Eee 205-W1

Energy Conversion II
Lectures prepared by
Prof. S. Shahnawaz Ahmed

Contents:
Principles of energy conversion,
Synchronous generator: basic construction of
synchronous machines, excitation system, cooling
For subsequent materials assistance taken mainly from:
1. Stephen J. Chapman: Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, 5th

Edition, 2012.
Basics of ‘Electromagnetic’ Energy Conversion:
1. A current carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field experiences a
force induced on it (wire). F=i.(lXB)
This is the basis of motor action i.e. conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
2. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage (by nature
AC) induced in it (wire). e=(vXB).l
This is the basis of generator action i.e. mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
• In above the wire is in moveable position while the

field is in a stationary position (e.g. DC machines).
• In case the wire is kept in a stationary position and

the magnetic field is in a moveable or rotating position
then also the above effects will result (e.g. AC
machines).
•In generators the movement of the wire or field is done using a prime mover
i.e. engine or turbine
Terminologies/Notes
• ‘Wire’ is termed ‘armature’
• Magnetic field is termed ‘field’
• Rotor: The part that is moveable. The term is
used for AC machines. This contains the field.
• Stator: The part that is stationary. The term is
used for AC machines. This contains the armature
winding.
• DC machines: Armature is moveable while field is
stationary contained by ‘Yoke’.
Machines
AC machines DC machines
Synchronous generators Induction generators/motors

(alternators)/ motors
Similarities between Synchronous and Induction machines:
1)Both machines’ field windings are usually located on rotor.
2)Both machines’ stator windings (for 3-ф) produce a rotating mmf

(magneto-motive force) of constant magnitude that rotates at an angular speed
Ѡs = (2π NP)/120 rad/sec when N= rotor RPM; P = No. of poles the stator
winding has been designed for.
3) Power flow diagrams and losses are similar (as follows).
3IA2RA + IF2RF η= ( Pout/Pin )x 100%

≈1% of input at full
load
Ѡm = 2π (N/60)
∞B2 and for stator ∞ f1.5

Friction and windage loss ∞ N3
Dissimilarities:
1) In synchronous machines the field current is supplied by a separate DC power

source.
In induction machines field current is supplied by magnetic induction of the stator

current into the field winding.
2)Synchronous machines (motors) always run at a constant speed equal to the

synchronous speed (N= 120 f/P rpm) so long the load does not exceed a limit.
Induction machines (motors) run at a speed less than (termed slip) the
synchronous speed and the speed can be varied.
3)Rotors in synchronous machines are fitted with physical salient or non-salient

type magnetic poles while the rotor winding is connected to slip rings one at each
end for getting DC supply.
Rotors in induction machines are squirrel cage type (metallic bars shorted at both
end) or wound rotor type having a complete set of Y connected three phase
windings that can be connected to external resistances or shorted.
Construction of Synchronous machines
Stator (armature) :
•Similar to the stator of a three phase induction machine.
•No. of poles is decided by the geometric distance of the two sides of a coil in the
same phase i.e. 360 ° /No. of poles (=P) (e.g. 180° spacing for 2 poles and 90° spacing
for 4 poles).
Phase ‘a’ coil’s two sides a-a´ are 180°

spaced for this two pole machine
•a1-a1 ´ is 90 ° apart for 4 poles.
•Inter-phase distance a1-b2´ or a1-c2´ is 30° [ i.e. 360 ° /(No. of

phases* No. of poles) = (360 ° /3*4) = 30°] and for a phase
sequence abc the winding follows acb order if traversed
counterclockwise or abc order if traversed clockwise.
•Polarity marking is with respect to a particular winding at a reference time e.g. in
Fig (c) it is winding b-b´
Rotor (field) :
•The rotor is different from that in an induction machine. In a synchronous machine the number of
poles as designed through the mode of stator winding is also physically reflected in the construction of
rotors in two ways viz.
Salient pole (SP) form (a magnetic pole protruding out from the surface of the rotor and
is usually provided in the generators driven by low RPM hydraulic turbine or in motors with
more than 4 poles )
Non salient pole (NSP) form (a magnetic pole constructed flush with the rotor surface
and is normally used for 2 or 4 poles high RPM machines). NSP rotors are also termed
cylindrical rotors because of their shapes.
Rotors (both SP and NSP type) are constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses
arising from changing electromagnetic fields which a rotor is subjected to.
8 pole salient pole machine
Excitation system for synchronous machines:
 A DC current must be supplied in a controllable
way to the field circuit on the rotor.
Since the rotor is rotating a special
arrangement is required to obtain
the DC power for field windings.
There are two common approaches for this.
1) Slip ring and brush method
2) Brush less DC (BLDC) exciter
 BLDC without pilot exciter
 BLDC with a pilot exciter
1) Slip ring and brush method:

-the synchronous machine’s rotor winding is directly
supplied from an external DC source through brushes
that ride on slip rings.
-Cost effective for smaller machines.
-slip rings are metallic rings completely encircling the
rotor shaft but insulated from it.
-brushes are a block of graphite like carbon compound
and remain stationary while slip rings rotate.
Slip ring
Problems: (i)regular check for wear needed; (ii) brush
voltage drop can be large when the machine field
current is high.
2) BLDC exciter:
This is a separate small three phase synchronous generator whose field is mounted on its stator while
armature is mounted on the main machine’s shaft so that the output AC can be rectified into DC using a
three phase rotating rectifier and will be fed to main machine’s rotor (field) winding.
Two variants:
(a) without a pilot exciter i.e. the exciter field is supplied from an external AC source via a rectifier. But
external system disturbances may lead to problems sometimes.
BLDC without a pilot exciter

b) BLDC with a pilot exciter: To avoid the need for external source for the exciter
field here another three phase AC generator smaller than the exciter is used. This is
termed pilot exciter whose field is permanent magnet type and mounted on the main
machine’s shaft. Its armature is mounted on its stator and the output is rectified to
feed the exciter’s field. The exciter’s armature output is rectified to feed the main
machine’s field.
BLDC with a pilot exciter

Cooling of synchronous generators
(For details: http://circuitglobe.com/cooling-of-synchronous-generator.html)
Cooling of a Synchronous Generator is very essential. Natural cooling

is not adequate to dissipate the great amount of heat produced in the alternators.
•Air cooled: For small generators
•Hydrogen cooled: For generators with a capacity less than 500 MW
• Water cooled : For generators with a capacity more than 500 MW

•Air cooling
In the forced air cooling system, air is forced into the alternator so that
a greater quantity of air is passed over the surface and a large amount
of heat is removed.
The Closed circuit ventilation system is used for better cooling of the
synchronous generator.
In the closed system clean, hot air from the alternator is cooled by a
water-cooled heat exchanger and forced through the alternator by
fans.
Requirements of Cooling Air
The air should be clean and free from dust. Else these will clog
the ducts to reduce area which results in reducing heat transfer
by conduction.
Air filters and cheese cloth filters are used. Sometimes air has to
be washed in a spray chamber. In most cases air is cooled by
water coolers and used again.
Limitations of Air Cooling

For large capacity machines, the sizes of the fans required for
circulation of air increases and required considerable power.
Thus, auxiliary equipment are required, which are expensive.
There is an optimum rating of the machine beyond which air

cooling will not be able to keep the temperature within safe
limits.
Hydrogen Cooling of a Synchronous
Generator
Hydrogen gas is used as a cooling medium in the generator
casing because of its superior cooling properties.
Certain mixtures of hydrogen and air are explosive. The

explosion may take place with a range of 6 percent
hydrogen and 94 percent air up to 71 percent hydrogen and
29 percent air. When there is more than 71 percent
hydrogen, the mixture is not combustible.
•In practice 9:1 ratio of hydrogen to air is used in very large

turbo alternators.
Advantages of hydrogen cooling over air cooling
•Cooling
Hydrogen gas has a higher thermal conductivity. It has 1.5 times heat transfer
capability as compared with the air. Therefore, cooling with hydrogen gas is
faster than cooling with air.
•Windage, Efficiency and Noise

The density of hydrogen is about 1/14 times the density of air at the same
temperature and pressure. The windage loss and noise are reduced in the
machine as the revolving parts rotate in low-density hydrogen gas. Thus, the
efficiency of the machine is increased.
•Corona
When air is used as a cooling medium in generators, the corona discharge
may take place to produce ozone, oxides of nitrogen, nitric acid, etc., which
damages the insulation. If hydrogen cooling is used the corona effect does
not take place and, as a result, the life of the insulation is increased.
Limitations of Hydrogen Cooling
•The frame of the hydrogen cooled alternator is more costly because of

necessity to provide explosion proof construction and gas tight shaft
seals.
•Means are necessary to admit hydrogen to the alternator without

creating an explosion.
•Sourcing the air with CO2 and then admitting hydrogen.
•By vacuum pumping the unit to 1/5 atmosphere and admitting

hydrogen.
•Cooling coils carrying oil or water inside the casing are to be provided
to extract heat from hydrogen.
•Hydrogen cooling is not adequate to extract heat produces in the large

alternator more than 500 MW.
Direct Water Cooling in Synchronous Generator
•Hydrogen cooling is not sufficient to extract heat generated in large turbo alternators
of sizes 500 MW or more. For such large machines, the volume of hydrogen gas
required may be so large that its use may become uneconomical.
•In such cases, the direct water cooling is used. In very large turbo-generators, rotors
are direct hydrogen cooled and stator windings are direct demineralized water cooled.
• Water is circulated by an AC motor centrifugal pump. Cartridge filters are used to filter
water. These filters are designed to prevent metallic corrosive particles generated in
winding and piping from entering into winding hollow conductors.
Advantages of Water Cooling Over Hydrogen Cooling
•Water cooled system is faster and more efficient because the thermal
conductivity of water is higher than that of hydrogen.
•The duct area of water is smaller to allow more space for conductors
in the slot.
Disadvantages of Water Cooling
•The water, which is used for cooling should be highly purified so that
the conductivity of water does not increase.
•Water cooling is more expensive than hydrogen cooling.

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Energy Conversion II

Prof. S. Shahnawaz Ahmed

For subsequent materials assistance taken mainly from:

1. Stephen J. Chapman: Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, 5th

• In above the wire is in moveable position while the

• In case the wire is kept in a stationary position and

Synchronous generators Induction generators/motors

1)Both machines’ field windings are usually located on rotor.

2)Both machines’ stator windings (for 3-ф) produce a rotating mmf

3) Power flow diagrams and losses are similar (as follows).

3IA2RA + IF2RF η= ( Pout/Pin )x 100%

∞B2 and for stator ∞ f1.5

1) In synchronous machines the field current is supplied by a separate DC power

In induction machines field current is supplied by magnetic induction of the stator

2)Synchronous machines (motors) always run at a constant speed equal to the

3)Rotors in synchronous machines are fitted with physical salient or non-salient

•Similar to the stator of a three phase induction machine.

Phase ‘a’ coil’s two sides a-a´ are 180°

•Inter-phase distance a1-b2´ or a1-c2´ is 30° [ i.e. 360 ° /(No. of

1) Slip ring and brush method:

BLDC without a pilot exciter

BLDC with a pilot exciter

Cooling of a Synchronous Generator is very essential. Natural cooling

•Air cooled: For small generators

•Hydrogen cooled: For generators with a capacity less than 500 MW

• Water cooled : For generators with a capacity more than 500 MW

Limitations of Air Cooling

There is an optimum rating of the machine beyond which air

Certain mixtures of hydrogen and air are explosive. The

•In practice 9:1 ratio of hydrogen to air is used in very large

•Windage, Efficiency and Noise

•The frame of the hydrogen cooled alternator is more costly because of

•Means are necessary to admit hydrogen to the alternator without

•Sourcing the air with CO2 and then admitting hydrogen.

•By vacuum pumping the unit to 1/5 atmosphere and admitting

•Hydrogen cooling is not adequate to extract heat produces in the large

Disadvantages of Water Cooling

•Water cooling is more expensive than hydrogen cooling.

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