QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS 5.

The normal writing condition of the subject must be arranged, so that the
writer will feel to write the dictation.
Document- is any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs, visible or How to prepare & examine Typewriting Standards:
partially visible & convey meaning or message.
Disputed Document-is the term given when there is an argument or 1. Examine the ribbon;
controversy on the document. 2. Use the same size of questioned materials, same word, typographical
Questioned Documents- is a document which is in questioned because of its errors & same degree of touch;
origin, its contents, or circumstances regarding its production arouse 3. Prepare the standard while the typewriter is in stencil position;
suspicion as to its genuiness or it may adversely scrutinized simply because 4. State the make, model, serial number, date & initial of the officer;
it displeases someone 5. Typewriter should be kept in current condition.
Two kinds of standard: Source of Standards:
1. Procured or collected- obtained from files
2. Requested- made upon the request of an investigator.
Proof of Authenticity:
How to obtain Collected Standards: The Revised Rules on Evidence (Rules of Court) specifically Rule
1. Collect at least 15-20 standards; 132- Presentation of Evidence letter “B” Authentication & Proof of
2. Collected standards should bear similarity of subject matter; Documents
3. The date of preparation must be five (5) years before & five (5) years after Section 20 Proof of Private Documents- states that before any
the incident happened; private document is offered as authentic its due execution and authenticity
4. There should be similarity of the instrument used in writing; must be proved:
5. The writing condition and the manner of execution must be similar to the a) By anyone who saw the document when it is executed or written.
execution of the questioned writing. b) By evidence of the genuineness of the signature or handwriting of
the suspect.
How to obtain Requested Standards: Section 22. How Genuineness of Handwriting is Proved. The
genuineness of the document can be proved by any witness who believe it to
1. Dictate, never allow the suspect to see the document; be the handwriting of such person because he saw the person executed it.
2. The text that is to be dictated must be carefully selected; do not dictate Alterations:
exactly the content to prevent familiarity of the document; a) Erasures
3. Dictation must be conducted for three times; 1. Chemical- bleached with an eradicator. When it is an iron based
4. Dictation must be interrupted & on an interval basis so that the subject ink & fumed with sulfoxyanic acid, fume will turn red.
will feel relax and write in his own natural writing.

1
 2. Abrasive- when something rough or sharp pointed instrument is 3. In cases where a white-out is used, careful inspection of the writing will
used in erasing the writings. reveal the obliteration. The original writing can be read also with the aid of a
3. Associative evidence- a carbon copy, will reveal what had been transmitted light with infrared sensitive film and filters or with use of
erased. solvents to weaken the cover and reveal the writing below.
4. Cutting Handwriting:
5. Interlineations, addition or subtraction.
Natural
Elements: Disguised
Cursive
a) Lack of uniformity of ink; Hand lettering
b) Work of more than one pen or ink;
c) Crowding, uneven margin, & unusual spacing; Cortex of the brain- control vision, hearing, talking, and walking. It also
d) Removal & reinsertion; guide the muscles of the hands.
e) Indication of more than one ribbon or typewriter, including the
condition of the fabric of the ribbon; agrapia- a disease which causes the individual to lose his/her ability to write.
f) Sharp variation in handwriting.
Two muscles of the hand capable of movement:
Obliteration- blotting out or smearing over of the writing to make the
original invisible. 1. Extensor muscles- push the pen to form an upward stroke.
Restoration- the process of the development of erased writing or bringing out 2. Flexor muscles- push the pen to form the downward strokes.
again. The combination of these two muscles of the hand allows the
This is the photographic methods by the use of filter, except when covered individual to perform the lateral strokes (sideward
with black. CARE IN HANDLING DOCUMENTS:
1. Do not fold the document along new lines.
METHODS OF RESTORING OBLITERATED WRITINGS 2. Bring the document to the laboratory at the soonest time.
1. To penetrate the covering layer photographically, so that the original 3. Do not expose the document to excessive heat or strong light.
writing lying beneath is thus revealed. Photographic methods can succeed 4. Do not handle the document excessively, and do not place it in your
only if a difference in color or chemical composition exists between the pocket.
original writing and the covering material. Separation of color may be 5. Do not work on it unnecessarily.
possible with the aid of photographic filter, but it is useless when the ink is a 6. Do not mutilate or damage.
true black. 7. Do not use or allow chemical application to treat or dust for latent prints.
2. To remove the covering material chemically, or with the aid of ultra-
violate radiation or oblique lighting. CHARATERISTICS OF TREMOR OF FRAUD

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1. Inequality of movement in any place in any stroke or line with strokes too 2. Commercial Document-under Article 172 of the Revised Penal
strong and vigorous combined with weak hesitating strokes. Code, these are instruments which are used by the merchants or
2. Frequent interruption of movement. businessmen to promote or facilitate trade or credit transaction. The
3. Unequal distribution of ink on upward and downward strokes. term also include letters, notes or papers issued in the course of
4. Varying pen pressure, due to change in speed & interruptions in business transactions, quedans, bonds, books of accounts and in
movement, this may occur in the middle of direct curves or even on the general any negotiable instruments. It is any document defined and
straight lines. regulated by the code of commerce or any other commercial law.
5. Too many pen-stops and pen-lifts on wrong places. 3. Official Document- a document which is issued by a public official
in the exercise of the functions of his office. An official document is
CHARACTERISTIC TREMORS OF AGE OR OF EXTREME also a public document.
WEAKNESS 4. Private Document- a deed or instrument executed by a private
1. Show unusual and erratic departure of lines from its intended course. person without the intervention of a notary public or other persons
2. Abrupt recovery, a general inclination of muscular weakness and of legally authorized, by which document some disposition or
movement beyond the control of the writer, particularly on downward agreement is provided evidence as set forth.
strokes.
3. Show awkward digression or distortions which may be due to imperfect IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNATURES
sight.
4. Characterized by abbreviations or even omissions of parts of letters or The identification or the so called verification of signatures is a
even the whole word. specialized branch or handwriting examination.
5. In the tremor of age often show very uneven alignment especially when
the line intersect. In signature, it shows apparent impatience and desire to The identification principles and pointers in general handwriting
complete disagreeable and painful act. Concluding or terminal strokes are set forth and discussed earlier herein fundamentally remain the same in
often made with nervous, haste and carelessness or may be distorted or the identification of signatures, however, certain characteristics and
abbreviated. factors must be given careful consideration because of the following
6. reasons:
FOUR (4) CATEGORIES OF DOCUMENT Known signatures may contain elements and features not common to the
writer’s other classes of writing;
1. Public Document-an instrument authenticated by a notary public or a) Factors of identification given closest study in signature
competent official with the formalities required by law; or an examination may not be given the same special emphasis in general
instrument executed in due form before a notary public certified by writing.
him; or one that which is made by a notary public in the presence of
parties who execute it with the assistance of two (2) witnesses. A simple signature may represent thousand or even millions of pesos, and
such minute stroke of a few letters of a genuine signature may thus represent

3
tens or even hundreds of thousands of pesos. It is, therefore, natural and b) Slant of letters
necessary that every minute phase of this small production of the human c) Relative size of capitals; single-space letters and those which follow
hand and the human brain should be analyzed and scrutinized every possible the base line or above, the height of a single space.
way. d) Ornamentation of form
e) Arrangement of different parts of the signature with respect to the
A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and designs due to its balance of it.
frequent use, it become almost automatic with many writers.
The identification of signature is based on the combination of the two (2)
The identification of signature depends very largely on the manner it is personal attribute of:
written. a) form
b) Line quality
While design or form of letters are the eye-catching features the forces or If a questioned signature agrees with the standards in all identifying
factors that contribute to the manner of writing of identification elements, then it can be concluded that it was written by the same person.

The individual writing movement and the skill employed in the execution of If on the other hand, significant differences exist between the standards and
the signature itself. A combination of the following factors provides a full the questioned signatures, they must be the work of two different writers,
description of the individual writing movement in the execution of the and the difference between them have to be of fundamental nature and no
signature. mere variations which are normally found between two signatures of any
1. A continuous writing movement-or the opposite, a writing movement writer.
interrupted at intervals by either pen stops or actual pen lift.
2. Rhythmic, or the opposite, jerky pattern of writing. No two specimens of a person’s signatures are absolutely identical. The
3. Shading and pen emphasis on particular strokes. signatures normally vary from each other in some details and the degree
4. Overall writing pressures. which they vary from each other depends upon the individual writer and the
5. Speed of execution. conditions under which each signature was written. As pointed out in
6. Smooth or angular connecting strokes between letters. “Standards of Comparison”, it is because of the normal variations in
7. Starting of the initial writing movement before or after the pen signature that several
contracts the paper and the corresponding condition at the
termination of the word. signatures should be used to identify the one in question.
A person, in writing his signature, produces a particular pattern which In the identification, the known or sample signature must necessarily
contain personal concepts of design which, when often repeated serves to establish accurately the range of variation, and then it is necessary to
distinguish his signature from all others. determine whether the identifying qualities of unknown signature fall within
Elements which constitute general forms of signature include the following: these limits. Natural variation between several signatures if the same person
a) Design of letters plays an important role in the process of identification. In most cases, the

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extent of variation in writing even becomes a characteristic peculiar to the This kind of forgery is best termed as “SPUROUS SIGNATURE”. In
writer. committing fraud, the forger who is confronted with the absence of a genuine
signature (or a model) will not endeavor anymore to produce a facsimile of
FORGERY OF SIGNATURES the genuine but merely signs the name in his own, or in a modified
(disguised) handwriting and then contrive some means of passing the
A forged signature is the signature of another person or a fictitious person, documents to his own gain before the obvious fraud is discovered. This is
written by a person who has no authority to do so, with intent to defraud. commonly employed in the case of fictitious persons, this system employed
by the check thief who steals, endorses, and passes government, corporation
Classes of Disputed Signatures: or other checks, or who procures printed check forms, completes and
1. Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a endorses then with fictitious signatures in order to make them pass on as
copy or facsimile of the genuine signature. genuine.
2. Forged signatures of fictitious persons.
3. Forged signature which resemble the genuine signature since The determination of the fraudulent nature of this kind of forged signatures
they have been produced by a tracing process ( Traced becomes very elementary once standards of the genuine signatures are
forgery). obtained.
4. Forged signature which resemble the genuine signature
written free-hand. With sufficient standards the identity of the forger, thru his handwriting may
5. Genuine signature obtained by trickery. be possibly determined.
6. Genuine signatures deliberately written illegibly or in an
unusual manner, to afford signatories some plausible grounds SIMULATED FORGERY
for disclaiming them should only deemed it expedient. This is a simulation, copying or animation of a genuine signature or writing
The forger produces fraudulent signatories, from the elementary process of as to assemble the model.
merely writing the name(without attempt of making a close resemblance of Before separate discussions of simulated forgery and traced forgery are
the genuine signature) to the more complicated process of a simulation or herein made, the following background points are given in relation to these
tracing in an effort to produce facsimile of the genuine signature. two kinds of forgery which are strictly the strange process of writing in place
of the well founded, usual writing movement employed in genuine writing.
KINDS OF FORGERY
1. Simple Forgery The forger labors under a stranded mental and muscular condition that makes
2. Simulated Forgery it difficult, is not altogether impossible to do his work in a skillful manner
3. Traced Forgery brought about by:
1. The realization that forgery is a criminal act;
SIMPLE FORGERY 2. Fear of discovery which certainly result to punishment;
3. Painful anxiety to do the work well.

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 b) The determination, removal or decipherment of erasures,
To be able to forge successfully, one must: interlineations, deletions, additions, and other alterations.
c) The age of the document.
1. Be able to see significant characteristics of the writing of another; d) The source of the paper.
2. Have the muscular skill necessary to reproduce the writing imitated; e) The source and age of typewriting.
3. Be able to eliminate, at the same time all the characteristics of his f) Comparisons of handwriting and typewriting.
writing.
DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
Forgery is apt to show failure in these phases of performance.
a) Examination by the Investigator:
The necessity of adjustment of impulses disturbed when muscles become The investigator may perform limited examination of the evidence
tense as a result of extra effort to produce a good forgery, and the best results document in cases, such as involving anonymous letters, where the
can be achieved only when muscles are somewhat relaxed so that all work is authorship is questioned. He should study the document and compare it with
in harmony. any available standards. His attention should be directed to the contents of
the letter, similarities in writing, typing, spelling, locutions, punctuations,
Simulation and also tracing, gives attention to conspicuous features of form and the type of paper. Immediate precautionary action or investigative leads
only, not to the many other details and elements entering into the process. may be indicated as a result of this study. Conclusion regarding the
document should remain within the province of the expert.
Developed natural writing which is an almost automatic act that follows the c) Laboratory Examination:
fixed grooves of habit becomes necessarily stained when attention is given to The expert employs scientific techniques & appropriate instruments
it. in the laboratory. Examinations may involve microscopy, chemical analysis,
micrometry, colorimetry,
In SIMULATED FORGERY, the forger has a model (genuine signature)
before him which he is going to copy. Often he undertakes some practice photomicrography, ultraviolet, and infrared photography.
before he proceed to his work of simulation or imitation.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
In rarer instances where the forger cannot avail of a genuine signature for a The questioned document cases usually concerned with proving of
model, he may rely on a mental pattern of the signature which he may have authorship. The following determinations may be involved in comparisons of
owing to long acquaintances of association with said signature. handwriting:
1. Whether the document was written by the suspect.
TYPICAL DOCUMENT PROBLEMS: 2. Whether the document was written by the person whose signature it
bears.
a) The identity of the writer of the document. 3. Whether the writing contains addition or deletions.

6
 4. Whether a document such as bill, receipt, suicide note, or check is a a) Slant- which refers to the slope of the handwriting in relation to the
forgery. baseline. It is fairly a stable characteristics and the average slant
varies very slightly in writings which are done naturally.
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING HANDWRITING COMPARISON b) Alignment- is the relation of successive characters or elements of the
words, signature or line to an actual imaginary baseline.
“ NO TWO PRODUCTS OF MAN OR NATURE ARE IDENTICAL, c) Proportion- of the letter may refer to the proportion or apart to the
AND DIFFERENCES ARE PERCEPTIBLE IF A SUFFICIENTLY CLOSE other part of the letter or the relative height of one letter to the other.
STUDY IS MADE.” Through years of practice each individual acquires This is one of the hidden features of writing as it is unknown writing
permanent habits of handwriting. The group of characteristics which form of another being simulated.
his script constitutes and identifiable picture. In comparing the questioned
and standard specimen, characteristics of sufficient kind and number which Proportion and Ratio
are common to both must be established and there must be no unexplainable 1. Normal- ½ size of the capital letter is the size of small letter.
differences. 2. High Proportion- more than ½ the size of capital letter.
3. Low Proportion- less than ½ of the size of capital letter is the size
HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS WHICH SERVES AS THE of small
BASIS IN EXAMINATION letter.
d) Stroke or Structure- refers to letter to letter comparison.
1. Quality of Line. The lines which form the letter will vary in
appearance with pen position, pressure, shading, rhythm, tremor, TWELVE (12) METHODS/POINTS OF COMPARISON
continuity, skill and speed. Point 1- Uniformity
2. Form. The formation of letters is highly characteristic. Slant, Point 2- Irregularities
proportions, beginning and ending strokes, retracing, and separation  Are the strokes patched or retouched?
of parts will vary with different persons. Ornamentation and  Are there small marks near the strokes?
flourishes at the beginning and end of the words and sentences are  Are the strokes wavering?
peculiarly individual.  Are the connecting strokes broken?
3. Spacing. Letters words and lines are separated in a consistent fashion.  Are the circle formations made up of separate strokes?
4. Spelling and Punctuation. The degree and kind of education will  Are there pen lifts?
determine these elements.
 Are there vertical strokes mixed with a forward slant?
 Look for individualized strokes (not a sign of forgery) for
Another book enumerated these characteristics as:
identification.
Point 3- Size and Proportion
 What is the height of the overall writing?

7
  What is the height of the short letters in relation to the tall Point 11- Circle Formations
ones? Point 12- Initial and Final Strokes
 Do the strokes diminish in size?
 Do they increase in size THREE (3) BASIC MOVEMENTS/MOTIONS IN HANDWRITING
 Are they narrow in proportion as they are tall? 1. Clockwise motion
 Does the sentence formation create a convex and concave 2. Counterclockwise motion
baseline? 3. Straight line motion
 Does the sentence formation consistently run uphill?
WRITING INSTRUMENTS
 Consistency runs downhill?
 Form converging “railroad track”?
a) Pens
Point 4- Alignment
b) Ballpoint pens
 Do the strokes follow straight along the baseline? c) Pencils
 Do the letter strokes leave the baseline? d) Crayons, Chalk and Brushed
 Do the word strokes leave the baseline?
 Is the left margin essentially even? THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN OBTAINING
 Is it jagged? HANDWRITING OR HAND PRINTING SAMPLES FROM THE
 Do the strokes hit the margin at an oblique angle SUSPECT:
 How much space is there between capitals and small letters?
 Between separate capitals? Obtain standards from dictation until it is believed normal writing has
 Between word formations? been produced. ( The number of samples needed cannot be determined in
 In connecting strokes? advance)
 Proportion of space breaks between letters? 1. Do not allow the suspect to see either the original document in
Point 5- Spacing question or a photograph of it.
 Are the strokes above and below the line balanced? 2. Remove each sample from the sight of the writer as soon as it is
 How tall are the d and t stems in proportion to the rest of the completed.
writing? 3. Do not give instruction on spelling, punctuation, arrangement, etc.
4. Use the same writing media such as type and size of the paper,
 Are the strokes ill-formed?
writing instruments, printed forms (such as checks, notes etc.)
Point 6- Degree of Slant
5. Obtain the full text of the questioned writing in word for word order
Point 7- Weight of Strokes
at least once, if possible. Signatures and less extensive writing should
Point 8- T-Bars and I-Dots
be prepared several times, each time on different piece of paper.
Point 9- The Needle, the Wedge, the Round, the Flat
Point 10- Loops

8
 Obscene passages, proper nouns, etc. may be omitted from the e) Carbon ink or colored writing ink
dictation. f) Ball point pen ink
6. In forgery cases the laboratory should also be furnished with genuine
signatures of the person whose name is forged. PHILIPPINE BANKNOTES
7. Obtain samples with both the right and the left hands.
8. Obtain samples which are written rapidly, slowly, and at varied The main engraved components of each value of the notes may be
slants. enumerated as follows:
9. Obtain samples of supplementary writing such as sketches, drawings, 1. A portrait or portraits on the front with finely engraved backgrounds.
manner of addressing an envelope, etc. 2. A border and value panel, constructed of security white line
10. Include a statement that the samples are being given voluntarily. geometric patterns.
Writer should initial each page. 3. Lettering, shading and ornamentation of varied depth and fineness of
11. Witness each sample on the back, never on the front. line.
12. If readily available, samples of un-dictated writing should be 4. Security “black line” geometric patterns, also known as “guilloche”
obtained,, such as applications for employment, social or business work.
correspondence, school papers, etc. 5. Finely engraved vignettes on the back.
13. The investigator should advise the document examiner concerning 6. Subsidiary printings.
the suspects manner of writing, i. e., whether he was relaxed, whether
he was writing slowly or rapidly, or apparently attempting to disguise HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT CENTRAL BANK NOTES
all or a portion of the handwriting.
Study the workmanship of each denomination of known genuine Central
The availability of adequate handwriting samples will allow more Bank Notes. Take note and familiarize yourself with the various
suitable examination which will result into a greater number of definite characteristics of the following features:
conclusion and will therefore, also assist the expert witness a better 1. Distinctive feel
presentation of such conclusion in court. 2. Portrait
3. Watermark in Filipino notes
TYPES OF INK 4. Red and blue fibers widely distributed on the paper
5. Broken thread vertically arranged on the left side of the Filipino notes
There are varieties of ink today in the market but a modern ink are 6. Lacework design
usually of six (6) types: 7. Color of each denomination
a) Gallotannate Ink 8. Color, style and size of serial number
b) Logwood ink 9. Vignette; and
c) Nigrosine ink 10. Cleanness of print
d) Aniline ink DOMINANT COLOR FOR EACH DENOMINATION

9
 Baseline-is the ruled or imaginary line in which the letter rests.
100 peso-Mauve
50 peso- Red Benzene method- a chemical method of ink examination.
20-peso-Orange
10-peso- Brown Block Style of Writing- is characterized by writing in which all the letters are
5 peso- Green in capital or printed.
1 peso- Blue
Blunt- is the beginning and ending stroke of both small and capital letters,
GLOSSARY: wherein the pen touched the paper without hesitation, beard , hitch or knob.

Abnormal Writing Condition- is a writing executed not in a normal Body – is that part of the letter which ordinarily forms a small circle, usually
condition, such as standing, walking, lying position. lies on the line of writing such as bodies of a, o, d, g, p, and q.

Alignment Defects- Includes characters which write improperly the Bowl-is the fully rounded oval or circular formation in a letter which is
following respects: twisted letter, horizontal or vertical mal-alignment, and a complete in “o” and modified in b, d, p, and r.
character off-its-feet.
Buckle knot- is the horizontal loop that are used to complete such letters as a,
Altered Documents- it is one that contains some changes, either as an b, h, and k.
addition or deletion.
Cacography- is characterized as bad writing.
Angular Style of Writing- a writing wherein most part specifically the upper Calligraphy-is the art of beautiful writing.
and lower strokes forms an angle or wedge.
Carbon Impressions- any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the
Arc- is the bend, crook or curve on inner side of a loop of letters such as “b”, action of the typeface striking through carbon paper.
“c”, “n”, and “p”. It also refers to any arcaded form in the body of letters
“c”, “a”, “s” and “o”. Carbon Inks- consists of a finely ground carbon particles suspended in water.

Ascender- is the top portion of the letter or upper loop of letters such as; b, d, Copy Book Form- it is the basic form and design of letters which is
l, f, I, and k. fundamental to our writing system.

Ballpoint pen- a pen with a tiny rotating ball that pick-up supply of ink by Decipherment- is the process of making out what is illegible or what has
contact on the reservoir and then transmit it to the paper. been effaced. It refers to the process of searching or making out the material

10
which is illegible without actually developing or restoring the original
writing on the document itself. Ductus Link or Junction connection- a continuous line that connects or joins
two letters.
Defects- are any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter which is
reflected in its work and which led to its individualization and identification. Efface – to rub out, to strike or scratch out or to erase.

Descender- is the lower portion of the letter or lower loop of g, j, q, y, and p. Erasure- the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from the document.

Diacritic- is an element added to complete a certain letter such as “dot” on Examination- is the art of making a close and critical study of any material
small “i”, j, bar on “t” and accent mark on foreign language. and with questioned document as the process necessary to discover the facts
about them. Various types are undertaken including microscopic, visual,
Disguised writing- when the writer tried to deliberately alter his usual photographic, chemical, ultra-violet and infra-red examinations.
writing habit in the hope of hiding his identity. The result irregardless of its
effectiveness is termed as disguised writing. Exemplar- is a standard of writing of known authorship which can be used
by the expert in comparison.
Display exhibit- describes a greatly enlarged photographic court exhibit
which is made to such size that it must be placed upon an easel before the Expert Evidence- is the testimony of a person who is skilled or possessing
jury box.. These are also called bromide enlargements. knowledge of a particular department of human activity.

Disputed document- means that there is argument or controversy over the Expert Witness- a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his
document. special, technical training and experience is permitted to express an opinion
regarding an issue or a certain aspect of issue that is involved in a law suit.
Document- is any material having marks, signs, symbols, which are either
partially visible or invisible which may ultimately convey meaning to Eye loop or Eyelet- is a small loop formed by strokes that extends in
someone or a printed or written paper containing a record, statement or an divergent direction as in b, c, f, k, p, r, s, w and z.
instrument containing inscription.
Flexibility of penpoint- the quality of the nib pen that varies with the
Document Examiner- one who studies scientifically the details and elements different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to
of documents in order to identify their source or to discuss other fact cause a spreading of the nibs or a given degree of shading.
concerning the same.
Flying start and flying finishes – when the motion of the pen proceeds the
Ductus Broken or Junction Broken- refers to the disconnected or non- beginning of the stroke and continue beyond the end to a vanishing point is
continuous strokes between two letters.

11
found in free natural writing and as a rule is an important indication of Habit lettering – a disconnected style of writing in which each letter is
genuineness. written separately is a form of hand lettering or hand printing.

Foot – is the base or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing. Habit – a writing habit in any expected elements of defect which may serve
as identifying characteristics in individualize writing.
Forgery – a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but
also on intent on the part of the marker defraud. Outside of the courtroom, Hand exhibit – described a photographic court which is designed to be held
however, it is used synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious and examined by the individual juror or pair of judges.
document.
Handwriting – is the result of very complicated series of act, being as a
Form of blindness – there are people who lacks the ability to differentiate whole, a combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habit
forms, size, letter configuration, design and angle. acquired by long continued painstaking effort.

Fountain pen – is the modern nib pen which contains a reservoir of ink in a Handwriting – is the result of a bodily movement, which is almost
specially designed sack or chamber. unconscious, of fixed muscular habit reacting from fixed mental impression
of certain idea, associated with script form.
Freehand imitation or simulated forgery – a fraudulent signature which was
executed by simulation rather that by tracing the line of a genuine signature Handwriting – extended writing
can be referred to as executed in free hand imitation.
Handwriting – Block-style.
Gooping of ballpoint pen writing – is the excess of globules of ink
oftentimes deposited after a sharply curve stroke or the point of an abrupt Hesitation – is the term applied to the irregular thickening which is formed
change of writing direction. when the writing slows down or stops while a penman takes stocks of the
position.
Graphology – is the art of determining character, disposition and aptitude of
the individual from the study of handwriting. Hiatus – may be regarded as a special form of pen lift distinguishable in that
a perceptible gap, appeared in writing, though sometimes hiatus are caused
Guided hand signature – signature actually produced by the cooperation of by failure of ink to register on a paper due to speed of writing movement.
two hands and two minds. A seriously ill-testator sometime ask someone for
assistance in affixing his signature, generally then, abnormally, clumps Hitch – is the introductory background stroke added to the beginning of any
disconnection, uneven alignment and illegibility are indication of capital letter. It is also seen occasionally in introductory strokes of some
genuineness and the opposite condition are evidence of lack of genuineness. small letters.

12
Holographic document – any document completely prepared, written and be mistaken from a retouching or patching. The condition is readily
signed by the person without the assistant of a lawyer. distinguishable from an actual patching by this accurate fitting together of
the lines.
Hook – a minute and involuntary talon-like formation often found at the
commencement of an initial upstroke or at the end of terminal stroke. Insertion or Interlineations – include the addition of writing and other
material between lines or paragraphs, to the addition of whole pages to a
Individual Characteristics – characteristics highly individualize or peculiar to document.
an individual writer or characteristics which are highly personalize and
unlikely to occur in other instances. Inside or Middle Letter – letter between the initial and terminal stroke.

Infrared Examination – infrared examinations of document employ invisible Intersection – is the meeting of two lines which intersect.
radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum(rainbow) which is Iodine Fumes – a kind of chemical examination of ink erasure.
usually recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsion
Junction – is the meeting of two lines which do not cross.
Infrared Photography – the principle in infra-red photography as a means of
preparing photographic evidence is based upon the fundamental facts that Knob – is the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the
different substances which looks alike to the naked eye but are of different withdrawal of the pen from the paper.
chemical component may have a varying ability, reflect or transmit infra-red
rays and hence, will not appear alike when photographed by infra-red rays. Lead or Graphite – is the substance in the pencil commonly made up of
tetanium chloride, sulfite and ion that produce.
Initial Emphasis – is the greater pressure on stroke or the initial stroke.
Legal Tender Philippine Currency-Notes and coins issued and circulating in
Ink – is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing. accordance with R.A. 266 as amended by R.A. 7653, which when offered for
the payment of private or public debt must be accepted.
Ink Analysis – the application of chemicals on ink to determine its
component whether or not it came from the same source. Lens – consist of one or more optically ground glasses which focus light rays
similar to the pupil of the eyes and to focus an image of the object being
Ink Eradication – consist of the chemical solutions which are capable of photographed or the film surface.
bleaching ink.
Ligature – a stroke connecting two letters.
Ink Flow back – ink sometimes will flow back on stroke from a shaded to an
unshaded portion giving the appearance of two ink film. Logwood ink Line quality – it is the condition of the pen line itself. Good line quality is
sometimes shows these characteristics. Such flow back of an ink should not characterized by smoothness of writing, regularity of curves and shades. It

13
results from the writer’s being largely unconscious of the actual act of
writing and concentrating instead of what is being written. Poor line quality, Non-acqeous ink – an ink which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle
on the other hand, is the result of the writer’s given too much attention to the other than water. Inks of this class are found in ballpoint pens, typewriter
actual process of writing. ribbons and stamp pads and all widely used in the printing industry.

Majuscule – a capital letter. Oblique or side lighting examination – an examination with the illumination
so controlled that it gazes or strikes the surface of the document from one
Misalignments – synonymous with the term “alignment defect”. side at a very low angle.

Microscopic Examination – any study or examination which is made with Obliteration – the blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the
the microscope in order to discover the minute physical details. original invisible or undecipherable.

Miniscule – a small letter. Off its feet – a condition of typeface writing heavier either one side or corner
than over the remainder of its outline.
Model signature – a genuine signature which has been used in imitation or
traced forgery. Opinion – the document examiner’s conclusion. In court, he does not only
expresses an opinion but demonstrates his reason for arriving at his
Movement – it is the most important elements of handwriting. It embodies conclusion.
the factor related to the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed,
freedom, hesitation, rhythm and emphasis. The manner in which the writing Paper analysis – the application of chemicals on the paper to determine its
instrument is moved, that is, finger movement, hand movement, arm component whether or not it came from the same source.
movement and whole arm movement.
Patching – going back over a defective writing stroke or an attempt to
Movement impulse – this refers to the uniformity and continuity of strokes. improve an imitation.
Forged writing is usually produced by a broke movement to or maybe more
interrupted motion or movement impulse than genuine writing. Pen – a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper.

Natural variation – this are normal and natural deviation found between Pencil grade – is the quantitative description of the hardness or softness of a
repeated specimens of an individual handwriting. pencil that is how a dark stroke is capable of making.

Natural writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any Pen lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing
attempt to deviate from his norm, control or alter its identifying habits in its instrument (pen) from the paper.
usual quality of execution.

14
Pen nibs – the two divisions or points which from the writing portion of the Qualifications – the professional experience, education and ability of
pen. document examiner combine to make up his qualifications.

Permanent defects – an identifying characteristic of a typewriter which Quality – is a distinct or peculiar character. It is used in describing
cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon. handwriting to refer to any identifying factor which is related to the writing
movement itself.
Photomacrographs – a similarity enlarged photograph prepared from a
camera with the use of macro lens. Rebound – is a defect in which the character prints a double impression with
the lighter one slightly offset to the right or left.
Photomacrography– this is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph
of a small object without the use of microscope but, by using a short lens and Rebutting evidence – is that evidence that counter act, to repeal or destroy
a long below extension. evidence, or disproved the evidence by either side.

Photomacrograph – is a photograph with a magnification of, from two to Restoration – describes any process in which erased writing is developed or
fifty times the original size. brought out again on the document itself.

Photomicrograph – is a photograph made through a compound microscope Retracing – any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.
or stereoscope and may be a greatly enlarged image of minute details or of a
small area. Safety paper – this term is applied to paper which has been treated in such a
way as to minimize the chances of successful forgery by erasure whether
Photomicrography – this is the science of obtaining photographic mechanical or chemical being carried out in any document which forms the
magnification of a minute object by using camera attached to a compound basis.
microscope. The camera lens is removed because the microscope lens forms
the image. Script writings – are characterized by writing which are not point together or
disconnected.
Platen – the cylinder which serves as the backing for the paper and which
absorbs the blow of the typeface. Secret inks – a material used for writing which is not visible until treated by
some developing processes or substance can serve as a secret or sympathetic
Proportional spacing typewriting – a modern form of typewriting which ink.
resembles printing in that all the letters, numerals, an symbols do not occupy
the same horizontal space as they do with the convectional typewriter. Sequence of stroke –the order in which the writing stroke are placed on the
paper.

15
Shading – is the widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a Traced forgery – any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually
flexible pen point or to the used of a stub. following the outline of a genuine signature in a writing instrument.

Significant writing habit – this term is applied to any characteristics of Transitory defects – an identifying characteristics which can be eliminated
writing which is sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as fundamental by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon such as clogged typefaces.
point of identification. Transmitted light examination – the document is viewed with the source of
illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.
Slant – is an angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the
baseline. Tremors – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular,, shaky strokes.
(page 16)
Speed of writing- the motion of a writing instrument characterized by slow, Twisted letter – each letter and character designed to point at a certain fixed
moderate or rapid. Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from finished angle to the baseline, due to wear and damage to the type bars and the type
handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate or rapid. block, some letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of
their correct slant.
Spurious signature – describes as fraudulent signature in which there was no
apparent attempt of simulation or imitation. Typeface – the printing surface of the type block.

Standard – are those things whose origin are known, can be proven and Typeface defects – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damaged
which can be legally use for comparison with other things in question. to the typeface metal.

Surface texture or paper – the surface of any sheet of paper when viewed Ultra-violet examination – ultra-violet radiation is invisible and occurs in the
under magnification is not absolutely smooth and flat, but is irregular and wave length just below the visible blue (light) violet ends at the spectrum
rough. (rainbow). These visible rays react on some substances see that visible light
is reflected, a phenomenon known as fluorescence. Thus, ultra-violet
Synthetic dye inks or aniline inks – any ink which consists simply of a dye examination may be made visually or photographically by recording either
dissolved in water together with the necessary preservatives. the reflected ultraviolet or invisible radiation.

System of writing – the combination of basic design of letters and the writing Ultra-violet photography – the utilization of ultra-violet rays in document
movement as taught in school make up the person’s writing skill. photography to restore or uncover writings, writings which have been erased
chemically or mechanically or in the detection of substitution, over writing,
Testimonial evidence – is the oral testimony of a man or an expert in court or superimposition, and secret writing.
written affidavit by an ordinary witness.

16
Vertical Misalignment – a character printing above or below is proper Dollars with number and letter representing the Federal Reserve District in
position. which that bank is located:

Watermarks – a certain paper are marked with a translucent design a 1- Boston Massachussetts – A 7- Chicago Illinois –-- G
watermark, impressed in them during the course of their manufacture. 2- New York, New York - B 8- St Louis Missouri---H
3- Philadephia, Penn. - C 9- Minneapolis, Minn.-I
Writing Conditions – include both the circumstances under which the writing 4-Cleveland, Ohio -D 10- Kansas City , Miss.-J
was prepared and the factors which influence the writer’s ability to write at 5- Richmond Virginia -E 11- Dallas, Texas--------K
the time of execution. 6- Atlanta, Georgia -F 12- San Francisco, Calif- L
(Page 17)
Written impressions – the small writing indentations completely devoid of US Note – with red Treasury seal & Serial Number
nay pigment. They may be found a sheet of a table paper which was Silver Certificates- with Blue Treasury seal & Serial Number
immediately below the one on which writing was done, or they may be
remain after pencil or typewriting has been erased. Portrait
$ 1- George Washington $ 50- Ulysses Grant $ 10,000-
Wrong-handed writing – any writing executed with the opposite hand from Salmon Chase $ 2- Thomas Jefferson $ 100- Benjamin
that normally used. Thus, the writing of a right handed person which has Franklin
been executed with his left hand accounts for the common terminology for $ 5- Abraham Lincoln $ 500- William McKinley
this class of disguise in “left handed writing”. $ 10- Alexander Hamilton $ 1000- Grover Cleveland
$ 20- Andrew Jackson $ 5000- James Madison
Counterfeit Note-An imitation of a legal and genuine note intended to
deceive or to be taken for that which original, legal & genuine. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
"The handwriting on the wall may be a forgery" (Ralph Hodgson)
Counterfeit Coin- an imitation or forged design of a genuine and legal coin
regardless of its intrinsic value or metallic composition, intended to deceive     A "questioned" document is any signature, handwriting, typewriting,
or pass for the genuine coin. or other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful.
Letters, checks, driver licenses, contracts, wills, voter registrations,
Section 9, R.A.7653- reproduction of facsimile- size less than 3/5 or more passports, petitions, threatening letters, suicide notes, and lottery tickets
than 11/2 times in size of the currency note being illustrated. are the most common questioned documents, although marks on doors,
walls, windows, or boards would also be included by definition.
Types of US Dollars:
     QDE, or Questioned Document       SOME FAMOUS FORGERS
Federal reserve Note – those with green treasury seal and serial number.
Examination, has been a& FORGERIES

17
 profession at least since 1870, and Major George Byron (Lord Byron  Questioned Document Examiners -- A document examiner
frequently is found in cases of forgeries) analyzes any questioned document and is capable of more than
forgery, counterfeiting, mail Thomas Chatterton (Literary just questions of authorship limited only by their access to
fraud, kidnapping, con games, forgeries) laboratory equipment
embezzlement, gambling, John Payne Collier (Printed  Historical Dating -- These is work involving the verification of
organized crime, white collar forgeries) age and worth of a document or object, sometimes done by a
crime, art crime, theft, robbery, Dorman David (Texas Dec. of document examiner, and can get as complicated as Carbon-14
arson, burglary, homicide, serial Independence) dating 
murder, psychological profiling, Mark Hofmann (Mormon,
and deviant sex crime. A number Freemason forgeries)  Fraud Investigators -- This is work that often overlaps with that
of famous cases over the years, William Henry Ireland of the document examiner and focuses on the money trail and
some involving wrongful (Shakespeare forgeries) criminal intent
conviction -- the Dreyfus affair; Clifford Irving (Howard Hughes
Bruno Hauptmann and the forgery)  Paper & Ink Specialists -- These are public or private experts
Lindbergh Kidnapping; the Hitler Konrad Kujau (Hitler Diaries) who date, type, source, and/or catalogue various types of paper,
Diary profiling controversy; and James Macpherson (Ossian watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines, computer
Clifford Irving's forgery of manuscript) cartridges, etc., using chemical methods
Howard Hughes signature and George Psalmanasar (Literary
Mormon documents -- were forgery)  Forgery Specialists -- These are public or private experts who
showcases for the talents of Alexander Howland Smith analyze altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and
various experts at QDE. It's (historical documents) photos using infrared lighting, expensive spectrograph
strength, drawn from civil law, is Thomas James Wise (Printed equipment, or digital enhancement techniques
that expert opinion can overturn forgeries)
(alleged) eyewitness opinion. Unknown (Documentary Photos  Handwriting Analysts -- These are usually psychology experts
Billy-the-Kid) who assess personality traits from handwriting samples, also
Numerous (Biblical forgeries) called graphologists or grapho-analysts; Forensic stylistics refers
to the same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word
choice, syntax, and phraseology.
    Historically, QDE has been somewhat of an inclusive profession, even
to the point where so-called pseudo-experts (in palmistry and fortune-  Typewriting Analysts -- These are experts on the origin, make,
telling) were sometimes welcome, and even today, it suffers from a bit of and model used in typewritten material
identity crisis in that at least eight (8) different, or related, areas can be
identified:

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  Computer Crime Investigators -- This is an emerging group that     Among QDE experts, the use is made of many different scientific
relates to QDE through some common investigative and principles from a variety of disciplines, and one of the first attempts at
testimonial procedures basic principles appeared in Albert Osborn's Questioned Documents in
1910, grounded in handwriting comparison as evidence of individual
    It's probably a futile effort to rigidly demarcate and delimit the characteristics (paraphrased below):
various areas of QDE as there will always be overlap, evolution, and,
perhaps, controversy.  1. The most identifying characteristics are those which are most
divergent from the regular system or national average.
INVESTIGATIVE FOUNDATIONS 2. Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be sought
first and given the most weight.
    One of the things important to understand is what the QDE expert is 3. Regular or national system similarities are not alone sufficient to base
looking for. This deals with the issue of class characteristics versus judgments.
individual characteristics. 4. It is the combination of particulars, common and uncommon, that
identifies.
    In a nutshell, CLASS characteristics, which are commonly found at 5. It is impossible to discover how all strange and peculiar
crime scenes, describe evidence which can only be associated with a characteristics came to be developed.
group (like those with certain personality traits) and not a single source. 6. People do wholly unaccountable things in their speech, gestures, and
Such evidence can only be used for corroboration or circumstantial writing.
purposes, and the evidentiary problem lies in the fact that little or no 7. An individual characteristic may be the survival of an error
mathematical models exist to assess probability values with the overlooked by a teacher.
comparison of class evidence. The expert must say things like "relatively 8. Many characteristics are outgrowths or copies of an at one time
certain" instead of things like "95% of the time" or "an odds-ratio of admired design.
300:1".  INDIVIDUAL characteristics describe evidence that is
associated with a common source and an extremely high level of     The psychological theory of handwriting comparison is
probability. It's not so much that the evidence points directly at developmental. Children learn to write by copying whatever style of
anything or anyone; it's that it draws an inevitable conclusion based on writing is fashionable at the time and taught to them by teachers from
mathematical calculations or probabilities so high as to defy human textbooks. This style is known as the regular or national system, and for
comprehension while at the same time substantiated by the opinion of a most of the twentieth century, it was either the Palmer system or the
scientific expert. Zaner-Blosser system for cursive. Today, there are many systems, or no
system. As the child grows, the act of writing becomes a subconscious
THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS effort and begins to pick up habitual shapes and patterns that
distinguish it from all others. This is most evident with capital letters
and numerals.  Handwriting has individual characteristics due to it

19
being largely unconscious behavior. The unconscious handwriting of two     Legally, the conditions in place that produced the specimen serve to
different individuals is never identical. Mechanical and physical factors, authenticate it as a standard. Authentication, or positively establishing
as well as the mental ones, make it highly unlikely that the exact same the origin of known documents, is required for any piece of
handwriting occurs in two different people. It's therefore important that documentary evidence. This can be accomplished by the testimony of
samples, exemplars, or specimens (all synonymous terms for documents witnesses who saw the original writing produced, by the testimony of
of known origin) be obtained under conditions as similar as possible to persons familiar with the writing, or (in some states) by a post litem
the conditions present at the time the disputed, doubtful, or original (all motam courtroom demonstration where the writer gives a sample which
synonymous terms for questioned documents) was created.  These is checked within an hour to a day or more by a QDE expert. 
conditions are an essential part of what are called standards of Technically, even the police could extract authenticated samples since
comparison: neither Fourth nor Fifth Amendment rights apply to handwriting
samples. In addition, some samples are self-authenticating -- as in any
 Care must be taken to avoid samples which are deliberately writing on legal forms, business correspondence, responses to
written in a crude, unnatural way, or so well thought out as to communication from others, and some "ancient" documents (over 30
disguise the writer's natural style years old). Irregularities in the authentication (or discovery) process of a
 A sufficient number of samples must be taken, several pages if handwriting case are NOT grounds for reversible error. The accused
necessary, over and over again, to establish multiple (more than may get a new trial, but they are not exculpated or found innocent by
one) comparisons of single characteristics or combinations of most courtroom errors. Refusal by the accused to give a handwriting
common and uncommon characteristics sample is presumptive evidence of guilt. There's no right to remain
silent when it comes to handwriting.
 Samples should be taken within two or three years of the
disputed writing in order to rule out changes in style that may     A potential problem exists with signatures. People usually have three
have occurred over time or with age (3) different signatures: (1) a formal one, used on important documents;
(2) a routine one, used on regular correspondence; and (3) an informal
 The sample should include some dictated text, words, or phrases one, used for jotting quick notes. Also, other circumstances affect
contained in the original document (but under no circumstances writing such as age, arthritis, emotional distress, medication,
should the writer be shown the questioned document) intoxication, and corrective vision. It's difficult to tell handedness,
gender, and age from unknown samples. QDE experts must consider all
 Pen and paper, as well as writing position, should consist of the these things, and make an informed judgement (usually in consultation
same conditions that existed at the time the questioned document with an investigator or attorney) based on their familiarity with
was written (if these facts are known) handwriting dynamics (e.g., appearance, laborious movements, rhythm).
With an impairment like arthritis, for example, the writing function
TECHNICO-LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS may become more of a conscious than subconscious effort, making for a
more complex case. However, a paraphrasing of Larry Miller's (1987)

20
indicia drawn from a review of the forgery literature might provide might be interesting to look at a few traits of interest to criminal justice
useful guidelines when dealing with impaired or deliberately deceptive and criminology. With that in mind, here's a small, academic fair use
writing: sample of the Trait Dictionary from Bart Bagget's MyHandwriting.com.
Be advised that these are not definitive interpretations by any means
Line Quality Irregular, laborious, shaky, lack of rhythm because there are over 30 different "systems" of graphology in
existence.
Size/Proportion Larger, wider, higher, inconsistent, different
spacing after caps     Graphology systems tend to be one of three (3) types: (1) those based
Pen lifts Frequent lifts off paper on individual letter formations; (2) those based on stroke analysis; and
(3) those based on an holistic/gestalt method. Over 3000 private business
Angle/Slant Greater than 5 degree change, other-hand companies use it routinely (to screen employees), and it enjoys a growing
slanting sense of scientific respectability.  The courts appear to be waiting to see
Pen Pressure Heavier than usual college psychology courses on it. It probably has the most validity with
the following domains: (1) intelligence; (2) attitude toward work; and (3)
Circle More teardrop or egg-shaped, frequent
interpersonal skills. Recent developments have focused on "profiling" of
formation counterclockwise formations
uncaptured criminals and sex offenders (where handwriting analysts say
Retouching formal signature used, often retracing strokes, they can spot a "perversion", not exactly the best word for it). 
foreign marks present
    There's some precedent in art therapy and projective psychological
Loop formation Wider spacing between, more squared, shorter, or
testing for graphology.  Many convictions of child sex offenders have
broken loops
occurred because of what the child victim portrayed in a drawing, and
Stroke Wider M's and W's, more squared or wedge- with psychological testing, there's the famous "Draw a Pig" assignment,
formation shaped stokes which apparently contains everything you need to make a subjective
Alignment Change in baseline habits, more downward slants
personality assessment from: where placed on paper; the size of the pig;
from baseline
the pressure applied; the direction the pig is facing; attention to details;
line quality; angular or curved strokes; and emphasis on head of pig.
Diacritics Heavier t-crossings and i-dots, position placement
changes  
Begin/end Heavier pressure, blobbed, vertical position change
strokes or slanting

    Problems get stickier when trying to draw personality inferences from
handwriting samples. Remember this is the realm of graphology, but it

21
TESTIFYING IN COURT     Computer forensics is used in many areas. In civil law for
  discrimination and harassment cases, by insurance companies for
workman's compensation cases, by corporations for trade secret
       There's quite a bit of divergent terminology found misappropriations, and in criminal law mostly for drug and
in court testimony. The most common "conclusions" embezzlement record-keeping and child pornography. As mentioned
are really qualified opinions. Although the science of previously, this is a loosely related, developing specialty area. It is most
QDE has its origins in Bertillon's points of closely related to typewriting comparison. The FBI has, for many years,
comparison method, there's no set standard, such as maintained typewriter databases, ink databases, copy toner databases,
11 or 12 "matches" as with fingerprinting. Instead, paper databases, and watermarks (which sometimes change every year).
it's up to each expert to say what constitutes a Private examiners do not have the advantage of large databases
sufficient number. The most commonly used phrases available to government examiners. Computers and computer printouts
are "significant similarities", "most probably", or also leave a trail that can be followed, whether it's from something
"very probably". An expert opinion need not be simple like how full or dry a printer ink cartridge is, to the various
based on absolute certainty. A QDE expert can expect alignments and misalignments of dot matrix and laser printers, to fiber
to be on the stand a long time, as direct, cross, analysis of the paper used, computer crime specialists utilize some of the
redirect, and recross trial procedures play out. The same age-old techniques that typewriting analysts used as well as other
background and integrity of the expert as well as the investigative methods.
quality of the evidence determines both admissibility
and impact.     A computer forensics expert will have experience on a wide variety of
hardware and software. Unlike paper evidence, computer evidence
exists in many forms, with earlier, alternate, and backup versions of
    Court-recognized expertise as a QDE expert is not something that can each and every file somewhere on the hard drive and frequently
be achieved through self-study alone. An old common law rule that isn't unknown to the user. The process of examining a suspect computer
recognized much anymore says that one can become an expert by study system is as follows:
without practice or by practice without study. With QDE, the courts
(State v. Evans 1991) have decided that a person needs both: study and  Secure/protect the system from further use, damage, or
practice -- that is, a period of training (internship or apprenticeship is corruption
better than a self-study course) and a period of experience (twenty some  Discover all files, including hidden and encrypted ones
previous cases worked on is a good average). In addition, there's a
rather large literature base to become familiar with, and a good number  Recover all (or as many as possible) deleted files
of journals, periodicals and newsletters.
 Reveal all hidden, temporary, and swap files
 COMPUTER CRIME DEVELOPMENTS

22
  Access all protected or encrypted files Forensic Publishers of Joppa.
Miller, L. (1984). "Bias Among Forensic Document Examiners: A Need
 Analyze all unallocated or "slack" spaces on a disk for Procedural Change" Journal of Police Science & Administration
12:407-11.
 Print out an overall analysis of the system, listing all files Miller, L. (1987). "Forensic Examination of Arthritic Impaired
Writings" Ibid 15:51-55.
 Formulate an opinion of the system layout, file structure, and any Moenssens, A., J. Starrs, C. Henderson & F. Inbau. (1995). Scientific
attempts to hide, delete, protect, or encrypt information Evidence in Civil and Criminal Cases. Westbury, NY: Foundation Press.
Osborn, S. & A. (1991). Questioned Document Problems: The Discovery
INTERNET RESOURCES & Proof of the Facts. NJ: Patterson Smith
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners Saudek, R. (1978). Psychology of Handwriting. NY: Books for
Bart Bagget's MyHandwriting.com Professionals.
Free Handwriting Analysis Software
Graphology, Graphoanalysis, and Handwriting Analysis Last updated: Sept. 30, 2006
Handwriting Analysts Group Not an official webpage of APSU, copyright restrictions apply, see
Judd Robbins Computer Forensics Website Megalinks in Criminal Justice
Norwitch Document Laboratory Home Page O'Connor, T.  (Date of Last Update at bottom of page). In Part of web cited (Windows
Preparing for a Daubert Hearing (with Handwriting Evidence) name for file at top of browser), MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from
http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/rest of URL accessed on today's date.
Questioned Document Examination Page of Emily J. Will
Speckin Forensic Laboratories

PRINTED RESOURCES
Brunelle, R. (1982). "Questioned Document Examination" in R.
Saferstein (ed.) Forensic Science Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Dines, J. (1998). Document Examiner Handbook. NY: Pantex.
Ellen, D. (2005). Scientific Examination of Documents, 3e. Boca Raton:
CRC Press.
Huber, R. & A. Headrick. (1999). Handwriting Identification. Boca
Raton: CRC Press.
Kelly, J. & Lindblom, B. (Eds.) (2006). Scientific Examination of
Questioned Documents, 2e. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Koppenhaver, K. (1991). The Business of Document Examination. MO:

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