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An element is the simplest form of matter that cannot be split into simpler
substances or built from simpler substances by any ordinary chemical or physical
method. There are 118 elements known to us, out of which 92 are naturally
occurring, while the rest have been prepared artificially. Elements are further
classified into metals, non-metals, and metalloids based on their properties, which
are correlated with their placement in the periodic table.

Metals
With the exception of hydrogen, all elements that form positive ions by losing
electrons during chemical reactions are called metals. Thus metals are
electropositive elements with relatively low ionization energies. They are
characterized by bright luster, hardness, ability to resonate sound and are excellent
conductors of heat and electricity. Metals are solids under normal conditions except
for Mercury.

Physical Properties of Metals

Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity.
Other properties include:

 State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of

mercury, which is liquid at room temperature (Gallium is liquid on hot
days).
 Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and
can be polished e.g., gold, silver and copper.
  Malleability: Metals have the ability to withstand hammering and can be
made into thin sheets known as foils. For example, a sugar cube sized
chunk of gold can be pounded into a thin sheet that will cover a football
field.
 Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. For example, 100 g of silver
can be drawn into a thin wire about 200 meters long.
 Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are
soft and can be cut with a knife.
 Valency: Metals typically have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of
their atoms.
 Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free
electrons. Silver and copper are the two best conductors of heat and
electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury and
iron are also poor conductors
 Density: Metals have high density and are very heavy. Iridium and
osmium have the highest densities whereas lithium has the lowest density.
 Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting and boiling
points. Tungsten has the highest melting and boiling points whereas
mercury has the lowest. Sodium and potassium also have low melting
points.
Chemical Properties of Metals
Metals are electropositive elements that generally form basic or amphoteric oxides
with oxygen. Other chemical properties include:

 Electropositive Character: Metals tend to have low ionization energies,

and typically lose electrons (i.e. are oxidized) when they undergo
chemical reactions They normally do not accept electrons. For example:
o Alkali metals are always 1+ (lose the electron in s subshell)
o Alkaline earth metals are always 2+ (lose both electrons
in s subshell)
o Transition metal ions do not follow an obvious pattern, 2+ is
common (lose both electrons in s subshell), and 1+ and 3+ are also
observed
Na0→Na++e−Na0→Na++e−
Mg0→Mg2++2e−Mg0→Mg2++2e−
Al0→Al3++3e−Al0→Al3++3e−
Compounds of metals with non-metals tend to be ionic in nature. Most metal
oxides are basic oxides and dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides:

Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s)+H2O(l)→Ca(OH)2(aq)CaO(s)+H2O(l)→Ca(OH)2(aq)

Metal oxides exhibit their basic chemical nature by reacting with acids to form
metal salts and water:

MgO(s)+HCl(aq)→MgCl2(aq)+H2O(l)MgO(s)+HCl(aq)→MgCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
NiO(s)+H2SO4(aq)→NiSO4(aq)+H2O(l)

Nonmetals
Elements that tend to gain electrons to form anions during chemical reactions are
called non-metals. These are electronegative elements with high ionization
energies. They are non-lustrous, brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity
(except graphite). Non-metals can be gases, liquids or solids.

Physical Properties of Nonmetals

 Physical State: Most of the non-metals exist in two of the three states of
matter at room temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only
bromine exists as a liquid at room temperature.
 Non-Malleable and Ductile: Non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be
rolled into wires or pounded into sheets.
 Conduction: They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Luster: These have no metallic luster and do not reflect light.
 Melting and Boiling Points: The melting points of non-metals
are generally lower than metals, but are highly variable.
 Seven non-metals exist under standard conditions as diatomic
molecules: H2(g)H2(g), N2(g)N2(g), O2(g)O2(g), F2(g)F2(g), Cl2(g)Cl2(g),
Br2(l)Br2(l), I2(s)I2(s).
Chemical Properties of Nonmetals
Non-metals have a tendency to gain or share electrons with other atoms. They are
electronegative in character. Nonmetals, when reacting with metals, tend to gain
electrons (typically attaining noble gas electron configuration) and
become anions:
 3Br2(l)+2Al(s)→2AlBr3(s)3Br2(l)+2Al(s)→2AlBr3(s)

Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are covalent substances. They

generally form acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen that that dissolve in water to
form acids:

CO2(g)+H2O(l)→H2CO3(aq)carbonic acidCO2(g)+H2O(l)→H2CO3(aq)carbonic acid

As you may know, carbonated water is slightly acidic (carbonic acid).

Nonmetal oxides can combine with bases to form salts.

CO2(g)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)

Metalloids
Metalloids have properties intermediate between the metals and nonmetals.
Metalloids are useful in the semiconductor industry. Metalloids are all solid at room
temperature. They can form alloys with other metals. Some metalloids, such as
silicon and germanium, can act as electrical conductors under the right conditions,
thus they are called semiconductors. Silicon for example appears lustrous, but
is not malleable nor ductile (it is brittle - a characteristic of some nonmetals). It is
a much poorer conductor of heat and electricity than the metals. The physical
properties of metalloids tend to be metallic, but their chemical properties tend to
be non-metallic. The oxidation number of an element in this group can range from
+5 to -2, depending on the group in which it is located.
Uses of Metals and Non Metals

Uses for Metals and Nonmetals

Metals' uses are directly linked to their qualities. For example:

 Shiny metals such as copper, silver, and gold are often used for decorative
arts, jewelry, and coins.
 Strong metals such as iron and metal alloys such as stainless steel are used
to build structures, ships, and vehicles such as cars, trains, and trucks.
 Some metals have specific qualities that dictate their use. For example,
copper is a good choice for wiring because it is particularly good for
conducting electricity. Tungsten is used for the filaments of light bulbs
because it glows white-hot without melting.

Nonmetals are plentiful and useful. These are among the most commonly used:

 Oxygen, a gas, is absolutely essential to human life. Not only do we breathe

it and use it for medical purposes, but we also use it as an important
element in combustion.
 Sulphur is valued for its medical properties and as an important ingredient
in many chemical solutions. Sulfuric acid is an important tool for industry:
It is used in batteries and in manufacturing.
 Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant. It is used to purify water for drinking
and filling swimming pools.
 Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have a definite chemical composition.

 Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying

conditions.
 Minerals can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such as colour,
density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.
 Minerals are distributed in rocks and sea bed also.
 Tropical regions are very rich in terms of mineral resources.
Types of Minerals:
1. On the basis of composition, minerals are classified into metallic and non-metallic
types.
2. Metallic, minerals contain metals in raw form.
3. Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have lustre or
shine. For example, iron ore and bauxite.
4. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. For example, limestone, mica,
gypsum, coal, and petroleum.
5. Mining, drilling, and quarrying are the three extraction methods of minerals.
6. Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s
surface.
7. The process of mining includes two methods: (a) Open cast mining, (b) Shaft
mining
8. Deep wells are bored to take minerals out and this process is called drilling.
9. In the process of quarrying, minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out.
10. Mineral based industries are the backbone of industrial development of a nation.
11. Mining needs cheep labour and resources to extract it off.

Uses of Minerals:
1. Some minerals which are usually hard are used as gems for making jewellery.

2. Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.

 3. Silicon is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
4. Silicon is used in the computer industry which is obtained from quartz.

5. Aluminum is used in automobile, airplanes, bottling industry, building and in kitchen

cookware.

6. Mica is used to make electrical appliances and glassmaking industries.

7. Iron and steel is used in every indurstry.

Distribution of Minerals in India:

1. Iron: Jharkhand, Odisha, and Chattisgarh
2. Bauxite: Jharkhand, Odisha, and Chattisgarh
3. Mica: India is the leading producer of mica in the world. Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh are major producing states.

4. Gold: Kolar in Karnataka

ORES
An ore is a special type of rock that contains a large enough amount of a particular mineral
(usually a metal) to make it economically practical to extract that mineral from the surrounding
rock. Not all minerals are found in a large enough amount in one location to make it worth it to
remove the ore from the rock through a process known as mining.

If there is a large enough amount present, the rock will be extracted and processed in a variety of

ways (depending on the type of mineral) to remove the mineral from the surrounding rock. Once they

are extracted and processed, the minerals can be turned into whatever products are desired, including

the components in your cell phones and computers. One of the best known metals, gold, is extracted

from gold ore like this sample

General Principles & Processes of Isolation
of Metals
Types of Ores:
Ores may be divided into four groups
 Native Ores: These ores contain the metal in free state eg. Silver gold etc. These are usually
formed in the company of rock or alluvial impurities like clay, sand etc.
 Oxidised Ores:These ores consist of oxides or oxysalts (eg. carbonates, phosphate) and silicate
of metal. Important oxide ore includes, Fe2O3, Al2O3.2H2O etc. and important cabonate ores are
limestone (CaCO3), Calamine (ZnCO3) etc.
 Sulphurised Ores: These ores consist of sulfides of metals like iron, lead, mercury etc. Examples
are iron pyrites (FeS2). galena (PbS), Cinnabar (HgS)
 Halide ores: Metallic halides are very few in nature. Chlorides are most common examples include
horn silver (AgCl) carnallite KCl. MgCl2.6H2O and fluorspar (CaF2) etc.
Metallurgy:
It is the process of extracting a metal from its ores. The following operations are carried out for
obtaining the metal in the pure form.
 Crushing of the ore
 Dressing or concentration of the ore.
 Reduction of metal.
 Purification or refining of the metal
Concentration
Physical Method
Gravity separation: The powdered ores is agitated with water or washed with a running stream of
water. The heavy ore particles of sand, clay etc. are washed away.
Froth Floatation Process: The finely divided ore is introduced into water containing small quantity of
oil (e.g. Pine Oil). The mixture is agitated violently with air a froth is formed which carries away along
with it the metallic particles on account of the surface tension forces. The froth is transferred to another
bath where gangue-free ore settles down.
Electro Magnetic Separator:. A magnetic separator consists of a belt moving over two rollers, one
of which is magnetic. The powdered ore is dropped on the belt at the other end. Magnetic portion of
the ore is attracted by the magnetic roller and falls near to the roller while the non-magnetic impurity
falls farther off

Chemical Methods
Calcination: Carbonate or hydrated oxide ores are subjected to the action of heat in order of expel
water from hydrated oxide and carbon dioxide from a carbonate.
Examples:
ZnCO3 --> ZnO + CO2
CaCO3 --> CaO + CO2
Al2O3×2H2O --> Al2O3 + 2H2O
2Fe2O3×3H2O --> 2Fe2O3 + 3H2O
Roasting: Sulphide ores either are subjected to the action of heat and air at temperatures below their
melting points in order to bring about chemical changes in them.
Examples:
2PbS + 3O2 --> 2PbO + 2SO2
PbS + 2O2 --> PbSO4
2ZnS + 3O2 --> 2ZnO + 2SO2
ZnS + 2O2 --> ZnSO4
CuS + 2O2 --> CuSO4
2Cu2S + 3O2 --> 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Leaching: It involves the treatment of the ore with a suitable reagent as to make it soluble while
impurities remain insoluble. The ore is recovered from the solution by suitable chemical method.
Al2O3 + 2NaOH -->2 NaAlO2 + H2O
Reduction of Free Metal:
Smelting:
Reduction of a metal from its ore by a process involving melting
Several reducing agents such as sodium, magnesium and aluminium are used for reduction.
The calcinated or roasted ore is mixed with carbon (coal or coke) and heated in a reverberatory or a blast
furnace.
Carbon and carbon monoxide produced by incomplete combustion of carbon reduce the oxide to the metal.

Flux:
The ores even after concentration contain some earthy matter called gangue which
is heated combine with this earthy matter to form an easily fusible material.
Such a substance is known as flux and the fusible material formed
during reduction process is called slag.
 Acidic fluxes like silica, borax etc are used when the gangue is basic such as lime or other metallic
oxides like MnO, FeO, etc
 Basic fluxes like CaO, lime stone (CaCO3), magnesite (MgCO3), hematite (Fe2O3) etc are used when
the gangue is acidic like silica, P4O10 etc.
Refining
The metals obtained by the application of above reduction methods from the
concentration ores are usually impure. The impure metal is thus subjected to
some purifying process known as refining in order to remove undesired
impurities. Various process for this are
a) Liquation process b) Distillation process
c)Electrolytic refining
Extraction of Aluminium:
Important Ores of Aluminium:
 Bauxite : Al2O3×2H2OCryolite: Na3AlF6
Purification of Bauxite
CORROSION AND RUSTING

What is corrosion?

Corrosion is a process where the metal corrodes. Corrosion is a natural

process and in the presence of a moist atmosphere, chemically active
metals get corroded. Contrary to popular belief, rusting and corrosion are
not the same.
Rusting is the process where iron corrodes due to exposure to the
atmosphere. Corrosion is a process where the water or the moisture on
the surface of the metal oxidizes with the atmospheric oxygen, it is an
oxidation reaction. The main circumstance of corrosion occurs with iron
because it is a structural material in construction, bridges, buildings, rail
transport, ships, etc. Aluminum is also an important structural metal, but
even aluminum goes under oxidation reactions. However, aluminum
doesn’t corrode or oxidize as rapidly as its reactivity suggests. An alloy
of aluminum or any other metal like magnesium can make aluminum
stronger, stiffer and harder.

Chemistry of Rusting of Iron

Corrosion of any metal is a natural process. It results in the conversion of the
metal into its chemically stable form that can be either oxides or hydroxides or
sulphides.
Rusting is a type of Chemical Change. It results in the formation of Iron Oxide
which is an entirely new substance. Chemical Reaction of Rusting is as
follows:

Iron + Oxygen (from environment) + Water (Humidity) —> Iron Oxide (Rust)
Fe + O2 + H2O —> FeO and Fe2O3

The alkali metals like sodium need to be stored in oil as they corrode
quickly. Less reactive metals like lead and copper are used to roof
situations. Copper (Cu) corrodes and forms a basic green carbonate and
lead corrodes to form a white lead oxide or carbonate.
How to Prevent Corrosion of Metals
Covering the surface of the metal with enamel and lacquers helps to
protect the metal against corrosion, parts of machines that move can be
protected by coating layers of water repellent oil or grease. Another way
of protecting iron and steel is by painting on them as it creates a barrier
between the surface of the metal and moist air or water. Whereas, the
other methods of protecting a metal are alloying, galvanizing,
electroplating, etc.

Alloying
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloying is a process where
metals like iron or steel are mixed with a less reactive metal like
chromium, magnesium, etc for protection against corrosion and to create
non-rusting alloys. For e.g. Brass is an alloy which consists of copper is
a cheap and non – reactive alloy. Another example of a non-rusting alloy
is stainless steel, a mixture of iron and carbon.

Galvanizing
Coating iron or steel with Zinc to prevent corrosion is known as
galvanizing. Dipping iron or steel in a liquid form of zinc and using it as
the negative cathode zinc is coated on it, the layer is produced by
electrolytic deposition. Zinc oxides or corrodes to create a zinc oxide
layer that does not flake off like iron oxide rust.

Electroplating
Electroplating is a process where a metal is coated by electrolytic
deposition with chromium, silver, or another metal. This process is
generally held at room temperature from aqueous electrolytes. It is one
of the most popular and common methods to prevent corrosion.