this thing. Here—you take my board.” They sat on the grass
outside the exhibit hall and stapled his papers to the board.
The wind was gusting hard and they had to chase after
The Hakeem Oluseyi Story some pages, but managed to get it assembled just in
Astrophysicist Dr. Hakeem Oluseyi (Oh-lu-SHAY-ee) is fascinated by stars. time. Their perseverance paid off—Hakeem won first
place in physics.
A physics and space science professor at the Florida
Institute of Technology, he has invented several new Hakeem went on to major in physics at Tougaloo College in
instruments to give astronomers a closer look at the Mississippi. He didn’t want to ask his mother for money, so he
cosmos. worked as a hotel janitor to pay his living expenses. “There were
hard times,” he says, “where I ate the food people left on their
Taking Refuge in Books room service trays—I was that hungry. But the worst part about
those minimum wage jobs was that there was always somebody
Dr. Hakeem Oluseyi remembers, “Growing up, looking over my shoulder saying, ‘Did you do what I told you to do?’
I lived in tough neighborhoods all over the and ‘Why did you do that?’ I never felt like I was trusted.”
American south. My mom moved us every year,
looking for better factory jobs, but things never
really improved. In the ghettos where we lived,
Freedom and Respect in the Research World
you always had to watch your back. I never felt After his freshman year, Hakeem got a call from the University of
entirely safe.” As a result, he stayed inside a lot. Georgia, inviting him to participate in a summer research program.
Hakeem’s mother usually worked the evening shift, so he didn’t see “When I arrived, the professor assigned to be my mentor described
her a lot after school. But she loved to read, and often left library what he wanted me to do. Then he said, ‘Here are your keys to the
books for him on the kitchen table. building and the lab.’ My jaw dropped to the floor.”
“By the time I was eleven, I had read our entire “The first day I went into the lab at 8:00 a.m., and nobody was there.
set of encyclopedias. My mom knew I loved Finally, around 10:30, some graduate students showed up. So I asked
science, and one time she brought home books them, ‘What are the work hours around here?’ A guy shrugged, ‘You
on Albert Einstein and special relativity. That stuff work when you want to work. It’s all about getting the job done.’”
just boggled my mind. Time slows down, lengths
“So, the rest of the summer, I worked from about 6 p.m. to 3 a.m.,
contract, masses increase? It shocked me!”
and put my results on the advisor’s desk. Afterward, they took me
In high school, Hakeem taught himself computer out to lunch and told me what a great job I had done. At that point I
programming, using a booklet that came with
Eighth grade graduation thought, this is where it’s at. I’m going to have a career in research!”
at Southside Middle his girlfriend’s father’s home computer. He wrote
School, Heidelberg, a program demonstrating Einstein’s theory of Becoming an Astrophysicist
Mississippi
relativity. His science teacher encouraged him to After college, Oluseyi was accepted to a rigorous Ph.D. program
enter it in a Mississippi state science fair competition. His was the at Stanford University. There, he learned to design space-borne
only all-black high school to participate. astronomy tools under the guidance of the famous astrophysicist
SC.912.N.2.4–Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to change. Scientific knowledge can change because it is often examined and re-examined by new investiga-
tions and scientific argumentation. Because of these frequent examinations, scientific knowledge becomes stronger, leading to its durability.
626 SC.912.N.2.5–Describe instances in which scientists’ varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural
ASTROPHYSICS8CONNECTION
Dr. Arthur Walker II. Oluseyi remembers, “My first year at Stanford hands-on activities, skits, humor, and dance. Since then, Dr. Oluseyi
Chapter 25
was really tough. I was used to making As in math and physics has returned to Africa every year. He’s currently working with an
classes, but the level of expectation was so much higher here. At organization called Hands-on Universe to provide Kenyan high
times I wanted quit. But in my second year, I started to get the hang school students the opportunity to do real astronomy research by
of things, and Dr. Walker encouraged me not to give up. By the studying images downloaded from high-powered telescopes located
time I was ready to defend my dissertation, I had published three at observatories in the United States and Australia.
papers and discovered a new class of structures on the Sun. The
faculty recognized that I had made a significant contribution to the Opportunities for astronomy research in Africa have been limited
astrophysics field. That was a great moment in my life.” by a lack of Internet access. But, as Dr. Oluseyi put it, “That doesn’t
mean Africans aren’t ready to do significant research. There are
competent but under-utilized scientists across the continent and
Supernova Secrets Unlocked!
well-educated high school students eager for opportunities in
One of Dr. Oluseyi’s inventions is a new extreme ultraviolet science. So, we developed a new way to get data from observatories
light (EUV) detector. With its increased sensitivity to EUV, better to areas with limited Internet access: We use a ‘virtual observatory
resolution (for clearer images), and improved durability, he hopes mode’ that archives the data on DVDs, which can be delivered
to provide new information about a region of the solar atmosphere to researchers, teachers, and students without Internet access. A
that has been difficult to measure. central server at a university
provides periodic updates.”
Dr. Oluseyi is also designing instruments for the Lawrence Berkeley
What was once seen as a
National Laboratory’s SuperNova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP). After
barrier to participation was
its 2013 launch, this satellite will detect and precisely measure
just an obstacle to overcome.
thousands of supernovae.
“There’s a thing that
A supernova is a spectacular explosion of a gigantic star. Brighter
sometimes happens in the
than 10 billion average stars, it can outshine an entire galaxy for a
African community. It can be
few seconds! During this brief period,
hard to see beyond your own
more than 90 percent of the star’s mass Hakeem Oluseyi (right) with Kenyan high school students
little corner, to dream big
is blown away and atomic nuclei are
dreams and believe they can
smashed together, creating heavier
happen. That’s why I spend a lot of time in educational outreach. I
elements like gold and uranium.
want kids here and in Africa to know that they, too, can break out
Dr. Oluseyi and his colleagues believe of that box.”
that studying supernovae could unlock
the secrets of the “dark energy” that Questions:
Hakeem Oluseyi (left) and Deatrick
may be responsible for the accelerating Foster at work on the SNAP project at the 1. What is perseverance? Name three ways Dr. Oluseyi
pace of the universe’s expansion. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
demonstrated this trait.
Reaching Out 2. Give an example of perseverance from your own life.

In addition to his research, Dr. Oluseyi spends time sharing his 3. Why are Dr. Oluseyi and his colleagues interested in
passion for science. In 2002, he traveled to Africa with a group studying supernovae?
called Cosmos Education. They visited schools and orphanages,
teaching scientific principles and disease prevention through 4. Name and explain one of Dr. Oluseyi’s inventions.
SC.912.N.2.4–Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to change. Scientific knowledge can change because it is often examined and re-examined by new investiga-
tions and scientific argumentation. Because of these frequent examinations, scientific knowledge becomes stronger, leading to its durability.
SC.912.N.2.5–Describe instances in which scientists’ varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural 627
Chapter 25 LIGHT
Vocabulary 14. Magenta is a pigment used in the ____ color model.
15. The ____ is used by video cameras to achieve a range
of colors.
fluorescence translucent CMYK
Section 25.3
object RGB color model incandescence
visible light index of refraction photon
16. A surface with ____ produces a single beam of reflected
light rays.
nanometer white light diffuse reflection
rod cell transparent electromagnetic wave 17. ____ occurs when light enters a material and bends.
pixel color diverging lens 18. Three examples of optical devices are ____, ____, and ____.
cone cell converging lens photoreceptor 19. Glass is a(n) ____ material because light passes through it
prism specular reflection lens without scattering.
electromagnetic spectrum mirror 20. ____ materials allow light to pass but scatter it in
Section 25.1 all directions.
1. ____ contains an equal mix of all colors. 21. The ____ of water is 1.33.
2. You can use light produced by ____ to heat food. 22. Surfaces that scatter light when it reflects have ____.
3. Atoms produce light by ____. 23. A(n) ____ bends light rays inward toward the focal point.
4. A(n) ____ travels at the speed of light. 24. A(n) ____ bends light rays outward away from the
focal point.
5. A light wave at 500 THz is the ____ orange.
6. You see all the colors of ____ when you see a rainbow. Concepts
7. Light wavelengths are measured in ____(s). Section 25.1
8. Ultraviolet light and microwaves are part of the ____. 1. List four properties of light.
9. A(n) ____ is the smallest possible amount of light. 2. What is the main source of light?
Section 25.2 3. Describe the difference between the light you would see
10. A(n) ____ specializes in detecting color. from a flashlight and the light you see from a printed page.
11. A(n) ____ specializes in detecting light intensity. 4. Describe an electromagnetic wave. How is one made?
12. The human eye has about 137 million ____(s). 5. What is the relationship between the frequency of light and
13. An HDTV screen has more ____(s) than an ordinary its wavelength?
TV screen.
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LIGHT Chapter 25
6. Compare the speed, energy, wavelength, and frequency of Section 25.3
red light and blue light. 17. How do transparent and translucent materials differ?
7. A flame from a Bunsen burner is reddish at the top and blue 18. Name the ways in which light may interact with matter.
near the opening of the burner. Where is the flame hottest? Give an example of a situation where more than one
Explain your answer. interaction happens at the same time.
Section 25.2 19. What is a light ray?
8. Describe the kinds, number, and sensitivity of the 20. Describe the difference between refraction and reflection.
photoreceptors in the human eye. 21. Diamond has a higher index of refraction than water. What
9. Your brain perceives color by an additive process. How does this mean?
would you see the following combinations of light colors? 22. Explain the process lenses use to change the direction of
a. red + blue light.
b. blue + green 23. What is the difference between a converging lens and a
c. red + green diverging lens.
d. red + blue + green
10. In the CMYK color process, why is black pigment used Problems
instead of mixing cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments? Section 25.1
11. Most objects do not make their own light, so how do we see 1. Red light may have a wavelength of 0.00000078 meters.
the colors of these objects? What is this wavelength in units of nanometers?
12. What colors of light are reflected by the color magenta? 2. Frequencies of 462 THz, 517 THz, and 638 THz represent
13. For stage lighting for a play in a theater: the frequencies of three colors: blue, red, and yellow. Match
a. a magenta spot of light is created along with a green each frequency to its color.
spot of light. What happens when these two spots of 3. Lightning strikes in the distance and six seconds later,
light combine? thunder is heard. How far away was the lightening strike?
b. light from a blue spotlight is combined with light from a 4. The Sun is about 150 million kilometers away from Earth.
green spotlight. What color light is produced? How long does it take for light to travel from the Sun to
14. What primary additive colors of light will be allowed to pass Earth?
through a cyan filter? Section 25.2
15. Compare the way color is produced by a TV screen with how 5. What color will a blue shirt appear in red light?
color is printed in an illustration in this book. 6. Which of the CMYK colors would you mix if you wanted to
16. Why do the leaves of most plants look green? produce the following colors of ink?
a. red b. green c. blue
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Chapter 25 LIGHT
7. Compare the quality of the images produced by your eyes, a 13. A clear plastic ball seems to disappear when placed in a
regular TV screen, and an HDTV screen in terms of pixels. liquid. What does this tell you about the indices of refraction
8. Identify the color process (RGB or CMYK) used in each step. for the clear plastic and the liquid?
a. taking a photograph with a digital camera Applying Your Knowledge
b. the image appears on a computer monitor
Section 25.1
c. printing the image using a laser printer
1. Thomas Edison is just one of many inventors who
d. seeing the image on the paper with your eyes
contributed to making electric light accessible to people.
9. Answer the following questions Research how one or more scientists contributed to the
using the absorption graph shown. electric incandescent bulb. What is the general feeling about
a. Which colors of light are these types of light bulbs today?
absorbed the most by plants?
2. Describe the health connection between ultraviolet light and
b. Which colors of light are vitamin D.
reflected the most by plants?
Section 25.2
c. Based on the information from
3. Pick a common animal and find out about this animal’s
the absorption graph, explain
eyesight. Does it see colors? Is the animal nocturnal?
why a plant will grow more
quickly if it is grown in white Section 25.3
light rather than green light. 4. Find out how white light is split into the colors of visible
light by the following objects. Identify which light
Section 25.3
interaction is involved in splitting the light.
10. Glare from headlights can make it harder to see when
a. a prism
driving at night. Glare is worse when the roads are wet than
b. water droplets in the atmosphere
when roads are dry. Explain why, in terms of the two types
c. a spectrometer
of reflection.
5. Your eye is an optical system that works together with your
11. Why do ambulances often have the letters for
brain to help you see images. Research how the human eye
“AMBULANCE” reversed on the front of the vehicle?
works and write a report that answers the following
12. A light ray crosses from a piece of glass into a liquid. You questions: What is the purpose of the iris? What is the
observe that the light ray bends away from the normal line purpose of the optic nerve? What is the purpose of rod and
when passing from the glass to the liquid. Based on this cone cells? What is the purpose of the lens? How does the
observation, how does the index of refraction for the liquid flexibility of the lens affect your ability to see?
compare to the index of refraction for the glass?
630 SC.912.N.2.5-Describe instances in which scientists' varied backgrounds, talents, interests, and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about observations of natural
A atomic mass unit – a unit of mass equal to 1.66 × 10-24 grams.
atomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic
absolute zero - lowest possible temperature, at which thermal energy number determines what element the atom represents.
is as close to zero as it can be, approximately –273 degrees Celsius.
Glossary
average speed – the total distance divided by the total time for a trip.
absorption – what happens when the amplitude of a wave gets smaller
and smaller as it passes through a material. Avogadro number - the number of atoms or molecules in a mole of
any substance.
acceleration – the rate at which velocity changes.
axis – one of two (or more) number lines that form a graph.
acceleration due to gravity – the value of 9.8 m/s2, which is the
acceleration in free fall at Earth’s surface, usually represented by the
small letter g. B
accuracy – how close a measurement is to an accepted or true value. balanced forces – combined forces that result in a zero net force on an
object.
acid – a substance that produces hydronium ions when dissolved in
water. Acids have pH less than 7. barometer – an instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.
activation energy – energy needed to break chemical bonds in the base – a substance that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in
reactants to start a reaction. water. Bases have a pH greater than 7.
addition reaction - a chemical reaction in which two or more battery – a device that transforms chemical energy to electrical energy,
substances combine to form a new compound. and provides electrical force in a circuit.
alkali metals – elements in the first group of the periodic table. beat - the oscillation between two sounds that are close in frequency.
alloy – a solution of two or more solids. Bernoulli’s principle – a relationship that describes energy
conservation in a fluid.
alternating current (AC) – electrical current that reverses direction at
repeated intervals, as with household electricity. binary compound - a chemical compound that consists of two
elements.
amino acids - a group of smaller molecules that are the building blocks
of proteins. boiling point - the temperature at which a substance changes from
liquid to gas (boiling) or from gas to liquid (condensation).
amorphous – a random arrangement of atoms or molecules in a solid.
Boyle’s law – in a fixed quantity of a gas, the pressure and volume are
ampere – the unit of electric current.
inversely related if the mass and temperature are held constant.
amplitude – the amount that a cycle moves away from equilibrium.
brittleness – the tendency to crack or break; the opposite of elasticity.
Archimedes’ principle – states that the buoyant force is equal to the
buoyancy – the measure of the upward force a fluid exerts on an object
weight of the fluid displaced by an object.
that is submerged.
atmosphere – a layer of gases that surrounds a planet.
atom - the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical C
identity of the element.
carbohydrates - a group of energy-rich compounds that are made from
atomic mass – the average mass of all the known isotopes of an carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and that include sugars and starches.
element, expressed in amu.
631
catalyst - a molecule added to a chemical reaction that increases the coefficient - a whole number placed in front of a chemical formula in a
reaction rate without getting used up in the process. chemical equation.
Celsius - a temperature scale in which water freezes at 0 degrees and colloid - a mixture that contains evenly distributed particles that are 1 to
boils at 100 degrees. 1,000 nanometers in size.
charged - describes an object whose net charge is not zero. color – the sensation created by the different energies of light falling on
Charles’ law – at constant pressure and mass, the volume of a gas your eye.
increases with increasing temperature and decreases with decreasing combustion reaction - a chemical reaction which results in a large
temperature. amount of energy being released when a carbon compound combines
chemical bond - a bond that forms when atoms transfer or share with oxygen.
electrons. commutator – the device that switches the direction of electrical
chemical change - a change that transforms one substance into a current in the electromagnet of an electric motor.
different substance. compound - a substance that contains two or more different elements
chemical energy - a form of potential energy that is stored in chemically joined and has the same composition throughout.
molecules. compression –a squeeze or decrease in size.
chemical equation - an expression of a chemical reaction using concentration – the ratio of solute to solvent in a solution.
chemical formulas and symbols. conductor – a material with low electrical resistance, such as copper
chemical equilibrium - the state at which the rate of the forward and aluminum.
reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction for a chemical reaction. consonance - a combination of frequencies that sound pleasant.
chemical formula - a representation of a compound that includes the constant speed – speed that stays the same and does not change.
symbols and ratios of atoms of each element in the compound.
constructive interference – when waves add up to make a larger
chemical properties – characteristics that can only be observed when amplitude.
one substance changes into a different substance.
control variable – a variable that is kept constant (the same) in an
chemical reaction - the process of breaking chemical bonds in one or experiment.
more substances and the reforming of new bonds to create new
substances. convection – the transfer of heat by the motion of matter, such as by
moving air or water.
circuit breaker – an automatic device that trips like a switch to turn off
an overloaded circuit. converging lens – a lens that bends exiting light rays toward the focal
point.
circular wave - moving waves that have crests that form circles around
a single point where the wave began. conversion factor – a ratio that has a value of one, and is used when
setting up a unit conversion problem.
closed circuit – a circuit with the switch in the on position, so there are
no breaks and charge can flow. coordinates – values that give the position relative to an origin.
CMYK – the subtractive color process using cyan, magenta, yellow, and coulomb – the unit for electric charge.
black to create colors in reflected light. covalent bond - a chemical bond formed by atoms that are sharing one
or more electrons.
632
crystalline – an orderly, repeating pattern arrangement of atoms or diverging lens – a lens that bends exiting light rays outward, away
molecules in a solid. from the focal point.
cycle – a unit of motion that repeats. DNA - a type of nucleic acid that contains the genetic code for an
organism.
Glossary
D Doppler effect – an increase or decrease in frequency caused by the
motion of a source of sound.
decibel (dB) – measure of the loudness (amplitude) of sound.
double-displacement reaction - a chemical reaction in which ions
decomposition reaction - a chemical reaction in which a compound
from two compounds in solution exchange places to produce two new
is broken down into two or more smaller compounds.
compounds.
deduce – to figure something out from known facts using logical
ductility – the ability to bend without breaking.
thinking.
density – the mass per unit volume of a given material. Units for density
are often expressed as g/mL, g/cm3, or kg/m3.
E
dependent variable – the variable that you believe is influenced by the efficiency – the ratio of output work divided by input work. Efficiency
independent variable. is often expressed as a percent with a perfect machine having 100
percent efficiency.
destructive interference – when waves add up to make a smaller, or
zero, amplitude. elasticity – the ability to be stretched or compressed and then return to
original size.
diffraction - the process of a wave bending around a corner or passing
through an opening. electric charge – a fundamental property of matter that can be either
positive or negative.
diffuse reflection – “dull” surface reflection, where each incident ray
produces many scattered rays. electric circuit – a complete path through which electric current can
flow.
dimensional analysis – a method of using conversion factors and unit
canceling to solve a unit conversion problem. electric current – the flow of electric charge.
direct current (DC) – electrical current that flows in one direction, as electric motor – a device that converts electrical energy into
with a battery. mechanical energy.
direct relationship – a relationship in which one variable increases electrical conductor – a material that allows electricity to flow
with an increase in another variable. through easily.
dissolution reaction - an endothermic reaction that occurs when an electrical power – the rate at which electrical energy is changed into
ionic compound dissolves in water to make an ionic solution. other forms of energy.
dissolve – to separate and disperse a solid into individual molecules or electrically neutral – describes an object that has equal amounts of
ions in the presence of a solvent. positive and negative charges.
dissonance - a combination of frequencies that sound unpleasant. electricity – the science of electric charge and current.
distance – the amount of space between two points. electromagnet – a magnet created by a wire carrying electric current.
633
electromagnetic induction – the process of using a moving magnet experiment – a situation specifically set up to investigate relationships
to create a current. between variables.
electromagnetic spectrum – the entire range of electromagnetic experimental technique – the exact procedure that is followed each
waves including all possible frequencies such as radio waves, time an experiment is repeated.
microwaves, X-rays, and gamma rays. extension – a stretch or increase in size.
electromagnetic wave – a wave of electricity and magnetism that
travels at the speed of light. Light is an electromagnetic wave. F
electron – a particle with an electrical charge (-e) found inside of atoms
Fahrenheit - a temperature scale in which water freezes at 32 degrees
but outside the nucleus.
and boils at 212 degrees.
element - a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
fluid – any matter that flows when force is applied; liquids and gases are
substances by physical or chemical means.
fluids.
elementary charge – the smallest unit of electric charge that is
fluorescence – a process that makes light directly from electricity.
possible in ordinary matter; represented by the lowercase letter e.
force – a push or pull, or any action that involves the interaction of
endothermic – a reaction that uses more energy than it releases.
objects and has the ability to change motion.
energy - a quantity that is related the ability of an object to change or
formula mass - the sum of the atomic mass values of the atoms in a
cause changes.
chemical formula.
energy level – one of the discrete allowed energies for electrons in an
free fall – accelerated motion that happens when an object falls with
atom.
only the force of gravity acting on it.
engineer – a professional who uses scientific knowledge to create or
free-body diagram – a diagram showing all the forces acting on an
improve inventions that solve problems and meet needs.
object.
engineering cycle – a process used to build devices that solve
frequency – how often something repeats, expressed in hertz.
technical problems.
frequency spectrum - a graph that shows the amplitudes of different
English System – measurement system used for everyday
frequencies present in a sound.
measurements in the United States.
friction – a force that resists motion.
enzyme - a type of protein used to speed up chemical reactions in living
things. fundamental - the lowest natural frequency of an oscillator.
equilibrium – (1) the state in which the net force on an object is zero; fuse – a device with a thin wire that melts and breaks an overloaded
(2) the state of a solution in which the dissolving rate equals the rate circuit.
at which molecules come out of solution.
excess reactant - a reactant that is not completely used up in a G
chemical reaction.
gas - a phase of matter that flows, does not hold its volume, and can
exothermic – a reaction that releases more energy than it uses. expand or contract to fill a container.
experimental variable – the variable you change in an experiment. gear – a rotating wheel with teeth that transfers motion and forces to
other gears or objects.
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gear ratio – the ratio of output turns to input turns for a pair of gears. hypothesis – a possible explanation that can be tested by comparison
generator – a device that converts kinetic energy into electrical energy with scientific evidence.
using the law of induction.
I
Glossary
gram (g) – a unit of mass smaller than a kilogram. One kg equals 1,000
g. incandescence – a process that makes light with heat.
graph – a visual representation of data. independent variable – a variable that you believe might influence
ground fault interrupt (GFI) outlet –an outlet with an automatic another variable.
device that protects you against electric shock. index of refraction – a number that measure how much a material is
group – a column of the periodic table. able to bend light.
inertia – the property of an object that resists changes in its motion.
H inhibitor - a molecule that slows down a chemical reaction.
half-life - a certain length of time after which half the amount of a input – forces, energy, or power supplied to make a machine accomplish
radioactive element has undergone radioactive decay. a task.
halogens – elements in the group containing fluorine, chlorine, and inquiry – a process of learning that starts with questions and proceeds
bromine, among others. by seeking the answers to the questions.
hardness – a measure of a solid’s resistance to scratching. insoluble – when a solute is unable dissolve in a particular solvent.
harmonic - one of many natural frequencies of an oscillator. instantaneous speed – the actual speed of a moving object at any
harmonic motion – motion that repeats in cycles. moment.
heat – thermal energy that is moving or is capable of moving. insulator – a material that slows down or stops the flow of either heat
or electricity.
heat conduction – the transfer of heat by the direct contact of particles
of matter. insulator (electrical) – a material with high electrical resistance, such
as rubber and plastic.
heat transfer – the flow of thermal energy from higher temperature to
lower temperature. intermolecular forces - forces between atoms or molecules in a
substance that determine the phase of matter.
hertz (Hz) – the unit of frequency. One hertz is one cycle per second.
inverse relationship – a relationship in which one variable decreases
heterogeneous mixture - a mixture in which different samples are when another variable increases.
not necessarily made up of the same proportions of matter.
ion – an atom (or group of atoms) that has an electric charge other than
homogeneous mixture - a mixture that is the same throughout. All zero, created when an atom (or group of atoms) gains or loses
samples of a homogeneous mixture are the same. electrons.
horsepower (hp) – a unit of power equal to 746 watts. ionic bond – a bond that transfers an electron from one atom to another
hydrogen bond - an intermolecular force between the hydrogen on one resulting in attraction between oppositely charged ions.
molecule to another atom on another molecule. isotopes – atoms of the same element that have different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus.
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J lever – a stiff structure that rotates around a fixed point called a fulcrum.
Lewis dot diagram - a method for representing an atom’s valence
joule (J) – a unit of energy. One joule is enough energy to push with a electrons using dots around the element symbol.
force of 1 newton for a distance of 1 meter.
light - a form of electromagnetic energy that makes things visible.
K light ray – an imaginary line that represents a beam of light.
Kelvin scale - a temperature scale that starts at absolute zero and has limiting reactant - a reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction.
units the same as Celsius degrees. linear motion – motion that goes from one place to another without
kilogram (kg) – the basic SI unit of mass. repeating.
kilowatt (kW) – unit used to measure large amounts of power, 1 lipids - a group of energy-rich compounds that are made from carbon,
kilowatt equals 1,000 watts. hydrogen, and oxygen and that include fats, waxes, and oils.
kilowatt-hour (kWh) – a unit of energy equal to one kilowatt of power liquid - a phase of matter that holds its volume, does not hold its shape,
used for one hour, equals 3.6 million joules. and flows.
kinetic energy - energy of motion. longitudinal – a wave is longitudinal if its oscillations are in the
direction it moves.
kinetic molecular theory - the concept that all atoms and molecules
exhibit random motion. M
Kirchoff’s current law – states that all of the current entering a circuit machine – a device with moving parts that work together to accomplish
branch must exit again. a task.
Kirchoff’s voltage law – the total of all voltage drops in a series circuit magnetic – describes a material that can respond to forces from
must equal the voltage supplied by the battery. magnets.
L magnetic declination – the difference between true north and the

direction a compass points.
law of conservation of energy – energy can never be created or magnetic field – the influence created by a magnet that exerts forces
destroyed, only transformed into another form. The total amount of on other magnets and magnetic materials.
energy in the universe is constant.
malleability - the ability of a solid to be pounded into thin sheets.
law of conservation of mass - a principle that states that the total
mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products in a mass – the amount of matter in an object.
chemical reaction. mass number – the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in
law of conservation of momentum - states that as long as the nucleus.
interacting objects are not influenced by outside forces, the total mass percent - the mass of the solute divided by the total mass of the
amount of momentum is constant. solution multiplied by 100.
length – a measured distance. matter – anything that has mass and takes up space.
lens – an optical device for bending light rays. measurement – a determination of something that typically has a
number value and a unit that tells you what the number value means.
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mechanical advantage – the ratio of output force divided by input neutralization - the reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and
force. water.
mechanical energy - a form of energy that is related to motion or neutron – a particle found in the nucleus with mass similar to the proton
position. Potential and kinetic energy are examples. but with zero electric charge.
Glossary
melting point - the temperature at which a substance changes from newton (N) – the metric unit of force, equal to the force needed to make
solid to liquid (melting) or liquid to solid (freezing). a 1 kg object accelerate at 1 m/s2.
metal – elements that are typically shiny and good conductors of heat Newton’s first law – a law of motion that states that an object at rest
and electricity. will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion with the
meter (m) – a basic SI unit of length. same velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
mirror – a surface that reflects light rays. Newton’s second law – acceleration is force divided by mass.
mixture - matter that contains a combination of different elements and/ Newton’s third law – for every action force, there is a reaction force
or compounds and can be separated by physical means. equal in strength and opposite in direction.
molar mass - the mass, in grams, of one mole of a compound. noble gases – elements in the group containing helium, neon, and
argon, among others.
molarity - the moles of solute per liter of solution.
nonmetal – elements that are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
mole - a unit of any substance that contains the Avogadro number of
atom or molecules. nonpolar molecule - a molecule that does not have distinctly charged
poles.
molecule - a group of two or more atoms joined together by chemical
bonds. normal force – the perpendicular force that a surface exerts on an
object that is pressing on it.
momentum – the mass of an object times its velocity.
note - one frequency in a musical scale.
multimeter – a measuring instrument for current, voltage, and
resistance. nuclear energy - a form of energy that is stored in the nuclei of atoms.
musical scale - a pattern of frequencies. nuclear fission - a nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of heavier
atoms are split to make lighter atoms.
N nuclear fusion - a nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of lighter atoms
are combined to make a heavier atoms.
nanometer (nm) – a unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter
nuclear reaction - a reaction in which the number of protons and/or
(0.000000001 m).
neutrons is altered in one or more atoms.
natural frequency – the frequency at which a system oscillates when
nucleic acids - compounds made of long, repeating chains of smaller
disturbed.
molecules called nucleotides.
natural law – a theory that has been tested many times without any
nucleus – the tiny core at the center of an atom containing most of the
contradictions.
atom’s mass and all of its positive charge.
negative, positive - the two kinds of electric charge.
net force – the sum of all forces acting on an object.
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O periodicity – the repeating pattern of chemical and physical properties
of the elements.
objective – describes evidence that documents only what actually permanent magnet – a material that retains its magnetic properties,
happened as exactly as possible. can attract or repel other magnets, and can attract magnetic materials.
octave - a range defined as being between a single frequency value and pH – a measure of the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution.
twice that frequency value. On a musical scale, these two notes would
have the same name. pH scale – the pH scale goes from 1 to 14 with 1 being very acidic and
14 being very basic. Pure water is neutral with a pH of 7.
ohm (Ω) – the unit of measurement for resistance.
photon – the smallest possible amount of light, like a wave-bundle.
Ohm’s law – states that the current is directly related to the voltage and
inversely related to the resistance. physical change - a change that does not result in anew substance
being formed.
open circuit – a circuit with the switch in the off position, so there is a
break and charge cannot flow. physical properties – characteristics that you can observe directly.
organic chemistry - a branch of chemistry that specializes in the study pitch – the perception of high or low that you hear at different
of carbon compounds, also known as organic molecules. frequencies of sound.
origin – the place where the position has a value of zero. pixel – a single dot that forms part of an image of many dots.
oscillator – a physical system that has repeating cycles. plane wave - moving waves that have crests in parallel straight lines.
output – the forces, energy, or power provided by the machine. plasma - a phase of matter in which the matter is heated to such a high
temperature that some of the atoms begin to break apart.
oxidation number - a quantity that indicates the charge on an atom
when it gains, loses, or shares electrons during bond formation. polar molecule - a molecule that has a negative and a positive end or
pole.
P polyatomic ion - an ion that contains more than one atom.
parallel circuit – an electric circuit with more than one path or branch. polymer - a compound that is composed of long chains of smaller
molecules.
Pascal’s principle – the pressure applied to an incompressible fluid in
a closed container is transmitted equally in all parts of the fluid. polymerization - the formation of polymers by a series of addition
reactions.
pendulum – a device that swings back and forth due to the force of
gravity. position – a variable that gives your location relative to an origin.
percent yield - the actual yield of a product in a chemical reaction positive, negative – the two kinds of electric charge.
divided by the predicted yield and multiplied by 100. potential energy – stored energy that comes from position.
period – (1) a row of the periodic table; (2) the time it takes for each potentiometer – a type of variable resistor that can be adjusted to give
complete cycle. resistance within a certain range.
periodic force – a repetitive force. pound – the English unit of force equal to 4.448 newtons.
periodic table – a chart that organizes the elements by their chemical power – the rate of doing work or moving energy. Power is equal to
properties and increasing atomic number. energy (or work) divided by time.
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precipitate - a solid that forms and is insoluble in a reaction mixture. refraction – the process of a wave bending as it crosses a boundary
precision – describes how close together or reproducible repeated between two materials; light refracts passing from air into water or
measurement are. back.
repeatable – describes evidence that can be seen independently by
Glossary
pressure – the amount of force exerted per unit of area.
others if they repeat the same experiment or observation in the same
prism – a glass shape with flat, polished surfaces that can both bend and way.
reflect light.
resistance – determines how much current flows for a given voltage.
procedure – a collection of all the techniques you use to do an Higher resistance means less current.
experiment.
resistor – a component that is used to control current in many circuits.
product - a new substance formed in a chemical reaction.
resolution – refers to the smallest interval that can be measured.
projectile – an object moving space and affected only by gravity.
resonance – an exceptionally large amplitude that develops when a
proteins - a group of very large molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, periodic force is applied at the natural frequency.
oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
restoring force – any force that always acts to pull a system back
proton – a particle found in the nucleus with a positive charge exactly toward equilibrium.
equal and opposite to the electron.
reverberation - multiple echoes of sound caused by reflections of
prototype – a working model of a design that can be tested to see if it sound building up and blending together.
works.
RGB color model – a model for tricking the eye into seeing almost any
pure substance - matter that cannot be separated into other types of color by mixing proportions of red, green, and blue light.
matter by physical means. Includes all elements and compounds.
rhythm - a regular time pattern in a series of sounds.
Q rotor – the rotating disk of an electric motor or generator.
quantum theory – the theory that describes matter and energy at very
small (atomic) sizes.
S
saturated – describes a solution that has as much solute as the solvent
R can dissolve under the conditions.
saturated fat - a fat in which the carbon atoms are surrounded by as
radiant energy - a form of energy that is represented by the
many hydrogen atoms as possible.
electromagnetic spectrum.
scatterplot – a graph of two variables thought to be related.
radioactive – a nucleus is radioactive if it spontaneously breaks up,
emitting particles or energy in the process. scientific method – a process of learning that begins with a hypothesis
and proceeds to prove or change the hypothesis by comparing it with
reactant - a starting ingredient in a chemical reaction.
scientific evidence.
reaction rate - the change in concentration of reactants or products in
semiconductor – a material between conductor and insulator in its
a chemical reaction over time.
ability to carry current.
reflection – the process of a wave bouncing off a surface; the reflection
series circuit – an electric circuit that has only one path for current.
of light waves causes an image in a mirror.
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short circuit – a branch in a circuit with zero or very low resistance. specular reflection – “shiny” surface reflection, where each incident
SI – International System of Units used by most countries for everyday ray produces only one reflected ray.
measurement and used by the scientific community worldwide. speed – describes how quickly an object moves, calculated by dividing
significant difference – two results are only significantly different if the distance traveled by the time it takes.
their difference is much larger than the estimated error. stable – a nucleus is stable if it stays together.
significant digits – meaningful digits in a measured quantity. standing wave - a wave that is confined in a space.
simple machine – an unpowered mechanical device that accomplishes static electricity – a tiny imbalance between positive and negative
a task with only one movement. charge on an object.
single-displacement reaction - a chemical reaction in which one static friction – the friction force that resists the motion between two
element replaces a similar element in a compound. surfaces that are not moving.
sliding friction – the friction force that resists the motion of an object steel – an alloy of iron and carbon.
moving across a surface. strength – the ability to maintain shape under the application of forces.
slope – the ratio of the rise (vertical change) to the run (horizontal supersaturated – a concentration greater than the maximum
change) of a line on a graph. solubility.
solid - a phase of matter that holds its shape and does not flow. supersonic – faster than the speed of sound.
solubility – the amount of solute that can be dissolved under certain suspension - a mixture that contains particles that are greater than
conditions. 1,000 nanometers.
solubility rules - a set of rules used to predict whether an ionic switch – a device for alternately allowing and not allowing charge to
compound will be soluble or insoluble in water. flow in a circuit.
solute – any component of a solution other than the solvent. system – a group of variables that are related in some way.
solution – a mixture of two or more substances that is homogeneous at
the molecular level. T
solvent – the component of a solution that is present n the greatest
technology – the application of science to meet human needs and solve
amount.
problems.
sonogram - a graph that shows the frequency, amplitude, and time
temperature - a quantity that measures the kinetic energy per molecule
length for a sound.
due to random motion.
specific heat – the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
tensile strength – a measure of how much pulling, or tension, a
one kilogram of a material by one degree Celsius.
material can withstand before breaking.
spectral line – a bright, colored line in a spectroscope.
tension – a pulling force that acts in a rope, string, or other object.
spectroscope – an instrument that separates light into a spectrum.
theory – a scientific explanation supported by much evidence collected
spectrum – the characteristic colors of light given off or absorbed by an over a long period of time.
element.
thermal conductor – a material that allows heat to flow easily.
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thermal energy - energy due to temperature. variable – a factor that affects how an experiment.
thermal equilibrium – when two objects are at the same temperature vector – a variable that gives direction information included in its value.
and no heat flows. velocity – a variable that tells you both speed and direction.
Glossary
thermal expansion – the tendency of the atoms or molecules in a viscosity – a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
substance (solid, liquid, or gas) to take up more space as the
temperature increases. volt (V) – the measurement unit for voltage.
thermal radiation – electromagnetic waves produced by objects voltage – a measure of electric potential energy.
because of their temperature. voltage drop – the difference in voltage across an electrical device that
thermometer - an instrument that measures temperature. has current flowing through it.
transformer – converts high voltage electricity to lower voltage volume – the amount of space taken up by matter.
electricity.
translucent – allows light rays through but scatters them in all W
directions. watt (W) – a unit of power equal to one joule per second.
transparent – allows light rays to pass through without scattering. wave – a traveling oscillation that has properties of frequency,
transverse – a wave is transverse if its oscillations are not in the wavelength, and amplitude.
direction it moves. wave front - the leading edge of a moving wave.
trial – each time an experiment is tried. wavelength – the distance from any point on a wave to the same point
Tyndall effect - the scattering of light by the particles in a colloid. on the next cycle of the wave.
weight – a measure of the pulling force of gravity.
U white light – light containing an equal mix of all colors.
unbalanced forces – forces that result in a net force on an object and work – a form of energy that comes from force applied over distance. A
can cause changes in motion. force of 1 newton does 1 joule of work when the force causes 1 meter
uncertainty principle – it is impossible to know variables exactly in of motion in the direction of the force.
the quantum world. work input – the work that is done on an object.
unit – a fixed amount of something, like a centimeter (cm) of distance. work output – the work that an object does as a result of work input.
unsaturated- describes a solution with a concentration less than the
maximum solubility.
unsaturated fat- a fat that has fewer hydrogen atoms because double
bonds exist among some of the carbon atoms.
V
valence electrons - the electrons in the highest, unfilled energy level
of an atom.
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A Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 binary molecular compound . . . . . . . . 367
Arrhenius, Svante August . . . . . . . . . . 463 Bohr, Neils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
absolute zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
at-a-distance forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 boiling point . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 342, 439
absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 620
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296, 346 bonding pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
AC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
atmospheric pressure . . . . . . . . . 298, 300 Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso . . . . . . . . . . 219
acceleration
atom boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 587, 588
and direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
and density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Boyle’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
and light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
energy levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 British thermal unit (btu) . . . . . . . . . . 253
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
evidence for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
due to gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Brown, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
from position vs. time graphs . . . . . 95
mass of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Brownian motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
from speed vs. time graphs . . . . 92, 95
models of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284–287, 305
Newton’s second law . . . . . . . . . . 142
atomic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 byte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
atomic mass unit (amu) . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454–462
acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
atomic number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 C
attract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 529
action-reaction pairs . . . . . . . . . . 149, 150 calorie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
average density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
activation energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
average speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
addition reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 370, 412
Avogadro number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
additive color process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 carbon dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Avogadro, Amedeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
additive primary colors . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 Carver, George Washington . . . . . . . . 403
axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298, 585 catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Celsius scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
alkali metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 B charged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344, 442 balanced forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Charles, Jacques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
alpha decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 423 ball bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Charles’ law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
alternating current (AC) . . . . . . . 518, 544 bar graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 chemical bond . . . . . . . . . . 354, 356, 358
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 chemical change . . . . . . . . 270, 334, 384
amino acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454–462 chemical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
amorphous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479, 481, 483 chemical equation . . . 391, 394, 415, 416
ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 beat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Ampere, Andre-Marie . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Benedictus, Edouard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 chemical formula . . . . . . . . 354, 361–367
amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558, 559, 563 Bernoulli’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 chemical potential energy . . . . . . . . . . 174
aneroid barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 beta decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 423 chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . 270, 334
antinode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 binary compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 chemical reaction
Archimedes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285, 289 binary ionic compound . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 addition reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
642
combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401, 412 conservation of momentum . . . . . . . . 152 of common materials . . . . . . . . . . . 37
compared to nuclear reaction . . . . 428 consonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
decomposition reaction . . . . . . . . 399 constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 of liquids and gases . . . . . . . 271, 276
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 constant speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 90 of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 38
double replacement . . . . . . . . . . . 400 constructive interference . . . . . . . . . . 570 units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
endothermic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 contact forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 dependent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
exothermic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410, 411 control variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 design cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
reactants and products . . . . . . . . . 386 convection current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 destructive interference . . . . . . . . . . . 570
single-displacement . . . . . . . . . . . 400 converging lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619, 624 diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 conversion factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 dimensional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 converting between temperature scales 234, direct current (DC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 238 direct relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 488
chemical reactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 converting units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–16 displacement method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
chlorophyll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 dissociation of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 coulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 dissolution reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . 484, 511, 519 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de . . . . . . 472 dissolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Index
circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 covalent bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354, 363 dissonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 crest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 90
circular wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 crystalline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 diverging lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619, 624
closed circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Curie, Marie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
CMYK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 curved motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
cochlea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Doppler radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392, 397 double-displacement reaction . . . . . . . 400
collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 D ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
colloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Dalton, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 606–617
damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 E
color images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
de Reaumer, Rene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Earth
combustion reaction . . . . . . . . . 401, 412
decibel (dB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 atmosphere . . . . . . . . . 296, 297, 346
commutator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
decomposition reaction . . . . . . . . . . . 399 composition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 532
deduce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 source of magnetism . . . . . . . . . . 533
compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 354
Democritus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 sources of energy for . . . . . . . . . . 425
compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
density temperature of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
and boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Edison, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259, 343, 491
and buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 195, 208
cone cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 271 Einstein, Albert . . . . . . . . . 145, 228, 606
conservation of energy . . . 177, 195, 504
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 elastic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
643
elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 energy of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
electric charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . 477, 486, 509 and chemical bonds . . . . . . . . . . . 356 error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 417
electric current . . 476, 481, 484, 500, 508 and chemical reactions . . . . . 399, 410 evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 and color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 59
electric motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540–542 and gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 excess reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
electrical conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 and heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 exothermic . . . . . . . . . . . . 410, 411, 413
electrical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 and nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . 422 experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 66
electrical force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 and phase change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 experimental technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
electrical power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–515 and running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 experimental variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
electrical symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
electrically neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 189
electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476, 482, 513 atomic energy levels . . . . . . . 325, 339 F
electromagnet . . . . . . 535, 536, 537, 541 carried by waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
electromagnetic force . . . . . . . . . 108, 317 conservation 177, 179, 195, 279, 504 Fahrenheit scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
electromagnetic induction . . . . . . . . . . 543 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Faraday, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 71
electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . 166, 610 electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 field
electromagnetic wave . . . . . . . . . 261, 609 forms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–170 electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
electron kinetic energy . . . . . . . 170, 177, 236 force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
and chemical bonds . . . . . . . 354–359 light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 gravitational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
bonding pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 potential energy . . . . . . 169, 177, 278 magnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 533
energy levels . . . . . . . . 323, 325, 326 pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 fixed resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
first discovery of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 thermal radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 287, 305
interactions of atoms . . . . . . . . . . 322 transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276–282
outer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
particles of atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 energy level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 focal length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
quantum theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 energy levels . . . . . . . 323, 326, 341, 357 focal point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
valence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 force
electron cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316, 325 engineering cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 action-reaction pairs . . . . . . . 149, 150
element English System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 15 at-a-distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
atomic number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 enzyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 balanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 equal loudness curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284–287
properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–346 equilibrium contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
reactivity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 and buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
elementary charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 and restoring force . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
elementary forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
endothermic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410, 413 of an oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . 558, 563 elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
644
friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–122 G group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Group 2 metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
input and output . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
gamma decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 423
intermolecular . . . . . . . . . . . 241, 341
gas
magnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 H
net force . . . 124–125, 127, 138, 145
density of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 302 half-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
pressure and temperature . . . . . . . 304 halogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
pressure and volume . . . . . . . . . . 302 hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
periodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
sound in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 harmonic motion graph . . . . . . . . . . . 559
restoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
volume and pressure . . . . . . . . . . 305 harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587, 596
strong nuclear force . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Gay-Lussac, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 213
Gay-Lussac’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
unbalanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 142
gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 212 heat conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258, 259
units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
gear ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 heat equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Geiger, Hans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
weak force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543, 544 Heisenberg, Werner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Index
force field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
geographic poles . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 532 hertz (Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556, 563
forced convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 heterogeneous mixture . . . . . . . . 231, 442
formula mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
global wind cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 homogeneous mixture . . . . . . . . 231, 442
Franklin, Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
graduated cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 horsepower (hp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
free fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
gram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
free-body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
graph hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
frequency . . . . . . . . . 556, 563, 578, 608
Boyle’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 hydrogen bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
frequency range of sound . . . . . . . . . . 584
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 hydronium ion . . . . . . . . . 454, 456, 457
frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . 578, 591
equal loudness curve . . . . . . . . . . 579 hydroxide ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455, 456
friction
frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . 591 hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
position vs. time . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 95 I
reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
reducing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 incandescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
relationships between variables . . . 88
sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 incident ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
speed vs. time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 96
static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 independent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
temperature vs. solubility . . . . . . . 447
useful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 index of refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
gravitational field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
fulcrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 555
gravitational potential energy . . . . . . . 169
fundamental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
gravity .96, 108, 113, 114, 167, 190, 317
fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484, 511 input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
ground fault interrupt (GFI) outlets . . . 519
645
input arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 L M
input force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
lab report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
input gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Latimer, Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 maglev train . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 120, 536
input work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent . . . . . 388, 395 magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538, 540
inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
law of conservation of energy . . . 177, 504 magnetic declination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
insoluble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
law of conservation of momentum . . . . 152 magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 533
instantaneous speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Law of Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 magnetic force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259, 343, 491
Le Chatelier’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . 420 magnetic poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 532
interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 main group elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . 241, 341
lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619, 624 malleability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
International System of Units . . . . . . . . . 5
Leucippus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 manipulated variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
inverse relationship . . . . . . . 45, 488, 556
lever map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 84
inversely proportional . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
classes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Marsden, Ernest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 355, 452
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
ionic bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355, 359, 363
in human bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
isotope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319, 337
Lewis dot diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 and inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
light definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
J energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 vs. weight . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32, 113
Joliot-Curie, Irene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 mass balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
joule (J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 253 interactions with matter . . . . 620–623 mass number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Joule, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . 604–610 mass percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
speed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 228, 270
K light ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Mayer, Julius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
limiting reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 measurement
Keller, Friedrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 line graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Kelvin (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 linear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 of density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Kelvin scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238, 304 lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 of distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
kilocalorie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 liquid of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–31
kilogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
kilowatt (kW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 density of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 of volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
kilowatt-hour (kWh) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 mechanical advantage . . . . . . . . . 210–214
kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . 170, 177, 236 sound in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 mechanical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
kinetic molecular theory . . . . . . . . . . . 419 longitudinal wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 569, 584 melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 342
Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert . . . . . . . . . . 504 Loschmidt, Johann Josef . . . . . . . . . . . 389 mercury barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Kirchhoff’s current law . . . . . . . . . . . 507 loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 343, 344
Kirchhoff’s voltage law . . . . . . . . . . . 504 lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 metalloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
646
Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Newton’s first law . . . . . . . 138–141, 555 Øersted, Hans Christian . . . . . . . . . . . 535
mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619, 621 Newton’s second law . . . . 142–145, 560
mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 231, 443 Newton’s third law . . . . . . 148–152, 278 P
molar mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
molarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 noble gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 nonmetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 343 parallel circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507–510
molecule . . . . . . . . . 230, 354, 369, 437 nonpolar molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Pascal, Blaise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Pascal’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
motion north pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 531, 535 Pathfinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 83
and forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 138 note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
and work done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 percent yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
circular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 nuclear fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335, 556, 559
curved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 nuclear fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 periodic force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
graphs of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87–90 nuclear reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . 422–428 periodic table
harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 426 and chemical bonding . . . . . . . . . 363
linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 nucleic acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 and valence electrons . . . . . . . . . . 358
of atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
energy levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Index
multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482, 487 nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590–596 groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
organization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
musical scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 O oxidation numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
N ocean current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 permanent magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
nanometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 octave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457–462
National Aeronautics and Space ohm (Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 pH indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Administration (NASA) . . . . . 66, 474 Ohm’s law . . . . 488, 490, 501, 504, 505 pH scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
natural convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 open circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 phase change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
natural frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 phases of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
natural laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 60 organic chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 370 phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 606
negative, positive charge . . . . . . . . . . 314 oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 photoreceptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
net force . . . . . . 124–125, 127, 138, 145 output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 photosynthesis . 297, 410, 412, 451, 617
neutral solution (pH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 output arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 physical change . . . . . . . . 270, 334, 384
neutralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 output force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
neutron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 output gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 pie graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 109, 142 output work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 pigment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 616
Newton, Sir Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 oxidation number . . . . . . . 361, 362, 364 pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578, 593
Newton. Sir Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
647
plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 R S
plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
radiant energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 saturated fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
polar molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
radioactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 423 saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445, 450
polyatomic ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
radioactive dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 scale . . . . . . . . . . 43, 110, 234, 457, 593
polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 scattered reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
radioisotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 scatterplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 44
position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 84
ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 scientific evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
position vs. time graph . . . . . . . 87, 89, 95
reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 scientific journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
reaction rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 scientific method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
positive, negative charge . . . . . . . . . . . 314
reflected ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 scientific theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 60, 61
potential energy . . . . . . . . . 169, 177, 278
reflection . . . . . . . . . . 568, 604, 620, 621 semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 491
potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 621, 623 series circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500–505
pound (lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 shock wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 208
repeatable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 short circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 514
repel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 529 SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–7
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
reproducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 significant differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–515
resistance significant digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486, 513 silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
in series circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 simple machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207–214
precipitate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 single-displacement reaction . . . . . . . . 400
precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
parallel circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 287, 305
pressure . . . . . . . . . . 277, 278, 299, 300
resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478, 492 sliding friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
pressure energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 279
resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560, 587 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 283
problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–50
respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 solid
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
responding variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
restoring force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 density of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
reverberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . 270–275
protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
RGB color model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 sound in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
proton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445, 447, 451
prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
right hand rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 solubility rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
pure substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
rod cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 solute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
ropes and pulleys . . . . . . . . 208, 212, 213 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Q rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
quantum theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Rutherford, Ernest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 sonic boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
sonogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
sound
648
and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590–596 strong nuclear force . . . . . . 108, 317, 423 translucent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
frequency of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 sublimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 transparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
how we hear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 subsonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 transverse wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 subtractive color process . . . . . . 615, 616 trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
perception of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 subtractive primary colors . . . . . . . . . 615 trough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Sun as a source of energy . . . . . . . . . . 167 true north . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
speed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580, 585 superconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Tyndall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
wavelength of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 superposition principle . . . . . . . . . . . 594
sound wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584, 588 supersaturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 U
south pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 531, 535 supersonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
space shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 surface area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
speakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 unbalanced forces . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 142
specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . 254, 255, 439 switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
spectral line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 unit
spectroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 388 conversions . . . . . . . . . . 13–16, 109
spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 323 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
universal solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
specular reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 T unsaturated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Index
speed
average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 206 unsaturated fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 87 temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 236, 241, 444
calculating for a wave . . . . . . . . . 564 temperature vs.solubility graph . . . . . . 447 V
compared to velocity . . . . . . . . . . . 81 tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 213 vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 90 valence electron . . . . . . . . 357, 358, 362
during constant acceleration . . . . . . 96 theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 60, 61
thermal conductor . . . . . . . . . . . 259, 343 variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 88
from position vs. time graph . . . . . . 89 control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
instantaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 thermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
speed of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 dependent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
speed vs. time graph . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 96 thermal insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
thermal radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 independent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
stable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 thermals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 manipulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
standing wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Starley, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Thomson, J. J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 88
static electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 relationships between . . . . . . . . . . 45
static friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 timbre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 responding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 variable resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
transition elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 84, 110
strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 92
transition metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
649
viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119, 286
vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
vocal cords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 vs. mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32, 113
volt (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 wheel and axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
voltage white light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
in parallel circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 work
in series circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 189
measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 and gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
voltage drop . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504, 505 and heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 calculating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 34 definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
input and output . . . . . . . . . . 193, 206
W machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
ropes and pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
water Wright, Orville and Wilbur . . . . . . . . . 196
and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Wu, Chien-Shiung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
as a solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
density of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 38
dissociation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 X
hydrogen bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 XY graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
structure of ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
water molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 513
Watt, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
wave
definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
electromagnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
interactions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
speed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
wave front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
wave pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563, 608
weak force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 317
wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
650
Index
651

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Foundations of Physical Science

Alyson Mazza Heinz Rudolf

Does a 1-cup dry measuring cup hold the same

Measurement is to physical science what power tools are to a house

What is the SI system of measurement,

What are two of the most important physical

How do you decide how many digits to

Measurement and units

Figure 1.1: A measurement includes

4 SC.912.N.1.2-Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.

Two common measurement systems

The International System of Units (SI)

Table 1.2: Common SI Units

Bytes and SI prefixes

Figure 1.3: Use these prefixes on any

Section 1.1 Review

1.2 Time and Distance

Figure 1.7: Reading a meter stick.

The measurements are:

Section 1.2 Review

1.3 Converting Units

Why convert? SI Estimation Challenge

Solving Problems: Converting SI Units STUDY SKILLS

kilo hecto deca meter deci centi milli

3. Now move the decimal point in 650 to the left 3 places.

Converting between English and SI units

2. Create a conversion factor by drawing a fraction bar and copying the

Section 1.3 Review

1.4 Working with Measurements

Figure 1.9: Find the length of the

Accuracy, precision, and resolution

Solving Problems: Comparing Data Sets

Section 1.4 Review

After All By manipulating the nanoworld, scientists can influence the

How are mass and volume different, and

Does a large piece of copper have a larger

What types of graphs are there, and which

Image courtesy of NASA

2.1 Measuring Mass and Volume

Figure 2.1: A car contains more

Measuring mass in the laboratory

Mass and weight are different

Comparing Mass and Weight

Figure 2.5: The key displaced 3.0 mL

Comparing mass and volume

Section 2.1 Review

3. Mass is constant, but weight can change with location. Explain.

2.2 Determining Density

Density is a property of matter

Units of density Material (kg/m3) (g/cm3)

Figure 2.9: Density of some

Ipe (pronounced ee-pay) is a Brazilian

Density of solids and liquids

Solving Problems: Calculating Density To Find: Use:

4. Solution: Density = 1,500 g ÷ 1,700 mL = 0.88 g/mL

a. 7.4 g/mL; b. 31.2 g; c. 109 cm3

Section 2.2 Review

Two toy blocks are made of

Making a scatterplot or XY graph

What does “learning by inquiry” mean?

How are science and engineering similar,

How are you affected by forces right now?