STUDENT PAGE

Life Cycle Information:

LCA
Plastic Resin Furniture (1 of 3)

The plastic resin set of furniture is made from

polypropylene (pol-ee-proh-puh-leen) resin—a plastic
polymer with a wide range of uses, including car parts,
diapers, and, of course, outdoor furniture. It is made
from by-products of processing natural gas and
refining crude oil. Since each piece of the set is made
from one mold, no fasteners are required. The total
mass of the four chairs and table is approximately 30
kilograms (kg). All emissions reported here are based
on this mass.

MUMUDESIGN.COM
Oil and Natural Gas Extraction
More than 300 million years ago, countless
zooplankton, algae, and diatoms died and sank to
the bottom of oceans all over the globe. After eons A set of plastic furniture, such as the one shown
of pressure and geological processes, the planet has here, is made from polypropylene resin.
been left with billions of gallons of oil, also called
“petroleum.” Crude oil is generally located in cavities
about a mile deep underground. Sometimes the oil is
under pressure that is high enough that drilling a deep Refining Crude Oil and Processing
hole causes it to gush out of the earth—an event that Natural Gas
has caused some oil prospectors to dance excitedly Most of the refineries in the United States are
as their new oil wells shower them in a brown, gooey in Gulf Coast states. The majority of our oil (62
mess. Most of the time, however, it must be pumped percent) is imported; 32 percent comes from the
to the surface. Oil from the ground usually contains lower 48 states, and the remaining 6 percent comes
water. This water is removed before sending the oil from Alaska. The top three providers of foreign oil
to a refinery. The natural gas is captured, but some to the U.S. are Canada, Saudi Arabia, and Mexico.
leakage of gas always occurs when bringing petroleum Scientists and economists use a weighted average
to the surface. In addition, it takes energy to collect of the emissions associated with transporting oil
these substances and prepare them for refining and to U.S. refineries by pipeline or ship from these
processing. The emissions that result from this step of sources.
the life cycle are reported in the following table.

Once at a refinery, impurities are removed from

Oil and Natural
Stage of Life Cycle the oil through a series of chemical processes.
Gas Extraction
During this process, hydrocarbons such as methane
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 4.20 and propane are removed from the oil. These
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.164 hydrocarbons are used in many different products,
including the production of polypropylene. The
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.00000588
greenhouse gas emissions associated with the
transportation of oil to U.S. refineries and

PROJECT LEARNING TREE Southeastern Forests and Climate Change ACTIVITY 10 187
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Plastic Resin Furniture (2 of 3)

refining the oil and natural gas are reported in the

Stage of Life Cycle Manufacturing Polypropylene
following table.
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 32.4

Refining Oil/Processing CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.427

Stage of Life Cycle
Natural Gas N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.000280
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 6.87
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.0571
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000350 Manufacturing the Furniture
Polypropylene in the form of small pellets (tiny beads)
is shipped by rail to furniture manufacturing plants.
Producing Polypropylene Resin Those pellets are melted and mixed with other
substances that make each type of plastic a little
Propylene is made from a combination of chemicals different. The mixture is injected into a mold using a
derived from oil and natural gas, including 1000-ton injection molding machine. After the resin
hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane. These hardens, the mold is opened, small amounts of resin
molecules are put through a process called “thermal are trimmed from the edges, and the piece is boxed
cracking.” The term “cracking” refers to a process for shipment. The greenhouse gas emissions reported
in which heavy molecules are broken down into
smaller ones. In this case, the hydrocarbons are
combined with steam and the mixture is heated
to around 1000 degrees Celsius (◦ C) or 1832
degrees Fahrenheit (◦ F). The combination of
high temperature and pressure breaks the larger
hydrocarbons into smaller molecules, including
propylene. The propylene must then be separated
from the other products that result or are leftover
from this process.

The next step is to convert the propylene into

polypropylene. The prefix “poly” means many.
Polypropylene is a molecule made up of many
FRC INDUSTRIES, INC.

propylene molecules connected together. The

polymerization of propylene is accomplished
through the use of catalysts at fairly moderate
temperatures (80 to 90◦ C or 176 to 194◦ F)
and high pressures (30 to 35 atmospheres). The
greenhouse gas emissions listed in the following table Small polypropylene pellets are packaged and shipped
represent emissions associated with the propylene to manufacturing facilities that create plastic products.
portion of the thermal cracking stage as well as the
polymerization of propylene into polypropylene.

188 ACTIVITY 10 Southeastern Forests and Climate Change PROJECT LEARNING TREE
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Plastic Resin Furniture (3 of 3)

here represent direct energy use necessary for

melting, mixing, and injecting the polypropylene resin
in to the molds.

Manufacturing
Stage of Life Cycle
Plastic Furniture
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 15.6

CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.0372

N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000622

ROBERT GORDON, DEKALB COUNTY

Use/Maintenance
Maintenance and upkeep of the plastic resin patio
furniture is minimal, consisting of washing with
soap and water. Therefore, greenhouse gas emis-
sions associated with this stage of the life cycle are
assumed to be insignificant and not included in this
assessment.
Most plastic chairs are taken to a landfill after being
thrown away.
Stage of Life Cycle Use

CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00 gases, this trait works in favor of plastics. Over a
one hundred-year period, only 6 percent of the
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00 carbon in the plastic set will have decomposed and
formed greenhouse gases— 4 percent is carbon
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.00
dioxide and 2 percent is methane. The greenhouse
gas emissions reported here include these emissions
as well as those associated with the collection and
Disposal management of solid waste.
While many plastic resins can be recycled in
curbside recycling programs, the mixture resulting Stage of Life Cycle Disposal
from the manufacturing process of this patio
furniture is not easily recyclable. Therefore, disposal CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 12.8
consists of a trip to a community landfill. One of the
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.292
criticisms of plastic resin is that it takes a very long
time to decompose. Plastic can exist in a landfill for N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000319
hundreds of years. In the context of greenhouse

PROJECT LEARNING TREE Southeastern Forests and Climate Change ACTIVITY 10 189
 STUDENT PAGE

Life Cycle Information:

LCA

Cast Aluminum Furniture (1 of 3)

high amounts of aluminum is the exception, though

even with bauxite, producing pure aluminum requires
a lot of effort. First, the bauxite must be mined. In
some cases, the bauxite is found in relatively soft rock
that can be easily dug up, often in open-pit mines. In
other cases more substantial drilling and the use of
ANNIE OXARART, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

explosives are required. Mixing secondary aluminum

with the primary aluminum decreases the amount
of bauxite that must be mined. Here we assume that
the outdoor furniture is made of 50 percent recycled
aluminum since we want to consider furniture that
will have the least impact on the climate.

Bauxite Mining
Stage of Life Cycle
(for ½ Primary Material)
An aluminum set of dining furniture is made of cast
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 10.1
aluminum.
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00203
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.000221
The aluminum set of dining furniture is made of cast
aluminum. While manufacturers often use primary
aluminum, we have based these calculations on a Processing Aluminum
combination of primary and recycled aluminum often
produced by aluminum plants in the United States. As previously mentioned, processed aluminum is a
The energy requirements are decreased substantially mixture of primary and secondary aluminum. Most
by the inclusion of recycled aluminum. The mass of of those emissions, however, are the result of the
aluminum in the four chairs and table is approximately energy-intensive process of producing pure aluminum
60 kilograms (kg). from bauxite. Once out of the ground, the bauxite is
crushed into small pieces and sent to a processing
plant. At the processing plant, the pieces are brought
Extracting Aluminum to a high temperature and pressure and mixed with
Aluminum manufacturing involves use of both primary sodium hydroxide in order to dissolve the ore and
aluminum from bauxite, an aluminum ore, and second- separate the aluminum from other materials found
ary aluminum, which is recycled from aluminum scrap. in the ore. Then the liquid containing the dissolved
aluminum is pumped into tanks where it is cooled,
allowing alumina hydrate crystals to form. Those crys-
Producing primary aluminum first requires mining tals are filtered from the tank and dried in a kiln at ap-
bauxite from the ground. While aluminum is the third proximately 400 degrees Celsius (◦ C) or 752 degrees
most plentiful element in the Earth’s crust, it’s usually Fahrenheit (◦ F) to produce aluminum oxide.
found as part of a chemical compound with other
elements. Trying to produce pure aluminum from
most of these compounds is very expensive. It would Producing aluminum from the aluminum oxide re-
cost more to produce the aluminum than the alumi- quires chemical reactions at temperatures of more
num is worth. Bauxite, a type of rock that contains than 1000◦ C (1832◦ F). The aluminum oxide is placed

190 ACTIVITY 10 Southeastern Forests and Climate Change PROJECT LEARNING TREE
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Cast Aluminum Furniture (2 of 3)

with a carbon rod into a cell where the combination

of electricity and high temperatures causes a chemi-
cal reaction that produces carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and aluminum. The molten aluminum collects
at the bottom of the cell where it can be separated
from the other materials. Depending on the intend-
ed use of the aluminum, it will be mixed with small
amounts of other metals to produce the desired

ED MANSELL/OWNER, MANSELL AND ASSOCIATES

characteristics. Such mixtures of metals are called
alloys. The aluminum is made into an alloy while it is
still in its molten form. The alloyed aluminum is then
cast into ingots or billets (terms for rectangular and
cylindrical pieces of aluminum alloy).

At this point the ingots of primary aluminum can

be mixed with secondary aluminum. Recycling scrap
aluminum is a way to avoid the most energy inten-
sive (and costly) steps of aluminum production. Scrap Scrap aluminum is melted to remove impurities.
aluminum has already been separated from the impu-
rities in bauxite and converted from aluminum oxide.
To process secondary aluminum, scrap aluminum must
first be collected. Aluminum can be recycled without into ingots or billets, similar to the process for prima-
loss of quality. This makes scrap aluminum relatively ry aluminum, though the aluminum from the mixed
valuable. As a result, collecting and recycling scrap scrap may require extra steps before that aluminum
aluminum has become its own sub-industry. Ideally, is again ready for use. As a result, the production of
aluminum is collected in a closed-loop process based recycled aluminum results in a 90 percent reduction
on the particular aluminum alloy. For example, soda of greenhouse gas emissions when compared to the
cans are collected in order to be made into new soda production of primary aluminum.
cans. By including only one aluminum alloy in a batch
of scrap, manufacturers can be confident that the final Processing Aluminum
product will have the same desired characteristics for Stage of Life Cycle
(½ Primary and ½ Secondary)
that particular use. In other cases, the various scrap
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 187
aluminum alloys are mixed together.
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.302
Once the aluminum is collected, it is shaved into N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.266
small pieces for processing. Often scrap aluminum
has enamel, paint, or some other substance that can
reduce the purity of the final product if it is not re-
Manufacturing Furniture
moved. The aluminum is heated close to the melting
point of aluminum (660◦ C) to remove these sub- To make cast aluminum, the ingots are melted and
stances. The aluminum is then melted down and cast poured into molds of the desired shape. Unlike the
plastic resin, each mold corresponds to just a part

PROJECT LEARNING TREE Southeastern Forests and Climate Change ACTIVITY 10 191
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Cast Aluminum Furniture (3 of 3)

of the actual furniture piece. Once the pieces have

been cooled and hardened, any excess aluminum can Stage of Life Cycle Use
be removed and recycled. The pieces are then fitted
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00
together and welded. The cast aluminum dining set for
this project has cushions made from plastic resin, but an CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00
alternate aluminum set might contain cotton cushions.
Greenhouse gas emissions from the production of the N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.00
plastic resin for these cushions are also included in the
calculations for this step. Still, the bulk of the greenhouse
gas emissions from this step result from the energy Disposal
needed to melt the aluminum for casting.
If processed correctly, aluminum can be recycled over
and over again. Also, because of the relatively high
value of scrap aluminum, rates of recycling are high.
Stage of Life Cycle Furniture Manufacturing For this study, we assume that all of the aluminum in
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 108 the furniture set is recycled. Greenhouse gas emissions
associated with the collection and processing of
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.437 recycled aluminum are included in the following table.
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.000113

Stage of Life Cycle Disposal

Use/Maintenance CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 1.76

Like the plastic resin furniture set, the maintenance CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000299
of cast aluminum furniture is minimal. Therefore,
greenhouse gas emissions resulting from this stage are N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000440
assumed to be negligible.

192 ACTIVITY 10 Southeastern Forests and Climate Change PROJECT LEARNING TREE
 STUDENT PAGE

Life Cycle Information:

LCA
Pine Furniture (1 of 3)

This set of pine furniture is made from slightly more

wood than our calculations use because some
wood is lost during cutting and sanding. The emissions
provided in this section are based on 70 kg for the final
product, with adjustments made to account for wood
loss at each step. In addition to wood, the furniture has
stainless steel bolts that hold it together.

Managing Forests and

Harvesting Wood

FIFTHROOM.COM
When looking at the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
resulting from harvesting wood, it is important to distin-
guish between CO2 produced from burning fossil fuels
and CO2 released from wood. The carbon trapped in
trees is part of a relatively short biological cycle. Trees This furniture is made from lumber harvested from pine
live for decades or perhaps centuries, storing CO2 as trees that are grown in the Southeast United States.
they grow. When a tree dies, it decomposes, and the
carbon stored in the tree is released to the soil and with more than 32 million acres of pine plantations in
back to the atmosphere in the form of CO2. Of course the Southeast, this region has been called “the wood
even as a tree dies, other trees are still growing and still basket of the world” (Fox, Jokela, & Allen, 2004). Har-
absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. Therefore, if a vesting trees requires fuel for the tools that cut and
forest is managed sustainably—meaning it is harvested trim the trees into logs. In addition, fuel is required to
no faster than its ability to grow new trees—then the transport those logs to a mill. Sustainable management
CO2 released by harvested trees is balanced over time of a pine plantation, however, requires much more than
by the CO2 stored in new trees as they continue to harvesting trees. New seedlings must be produced
grow. Because this carbon cycle is balanced in this short and planted to replace harvested trees. Fostering the
biological cycle, it is not typically included when calculat- growth of these new trees may require the application
ing CO2 emissions over time. of fertilizer and removal of weeds.

However, when we burn fossil fuels, we are taking The intensity at which pine plantations are managed
carbon that has been trapped for hundreds of mil- varies. Plantations are categorized as low, medium, or
lions of years and converting that to CO2. Since the high intensity based on level of production. Currently,
Earth is not producing new fossil fuels at the rate that 37 percent of the pine plantations in the southeast-
we are using them, this represents a flow of green- ern U.S. are managed at low intensity, 58 percent
house gases into the atmosphere with no way for the at medium intensity, and 5 percent at high intensity
carbon to be sequestered or stored at the same rate. (Mulkey et al., 2008). The level of greenhouse gas
Therefore, in this life cycle assessment, we will focus emissions varies with the level of intensity. In order
on the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the to calculate the greenhouse gas emissions that result
use of fossil fuels since sustainably harvested wood is in this step of the life cycle of our pine furniture set,
carbon neutral. a weighted average was calculated. The emissions re-
sulting from the production of the amount of logged
Most trees produced for lumber in the southeastern wood necessary to produce our furniture set are
United States are grown on large plantations. In fact, listed in the following table.

PROJECT LEARNING TREE Southeastern Forests and Climate Change ACTIVITY 10 193
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Pine Furniture (2 of 3)

moisture. Most of this moisture is removed using a

Stage of Life Cycle Sustainable Wood Production
kiln, which is fueled largely by the bark and sawdust
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 2.84 collected during the other steps of the process. Since
the combustion of these wood products mimics the
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00245 decomposition of wood in a forest, the carbon emit-
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000352
ted from this combustion does not need to be includ-
ed in this assessment.

Lumber Manufacturing Once the wood has been dried, it is planed. During
The manufacturing process for lumber starts when this step, the surfaces of the lumber are smoothed
logs are moved on to a conveyor belt that takes and the wood is trimmed again if necessary. Finally, the
them into the mill where they are sorted, cut to a lumber is sorted by size and quality and prepared for
desired length, and debarked. The sawdust and bark sale. The emissions reported in the following table
made during these steps are typically collected and include those related to energy from fossil fuels neces-
used to power the machinery at the mill. A large sary for this step.
band saw cuts the logs into pieces roughly the same
size and shape to be sold as lumber. The sawyer Wood Processing—
Stage of Life Cycle
takes care to cut the logs so that he or she gets the Lumber Production
maximum amount of lumber. These pieces are then CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 5.96
trimmed in preparation for kiln drying. Sawdust is
again collected for fuel. CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.0110

N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000134

At this point in the process, the wood pieces are
called “green lumber” because they still have a lot of
Pressure-Treating Lumber
Lumber designated for outdoor use is typically pres-
sure treated in order to extend the life of the lumber
by protecting it from insects and moisture. In a typical
pressure-treating process, the lumber is placed in a
large horizontal cylinder that is then tightly sealed.
Preservative chemicals are pumped into the cylinder.
High pressure is used so that the chemicals penetrate
BOONE VALLEY FOREST PRODUCTS, INC.

the wood. The previous drying process allows the

wood to absorb the preservatives more readily.

The emissions numbers provided for this step

include direct emissions from the pressure-treat-
ment process as well as emissions associated with
the production of the preservative chemicals used
during the process. These emissions are listed in the
This lumber has been processed and is ready for sale. following table.

194 ACTIVITY 10 Southeastern Forests and Climate Change PROJECT LEARNING TREE
 STUDENT PAGE

LCA Life Cycle Information: Pine Furniture (3 of 3)

Use/Maintenance
Stage of Life Cycle Pressure Treatment
Wood sealer is typically applied to outdoor furniture in
CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 6.17 order to protect it from potentially damaging environ-
mental conditions, such as sun and rain. For this study, it
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.0143
is assumed that two treatments of sealer are used over
N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000741 the 15-year life of the furniture set. The emissions listed
for this section take into account the gases emitted
during the production of the wood sealant.
Manufacturing Furniture
Of the three sets of furniture, manufacturing of the Stage of Life Cycle Use
wood set is perhaps the easiest to picture. The treat-
ed pieces of lumber are cut to the correct size and CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 4.25
shape and sanded smooth. Those pieces are then fas-
CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00976
tened together with stainless steel nuts and bolts. The
production of these fasteners must also be included N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000432
when considering the emissions associated with this
step of the life cycle.
Disposal
Stainless steel is a combination of iron, chromium, and Treated wood must be disposed of in a landfill be-
nickel. Scrap iron can be used. The rest of the ingre- cause of the potentially harmful preservative chem-
dients must be mined from the ground and separated icals added to the wood during pressure treatment.
from their ores. The ingredients are melted and mixed Decomposition in a landfill is anaerobic, unlike
in an arc furnace at temperatures of more than 1600 decomposition of dead wood in a forest. Since no
degrees Celsius (◦ C) or 2912 degrees Fahrenheit oxygen is present in an anaerobic environment, the
(◦ F). The molten steel is then transferred to a refin- chemical reactions taking place produce methane
ing vessel, where impurities are removed. The steel is instead of carbon dioxide. This methane would not
then cast and rolled out into flat sheets. The sheets have been produced under normal forest conditions.
are then cut into the desired dimensions for making Therefore, the methane emissions resulting from the
screws, nuts, and washers. The combined weight of anaerobic decomposition of wood in landfills are in-
the screws and other steel pieces in our example fur- cluded in the emissions figures for this step of the life
niture set is 1 kg. The combined emissions associated cycle. Other emissions result from fuels used in the
with the production of the stainless steel fasteners and collection of waste and the management of landfills.
the manufacturing of the wood furniture are provided
in the following table.
Stage of Life Cycle Disposal

Stage of Life Cycle Furniture Manufacturing CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 24.6

CO2 Emissions (kg/set) 5.24 CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 1.63

CH4 Emissions (kg/set) 0.00686 N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000733

N2O Emissions (kg/set) 0.0000410

PROJECT LEARNING TREE Southeastern Forests and Climate Change ACTIVITY 10 195