Mass DrAnees Lectures

Mass Transfer Dr. Anees A.
Khadom
UNIVERSITY OF DAIYLA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
MASS TRANSFER
For
Chemical Engineering Students
by
Assist. Prof. Dr. Anees A. Khadom
Ph.D, Ms.C and Bs.C. Chemical Engineering
1
Mass Transfer Dr. Anees A. Khadom
Textbook:
1. Coulson J.M. & Richardson J.F., Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, Six edition, ELBS,
Pergamon Press. 2002.
2. 2. Coulson J.M. & Richardson J.F., Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Fifth edition, ELBS,
Pergamon Press. 2002.
References:
1. Treybal R.E., Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw Hill
2. McCabe W.L., Smith J.C. & Harriott P., Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering, McGraw
Hill.
3. Seader J.D.& Henley E.J., Separation Process Principles. 4. Rousseau R.W., Handbook of
Separation Process Technology, John Wiley 5. Foust A.S. et al, Principles of Unit Operations,
John Wiley
2
Chapter 1
Introduction
3
4
Chapter 2
Diffusion
The term diffusion (mass transfer) is used to denote the transference of a component in a
mixture from a region where its concentration is high to a region where the concentration is lower.
Diffusion process can take place in a gas or vapor or in a liquid, and it can result from the random
velocities of the molecules (molecular diffusion) or from the circulating or eddy currents present in
a turbulent fluid (eddy diffusion).
Diffusion depends on:

1. Driving force (ΔC), moles per unit volume (kmol/m3).
2. The distance in the direction of transfer (Δz), meter (m).
3. Diffusivity coefficient, unit area per unit time (m2/s)
Fick's Law of diffusion: The rate of diffusion is governed by Fick's Law, first proposed by
Fick in 1855 which expresses the mass transfer rate as a linear function of the molar concentration
gradient. In a mixture of two gases A and B, assumed ideal, Fick's Law for steady state diffusion
may be written as:
5
Diffusion with bulk of mass in motion:

The Fick's first law of diffusion describes the mass transfer from the random movement of
molecules of a stationary medium or a fluid in streamline flow. If circulating currents or eddies are
present, then the molecular mechanism will be reinforced and the total mass transfer rate may be
written as:
Total diffusion = Molecular diffusion + Convection term
Convection term = Eddy diffusion = Molar flux due to convection
Convection term = Concentration * mass transfer velocity = CA . V
Where
kmol
mass flux N  NB 2 m
mass transfer velocity (V )   A  m .s 
concentrat ion CT kmol s
m3
The total diffusion equation can be write in another forms:
6
Modes of diffusion
There are two modes of diffusion:
1. Stagnant diffusion (Mass transfer through a stationary second component):

In several important processes, one component in a gaseous mixture will be transported
relative to a fixed plane, such as a liquid interface, for example, and the other will undergo no net
movement. In gas absorption a soluble gas A is transferred to the liquid surface where it dissolves,
whereas the insoluble gas B undergoes no net movement with respect to the interface. Similarly, in
evaporation from a free surface, the vapour moves away from the surface but the air has no net
movement. The mass transfer process therefore:
7
Example: Ammonia gas is diffusing at a constant rate through a layer of stagnant air 1 mm thick.
Conditions are such that the gas contains 50 percent by volume ammonia at one boundary of the
stagnant layer. The ammonia diffusing to the other boundary is quickly absorbed and the
concentration is negligible at that plane. The temperature is 295 K and the pressure atmospheric,
and under these conditions the diffusivity of ammonia in air is 0.18 cm 2/s. Estimate the rate of
diffusion of ammonia through the layer.
Solution:
If the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two sides of the stagnant layer and the subscripts A and B refer
to ammonia and air respectively, then the rate of diffusion through a stagnant layer is given by:
2. Counter diffusion:
2.1 Equimolecular counter diffusion: When the mass transfer rates of the two
components are equal and opposite the process is said to be one of equimolecular
counter diffusion. Such a process occurs in the case of the box with a movable partition.
It occurs also in a distillation column when the molar latent heats of the two components
are the same (λA = λB) . At any point in the column a falling stream of liquid is brought
into contact with a rising stream of vapour with which it is not in equilibrium. The less
volatile component is transferred from the vapour to the liquid and the more volatile
component is transferred in the opposite direction. If the molar latent heats of the
components are equal, the condensation of a given amount of less volatile component
releases exactly the amount of latent heat required to volatilize the same molar quantity
of the more volatile component. Thus at the interface, and consequently throughout the
liquid and vapour phases, equimolecular counter diffusion is taking place (NB = - NA).
8
 D AB dPT P
NA   A ( N A  N B)
RT dz PT
Since equimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - NA

 DAB dPT P  DAB dPT
NA   A (N A  N A ) 
RT dz PT RT dz
D AB PA1  PA2
NA  ( )
RT z 2  z1
Drift Factor:
For stagnant diffusion:
Drift factor = 1 when the concentration of component A being transferred is low.
Example: In an air-carbon dioxide mixture at 298 K and 202.6 kPa, the concentration of CO2 at
two planes (3 mm) apart are 15 vol.% and 25 vol.%. The diffusivity of CO2 in air at 298 K and
202.6 kPa is 8.2*10-6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of transfer of CO2 across the two planes, assuming:
a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.
b. Diffusion of CO2 through a stagnant air layer.
Solution:
9
a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

D P  PA2 8.2 10 6 kmol
N A  AB ( A1 ) 6
(50.65  30.39)  2.23 10 5
RT z 2  z1 8.314  298  3  10 m2 s
b. Stagnant diffusion
D P P  PA2 8.2  10 6  202.6 202.6  30.39 kmol
N A  AB T ln( T ) 6
ln( )  2.79  10 5
RT z PT  PA1 8.314  298  3  10 202.6  50.65 m2 s
2.2 Un equimolecular counter diffusion: When the mass transfer rates of the two
components are unequal and opposite, the process is said to be the unequimolecular
diffusion, such a process occurs in a chemical reaction.
Example:
Species A in a gaseous mixture diffuses through a (3 mm) thick film and reaches a catalyst surface
where the reaction A → 3B takes place. If the partial pressure of A in the bulk of the gas is 8.5
kN/m2 and the diffusivity of A is 2*10-5 m2/s. Find the mole flux of A, given the pressure and
temperature of the system are 101.3 kPa and 297 K, respectively.
10
Maxwell's Law for multicomponent mass transfer
This argument can be applied to the diffusion of a constituent of a multicomponent gas.
Considering the transfer of component A through a stationary gas consisting of components B, C,
D, ... etc, if the total partial pressure gradient can be regarded as being made up of a series of terms
each representing the contribution of the individual component gases. The mass transfer rate can be
calculated from the previous equations using the effective diffusivity of A in the mixture (DAm).
Calculation of the effective diffusivity of (A) in the mixture (DAm):
Let A be the diffusing species through stagnant mixture of B, C, D ….. etc.
dX A
N A   DAm CT  X A (N A  N B  NC  N D )
dz
Where:
DAm is the effective diffusivity of A in the mixture. Since stagnant diffusion layer of the mixture:
NB = NC = ND = 0
dX A
N A   D Am CT  X A (N A )
dz
N A 1 X A dX A
( )
CT D Am dz
11
Now consider binary system for diffusion of A in B.
dX A
N A   DAB CT  X A (N A  N B )
dz
Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0
12
Similarly for diffusion of A in D.
dX A
N A   DAD CT  X A (N A  N D )
dz
Since stagnant diffusion layer: ND = 0
dX A
N A   D AD CT  X A (N A )
dz
N A 1 X A dX A
( )
CT D AD dz
Example: Nitrogen is diffusing under steady condition through a mixture of 2% N2, 20% C2H6 ,
30% C2H4 and 48% C4H10 at 298 K and 100 kPa. The partial pressure of nitrogen at two planes (1
mm ) apart are 13.3 & 6.67 kPa, respectively. Calculate the rate of N2 across the two planes. The
13
diffusivity of N2 through C4H10 , C2H6 and C2H4 may be taken as 9.6*10-6 m2/s , 14.8*10-6 m2/s and
16.3*10-6 m2/s, respectively.
Solution: Since stagnant diffusion:
Diffusivities of gases and vapours
Experimental values of diffusivities are given in Table below for a number of gases and vapours in
air at 298K and atmospheric pressure. The table also includes values of the Schmidt number Sc, the
ratio of the kinematic viscosity (μ/ρ) to the diffusivity (D) for very low concentrations of the
diffusing gas or vapour. The importance of the Schmidt number in problems involving mass
transfer is discussed later.
14
Experimental determination of diffusivities

Diffusivities of vapours are most conveniently determined by the method developed by
Winkelmann in which liquid is allowed to evaporate in a vertical glass tube over the top of which a
stream of vapour-free gas is passed, at a rate such that the vapour pressure is maintained almost at
zero (Figure 10.2). If the apparatus is maintained at a steady temperature, there will be no eddy
currents in the vertical tube and mass transfer will take place from the surface by molecular
diffusion alone. The rate of evaporation can be followed by the rate of fall of the liquid surface, and
since the concentration gradient is known, the diffusivity can then be calculated.
15
 L  dz  C  C 
   D AB A  T 
M wt  dt  z  C Bm 
2 M wt .D AB .C A  CT 
z 22  z12    t
L  C Bm 
 CT 
z 2  z1 z 2  z1  2 z1   2M wt .D AB .C A   t
L  C Bm 
L  C Bm  L  C Bm 
  z 2  z1  
t
    z1
z 2  z1  2M wt .D AB .C A  CT  M wt .D AB .C A  CT 
Example 10.2: The diffusivity of the vapour of a volatile liquid in air can be conveniently
determined by Winkelmann's method in which liquid is contained in a narrow diameter vertical
tube, maintained at a constant temperature, and an air stream is passed over the top of the tube
sufficiently rapidly to ensure that the partial pressure of the vapour there remains approximately
zero. On the assumption that the vapour is transferred from the surface of the liquid to the air stream
by molecular diffusion alone, calculate the diffusivity of carbon tetrachloride vapour in air at 321 K
and atmospheric pressure from the experimental data given in Table 10.3.
16
The vapour pressure of carbon tetrachloride at 321 K is 37.6 kN/m2 and the density of the liquid is
1540 kg/m3. The kilogram molecular volume may be taken as 22.4 m3.
17
Example: A small diameter tube closed at one end was filled with acetone to within 18 mm of the
top and maintained at 290 K with a gentle stream of air blowing across the top. After 15000 sec, the
liquid level was fallen to 27.5 mm, the vapour pressure of acetone was 21.95 kPa and atmospheric
pressure was 99.75 kPa. Calculate the diffusivity of acetone in air. Given: the density of acetone is
790 kg/m3 and the molecular weight of acetone is 58 kg/kmol.
18
Prediction of diffusivities
The diffusivity (DAB) for the transfer of one component (A) in another component (B) can be
calculated empirically:
1. Empirical correlation for calculation of gas diffusivity:
The diffusivity (DAB) for the transfer of one gas in another is not known and experimental
determination is not practicable. It is necessary to use one of the many predictive procedures. The
equation developed by Fuller et al. (1966) is easy to apply and gives reliable estimates:
19
2. Empirical correlation for calculation of liquid diffusivity:

The equation developed by Wilke and Chang (1955), given below, can be used to predict liquid
diffusivities of dilute solutions of non-electrolytes. The Wilke-Chang equation gives satisfactory
predictions for the diffusivity of organic compounds in water but not for water in organic solvents.
1.173  10 16  B M B  T
0.5
D AB 
 V A0.6
20
21
The Wilke-Chang correlation is shown graphically in Figure 8.2. This figure can be used to
determine the association constant for a solvent from experimental values for DAB (DL) in the
solvent. The Wilke-Chang equation gives satisfactory predictions for the diffusivity of organic
compounds in water but not for water in organic solvents.
22
23
Chapter 3
Mass transfer theories and mass transfer
coefficients
1.The Two-Film Theory

The two-film theory of Whitman (1923) was the first serious attempt to represent conditions
occurring when material is transferred in a steady state process from one fluid stream to another.
In this approach, it is assumed that a laminar layer exists in each of the two fluids. Outside the
laminar layer, turbulent eddies supplement the action caused by the random movement of the
molecules, and the resistance to transfer becomes progressively smaller as shown in Figure below.
The thicknesses of the two films are z1 and z2 . Equilibrium is assumed to exist at the interface and
therefore the relative positions of the points C and D are determined by the equilibrium relation
between the phases.
The rate of mass transfer per unit area in terms of the two-film theory for equimolecular counter
diffusion is given for the first phase as:
24
The relation between the partial pressure (PA) and concentration (CA):
25
2.The Penetration Theory

The penetration theory was suggested in 1935 by Higbie who was investigating whether or not a
resistance to transfer existed at the interface when a pure gas was absorbed in a liquid. In his
experiments, a slug-like bubble of carbon dioxide was allowed rise through a vertical column of
water in a 3 mm diameter glass tube. As the bubble rose, the displaced liquid ran back as a thin film
between the bubble and the tube, Higbie assumed that each element of surface in this liquid was
exposed to the gas for the time taken for the gas
bubble to pass it; that is for the time given by the quotient of the bubble length and its
velocity. It was further supposed that during this short period, which varied between 0.01 and 0.1 s
in the experiments, absorption took place as the result of unsteady state molecular
diffusion into the liquid, and, for the purposes of calculation, the liquid was regarded as infinite in
depth because the time of exposure was so short.
The way in which the concentration gradient builds up as a result of exposing a liquid - initially
pure - to the action of a soluble gas is shown in Figure 10.6. The percentage saturation of the liquid
is plotted agains the distance from the surface for a number of exposure times in arbitrary units.
Initially only the surface layer contains solute and the concentration changes abruptly from 100
percent to 0 percent at the surface. For progressively longer exposure times the concentration
profile develops as shown, until after an infinite time the whole of the liquid becomes saturated. The
shape of the profiles is such that at any time the effective depth of liquid which contains an
appreciable concentration of solute can be specified. If this depth of penetration is less than the total
depth of liquid, no significant error is introduced by assuming that the total depth is infinite.
26
The work of Higbie laid the basis of the penetration theory in which it is assumed that the eddies in
the fluid bring an element of fluid to the interface where it is exposed to the second phase for a
definite interval of time, after which the surface element is mixed with the bulk again. Thus, fluid
whose initial composition corresponds with that of the bulk fluid remote from the interface is
suddenly exposed to the second phase. It is assumed that equilibrium is immediately attained by the
surface layers, that a process of unsteady state molecular diffusion then occurs and that the element
is remixed after a fixed interval of time.
In the calculation, the depth of the liquid element is assumed to be infinite and this is justifiable if
the time of exposure is sufficiently short for penetration to be confined to the surface layers.
Throughout, the existence of velocity gradients within the fluids is ignored and the fluid at all
depths is assumed to be moving at the same rate as the interface. The diffusion of solute A away
from the interface (y-direction) is thus given by:
27
3.The Random Surface Renewal Theory

Danckwerts (1951) suggested that each element of surface would not be exposed for the same time,
but that a random distribution of ages would exist. It was assumed that the probability of any
element of surface becoming destroyed and mixed with the bulk of the fluid was independent of the
age of the element. Thus, the overall rate of mass transfer per unit area when the surface is renewed
in a random manner is:
Where:
S is the rate of production of fresh surface per unit total area of surface.
4.The Film - Penetration Theory
A theory which incorporates some of the principles of both the two-film theory and the penetration
theory has been proposed by Toor and Marchello (1958) . The whole of the resistance to transfer
is regarded as lying within a laminar film at the interface, as in the twofilm theory, but the mass
transfer is regarded as an unsteady state process. It is assumed that fresh surface is formed at
intervals from fluid which is brought from the bulk of the fluid to the interface by the action of the
eddy currents mass transfer then takes place as in the penetration theory, except that the resistance
is confined to the finite film, and material which traverses the film is immediately completely mixed
with the bulk of the fluid. For short times of exposure, when none of the diffusing material has
reached the far side of the layer, the process is identical to that postulated in the penetration theory.
For prolonged periods of exposure when a steady concentration gradient has developed, conditions
are similar to those considered in the two-film theory
28
The concentration profiles near an interface on the basis of:

(a) the film theory (steady-state)
(b) the penetration-theory (unsteady-state)
(c) the film-penetration theory (unsteady-state) are shown in Figure 10.7.
Mass transfer coefficients

Consider the two-film theory as shown in Figure (1):
29
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the gas film:
DAB g
N Ag 
Z g RT
P A  PAi 
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the liquid film:
DAB L C 
N AL  Ai  CA
ZL
30
The Relationships between the various mass transfer coefficients:
31
32
33
The wetted wall column

The wetted wall column is a small experimental device used to determine the average mass transfer
coefficient (𝐊𝐎𝐆 ). Usually it is (1 - 1.5 inch) in diameter and one meter long.
Let the mass transfer being from gas phase to liquid phase:
WA = G yA1 − yA 2 = L (xA1 − xA 2)
Where: WA : is the total mole rate diffusion along the column. At one point in the apparatus
the diffusion is as follows:
34
2. From overall material balance:

WA = G yA1 − yA 2 = L (xA1 − xA 2)
Where: yA and xA : are the mole fraction of component (A) in gas and liquid phase, respectively.
G : is the mole flow rate of gas (kmol/s). L : is the mole flow rate of liquid (kmol/s).
We can rewrite the Eq.(1) in the mole fraction form instead of partial pressure as follows:
Example: A wetted wall column is used to absorbed NH3 by water from 6 vol.% in air. The gas
flow rate is 1.2 kmol/min at 1 atm and 20oC. Calculate the overall mass transfer coefficient. The
data given are:
35
Mass Transfer Coefficient From Empirical Correlation

Several workers have measured the rate of transfer from a liquid flowing down the inside wall of a
tube to a gas passing counter currently upwards. GILLILAND and SHERWOOD vaporized a
number of liquids including water, toluene, aniline and propyl, amyl and butyl alcohols into an air
stream flowing up the tube in order to measure the individual mass transfer coefficient (kg).
GILLILAND and SHERWOOD used the empirical relation below to measure the individual mass
transfer coefficient (kg) and this relation in forms of dimensionless groups:
36
When the constants (a), (b) and (c) in the above equation are unknown, then we can take them as
below:
37
38
Chapter 4
Absorption of gases
Gas – liquid separation
In absorption (also called gas absorption, gas scrubbing, and gas washing), a gas mixture is
contacted with a liquid (the absorbent or solvent) to selectively dissolve one or more components by
mass transfer from the gas to the liquid. The components transferred to the liquid are referred to as
solute or absorbate. Absorption is used to separate gas mixture; remove impurities, contaminants,
pollutants, or catalyst poisons from gas; or recovery valuable chemicals. Thus, the species of
interest in the gas mixture may be all components, only the component(s) not transferred, or only
the component(s) transferred. The opposite of absorption is stripping (also called desorption),
wherein a liquid mixture is contacted with gas to selectively remove components by mass transfer
from the liquid to the gas phase. There are two types of absorption processes:
1. Physical process (e.g. absorption of acetone from acetone – air mixture by water).
2. Chemical process, sometimes called chemi-sorption (e.g. absorption of nitrogen oxides by
water to produce nitric acid.
Equipment: Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray towers (plate column), packed
column, spray tower, bubble column, and centrifugal contactors. The first two types of these
equipment will be considered in our course for this year.
1. Tray tower: A tray tower is a vertical, cylindrical pressure vessel in which gas and liquid,
which flow counter currently, are contacted on a series of metal trays or plates. Liquid flows across
any tray over an outlet weir, and into a down comer, which takes the liquid by gravity to the tray
below. The gas flows upward through opening in each tray, bubbling through the liquid on the other
tray. A schematic diagram for the flow patterns inside the tray column is shown below.
39
Figure : Typical cross-flow plate (sieve)
1. Packed tower:
The packed column is a vertical, cylindrical pressure vessel containing one or more section of
packing material over it the liquid flows down wards by gravity as a film or as droplets between
packing elements. Gas flows upwards through the wetted packing contacting the liquid. The
sections of packing are contained between a lower gas – injection support plate, which holds the
packing, and an upper grid or mish hold – down plate, which prevent packing movement. A liquid
distributor, placed above the hold – down plate, ensures uniform distribution of liquid as it enters
the packing section.
Figure: Packing absorber column.
40
Figure: Types of packing (a) Raschig rings (b) Pall rings (c) Berl saddle ceramic (d) Intalox saddle
ceramic (e) Metal Hypac ( f ) Ceramic, super Intalox.
General Design Consideration:
Design or analysis of an absorber (or stripper) requires consideration of a number of
factors, including:
1. Entering gas (liquid) flow rate, composition, temperature, and pressure.
2. Design degree of recovery (R) of one or more solutes.
3. Choice absorbent (solvent) agent.
4. Operating pressure and temperature and allowable pressure drop.
5. Minimum absorbent (solvent) agent flow rate and actual solvent flow rate as a multiple of the
minimum rate needed to make the separation.
6. Number of equilibrium stages.
7. Heat effects and need for cooling (heating).
8. Type of absorber (stripper) equipment.
9. Height of absorber (stripper) column.
10. Diameter of absorber (stripper) column.
41
The ideal absorbent (solvent) should have:

a. High solubility for the solute(s) to minimize the need for absorbent (solvent).
b. A low volatility to reduce the loss of absorbent (solvent) and facilitate separation of
absorbent (solvent) from solute(s).
c. Be stable to maximize absorbent (solvent) life and reduce absorbent makeup requirement.
d. Be non – corrosive to permit use of common material of construction.
e. Have a low viscosity to provide low pressure drop and high mass and heat transfer rates.
f. Be non – foaming when contacted with gas so as to make it unnecessary.
g. Be non – toxic and non – flammable to facilitate its safe use.
h. Be available, if possible.
The most widely absorbent (solvent) used are water, hydrocarbon oils, and aqueous
solutions of acids and bases. While the most common stripping agents used are water vapor, air,
inert gases, and hydrocarbon gases.
Equilibrium Relations Between Gas and Liquid Phases:
The equilibrium of any gas-liquid system can be expressed as:
Non-ideal system (Henry's law): Ideal system (Raoult's law):

divided by ( divided by (
42
Equilibrium relation Equilibrium relation
Where:
: is the mole ratio of solute in liquid phase (A/C).
: is the mole ratio of solute in gas phase (A/B).
Notes:
 The equilibrium relation is the ratio between the mole ratio of solute in gas phase and
the mole ratio of solute in liquid phase . The equilibrium relation may be linear or no
linear.
 The linear relation can be given as YA=mXA.
 Sometimes the relation given as data of YA and XA. in this case the data have to be drawn in
order to know the type of relationship.
 Sometimes the relationship given in term of PA as a function of XA according to Raoul's law
or Henry`s law, then these equations can be converted to YA and XA relation.
The relation between the mole fraction and mole ratio:
Where:
and : are the mole fractions of solute (A) in liquid and gas phases, respectively.
and : are the mole ratio of solute (A) in liquid and gas phases, respectively.
The relation between the mole fraction and weight fraction:
43
Where:
: is the weight fraction.
: is the mole fraction.
: is the molecular weight.
Symbols used in the absorption processes:

A solute (A) in a mixture (A, B) shall be absorbed in Liquid (C), the inert gas (B) is insoluble
in solvent (C). The following symbols will be used:
: is the mole rate of the gas mixture (A + B), kmol/s.
: is the mole rate of the inert (insoluble) gas (B), kmol/s.
: is the mole flux of the gas mixture (A + B), kmol/m2.s.
: is the mole flux of the inert (insoluble) gas (B), kmol/m2.s.
: is the mole rate of the liquid mixture (A + C), kmol/s.
: is the mole rate of the liquid solvent only (C), kmol/s.
: is the mole flux of the liquid mixture (A + C), kmol/m2.s.
: is the mole flux of the liquid solvent only (C), kmol/m2.s.
: is the mole fraction of solute (A) in liquid, (A /A+C).
: is the mole fraction of solute (A) in gas, (A /A+B).
: is the mole ratio of solute (A) in liquid, (A / C).
: is the mole ratio of solute (A) in gas, (A / B).
Calculation of Tower Height

The physical absorption process can be carried out in countercurrent flow process, which may
be carried out in packed or tray column:
Packed Tower Tray Tower

Z = HOG * NOG Z=H*N
Where: Where:
HOG: is the height of transfer unit H : is the distance between
(HTU) based on gas phase, and it two trays, and it is given
can be calculated from the equation (0.3 - 0.7 m)
below:
44
1. Packed tower:
Absorption and stripping are frequently conducted in packed columns, particularly when:
(1) the required column diameter is less than 0.6 m.

(2) the pressure drop must be low, as for a vacuum service.
(3) corrosion consideration favor the use of ceramic or polymeric material.
(4) low liquid holdup is desirable.
The gas liquid contact in a packed bed column is continuous, not stage-wise, as in a plate
column. The liquid flows down the column over the packing surface and the gas or vapour, counter-
currently, up the column. In some gas-absorption columns co-current flow is used. The performance
of a packed column is very dependent on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution
throughout the packed bed, and this is an important consideration in packed-column design.
Calculations of the packing height based on gas phase:

Overall material balance on the solute (A) over an element (∂z) based on gas phase:
Where:
S: is the cross-sectional area of column (m2).

a: is the surface area of interface per unit volume of column
(m2/m3).
45
Z = HOG * NOG = HTU * NTU
Where:
Equation of the operating line:

Solute material balance between one end of the column and any point will give:
* The equation of operating line is a relation between mole ratio of

solute in gas phase (Y) and the mole ratio of solute in liquid phase
(X).
* The operating line can be draw from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2,
Y2), or from its slope ( and one of the two points.
46
Calculation of Number of Transfer Unit (NOG):

A. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship
For pure liquid solvent used then, X2 = 0
Substitution Eq.(4) into Eq.(2) to get:
47
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship:
In this case the integration [ ] will be solved using graphical method or
numerical method (Simpson rule) following steps below:

1. Draw the given equilibrium data.
2. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) or one point and slope of ( ).
3. Create the table below by calculated ( ) from the plot as below:
Assume points between (Y1 - Y2) Calculated from plot

Y1 - calculated √ = f0
- (assumed) - calculated √ = f1
- (assumed) - calculated √= f3
Y2 - calculated √ = fn
Figure: Calculation of (
48
4. To calculate NOG we draw [ vs. [Y] to find the area under the curve:
Where:
NOG = Area under the curve
Simpson rule for calculation of NOG:

NOG = Area under the curve
Where:
Notes:
* If the entering solute concentration is dilute (Y < 5%), then:
* If the tower type is not mention in the problem we can take it as a packed tower.
Example (1):
Ammonia is to be removed from a 10 percent ammonia–air mixture by countercurrent scrubbing
with water in a packed tower at 293 K so that 99 percent of the ammonia is removed when working
at a total pressure of 101.3 kN/m2. If the gas rate is 0.95 kg/m2.s of tower cross-section and the
liquid rate is 0.65 kg/m2. s, find the necessary height of the tower if the absorption coefficient
KoG.a = 0.008 kmol/m3.s. kPa., The equilibrium data are: .
Solution:
Convert mole fraction to mole ratio:
49
We can see that at low conc. (mole ratio = mole fraction):
Therefore, for pure solvent:
Since the equilibrium is linear:
Z = HOG * NOG = (0.38) (11.19) = 4.25 m

Example (2):
Ammonia is to be removed from a 10 percent ammonia–air mixture by countercurrent absorption
with water in a packed tower at 293 K. The outlet gas concentration from the top of the tower is
0.1%. The absorption tower is working at a total pressure of 101.3 kN/m2. If the inlet gas is 0.034
kmol/m2.s and the liquid rate is 0.036 kmol/m2. s, find the necessary height of the tower if the
absorption coefficient KoG.a = 0.081 kmol/m3.s. The equilibrium data is given by the following
data:
kmol NH3/kmol water: 0.021 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.159
Partial pressure NH3 in 1.6 2.4 3.3 4.2 6.7 9.3 15.2
gas phase (kN/m2):
50
Solution:
First of all we have to convert the equilibrium data to mole ratio:
The equilibrium data becomes:

0.021 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.159
0.0160 0.0243 0.0337 0.0433 0.0708 0.1011 0.1765
The equilibrium data may be not linear relation, so that the integration should be solved by plotting
or by Simpson's rule as follows:
1. Draw the equilibrium data:

2. Draw the operating line from two points:
(X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2)
Overall ammonia material balance:
Operating line:
(X1, Y1) = (0.0935, 0.11) = (9.35*10-2, 10*10-2)
(X2, Y2) = (0, 0.001) = (0, 0.1*10-2)
51
We will solve the integration by Simpson's rule:
Calculate from the plot as follows:
Assume points between (Y1 - Calculated from plot

Y2 )
0.11 0.088 45.45 = f0
0.08275 0.061 45.98 = f1
0.05550 0.0375 55.56 = f2
0.02825 0.0175 93.02 = f3
0.001 0.00 1000 = fn
Z = HOG * NOG = (0.419) (15.56) = 6.52 m
52
Calculation of Minimum Liquid Flow Rate:
The minimum liquid (solvent) flow rate is calculated when the exit solvent concentration from
the absorber (X1) is in equilibrium with the entering gas concentration to the absorber (Y1).
However, this calculations based on the equilibrium relationship natural:
A. If the equilibrium relationship is linear
The exit solvent concentration from the absorber (X1) is calculated from the equilibrium
relationship as below:
Overall solute material balance on the absorber column:
For pure solvent (
53
B. If the equilibrium relationship is non-linear:
The exit solvent concentration from the absorber (X1) is calculated from the equilibrium
relationship as below:
For pure solvent (
Where: the exit liquid concentration which is in equilibrium with is calculated from the
plot as show bellow:
Example (3):
A solute gas is absorbed from a dilute gas-air mixture by counter current scrubbing with a solvent in
a packed tower. The equilibrium relation is Y = m X. Show that the number of transfer units
(NOG) required is given by the following equation:
54
If (99%) of the solute is to be recovered using a liquid rate of 1.75 times the minimum and the
height of transfer unit is (1 m). What the height of packing will be required.
Solution:
Z = HOG * NOG
For linear equilibrium relationship:
Z = HOG * NOG = (1) (8.8) = 8.8 m
55
Calculations of the packing height based on liquid phase:
Overall material balance on the solute (A) over an element (∂z) based on liquid phase:
Where:

a: is the surface area of interface per unit volume of column (m2/m3).
56
Z = HOL * NOL = HTU * NTU
Where:
Calculation of Number of Transfer Unit (NOL):

For pure liquid solvent used then, X2 = 0
57
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship:
In this case the integration [ ] will be solved using graphical method or
numerical method (Simpson rule) following steps below:

1. Draw the given equilibrium data.
2. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) or one point and slope of (
).
3. Create the table below by calculated ( ) from the plot as below:
Assume points between (X1 - Calculated from plot

X2)
X1 - calculated √ = f0
- (assumed) - calculated √= f3
X2 - calculated √ = fn
Figure: Calculation of (
58
4. To calculate NOL we draw [ Vs. [X] to find the area under the curve:
Where:
NOL = Area under the curve
Simpson rule for calculation of

NOL:
NOL = Area under the curve
Mathematical note:
E-operator
Is a useful mathematical tool to convert recurrence formula to more applicable one.
This will be very helpful in the subject of tower columns and number of plates
calculation. The mathematical forms as follows:
During trays material balance around tray number n the concentration of solute will appear as
. E – operator will convert these value in term of Yn only. Then, to find the
roots of equation, the value of E can be replaced by ρ. Final equation can be written as:
Where: are roots of equation, : is the concentration (mole ratio) of solute on tray
(n). n : is the number of trays, are equation constants.
To find the equation constants we will use the boundary conditions at: n = 0 and n = 1
Then we will have two equations, we can solve them simultaneously to find
59
2.Tray or plate tower:

The plate column is a common type of absorption equipment for large installations. Bubble-
cap columns or sieve trays are sometimes used for gas absorption, particularly when the load is
more than can be handled in a packed tower of about 1 m diameter and when there is any
probability of deposition of solids which would quickly choke a packing. Plate towers are
particularly useful when the liquid rate is sufficient to flood a packed tower. Phase equilibrium is
assumed to be achieved at each tray between the vapor and liquid streams leaving the tray. That is,
each tray is treated as equilibrium stage. Assume that the only component transferred from one
phase to the other is solute A.
Figure 11.51: Bubble-cap tray.
Figure 11.52: A perforated or sieve tray.
60
Figure 11.53: A bubble tray.
The height of tray tower can be obtained by using the following equation:
Z=H*N
Where:
H : is the distance between two trays, and it is given (0.3 - 0.7 m) and usually used (0.5 m).
N : is the number of trays, and it can be calculated based on equilibrium data.
Calculation of Number of theoretical Trays (N):

Solute material balance over tray (n):

………(1)
The equilibrium relation is:
Substitute Eq.(2) in to Eq.(1) to get:
Where:
By using E-operator:
61
Change (E) symbol by (ρ):
The equation roots are:

and
The general solution is:
Substitute the equation roots in to the general solution to get:
To find the total number of trays, we substitute (n) by (N) to get:
To find the equation constants C1 and C2 we substitute the boundary conditions:
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) we get:
62
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship (Graphical method):
In this case the number of theoretical plates will be calculated using graphical method
following steps below:
1. Complete the material balance to calculate all the unknowns (all compositions and
flow rates of the inlet and the outlet streams must be known).
2. Draw the equilibrium curve (or line) either from given data or from the equilibrium
equation: Y = m X.
3. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y0) and (XN+1, YN) or one point and slope of
( ) according to the condition of the process.
4. Draw a vertical line from point 1 which represents the point (X1, Y0) {as shown in the figure}
to point 2 which will intersect the equilibrium line (Curve). Then draw a horizontal line from
point 2 to point 3, intersecting the operating line. The triangular formed will represent the
plate number one.
5. Continue drawing the vertical lines and horizontal lines as in step 4 (shown in the fig.) until
we reach to the point (XN+1, YN) or pass it.
6. Count the triangles constructed, this number represents the number of theoretical plates.
63
Column efficiency:
The number of ideal stages required for a desired separation may be calculated by one of the
methods discussed previously, although in practice more trays are required than ideal stages. There
are two types of efficiency usually used:
1. Overall column efficiency (Ec):
2. Plate efficiency (Em):
The proportion of liquid and vapour, and the physical properties of the mixtures on the trays,
will vary up the column, and conditions on individual trays must be examined, as suggested by
Murphree (1925). For a single ideal tray, the vapour leaving is in equilibrium with the liquid
leaving, and the ratio of the actual change in composition achieved to that which would occur if
equilibrium between Yn and Xn were attained is known as the Murphree plate efficiency (Em).
The plate efficiency can be expressed in terms of gas and liquid as given below:
a. Plate efficiency based on gas phase (Emv):
Where:
: is the composition of the gas that would be in equilibrium with the liquid of composition Xn
actually leaving the plate.
64
b. Plate efficiency based on liquid phase (Eml):
Where:
: is the composition of the liquid that would be in equilibrium with the gas of composition Yn
actually leaving the plate.
65
Note 1:
To find the actual number of plates (Nact) in presence of vapor plate efficiency (Emv) or liquid plate
efficiency (Eml), the following steps must be applied:
1. Measure the distance ac, which represent the distance from equilibrium curve (a) to the
operating line (c).
2. Find the distance (bc) from plate efficiency equations (Eml or Emv).
3. Repeat the above steps to five times to find a new equilibrium curve.
4. The actual number of plates (Nact) can be evaluted using operating line and new equilibrium
curve, while theoritical number of plates (Nth) evaluated using operating line and orginal
equilibrium curve.
Note 2:
1. If the equilibrium information and the concentration of solute on two neighboring plates are
given, the following steps must be applied in order to calculate the efficiency of plate:
 Draw the equilibrium information and the concentration of solute (gas phase) on two
neighboring plates on Y axis, then locate solute concentration on operating line and draw the
triangle as shown below. The point of triangle vertex represent a point on new equilibrium
curve, then equation of plate efficiency can be applied using distances measurment.
66
 In the absence of equilibrium information, and the efficiency of plate (Emv) was given; the
following formula can be used to calculate the height of column:
Absence of equilibrium information mean that the liquid is highly absorbent and the slope of
equilibrium relationship equal to zero and ), which substituted in above equation and
solved by E – operator to find the relationship between Yn and n. The value of Yn can be substituted
and actual number of plates (Nact) and height of column can be evaluated.
 If the type of efficiency not given, then it can be assumed as Emv.
Calculation of the Height Equivalent of a Theoretical Plate (HETP):

The height of a theoretical plate (HETP), also called the height of an equivalent equilibrium
stage, is the height of packing that will give the same separation as an equilibrium stage. The
relationship between transfer units (HOG) and the height of an equivalent theoretical plate (HETP)
is given by:
If the distance between the plates is not given, and it was required to calculate the height of plates
column in presence information to find HOG, then HETP can be calculated to find the height of
column.
Relation between overall and film transfer units:
67
Example (1): Calculate the height of plate column with tray spacing of 0.51 m and plate efficiency
based on gas phase 40% to reduce the concentration of NH3 from 5.5 mol% to 0.1 mol% in an
NH3-Air mixture using fresh water. The gas and liquid flow rates are 300 and 400 Kg/m2.hr,
respectively, and the equilibrium relationship is such that the vapor pressure of NH3 over the liquid
is negligible.
Solution:
For plate tower: Z = N * tray spacing
Since the vapor pressure of NH3 over the liquid is negligible, then: m=0
By using E-operator:
Using the boundry condition:

n=0 →
→ C = 0.055
N = 7.83 ≈ 8
Z = N * tray spacing
Z = 7.83 * 0.51 = 4 m
68
Example (2): A mixture of ammonia and air is scrubbed in a plate column with fresh water. If the
ammonia concentration is reduced from 5% to 0.5% .Given that: Y = 2 X.
a. Calculate the No. of theoretical plate and the tower height. Given that: L = 0.65 Kg/m2.s and
G = 0.4 Kg/m2.s, KOG.a = 0.0008 Kmol/m3.s.kPa
b. Calculate the No. of theoretical plate, given that: =2 .
c. Calculate if the actual No. of plates = 12, and the column efficiency = 0.5.
d. Calculate the theoretical and actual No. of plates, give that:
= 1.5 and Emv = 0.7
e. Given the concentration of a gas in the two adjacent plates are 4% and 3.3%. Calculate
Emv and Eml if L = 0.65 Kg/m2.s and G = 0.4 Kg/m2.s.
Solution:
Since the inlet gas concentration is 5% then no need to convert the mole fraction to mole ratio:
Overall solute material balance on the tower:
To find the number of theoretical plates:

1. Plot the operating line:
2. Plot the equilibriam relation (Y = 2 X):

From the figure below we can find the theroritical No. of plates by stepping off:
N = 5 Plates
The height of plate tower is:
Z = N * HETP
69
Z = (5) (0.19) = 0.97 m
b. =2
For linear equilibrium relation:


N = 3 Plates
c. Theoritical No. of plates = Actual No. of plates * overall column efficiency
Nth = Nact * Ec
Nth = 12 * 0.5 = 6 plates
In this problem, the given is number of paltes (N). The required is to find L/G (i.e., slope of
operating line) by using trail and error starting from the point:
So that the number of paltes satisfied 6 (N=6) at Y1 = 0.05. when the operating line is found, the
slope can be calculated as L/G.
From plot:
70
From plot at


N = 4 Plates
To find the actual No. of plates:
Plot the new equilibrium curve at (Emv = 0.7), and stepping off:
The actual No. of plates =5
e.
71


3. From the plot we find (Emv) and (EmL) at:
Calculation of column diameter:

a. Packed tower:
The diameter of the tray tower can be estimated following the procedure below:
1. Calculate from the following equation:
Where:
2. Using Figure 11.44 to find K4 with the used pressure drop:
72
Where:
= gas mass flux ( kg/m2.s).
= packing factor, characteristic of the size and type of packing, see Table 11.3, m-1.
= liquid viscosity, Ns/m2.
Where:
G = gas mole rate (kmol/s).
S = cross section area (m2).
Mwt = gas molecular weight.
73
b. Tray tower:
The diameter of the tray tower can be estimated following the procedure below:
3. Calculate from the following equation:
Where:
4. Using Figure 11.27 to find K1 with the used plate spacing:
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961):
Where:
5. Find the tower diameter:
Where:
74
Choice of plates or packing:

The choice between a plate or packed column for a particular application can only be
made with complete assurance by costing each design. However, this will not always be
worthwhile, or necessary, and the choice can usually be made, on the basis of experience by
considering main advantages and disadvantages of each type; which are listed below:
1. Plate columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid

and gas flow-rates than packed columns.
2. Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid rates.
3. The efficiency of a plate can be predicted with more certainty than
the equivalent term for packing (HETP or HTU).
4. Plate columns can be designed with more assurance than packed
columns. There is always some doubt that good liquid distribution can be maintained
throughout a packed column under all operating conditions, particularly in large columns.
5. It is easier to make provision for cooling in a plate column; coils
can be installed on the plates.
75
6. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side-streams

from plate columns.
7. If the liquid causes fouling, or contains solids, it is easier to make
provision for cleaning in a plate column; manways can be installed on the plates. With small-
diameter columns it may be cheaper to use packing and replace the packing when it becomes
fouled.
8. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper
than the equivalent plate column.
9. The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a
plate column. This can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs
to be kept as small as possible for safety reasons.
10. Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
11. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for
packing than plates; and packing should be considered for vacuum columns.
12. Packing should always be considered for small diameter columns,
say less than 0.6 m, where plates would be difficult to install, and expensive.
76
Chapter 5
Liquid – Liquid Extraction
Liquid–Liquid Extraction: is the separation of the components of a liquid mixture by
treatment with a solvent (liquid) in which one or more of the desired components is preferentially
soluble. In this operation, it is necessary that the liquid-mixture feed and solvent are at least
partially if not completely immiscible and three stages are involved:
1. Bringing the feed mixture and the solvent into intimate contact.
2. Separation of the resulting two phases.
3. Removal and recovery of the solvent from each phase.
It is possible to combine stages (1) and (2) into a single piece of equipment such as a column
which is then operated continuously. Such an operation is known as differential contacting.
Liquid–liquid extraction is also carried out in stagewise equipment, the major example being a
mixer–settler unit in which the main features are the mixing of the two liquid phases by agitation,
followed by settling in a separate vessel by gravity.
77
In liquid-liquid extraction one phase dispersed in form of drops (dispersed phase) and the other
phase is called a continuous phase. However, after the separation process the feed is called as
Raffinate (R), while the solvent is called as Extract (E).
Extraction is in many ways complementary to distillation and is preferable in the following cases:
a. Where distillation would require excessive amounts of heat, such as, for example, when the
relative volatility is near unity.
b. When the formation of azeotropes limits the degree of separation obtainable in distillation.
c. When heating must be avoided.
d. When the components to be separated are quite different in nature.
78
1. Differential contacting:
The use of spray towers and packed towers enables continuous counter-current extraction to
be obtained in a similar manner to that in gas absorption or distillation. Applying the two-film
theory of mass transfer. The concentration gradients for transfer to a desired solute from a raffinate
to an extract phase are as shown in Figure below, which is similar to the gas absorption.
Overall solute material balance over an extractor column is:
79
Where:
: Raffinate volumetric flow rate .
: Extract volumetric flow rate .
: Solute concentration in raffinate phase .
: Solute concentration in extract phase .
To calculate the column height, a solute material balance is built over a small height (δz) as
below:
Input = Output
Where:
80
a: is the surface area of interface per unit volume of column (m2/m3).

Z: is the column height (m).
: is the overall mass transfer coefficient based on raffinate phase.
: is the overall mass transfer coefficient based on exract phase.
If the equilibrium is linear ( ):
Calculate the column height based on extract phase for linear equilibrium relation:
Where:
81
The equation for the calculation of column height (Z) can be written as:
or,
Where:
Example: Benzoic acid is to be extracted from a solution with toluene using pure water as a solvent
in a packed liquid extraction column. If the acid concentration in the feed is 1.2 kmol/m3. Find the
height of the column for 98% recovery. Given that the toluene to water flow ratio is 0.33 and the
-1
overall mass transfer coefficient based on extract phase is 0.0005 sec . Water flow is 2600
kg/m2.hr and the equilibrium relation is , where CE and CR in kmol/m3.
Solution:
82
Overall solute material balance:
2. Completely immiscible solvents (B) and (S):

For the general case where the solvents are completely immiscible, the feed solution (F) is
brought into contact with the selective solvent (S), to give raffinate (R) and an extract (E). There are
two types of flow:
a. Co-current (cross current) contact with immiscible solvents:
If a series of mixing and separating vessels is arranged so that the flow is co-current, then the
conditions of flow may be represented as shown in Figure below, where each circle corresponds to a
mixer and a separator.
83
The following definitions may be made:
E: the mass flow rate of the extract solution (A+S), kg/s.

R: the mass flow rate of the raffinate solution (A+B), kg/s.
FB: the mass flow rate of the solute free feed (inert) (B), kg/s.
S: the mass flow rate of the solute free solvent (S), kg/s.
Y: the weight ratio of the solute in the extract streams .
X: the weight ratio of the solute in the raffinate streams .
Calculation of Number of Stages (N) for co-current flow:

1. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship
Solute material balance over a stage (n):
By using the equilibrium relation with pure solvent

(Y0 = 0) then we get:
This is first order difference equation which can be solved by using E-operator:
84
Using the boundary condition to find the constant (A):

n=0 →
Substitute in the above equation to get:
To find the total number of stages (N) we use the equation below:
2. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship (Graphical method):
Solute material balance over a stage (1):
The operating line for stage (1) can be draw from:
85
Solute material balance over a stage (2):
The operating line for stage (2) can be draw from:
The number of theoretical stages will be calculated using graphical method following steps
below:
1. Complete the material balance to calculate all the unknowns (all compositions and flow rates
of the inlet and the outlet streams must be known).
2. Draw the equilibrium curve (or line) either from given data or from the equilibrium equation:
Y = m X.
3. Draw the operating line for stage (1), from initial condition (Xo , Yo) and slope of ( ), or
from point (Xo , Yo) and point (X , Y) by assuming X which should be very near to Xo and
then find Y from the equation below:
Connect a straight line between the two points (Xo , Yo) and (X , Y) to intersect the
equilibrium curve at (X1 , Y1) which represents the solute concentration in the extract and
raffinate leaving stage (1).
4. Draw a vertical line from (X1 , Y1) {as shown in the figure} which will intersect the
equilibrium line (Curve) at point (X1, Yo).
5. Draw the operating line for stage (2), from initial condition (X1 , Yo) and slope of ( ), or
from point (X1 , Yo) and point (X , Y) by assuming X which should be very near to X1 and
then find Y from the equation below:
86
Connect a straight line between the two points (X1 , Yo) and (X , Y) to intersect the
equilibrium curve at (X2 , Y2) which represents the solute concentration in the extract and
raffinate leaving stage (2).
6. Continue drawing the operating lines and vertical lines as in steps 3, 4 and 5 (as shown in the
figure below) until we reach to the XN or pass it.
7. Count the operating lines constructed, this number represents the number of theoretical stages.
b. Counter-current contact with immiscible solvents
If a series of mixing and separating vessels is arranged so that the flow is counter-current, then
the conditions of flow may be represented as shown in Figure below, where each circle corresponds
to a mixer and a separator.
87
Calculation of Number of Stages (N) for counter-current flow:

1. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship
Solute material balance over a stage (n):
By using the equilibrium relation we get:
This is second order difference equation which can be solved by using E-operator:
Using the boundary conditions to find the constants (A) and (B):
n=0 → → …….(1)
n=1 → → …….(2)
Solve Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) to get:
88
To find the total number of stages:
To find the total number of stages (N) we use the equation below:
3. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship (Graphical method):
The number of theoretical stages will be calculated using graphical method following steps
below:
1. Complete the material balance to calculate all the unknowns (all compositions and flow rates
of the inlet and the outlet streams must be known).
2. Draw the equilibrium curve (or line) either from given data or from the equilibrium equation:
Y = m X.
3. Draw the operating line, from two points (X0 , Y1) and (XN , YN+1) or one point and slope of
( ) according to the condition of the process.
89
4. Draw a horizontal line from point (X0 , Y1) {as shown in the figure} to the equilibrium line
(Curve). Then draw a vertical line from the equilibrium curve to the operating line. The
triangular formed will represent the stage number one.
5. Continue drawing the horizontal lines and vertical lines as in step 4 (shown in the figure) until
we reach to the point (XN , YN+1) or pass it.
6. Count the triangles constructed, this number represents the number of theoretical stages.
Calculation of the Minimum Solvent Flow Rate (Smin):

At the minimum solvent flow rate (Smin):
For linear equilibrium relationship and pure solvent:

Y= mX
90
For non-linear equilibrium relationship we can find from X0 as in the following figure:
Example (1):
160 cm3/s of a solvent (S) is used to treat 400 cm3/s of a 10 percent by mass solution of A in B, in a
three-stage counter-current multiple contact liquid–liquid extraction plant. What is the composition
of the final raffinate?
Using the same total amount of solvent, evenly distributed between the three stages, what would be
the composition of the final raffinate if the equipment were used in a simple multiple-contact
arrangement?
Equilibrium data:
kg (A)/kg (B): 0.05 0.10 0.15
kg (A)/kg (S): 0.069 0.159 0.258
Densities (kg/m3):
ρA = 1200 , ρB = 1000 , ρS = 800
Solution:
a. Counter-current:
91
92
b. Multiple contact
93
Chapter 6
Solid – Liquid Extraction
(Leaching)
Leaching: is the separation of a solute from solid mixture by dissolving it in a liquid phase.
Leaching occurs in two steps:
1. Contacting solvent and solid to effect a transfer of a solute (leaching).
2. The separation of the solution from the remaining solid (washing).
Factors influencing the rate of extraction:

There are four important factors to be considered:
1. Particle size.
2. Solvent.
3. Temperature.
4. Agitation of the fluid.
Batch Leaching:
Mass transfer rates within the porous residue are difficult to assess because it is impossible to
define the shape of the channels through which transfer must take place. It is possible, however, to
obtain an approximate indication of the rate of transfer from the particles to the bulk of the liquid.
Using the concept of a thin film as providing the resistance to transfer, the equation for mass
transfer may be written as:
94
(A) Leaching:
d (Constant volume)
Where:
: is the diffusion coefficient in the liquid
phase.
b: is the effective thickness of the liquid film
surrounding the particles.
C: is the concentration of the solute in the bulk
of the solution at time (t).
Cs: is the concentration of the saturated solution
in contact with the particles.
M: is the mass of solute transferred in time (t).
V: is the volume of the solution.
: is the mass transfer coefficient in the liquid
phase.
(B) Number of Washing:
Where:
: is the fraction of solute remain with the residue from the original.
: Solvent decanted per solvent remaining in the insoluble solid.
a : is the solvent remaining.
b : is the solvent decanted.
95
SN : is the weight of solute remaining in the solid after washing.

S : is the original weight of the solute which was in the solid before washing.
Example (1): 500 kg of the inert solid containing 28 percent by mass of the water-soluble
component (A), is agitated with 100 m3 of water for 600 sec. After each decanting 25% of the
solution produced remain in the residue. Water is saturated with the solute at a concentration of 2.5
kg/m3. Find the concentration of the solute (A) in the solution after the leaching and number of
washing such that the concentration of A in the solid residue is 0.01% by mass. In a pilot scale test
using a vessel 1m3 in volume, a solute was leached from an inert solid and the water was 75 percent
saturated in 10 s. Assuming conditions are equivalent to those in the pilot scale vessel.
Solution:
For the pilot scale vessel:
V = 1 m3 , t = 10 sec, Cs = 2.5 kg/m3 and C = 0.75 Cs
For the full scale vessel:

V = 100 m3, C = ?,
The initial amount of the solute in the solid = (500) (0.28) =140 kg
That‘s mean that the leaching process is efficient.
Number of washing:
B = (500) (1- 0.28) = 360 kg

SN = 0.036 kg
S = (0.25) (100) (1.4) = 35 kg
96
Example (2): Repeat the previous example (1) but the time of leaching is 300 sec. Find the
concentration of solute in the solid (dry basis)? after five washes where the decanting ratio is the
same.
Solution:
The amount of solute unleached = (500) (0.28) – (0.847) (100) = 140 – 84.7 = 55.3 kg
S = (0.847) (100) (0.25) = 21.175 kg
SN = (21.175) ( kg
B = (500) (1- 0.28) = 360 kg
Total solute = unleached + remaining in the solid after washing
= 55.3 + kg
Continuous Leaching
1. Counter current:
97
Where:
L: is the of flow solute in overflow (kg/s).
S: is the of flow solute in underflow (kg/s).
V: is the of flow solution in overflow (kg/s).
W: is the of flow solution in underflow (kg/s).
B: is the of flow insoluble solid in underflow (kg/s).
Case I: Constant under flow:

The amount of solvent removed with the insoluble solid in the underflow is constant, and
independent of the concentration of the solution in the thickener, then the amount of solvent leaving
each thickener in the underflow will then be the same, and therefore the amount of solvent in the
overflow will also be the same. Hence the ratio of the solvent discharged in the overflow to that in
the underflow is constant. This will be taken as R, where:
Also:
Also:
Solute material balance on stage (n)
when L= R S
98
Using E-operator
Change E to :
2nd order difference equation with the solution:
Using boundary conditions to find the constants (A and B):

B.C.1:
At n = 0
Sub. in equation (1):
………………(2)
B.C.2:
At n = 1
Sub. in equation (1):
when L= R S
Subtraction Eq.(3) from Eq.(2) to obtain:
In the case for using solute free solvent (pure solvent), LN+1=0:
99
…………..(4)
Substitute Eq.(4) in Eq.(2):
…………………5
Where: f = fractional of solute discharge.
Recovery = 1 – f
100
 We can know the type of continuous leaching (constant under flow) from the
sentence:
(The residue from each stage contain 0.25 kg water/kg insoluble solid)
Example:
1.6 kg/s of sand-salt mixture containing 62.5% sand is leached with 0.5 kg/s of water
in a counter-current. The residue from each stage containing 0.25 kg water per kg
insoluble solid. Find the number of stages such that the sand from the final stage
contains 10% salt when dried.
Solution:
B = (0.625) (1.6) = 1 kg/s

S0 = 1.6 – 1 = 0.6 kg/s
VN+1 = 0.5 kg/s
LN+1 = 0 (Pure solvent)
The amount of solvent in under flow = W –S = (0.25) (B) = 0.25 kg/s
SN = 0.11 kg/s
101
Case II: Variable under flow:
Variable under flow:
W1 ≠ W2 ≠ W3 ≠ W3 ≠ Wn ≠ WN solution under flow is variable
Let:
Solute material balance on the last section:
Solution material balance on the last section:
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(2):
Divided Eq.(3) by Eq.(4):
Where:
102
To find the number of stages:

1. We always take basis 1 kg of insoluble solid (B).
2. We substitute S0 and W0 given in Eq. (S1) to gain X1.
3. We substitute X1 in Eq. (S2) to gain W1.
4. We substitute X1 and W1 in Eq. (S3) to gain S1.
5. We repeat for S1 and W1 in Eq. (S1) to gain X2 then in Eq. (S2) to gain W2 then
in Eq. (S3) to gain S2 and we continue until Sn ≤ SN.
 Another way to obtain Wn and Xn is to make a plot between (W vs. X) and (S
vs. X).
We take SN and intersect a line to the (S vs. X) curve and read downwards XN, and
from there we go upwards and intersect a line to the (W vs. X) curve and then go to
the left and read WN.
103
Example:
A vegetable seed material containing 0.4 kg oil/kg insoluble solid is washed with
hydrocarbon solvent in order to recover 90% of the oil in a counter current unit. It is
found that the under flow varies with the concentration of classifier as given below:
Amount of solution in under flow, Concentration of solute in solution,
0.30 0
0.32 0.1
0.34 0.2
0.36 0.3
0.38 0.4
0.40 0.5
If the solvent input flow 0.5 kg/kg insoluble solid. Find the number of stages
required?
Solution:
Basis: 1 kg/s of insoluble solid (B0)
LN+1 = 0 (pure solvent)

VN+1 = 0.5 kg/s
From the plot:
Intercept = 0.3
Then:
Where:
104
Put: SN = 0.04 kg/s
105
Stages calculations:
Stage (1) n=1

S0 = 0.4, W0 = solvent +solute = 0 + 0.4 = 0.4 kg/s
From Eq.(1):
From Eq.(2):
From Eq.(3):
continue
Stage (2) n=2
From Eq.(1):
From Eq.(2):
From Eq.(3):
continue
Stage (3) n=3
From Eq.(1):
From Eq.(2):
From Eq.(3):
Now:
106
Chapter 7
Distillation
The separation of liquid mixtures into their various components is one of the major operations
in the process industries, and distillation, the most widely used method of achieving this end, is the
key operation in any oil refinery. In processing, the demand for pure products, coupled with the
need for greater efficiency, has promoted continued research into the techniques of distillation. In
engineering terms, distillation columns have to be designed with a larger range in capacity than any
other types of processing equipment, with single columns 0.3–10 m in diameter and 3–75 m in
height.
Distillation: is the separation of liquid mixture by partial evaporation. The essential requirement is
to have a vapor composition different from liquid.
Boiling point: is the temperature at which the Ʃ Pi = PT and for pure component PT = Po (vapor
pressure).
 If > Volatility of (A) > Volatility of (B)

 If > Volatility of (B) > Volatility of (A)
Vapour–Liquid Equilibrium
The composition of the vapour in equilibrium with a liquid of given composition is
determined experimentally using an equilibrium still. The results are conveniently shown on a
temperature–composition diagram as shown in Figure below.
107
Figure (a) Relation of component compositions with temperature.
In the normal case shown in Figure (a), the curve ABJ shows the composition of the liquid
which boils at any given temperature, and the curve ADJ the corresponding composition of the
vapour at that temperature. Thus, a liquid of composition x1 will boil at temperature T1, and the
vapour in equilibrium is indicated by point D of composition y1. It is seen that for any liquid
composition x the vapour formed will be richer in the more volatile component, where x is the
mole fraction of the more volatile component in the liquid, and y in the vapour. Examples of
mixtures giving this type of curve are benzene–toluene and n-heptane–toluene.
In Figures (b) and (c), there is a critical composition xg where the vapour has the same
composition as the liquid, so that no change occurs on boiling. Such critical mixtures are called
azeotropes. For compositions, other than xg, the vapour formed has a different composition from
that of the liquid. It is important to note that these diagrams are for constant pressure conditions,
and that the composition of the vapour in equilibrium with a given liquid will change with pressure.
108
For distillation purposes, it is more convenient to plot y against x at a constant pressure, since the
majority of industrial distillations take place at substantially constant pressure.
The vapour-liquid equilibrium data is calculated from:

1.Raoult's and Dalton's law for ideal system:
For an ideal mixture, the partial pressure is related to the concentration in the liquid phase by
Raoult’s law which may be written as:
and or
Where:
: is the partial pressure of component A.
: is the vapour pressure of component A.
: is the partial pressure of component B.
: is the vapour pressure of component B.
xA: is the mole fraction of component A in liquid phase.
This relation (Raoult’s law) is usually found to be true only for high values of xA, or
correspondingly low values of xB, although mixtures of organic isomers and some hydrocarbons
follow the law closely.
By Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
PT = Ʃ Pi
Where: PA = yA PT
109
……………………..(1)
Temp.
- - - Calculated from Eq.(1) Calculated from Eq.(2)

- - - Calculated from Eq.(1) Calculated from Eq.(2)
1. Relative volatility (α):

The relationship between the composition of the vapour yA and of the liquid xA in equilibrium
may also be expressed in a way, which is particularly useful in distillation
calculations:
and difference for distillation
As the difference increase, the distillation would be easier.
Where:
: is the volatility of component A.
: is the volatility of component B.
The relative volatility ( :
For separation to be achieved, must not equal 1 and, considering the more volatile
component, as increases above unity, y increases and the separation becomes much
easier.
Equilibrium relation in distillation
110
To plot xA against yA, we use Eq.(*) for given value of xA between (0 – 1.0) which are
arbitrary:
xA yA
0 -
0.1 -
0.2 -
0.3 -
0.4 -
0.5 -
0.6 -
0.7 -
0.8 -
0.9 -
1.0 =
2. Henry's law for non-ideal systems:
For low values of xA, a linear relation between PA and xA again exists, although the
proportionality factor is Henry‘s constant H, and not the vapour pressure of the pure
material. For a liquid solute, A in a solvent liquid B, Henry‘s law takes the form:
yA = H xA Where: H = is Henry's constant
or we use the equilibrium constant or we call the "distribution coefficient, k"
yA = kA xA Where: kA = is the distribution coefficient or equilibrium constant

k = f (T)
For non-ideal binary mixture, the partial pressure may be expressed in the form:
and
Where: = is the activity coefficient for component A.
= is the activity coefficient for component B.
The liquid phase activity coefficients and depend upon temperature, pressure and
concentration. Typical values taken from Perry‘s Chemical Engineers‘ Handbook are shown
in Figure 11.8 for the systems n-propanol–water and acetone–chloroform.
111
Example: The following vapour pressure were obtained for phenol and ortho-cresol:
Temp. Vapour pressure of Vapour pressure of
2
(K) ortho-cresol (kN/m ) phenol (kN/m2)
387 7.7 10
387.9 7.94 10.4
388.7 8.21 10.8
389.6 8.5 11.2
390 8.76 11.6
391.1 9.06 12.0
391 9.4 12.4
392.7 9.73 12.9
393.3 10.0 13.3
Assuming Raoult's and Dalton's laws apply. Find the following data for a total pressure of 10.0
kN/m2.
a. A temperature-composition diagram.
b. A vapour-liquid equilibrium data.
c. Relative volatility against mole fraction of phenol in liquid.
112
Solution:
xA
10 7.7 1.3 0
10.4 7.94 1.31 0.1
10.8 8.21 1.315 0.2
11.2 8.5 1.318 0.3
11.6 8.76 1.324 0.4
12.0 9.06 1.325 0.5
12.4 9.4 1.319 0.6
12.9 9.73 1.326 0.7
13.3 10.0 1.330 0.8
0.9
1.0
(average) = 1.318
Methods of Distillation -Two Component Mixtures

For a binary mixture with a normal xA – yA curve, the vapour is always richer in the more
volatile component than the liquid from which it is formed. There are two main methods used in
distillation practice which all rely on this basic fact. These are:
1. Continuous Distillation.
a. Rectifying (fractionation) distillation.
b. Flash (equilibrium) distillation.
2. Non- Continuous Distillation.
a. Differential distillation.
b. Batch distillation.
i. Operation at constant reflux ratio.
ii. Operation at constant product composition (variable reflux).
113
Rectifying distillation
1. Differential distillation:
The simplest example of batch distillation is a single stage (differential distillation) starting
with a still pot, initially full, heated at a constant rate. In this process:
1. The vapour formed on boiling the liquid is removed at once from the system.
2. Vapour is richer in the more volatile component than the liquid, and the liquid remaining
becomes steadily weaker in this component, so this result that the composition of the product
progressively alters.
3. The vapour formed over a short period is in equilibrium with the liquid.
4. The total vapour formed is not in equilibrium with the residual liquid. At the end of the
process the liquid which has not been vaporized is removed as the bottom product.
If So = Numbers of moles of feed in the still initially.

S = Numbers of moles of liquid mixture in the still after concentrated.
D = Numbers of moles of product (distillate).
xo = Mole fraction of A (more volatile component) in the feed.
x = Mole fraction of A in the waste (residue).
xd = Mole fraction of A in the distillate (product).
Overall material balance gives:

So = D + S
Material balance on more volatile component gives:

(So) (xo) = (D) (xd) + (S) (x)
114
The boundary conditions of the differential distillation:

At time = 0, S = So and x = xo (liquid condition)
At time = t, S = S and x = x (variable)
In time (dt):
dS: is the amount of liquid vaporized from the still.
dx: is the concentration difference in the still.
So, we take a material balance:

y dS = d (S x) = S dx + x dS
( y – x) dS = S dx
…………………….(*)
The integral on the right-hand side of this equation may be solved by three ways:
1. Graphical solution:
Taking values of x and y from the equilibrium relationship.

(If the equilibrium data given as points)
- -
- -
- -
115
2. If the equilibrium data is a straight line of the form y = m x + c
3. If the equilibrium data is given by volatility (α):
Example: 100 kmol of a mixture (A and B) is fed to a simple still. The feed contains 50 mol% of
A and a remain in the still is 5 mol% of A. Calculate the quantity and the average composition of
the product obtained? The equilibrium data are:
x 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05
y 1.0 0.932 0.745 0.67 0.57 0.46 0.34 0.2 0.1
Solution:
So = 100 kmol, xo = 0.5 and x = 0.05
Since the type is differential distillation, then:
x y
xo → 0.5 0.67 5.88

0.4 0.57 5.88
0.3 0.46 6.25
0.2 0.34 7.14
0.1 0.2 10.0
X → 0.05 0.1 20.0
The No. of squares = 16

The area of one square = (Δx) (Δy) = (0.1) (2) = 0.2
The area under the curve = (No. of squares) (area of one square) = (16) (0.2) = 3.22
116
From plot:
The area under the curve = 3.2
Then, S = 4.076 kmol
Overall material balance:
D = So – S = 100 – 4.076 = 95.92 kmol
Material balance on more volatile component gives:
(So) (xo) = (D) (xd) + (S) (x)
2. Flash or equilibrium distillation:

Flash or equilibrium distillation, frequently carried out as a continuous process, consists of
vaporizing a definite fraction of the liquid feed in such a way that the vapour evolved is in
equilibrium with the residual liquid. The feed is usually pumped through a fired heater and enters
the still through a valve where the pressure is reduced. The still is essentially a separator in which
the liquid and vapour produced by the reduction in pressure have sufficient time to reach
equilibrium. The vapour is removed from the top of the separator and is then usually condensed,
while the liquid leaves from the bottom.
1. Overall mass balance gives:

F=V+L …………………………………(1)
2. Material balance on more volatile component gives:

(F) (xf) = (V) (yA) + (L) (xA) ……………………(2)
117
The values of xA and yA required must satisfy, not only the equation, but also the appropriate
equilibrium data. Thus these values may be determined depends on the equilibrium relationship:
a. Graphically using an x − y diagram.
x - - - - -
y - - - - -
First, plot the equilibrium data (x, y), then assume the value of xA and find the value of yA from the
equilibrium plot. Substitute the assumed value of xA and the calculated value of yA in Eq.(2). If the
right side of Eq.(2) equal to the left side then the assumed xA and the calculated yA represents the
mole fraction of more volatile component in liquid and vapour phase, respectively. If not, repeat the
assumption.
b. Analytically if the equilibrium relationship is linear:

yA = m xA ………………………………(3)
Substitute Eq.(3) into Eq.(2) to find xA then the calculated value of xA substitute into the equilibrium
relation Eq.(3) to find yA.
c. Analytically if the equilibrium relationship is given by the relative volatility ( :
………………………………..(4)
Substitute Eq.(4) into Eq.(2) to find xA then the calculated value of xA substitute into the equilibrium
relation Eq.(4) to find yA.
118
Example (1): An aqueous solution at its boiling point containing 10 mol% of ammonia is fed to the
flash distillation to produce a distillate containing 25 mol% of ammonia. At equilibrium, the mole
fraction of ammonia in the vapour phase is 6.3 times that in the liquid phase and the feed flow rate
is 0.1 kmol/s. Calculate the number of moles distillate obtainable from the flash distillation.
Solution
F = V + L = 0.1
V = 0.1 – L ……………….(1)
Material balance on more volatile component:

(F) (xf) = (V) (yA) + (L) (xA)
(0.1) (0.1) = (0.1 - L) (yA) + (L) (xA) ………………(2)
Equilibrium relationship:
yA = 6.3 xA …………………..(3)
at yA = 0.25
Substitute xA into Eq.(2) to gain L:
(0.1) (0.1) = (0.1 - L) (0.25) + (L) (0.0346)
L = 0.0712 kmol/s
V = 0.1 – 0.0721 = 0.0287 kmol /s
Example (2): A liquid mixture containing 40 mol% of n-heptane and 60 mol% of n-octane is to be
continuously flash vaporized at 1 atm. The product vapour is 70% of the feed. What will be the
composition of the vapour and liquid. Given
Solution
F = 100 kmol/s and V = 70 kmol/s

F=V+L
100 = 70 + L L = 30 kmol/s

(F) (xf) = (V) (yA) + (L) (xA)
(100) (0.4) = (70) (yA) + (30) (xA) ………………(1)
Equilibrium relationship:
………………..(2)
Substitute Eq.(2) into Eq.(1) to get:
119
Substitute value into Eq.(2) to get :
3. Continuous (Rectification) distillation:
Fig: Continuous fractionating column with rectifying and stripping sections
120
We must know some main points in this tower (fractionating tower):

1. The temperature various along the tower (Tw > Tf > Tt).
2. The feed differs from each process were it could be:
a. Cold liquid (subcooled).
b. Liquid at boiling point (saturated liquid).
c. Vapour at boiling point (saturated vapour).
d. Partially vaporized.
e. Supper heated vapour.
3. Whenever we increase LR the tower height will decrease.
4. We have a reflux ratio of:
5. Whenever we find a process with a reboiler means that the tower used is
a distillation tower.
6. The feed is pumped from anywhere:
a. Form up or middle or bottom of the tower.
b. From reboiler.
and the position of feed is determine by xf :

If the xf is small, the feed is pumped from the bottom tower.
If the xf is large, the feed is pumped from the top tower.
 When the feed pumped from the reboiler, all the tower is rectifying
tower.
 When the feed pumped from the top, all the tower is stripping tower.
121
7. Reboiler is a single mass transfer stages with 100% efficiency.
No. of stages = No. of plates + 1
Continuous distillation can be divided depends on the number of components in the feed stream
into:
1. Binary mixture.
2. Multi-component mixtures.
The most common things needs to be calculated in the distillation column tower are:
1. Actual and minimum number of plates.
2. Reflux ratio and minimum reflux ratio.
3. The heat added in the boiler (Qr).
4. The heat removed in the condenser (Qc).
The McCabe-Thiele Method

The simplifying assumption for the McCabe-Thiele method is that :
latent heat of vaporization of component A ≠ latent heat of vaporization of component B
i. Rectifying section operating line equation:
Overall material balance between plate (n)

and the top product indicated by the loop I:
Since the molar liquid and vapour overflow

is constant:
Ln = Ln+1 = Ln-1 = LR
Vn = Vn+1 = Vn-1 = V
Then the overall material balance equation

becomes:
122
Material balance on more volatile component (M.V.C) between plate (n) and the top product
indicated by the loop I:
………. (1)
We can write Eq.(1) in the form of reflux ratio as follows:
…………..(2)
We can plot the rectifying (top) operating line from the slope and intercept in the Eq.(1) and
Eq.(2):
 and
Or we can plot the top operating line from two points:
 and
 and
ii. Stripping section operating line equation:

Overall material balance between plate (m) and the bottom product indicated by the loop II:
Since the molar liquid and vapour is constant:
Lm = Lm+1 = Lm-1
Vm = Vm+1 = Vm-1
123
Then the overall material balance equation becomes:
Material balance on (M.V.C) between plate (m)

and the bottom product indicated by the loop II:
We can plot the stripping (bottom) operating line from the slope and intercept in the Eq.(1):
iii. The q- line equation:

If the two operating lines intersect at a point with coordinates (xq ,yq), then from equations
(top and bottom operating lines):
………………………………..(1)
………………………………..(2)
Subtraction Eq.(2) from Eq.(1):
……………………………………..(*)
A material balance over the feed plate gives:
……………………………………..(**)
To obtain a relation between Ln and Lm, it is necessary to make an enthalpy balance over the feed
plate, and to consider what happens when the feed enters the column. If the feed is all in the form of
liquid at its boiling point, then:
If the feed is a liquid at a temperature Tf ,that is less than the boiling point, some vapour rising
from the plate below will condense to provide sufficient heat to bring the feed liquor to the
boiling point.
If: Hf = is the enthalpy per mole of feed.
Hfs = is the enthalpy of one mole of feed at its boiling point.
The heat to be supplied to bring feed to the boiling point = F(Hfs − Hf )
The number of moles of vapour to be condensed to provide this heat
Where: λ is the molar latent heat of the vapour.

124
The reflux liquor is then:
Where:
Thus, from Eq.(**):
A material balance of the more volatile component over the whole column gives:
Thus, from Eq.(*):
…………………………….(q-line equation)
Thus, the point of intersection of the two operating lines lies on the straight line of slope
passing through the point ( , ).
* We can plot the q-line from the point ( , ) with slope of
From the definition of q, it follows that the slope of the q-line is governed by the nature of the feed
as follows:
1. Cold feed as liquor ( the feed is subcooled) Tf < TBP
125
2. Feed at boiling point (saturated liquid) Tf = TBP
3. Feed partly vapour (partially

vaporized feed) Tf = TBP
Two phase vapour and liquid feed quality = 20% vapour, this means that:
saturated vapour = 20%
saturated liquid = 80%
126
4. Feed saturated vapour (single vapour phase): Tf = TBP
5. Feed superheated vapour: Tf > TBP
127
Fig. 11.16. Effect of the condition of the feed on the intersection of the operating lines for a fixed
reflux ratio.
128
Calculation of the theoretical number of plates of the continuous

distillation column by McCabe-Thiele Method (graphically):
1. We draw the top operating line from two
points:
or
or from one point and slope
2. We draw the q-line from until

its intersect with the top operating at .
3. We draw the bottom operating line by

joining point to point .
4. We draw the vertical and horizontal lines

from to which represents the number of stages.
5.
129
Example: A continuous rectifying column handles a mixture consisting of 40 percent of benzene by

mass and 60 percent of toluene at the rate of 4 kg/s, and separates it into a product containing 97
percent of benzene and a liquid containing 98 per cent toluene. The feed is liquid at its boiling-
point.
(a) Calculate the mass flows of distillate and waste liquor.
(b) If a reflux ratio of 3.5 is employed, how many plates are required in the rectifying
part of the column?
Solution:
130
Minimum Reflux ratio (Rmin)

If the reflux ratio is reduced, the slope of the operating line is reduced and more stages are
required to pass from xf to xd, as shown by the line AK in Figure 11.17. Further reduction in R will
eventually bring the operating line to AE, where an infinite number of stages is needed to pass from
xd to xf . This arises from the fact that under these conditions the steps become very close together
at liquid compositions near to xf , and no enrichment occurs from the feed plate to the plate above.
These conditions are known as minimum reflux (Rmin).
131
Here: The number of plates (from this figure) will equal (N = ∞) because the triangles will reach
point E, and will not come out of that point.
There are two methods to estimate (Rmin):

1. Calculation of (Rmin) by graphical method.
(Rmin) is obtained when the top operating line (Rectifying line) intersects with the equilibrium
curve at the feed point.
We read (Rmin) from the y-axis, let's say (C) so:

Rmin= any number
2. Calculation of (Rmin) by equation from volatility:
132
* If we have different in the feed, waste and distillate product, so we take the average
.
Minimum number of stages (Nmin)

1. Calculation of (Nmin) by graphical method.
If no product is withdrawn from the still, that is D = 0, then the column is said to operate
under conditions of total reflux and the top operating line has its maximum slope of unity, and
coincides with the line x = y. If the reflux ratio is reduced, the slope of the operating line is reduced
and more stages are required to pass.
When D = 0 (at total reflux)
2. Calculation of (Nmin) by Fenske equation.
Efficiency of Column
1. Overall efficiency :
2. Plate efficiency:
i. Efficiency based on vapour phase (Emv).
133
ii. Efficiency based on liquid phase (Eml).
Heat Balance on Distillation Column

Overall heat balance on distillation column:
……………………(1)
Where:
: heat added to the reboiler (kw).
: heat removed from condenser (kw).
: enthalpy of the liquid (kJ/kmol).
: enthalpy of the vapour (kJ/kmol).
Heat balance on condenser
But,
……………………………….(2)
Then the amount of heat added to the reboiler is:

…………………….(3)
Calculation the amount of water required in the condenser:
134
Calculation the amount of steam required in the reboiler:
Where: = heat of vaporization of steam (kJ/kg).
Multiple feeds and side streams

In general, a side stream is defined as any product stream other than the overhead product and
the residue such as the streams S′, S″ and S‴ in Figure 11.21. In a similar way, F1 and F2 are
separate feed streams to the column. Side streams are most often removed with multi-component
systems, although they may be used with binary mixtures.
 The number of operating lines in this

type of distillation are equal to the
number of feed and side streams plus
one.
 The arrangement of these streams in

the distillation column depends on the
mole fraction of more volatility
component in these streams.
Example: It is desired to distill a feed (F1) of 200 kmol/hr partially vaporized so that 80% vapour
and 20% liquid containing 20% heptane and 80% ethylbenzene and (F2) of 150 kmol/hr saturated
liquid containing 40% heptane to give a distillate containing 95% heptane and a bottom containing
3mol% heptane. It is proposed to withdraw 20% of heptane in the entering streams as a side stream
with a mole fraction of 0.7 heptane:
a. Determine the number of theoretical plates required and the position of the
feeds and side stream plates, if the used reflux ratio is (3).
b. If the stream at 138 kPa gauge pressure is used for heating, how much steam
required per hr.
135
c. If cooling water enters the condenser at 27oC and leaves at 65oC, how much
cooling water is required per hr.
The vapour-liquid equilibrium:

x 0 0.08 0.25 0.485 0.79 1.0
y 0 0.23 0.514 0.73 0.904 1.0
Where the heptane boiling point and latent heat are 98.4oC and 95.11 kcal/kmol, respectively.
Whereas the ethylbenzene boiling point and latent heat are 136.2 oC and 95.4 kcal/kmol,
respectively.
Solution:

F1 + F2 = D + S + W
200 +150 = D + 28.5 + W ………………………………..(1)

(F1) (xF1) + (F2) (xF2) = (D) (xd) + (S) (xs) + (W) (xw)
(200) (0.2) + (150) (0.4) = (D) (0.95) + (28.5) (0.7) + (W) (0.03) ………………….(2)
D = 76.53 kmol/hr
W = 244.9 kmol/hr
Ln = R D = (3) (76.53) = 229.39 kmol/hr

Vn = (R+1) D = 306.1 kmol/hr
Top operating line equation:
………………………….(1)
We can plot the top operating line from two points:
and
(0.95, 0.95) and (0, 0.237)
q- line of the side stream (S):

Since the side stream is saturated liquid, then the q-line is vertical line from (xs, xs). The top
operating line intersect with q-line at point (1).
136
Drive the equation for the operating line between (S) and (F2):
…………………(2)
Where:
Ls = Ln – S = 229.39 – 28.2 = 201 kmol/hr
Vs = Vn = 306.1 kmol/hr
We draw this operating line from two points

(point (1)) and (0, 0.302)
q- line of the feed (F2):
Since the feed (F2) is saturated liquid, then the q-line is vertical line from (xf2, xf2). The second
operating line intersect with q-line of (F2) at point (2).
Drive the equation for the operating line between (F2) and (F1):
137
………………………….(3)
Where:
Vr = Vs = 306.1 kmol/hr
kmol/hr
0.1
We draw this operating line from two points

(point (2)) and (0, 0.1)
q- line of the feed (F1):

Since the feed (F1) is partially vaporized:
q = fraction of liquid =0 .2
Then the q-line of (F1) is draw form (xf1, xf1) with slope =
The third operating line intersect with q-line of (F1) at point (3).
Bottom operating line equation:
Where:
Lm = Lr + q F1 = 351+(0.2)(200) = 391 kmol/hr
Vm = Lm – W = 391- 244.9 = 146 kmol/hr
……………..(4)
We draw the bottom operating line from two points

(point (3)) and (0, -0.05)
Or point (3) and (xw, xw)
From plot:
No. of stages = 10
No. of plates = 10 -1 = 9
The side stream position = 3 stage from top = 2 plate
The feed stream (F2) position = 5 stage from top = 4 plate
The side stream (F1) position = 8 stage from top = 7 plate
b. Qr = Vm λ
where: Vm = 146 kmol/hr

λ = 95.4 kcal/kmol
138
Qr = (146) (95.4) = 13928 kcal/hr

For steam: Qr = msteam . λsteam
From steam table: λsteam at 239.3 kPa = 526 kcal/kg
Qr = msteam . λsteam 13928 = msteam. (526)
msteam = 26.4 kg/hr
c. Qc = Vn λ
where: Vn = 306.1 kmol/hr
λ = 95.11 kcal/kmol
Qc = Vn λ = (306.1) (95.11) = 29.11 103 kcal/hr
For water: Qc = mwater . cp ΔT
29.11 103 = mwater .(1) (65-27)
mwater = 760 kg/hr
The Lewis–Sorel method

This method is used to calculate the mole fraction of components on the plates and the
number of plates by stage to stage calculations for binary mixture with one feed only. There are two
types of calculations:
1. Calculations from top to bottom section:
a.
b. is to be found from the equilibrium data (Graphically or by
equation):
c. is to be calculated from rectifying operating line equation:
or
d. is to be found from the equilibrium data (Graphically or by

equation):
e. is to be calculated from rectifying operating line equation:
or
139
f. Continue until reach , then use stripping operating line equation to

calculate the mole fraction in the vapour ( ) and stop the calculation when reach .
2. Calculations from bottom to top section:
a.
b. is to be found from the equilibrium data (Graphically or by
equation):
c. is to be calculated from stripping operating line equation:
d. is to be found from the equilibrium data (Graphically or by

equation):
e. Continue until reach , then use rectifying operating line equation to

calculate the mole fraction in the liquid ( ) and stop the calculation when reach .
140
Example: A mixture of benzene and toluene containing 50 mole percent benzene is to be separated
to give a product containing 90 mole percent benzene at the top, and a bottom product containing
not more than 10 mole per cent benzene. The feed enters the column at its boiling point. It is
proposed to operate the unit with an (Ln/D) ratio of 3.5:1 kmol/kmol product. It is required to find
the composition of the liquid on the third theoretical plate from top and on the third theoretical plate
from bottom. Take the relative volatility as 2.16.
Solution:
Basis: 100 kmol/hr of feed

F=D+W
100 = D + W …………………………………….(1)
F (xf) = D (xd) + W (xw)

100 (0.5) = D (0.9) + W (0.1) …………………..(2)
From Eq.(1) & Eq.(2) :

D = 50 kmol/hr, W = 50 kmol/hr
Ln = R D = 3.5 (50) = 175 kmol/hr

Vn = (R+1) D = (3.5+1) (50) = 225 kmol/hr
Top operating line equation:
………………………….. (3)
Equilibrium relation:
Calculations from top to bottom section:
From equilibrium relation:
From top operating line equation:
141
From top operating line equation:
Calculations from bottom to top section:
Lm = Ln + q F (for saturated liquid q =1)

Lm = 175 + (1) 100 = 275 kmol/hr
Vm = Vn + (q-1) F
Vm = Vn = 225 kmol/hr
Bottom operating line equation:
Equilibrium relation:
From bottom operating line equation:
142
(Non-ideal mixture)
The Ponchon - Savarit method
The Enthalpy - Composition diagram
The H - x diagram
For a non-ideal system, where the molar latent heat is no longer constant and where there is
a substantial heat of mixing, the calculations become much more tedious. For binary mixtures of
this kind a graphical model has been developed by Ponchon ,and Savarit, based on the use of an
enthalpy–composition chart. A typical enthalpy–composition or H − x chart is shown in Figure
11.24, where the upper curve V is the dew-point curve, and the lower curve L the boiling-point
curve. The use of this diagram is based on the geometrical properties, as illustrated in Figure 11.25.
A quantity of mixture in any physical state is known as a ―phase‖ and is denoted by mass,
composition and enthalpy. The phase is shown upon the diagram by a point which shows enthalpy
and composition, however it does not show the mass.
143
If m is the mass, x the composition and H the enthalpy per unit mass, then the addition of
two phases A and B to give phase C is governed by:
144
Rectifying section:
For non-ideal mixture:
Overall material balance on

condenser:
More volatile component material

balance on condenser:
Enthalpy balance:
Let:
145
Stripping section:
Overall material balance on loop II:
More volatile component material balance on loop II:
Enthalpy balance:
Let:
The equilibrium relation is given as below:

Temp. X y
- / - tie line- / - -
- / - tie line- / - -
- / - tie line- / - -
- / - tie line- / - -
- / - tie line- / - -
146
Determination of the number of plates on the H − x diagram

1. We draw a plot (HL vs. x) and (HV vs. y) on the same graph (which represents the
equilibrium curves), where the upper equilibrium curve is for the vapour and the lower
equilibrium curve is for the liquid.
2. We draw the tie line between the mole fraction of liquid (x) on liquid (lower) curve and the
mole fraction of vapour (y) on vapour (upper) curve.
3. We locate:- , and on the plot.
4. We find the pole N by the point ( , ). Where: .
5. Pole M is located on the extension of N-F cutting the ordinate at in M.
6. The condition of the vapour leaving the top plate is shown at V7 on the saturated vapour
curve with abscissa .
7. The condition of the liquid on the top plate is then found by drawing the tie line T7 from V7
to L7 on the saturated liquid curve.
147
8. The condition V6 of the vapour on the second plate is found by drawing L7-N to cut the
saturated vapour curve on V6.
9. L6 is then found on the tie line T6.
10. The conditions of vapour and liquid V5, V4, V3 and L5, L4 are then found by similar
construction. Tie line T3 gives L3, which has the same composition as the feed.
11. V2 is then found using the line M-F-V2 as this represents the vapour on the top plate of the
stripping section.
12. L2, L1 and V1 are then found by a similar construction. L1 has the required composition of the
bottoms, .
13. No. of plates = No. of stages - 1
Determination of the minimum number of plates (Nmin)

The maximum reflux ratio (Rmax) at D = 0 (Total reflux)
148
Nmin = 8 stages = 7 plates
Determination of the minimum reflux ratio (Rmin)

The minimum reflux ratio (Rmin ) is determined at maximum number of plates (Nmax ):
149
Example : A 30 mol% solution of A and B at its boiling point is to be continuous distilled to give a
top product of 95 mol% of A and a bottom product containing not more than 3 mol% of A, the
reflux ratio is to be 2.55 Rmin value and an estimate of the number of theoretical plates required to
effect the separation is to be obtained by Ponchon-Savarit method. Also determine the condenser
duty and the heat required supplied in the reboiler. Given the following data:
xA 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8

yA 0 0.30 0.58 0.71 0.79 0.9 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.995
Enthalpy data kJ/kmol

xA 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
HL 767 418 198 116 163 209 279
HV 2765 2580 2370 2160 1905 1765 1490
150
Solution:
Batch Distillation
In the previous distillation methods have been considered in which there
has been a continuous feed to the still and a continuous withdrawal of products
from the top and bottom.
In many instances processes are carried out in batches, and it is more

convenient to distil each batch separately. Similar to differential distillation with
rectifying section only and reflux ratio. In batch distillation the whole of a batch is run into the
boiler of the still and, on heating, the vapour is passed into a fractionation column, as shown in
Figure 11.33. As with continuous distillation, the composition of the top product depends on the
still composition, the number of plates in the column and on the reflux ratio used. There are two
possible modes of operation in batch distillation column:
151
1. Operation at constant product composition (xd), the reflux ratio maybe increased continuously
[mean, constant (xd) and variable (R)].
2. Operation at constant reflux ratio (R), the composition of the top product will decrease with
time [mean, constant (R) and variable (xd)].
1. Operation at constant product composition (xd)

The batch distillation column operates with a rectifying section only. Therefore, there is one
operating line equation represents this section which is the rectifying operating line equation. There
are some symbols are used in this type of distillation:
S1: is the number of moles of feed in the still initially.
XS1: is the mole fraction of more volatile component in the feed
S2: is the number of moles of liquid mixture in the still after concentrated (distillation).
XS2: is the mole fraction of more volatile component in the still after concentrated (distillation).
Over all material balance
Over all material balances on more volatile component:
152
The heat to be supplied in the boiler to provide this reflux during the total distillation Q R is
given by:
Where: λ is the latent heat per mole.

is the amount of heat required in the reboiler to vaporize ( ).
Equation (2) may be integrated graphically if the relation between R and D is known. For any
desired value of R, xs may be obtained by drawing the operating line, and marking off the steps
corresponding to the given number of stages. The amount of product D is then obtained from
equation (1) and, if the corresponding values of R and D are plotted, graphical integration will give
the value of R dD.
Example (1): A mixture of ethyl alcohol and water with 0.55 mole fraction of alcohol is distilled to
give a top product of 0.75 mole fraction of alcohol. The column has four ideal plates and the
distillation is stopped when the reflux ratio has to be increased beyond 4.0. What is the amount of
distillate obtained, and the heat required per kmol of product?
The equilibrium data are given as:

Mole fraction of ethyl 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
alcohol in liquid
Mole fraction of ethyl 0 0.42 0.52 0.58 0.61 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.81 0.9
alcohol in vapour
Solution:
The distillation with constant (xd) and variable (R).
N = 4 plates = 5 stages
, ? , D=? ,
,
Values of are found as shown in Figure 11.35 for the two values of R of 0.85 and 4. The amount
of product is then found from equation (1). Thus, for R = 4:
153
values of D found in this way are:
R D
0.85 0.55 0
1.0 0.50 20.0
1.5 0.37 47.4
2.0 0.20 63.8
3.0 0.075 70.5
4.0 0.05 71.4
154
The area under the curve = 96 kmol
= 380 MJ
2. Operation at constant reflux ratio (R)

If the same column is operated at a constant reflux ratio (R), the concentration of the more
volatile component in the top product will continuously fall. Over a small interval of time dt , the
top-product composition with respect to the more volatile component will change from to
, where is negative for the more volatile component. If in this time the amount of
product obtained is dD, then a material balance on the more volatile component gives:
Over all material balance

…………………………………………………(1)
Over all material balances on more volatile component:
The heat to be supplied to provide the reflux QR is given by:
155
Example (2): If the same batch as in Example (1) is distilled with a constant reflux ratio of R =
2.1, what will be the heat required and the average composition of the distillate if the distillation is
stopped when the composition in the still has fallen to 0.105 mole fraction of ethanol?
Solution:
156
157
Multicomponent Distillation
Multicomponent distillation refers to the separation of mixture containing more than two
components. In the fractionation of multicomponent mixtures, the essential requirement is often the
separation of two components. Such components are called the key components. The concept of the
key components is introduced where the light and heavy key components are those whose
specifications are fixed in the top and bottom streams.
There are two types of key components:

1. Light key component: the component which appears in the top and bottom streams and has
high concentration in the top (largest volatility, α).
2. Heavy key component: the component which appears in the top and bottom streams and has
high concentration in the bottom (lowest volatility, α).
Example (1):
Comp. Distillate Waste

A 0.03 0.0
B 0.07 0.0
C 0.147 0.003 Light key
D 0.1255 0.2045
E 0.003 0.297 Heavy key
F 0.0 0.12
Example (2):
Comp. Feed (%) Distillate Waste (%)

(%)
A 1 1.1 0.0
B 6 15.1 0.0
C 33 83.8 2.3 Light key
D 47 0.0 76.9 Heavy key
E 13 0.0 20.8
( ‫ ) اكبر مه تركيزه في األفسل‬Top ( ‫* إذا ظهر مركب واحد فقط مشترك فنالحظ تركيزه فإذا كان تركيزه في األعلى‬
.‫ ) والعكس صحيح‬Light key ( ‫ ) فيعتبر هى المركب الخليف‬Bottom
158
Calculation of the theoretical number of plates

One of the most successful methods for calculating the number of plates necessary for a
given separation is due to Lewis and Matheson . This is based on the Lewis–Sorel method,
described previously for binary mixtures. If the composition of the liquid on any plate is known,
then the composition of the vapour in equilibrium is calculated from a knowledge of the vapour
pressures or relative volatilities of the individual components. The composition of the liquid on the
plate above is then found by using an operating equation, as for binary mixtures, although in this
case there will be a separate equation for each component.
The vapour-liquid equilibrium data for multicomponent mixture is calculated from:
1. Volatility:
In general:
2. Vapour pressure data for ideal system:
159
3. K value for hydrocarbons:
The rectifying operating line equation:

The equations for the operating lines depends on the number of components and may be written as:
First we have to find , , and for each component. Then there is an operating line
equation for each component which can describe its composition.
The stripping operating line equation:

The equations for the stripping operating lines depends on the number of components and may be
written as:
First, we have to find , , and for each component. Then there is a stripping
operating line equation for each component which can describe its composition.
160
Calculation minimum reflux ratio ( Rmin) using Underwood’s

method
Example: A mixture of hexane, heptane, and octane is to be separated to give the following
products. What will be the value of the minimum reflux ratio, if the feed is liquid at its boiling
point?
Solution:
161
Calculation minimum number of plates (Nmin) using Fenske’s

equation
Where: A is the light component.

B is the heavy component
Example: A liquor consisting of phenol and cresols with some xylenols is fractionated to give a top
product of 95.3 mole percent phenol. The compositions of the top product and of the
phenol in the bottoms are:
Compositions (mole percent)
Feed Top Bottom volatility
phenol 35 95.3 5.24 1.25
o-cresol 15 4.55 — 1
m-cresol 30 0.15 — 0.63
xylenols 20 0 — 0.37
If a reflux ratio of 10 is used,
(a) Complete the material balance over the still for a feed of 100 kmol/hr.
(b) Calculate the composition on the second plate from the top.
(c) Calculate the composition on the second plate from the bottom.
(d) Calculate the minimum reflux ratio by Underwood‘s equation.
The heavy key is m-cresol and the light key is phenol.
Solution:
162
163
164
Chapter 8
Water Cooling and Cooling Towers

Cooling of water can be carried out on a small scale either by allowing it to stand in an open
pond or by the spray pond technique in which it is dispersed in spray form and then collected in a
large, open pond. Cooling takes place both by the transference of sensible heat and by evaporative
cooling as a result of which sensible heat in the water provides the latent heat, of vaporization. On
the large scale, air and water are brought into countercurrent contact in a cooling tower. The water
flows down over a packing which give a large interfacial area and promote turbulence in the liquid.
The air is humidified and heated as it rises, while the water is cooled mainly by evaporation.
Cooling towers uses two types of waters:
1. Raw water that withdrawn directly from reveries, wells and lakes by pumps.
2. Treated water that obtained from water treatment plants in which the raw water is free from
hardness and dissolved substances. In this case the problems of corrosion and fouling can be
minimized.
The largest user of cooling water is the power plants in which a huge amount of low – pressure
steam from the turbines is condensed in big condensers to produce warm water. Conservation of
water in a plant is done by cooling the warm water. Cooling of warm water is carried out by direct
contact with air. The air is humidified and the water is cooled. Air – water contact has four major
applications:
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
Chapter 9
Evaporation and Evaporators
Evaporation process is used to increase the concentration of substances. There are several types of
evaporators as shown in Figure 1 below:
Fig. 1 Evaporators types.

Evaporator Model
Figure 2 below is a schematic diagram for the model used to make mass-
balance, energy-balance, and heat-transfer calculations to size evaporators operating
under continuous-flow, steady-state conditions.
182
Boiling-Point Elevation
For a given pressure in the vapor space of an evaporator, the boiling temperature of an aqueous solution will be
equal to that of pure water if the solute is not dissolved but consists of small, insoluble, colloidal material. If the solute
is soluble, the boiling temperature will be greater than that of pure water by an amount known as the boiling-point
elevation. Boiling temperatures for solutions can be estimated by using a Duhring-line chart, if available for a particular
solute. Such a chart is shown in Figure 3 for sodium hydroxide–water solutions. The straight lines on this chart for
183
different mass fractions of NaOH obey Duhring’s rule, which states that as the pressure is increased, the boiling
temperature of the solution increases linearly with boiling temperature of the pure solvent. A nomograph for other
solutes in water is given in Figure 4.
184
EXAMPLE: Boiling-Point Elevation.

An aqueous NaOH solution is evaporated at 6 psia. If the solution is 35-wt% NaOH,
determine the: (a) boiling temperature of the solution, (b) boiling-point elevation.
Solution:
From steam tables, water has a vapor pressure of 6 psia at 170 oF.
(a) From the Duhring-line chart of Figure 3, the boiling temperature of the solution is 207 oF.
(b) The boiling-point elevation is: 207 - 170 = 37 oF.
Alternatively, the nomograph of Figure 4 may be used by drawing a straight line through the point
for NaOH and a solution (boiling-point) temperature of 207 oF. That line is extended to the left to
the intersection with the leftmost vertical line. A straight line is then drawn from that intersection
point through the lower, inclined line labeled ‗‗Weight % solids‘‘ at 35 (wt% NaOH). This second
line is extended so as to intersect the right, vertical line. The value of the boiling-point elevation at
this point of interaction is read as 36 oF, which is close to the value of 37 oF from the Duhring chart.
185
186
Multiple-Effect-Evaporator Systems
When condensing steam is used to evaporate water from an aqueous solution, the heat of
condensation of the higher temperature condensing steam is less than the heat of vaporization of the
lower-temperature boiling water, so less than 1 kg of vapor is produced per kg of steam. This ratio
is called the economy. To reduce steam consumption and, thereby, increase economy, a series of
evaporators, called effects, can be used, as diagrammed in Figure 6. The increased economy is
achieved by operating effects at different pressures, and thus at different boiling points, so vapor
from one effect can supply heat for another.
EXAMPLE: Triple-Effect-Evaporator System.

A feed of 44,090 lb/h of an aqueous solution containing 8 wt% colloids is to be concentrated
to 45 wt% colloids in a triple-effect-evaporator system using forward feed. The feed enters the first
effect at 125oF, and the third effect operates at 1.94 psia in the vapor space. Fresh saturated steam at
29.3 psia is used for heating the first effect. Specific heat of the colloids is 0.48 Btu/lb-oF. Overall
heat-transfer coefficients are estimated to be:
Effect U, Btu/h-ft2–oF
1 350
2 420
3 490
If the heat-transfer areas of each of the three effects are to be equal, determine: (a) evaporation
temperatures, T1 and T2, in the first two effects; (b) heating steam flow rate, ms; and (c) solution
flow rates, m1, m2, and m3, leaving the three effects.
187
188
189
190
191

Mass DrAnees Lectures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mass DrAnees Lectures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mass DrAnees Lectures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mass Transfer Dr. Anees A.

Ph.D, Ms.C and Bs.C. Chemical Engineering

Diffusion depends on:

Diffusion with bulk of mass in motion:

The total diffusion equation can be write in another forms:

1. Stagnant diffusion (Mass transfer through a stationary second component):

Since equimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - NA

Drift factor = 1 when the concentration of component A being transferred is low.

a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

temperature of the system are 101.3 kPa and 297 K, respectively.

Maxwell's Law for multicomponent mass transfer

This argument can be applied to the diffusion of a constituent of a multicomponent gas.

Considering the transfer of component A through a stationary gas consisting of components B, C,

Calculation of the effective diffusivity of (A) in the mixture (DAm):

Let A be the diffusing species through stagnant mixture of B, C, D ….. etc.

Now consider binary system for diffusion of A in B.

Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0

Similarly for diffusion of A in D.

Since stagnant diffusion layer: ND = 0

16.3*10-6 m2/s, respectively.

Solution: Since stagnant diffusion:

Diffusivities of gases and vapours

Experimental determination of diffusivities

790 kg/m3 and the molecular weight of acetone is 58 kg/kmol.

1. Empirical correlation for calculation of gas diffusivity:

2. Empirical correlation for calculation of liquid diffusivity:

1.The Two-Film Theory

2.The Penetration Theory

3.The Random Surface Renewal Theory

The concentration profiles near an interface on the basis of:

Mass transfer coefficients

The Relationships between the various mass transfer coefficients:

The wetted wall column

2. From overall material balance:

Mass Transfer Coefficient From Empirical Correlation

Figure : Typical cross-flow plate (sieve)

Figure: Packing absorber column.

The ideal absorbent (solvent) should have:

Equilibrium Relations Between Gas and Liquid Phases:

The equilibrium of any gas-liquid system can be expressed as:

Non-ideal system (Henry's law): Ideal system (Raoult's law):

Equilibrium relation Equilibrium relation

The relation between the mole fraction and mole ratio:

The relation between the mole fraction and weight fraction:

Symbols used in the absorption processes:

Calculation of Tower Height

Packed Tower Tray Tower

(1) the required column diameter is less than 0.6 m.

Calculations of the packing height based on gas phase:

S: is the cross-sectional area of column (m2).

Z = HOG * NOG = HTU * NTU

Equation of the operating line:

* The equation of operating line is a relation between mole ratio of

Calculation of Number of Transfer Unit (NOG):

For pure liquid solvent used then, X2 = 0

Substitution Eq.(4) into Eq.(2) to get:

Substitution Eq.(5) into Eq.(1) to get:

B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship:

In this case the integration [ ] will be solved using graphical method or

(X1, Y1) = (0.0935, 0.11) = (9.3510-2, 1010-2)