Algebra with Galois Theory

Courant Lecture Notes

in Mathematics
Executive Editor
Jalal Shata h
Managing Editor
Paul D. Monsour
Assistant Editor
Reeva Goldsmith
Copy Editor
Marc Nirenberg
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015

Emil Artin
Notes by Albert A. Blank

15 Algebr a with Galois Theory

Courant Institute of Mathematical Science s

New York University
New York, New York

American Mathematical Societ y

Providence, Rhode Island
 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primar y 1 2 - 0 1 , 1 2F1 0 .

Library o f C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publieatio n D a t a
Artin, Emil , 1 898-1 962 .
Algebra wit h Galoi s theor y / E . Artin , note s b y Alber t A . Blank .
p. cm . — (Couran t lectur e note s ; 1 5 )
ISBN 978-0-821 8-41 29- 7 (alk . paper )
1. Galoi s theory . 2 . Algebra . I . Blank , Alber t A . I L Title .

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 Contents

Editors' Note
Chapter 1 . Group s
1.1. Th e Concept of a Group
1.2. Subgroup s
Chapter 2. Ring s and Fields
2.1. Linea r Equations in a Field
2.2. Vecto r Spaces
Chapter 3. Polynomials . Factorization into Primes. Ideals.
3.1. Polynomial s over a Field
3.2. Factorizatio n into Primes
3.3. Ideal s
3.4. Greates t Common Divisor
Chapter 4. Solutio n of the General Equation of nth Degre e
Extension Fields. Isomorphisms.
4.1. Congruenc e
4.2. Extensio n Fields
4.3. Isomorphis m
Chapter 5. Galoi s Theory
5.1. Splittin g Fields
5.2. Automorphism s of the Splitting Field
5.3. Th e Characteristic of a Field
5.4. Derivativ e of a Polynomial: Multiple Roots
5.5. Th e Degree of an Extension Field
5.6. Grou p Characters
5.7. Automorphi c Groups of a Field
5.8. Fundamenta l Theorem of Galois Theory
5.9. Finit e Fields
Chapter 6. Polynomial s with Integral Coefficient s
6.1. Irreducibilit y
6.2. Primitiv e Roots of Unity
Chapter 7. Th e Theory of Equations
7.1. Rule r and Compass Construction s
VI CONTENTS

7.2. Solutio n of Equations by Radicals 9 4

7.3. Steinitz ' Theore m 0 4
7.4. Tower s ofFields 0 7
7.5. Permutatio n Groups 2
7.6. Abel' s Theorem 2 1
1
7.7. Polynomial s of Prime Degree 2 3
 Editors' Note

Beeause what was in 1947 "modern" has now become Standard, and what was
then "higher" has now become foundational, w e have retitled this volume Algebra
with Galois Theory from the original Modern Higher Algebra. Galois Theory.
Jalal Shatah, Executive Editor
Paul Monsour, Managing Editor
August 2007
This page intentionally left blank
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/01

CHAPTER 1

Groups

We concern ourselve s with sets G of objects a,b,c,... calle d elements. Th e

sentence "a i s an element of G " will be denoted symbolicall y by a e G . Assum e
an Operatio n calle d "multiplication " whic h assign s t o a n ordere d pai r o f object s
a, b of G another object a • b (or simply ab) the product o f a and b. I t is useful t o
require that G be closed with respect to multiplication, namely:
(1) lfa.be G,thena-Z> e G.
EXAMPLES.
(a) Le t G be the set of positive integers. If subtraction is taken as the "multi-
plication" in G, then G is certainly not closed, e.g., 3-5 = 3 — 5 = —2 .
If taking the greatest common divisor is our multiplication, the n closur e
is obvious.
(b) Tak e G t o b e th e se t o f function s o f on e variable . I f f(x), g(x) e G
dehne f(x) • g(x) = f[g(x)], e.g. , e x • logx = e logx = x.
EXERCISE 1 . Writ e out the multiplication tabl e and thereby sho w closure fo r
the set of function s
1
f\=x, fi
x' /3 = 1 u = 1 — J C ' fs = X ~ 1 h
SOLUTION.
/l h fr fr fr fr
fr / l h fr fr fr fr
fr h / i fr fr fr fr
h h h fr fr fr fr
h U fr fr fr fr fr
h fr fr fr fr fr fr
76 fr fr fr jl fr
th th
where fi • fj i s listed in the / row and j column .
We make the further requiremen t that multiplication obey the associative law:
(2) I f a, b,c e G , then (ab)c = a(bc). Thi s is a rather strong condition. I t is
not generally satisfied; consider, e.g., subtraction among the integers. For
functions o f on e variable, a s above, it is valid, however . I f f(x), g(x),
h(x) ar e any three functions w e have
(fg)h = f(g(h(x))) = f(gh).
l
2 1. GROUP S

EXERCISE 2. Dedue e the associative law for fou r element s from (2) , that is,
show that the five possible products o f four element s written i n a given sequenc e
are all equal. Furthermore , attemp t to determine the number of possible product s
of n element s give n i n a linear order . Fo r example, the elements a\, a 2, a^, a^ in
that the order yield the products {aia^ia^), a\{a 2{a^ü6S), etc. Hint: Le t a n b e
the number of products of a\, a 2,..., a n. Fin d a recursion formula fo r a n an d use
the Lagrange generating functio n
f(x) = ot\x + a 2x2 H h a nxn H .
EXERCISE 3. Th e associative law for n elements states that all possible prod-
ucts of n element s written in a prescribed order, e.g., a\, a 2, . . . , a n, yield the same
result. Prov e the associative la w fo r an y number o f element s usin g onl y (2 ) (th e
associative law for three elements).
PROOF FOR EXERCISE 3: W e assume the validity o f the associative la w fo r
all products of m factors, m <n, an d show that this implies the validity of the law
for n + 1 . Consider the particular product (n + 1 ) Yll={ ak whic h is obtained fro m
the n + 1 element s a\, a 2,..., a n+\ b y successively multiplying on the right, i.e.,

n<
k=l
ük = a\,

n+l / n
a a
W k=\Y\ k ]<*n+\-
k=l V= l
Let P n+\ b e any product o f the n + 1 elements a\, a 2,..., a n+\ take n i n that
order. Since P n+\ i s the result of at least one multiplication, we may write
Pn+l = P»P£\, \<m<n,
where P™ i s some product o f the elements a\, a 2i..., a m i n that order an d P^\
of the remaining elements a m + i, a m+2,..., a n+\. B y the induction hypothesi s w e
have

k=ß
for any ß, v such that v — ß + 1 <n. Specifically , w e have
n
/m ^ ^ n+l ^ m V / 1
\
/ a
"+i=(n^)( n *)=n^ \( n ^j-^+ i
\j=l ' ^k=m+l ' j = \ '-\ j k =1
:w+ / J

=
( n a J n a k ) *an+i
\ - = l k=m+l '
nx n+l

( Y\ k) ' a a
n+l = Yl ük>
k=\ / k=\
each step being a simple application of (2) . D
 1.1. THE CONCEP T O F A GROUP 3

1.1. Th e Concept of a Group

A set G will be called a group if it satisfies the following conditions :
(1) Closure. There exists an Operation called multiplication which assigns to
any ordered pair a,b e G a produet ab e G.
(2) AssociativeLaw. lfa,b,ceG the n (ab)c = a(bc).
(3) Identity. There exists an e € G , called the (left) identity, such that ea = a
for all a e G.
(4) Inverse. For every a e G there is an a""1 € G , called the (left) inverse of
a, suc h that a- 1« = e.
Let us examine the produet
(cClylcClaa-1.
On one hand,
[(a - 1 )" 1 ^ - 1 ][aa _ 1 ] = e[aa~ l] = aa~ l,
and on the other
[(fl" 1 )" 1 ][(fl" 1 fl)fl"' 1 ] = [ ( a - 1 ) - " 1 ] ^ " 1 ] = ( a - 1
)-1 «-1 = * .
Consequently,
ad~x = £ .
The existence of the left invers e implies the existence of a right inverse. A similar
result holds for the identity; for consider the produet
aa~la.
First we have
aa~la = {aa~ l)a = ea = a.
But also
aa~la = a(a~ la) = ae,
Consequently,
ae = a ,
and the existence of the right identity implies the existence of a left identity .
EXERCISE 4 . Tw o System s o f postulate s ar e sai d t o b e equivalen t i f eithe r
System can be derived logically from th e other. Sho w that the system (1), (2), (3),
(4) is equivalent to the system in which (3) and (4) are replaced by:
(3r) Ther e is a right identity e e G such that ae = a for all a € G .
(40 T o each a e G there is a right inverse a- 1 e G such that aa~l = e.
Apparently the words right and left need not be included in (3), (4), (30, or (40.
EXERCISE 5. Conside r the postulate system in which (3) and (4) are replaced
by:
(3*) Ther e exists a left identity e € G ; that is, ea = a for all a e G.
(4*) T o eac h a e G ther e i s a right invers e a~ l e G ; tha t is , aa~ l = e.
Determine whether this system of postulates defines a group. If not, give
a counterexample.
4 l.GROUPS

SOLUTION. Fo r an y a e G dehn e multiplicatio n b y ax = x fo r al l x e G.

This Syste m satishe s th e postulates (1 ) , (2) , (3*) , and (4*) . Wha t grou p propert y
does it not satisfy ?
For ordinary numbers, the quotient b -f- a of two numbers can be defined a s the
Solution of the equation ax — b. Consider similar equations for elements of G :
(a) ax = b, (b ) xa = b, (c ) axb = c
If (a) is true for some x9 then
a~lax = a~ lb = ex = x.
Hence, if there is a Solution, it is a~ lb an d it is therefore unique ; a~ lb i s in fact a
Solution. Simila r reasoning shows that (b) possesses the unique Solution x — ba~x
and (c) the unique Solutio n a~ lcb~l. Th e existence of a unique Solutio n for eac h
of the above equations demonstrates a property of the group analogous to division.
Since a~ l i s the Solutio n of the equation xa — e, a~ l i s unique. Similarly , e
is the unique Solutio n of xa = a. W e observe that th e Solutio n o f x{ab) = e is
(ab)~l = b~ xa~l. I n general, the inverse of a product
(a\a2 - - • an)~l = a~ l • • -a^ a^ 1 .
If % = (a" 1 ) - 1 , the n x satisfie s th e equatio n xa~ l = e, whic h ha s th e uniqu e
Solution x = a. Thu s the inverse of the inverse of an dement is the element itself.
EXERCISE 6 . Sho w that postulates (3) and (4) may be replaced by
+
(3 ) I f a, b G G, the equations
xa = b, ay — b,
possess (not necessarily unique) Solutions x,y e G.
A group that satisfies the commutative law,
(5) lfa.be G , then ab = ba,
is said to be commutative or abelian.
EXERCISE 7. Sho w tha t th e si x function s o f Exercis e 1 form a noncommu -
tative grou p wit h respec t t o thei r rul e o f multiplication . Determin e th e identit y
element and the inverse to each function .

1.2. Subgroup s
If G i s a group an d 5 i s a subse t o f G tha t i s itsel f a group unde r th e sam e
Operation as G, then S is called a subgroup of G .
EXAMPLE. Tak e G t o b e th e se t o f rationa l number s othe r tha n zer o unde r
ordinary multiplication. G has, e.g., the subgroups
(a) th e positive rational numbers
(b) th e powers of any element
(c) th e set consisting of +1 an d —1
Trivially, (d) the set G itself or (e) the set consisting of the element 1 .
 1.2. SUBGROUP S 5

THEOREM 1 . 1 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a subset S of G to be a

subgroup are:
(i) Closure . Ifs\, S2 € S, then s\S2 G S.
(ii) Inverse . IfseS, then s~l e S.
PROOF: Necessity. I f S i s a subgroup, (i ) holds b y definition . Th e identit y
e e S by the uniqueness in G and existence in S by the Solution of the equation
xs = s.
Note that (ii) is similarly established through the equation xs — e.
Sufficiency. I f (i) and (ii) hold, then S is a subgroup. From (ii) ifseS the n s~ l
is an element of S and henee (i) gives e e S. The assoeiative law holds for elements
of S since they are elements of G. The proof of the theorem is complete. D
If S is a subgroup of G and a e G , the coset aS i s defined t o be the set of all
elements a • s, where s e S.
EXAMPLE. Tak e for G th e se t o f al l rational number s exeludin g zer o unde r
ordinary multiplication . Le t S b e th e se t o f al l positiv e element s o f G. Ther e
are only two eosets, 5 an d — S = — IS. Thes e have no elements i n common an d
both set s together cove r G . I f we take instead S = {+1 , — 1} then th e cosets ar e
aS = {+a, —a). Here the same coset is given by +a an d —a. Note again that no
two cosets overlap and that the cosets cover G. These results are valid in general.
Let S be a subgroup of G and take a, b e G.
LEMMA 1.2 If the cosets aS and bS have an element c in common, then aS = bS.
Assume for som e s, s f e S we have c = as = bs f. Therefor e b = as(s f)~l.
From Theorem 1 .1 , sis')"1 = s /f e S and consequently bS = as fFS. Now sf,S = S ,
since if we suppose S to be any group, s any element of 5, we have
sS CS
(read: sS i s a subset of 5, or all elements of sS ar e elements of 5) . Also,
s~ls CS o rS CsS.
Therefore
sS = S.
In the above argument we may now write bS = as f/S = aS.
LEMMA 1.3 Every a e G is contained in some coset
a e aS since e eS
and hence ae = a e aS. G is covered by the cosets of S,
If G is a finite group, then the number of its elements is called the order of G .
THEOREM 1 . 4 Let G be a finite group of order N and S a subgroup of order n.
The number n of elements in the subgroup is a divisor ofN.
6 1. GROUPS

PROOF: Th e cosets aS hav e the same number of elements as S. For let S con-
sist of the distinct elements s\,S2,... ,s n. aS consis t of as\, a$2, ..., as n, wher e
as\ ^ ask, i ^ k.
For otherwise we would have asi = asu and hence s t = Sk, i # k, contrary to the
definition o f the s (.
Consequently, aS consist s o f exactl y n elements . Le t j b e th e numbe r o f
cosets. B y Lemma s 1 . 2 an d 1 . 3 th e cosets cove r G withou t overlapping . I t fol -
lows that
N = jn. •
Take a e G. W e denote aa b y a 2 or , i n general , w e dehn e al l th e integra l
powers a ß o f a by
aß = aa- • • a (/ x times) for /x > 0 ,
a° = e,
aß = a~ la~l • • • a~~l (—/ x times) for \x < 0.
The set of all powers of a is a group and clearly the smallest group containing a.
The problem of determining the smallest group containing as few as two elements
is already of an entirely different nature . For example, what can be said about
(ab)n = ab • ab • • -ab (n times)?
If multiplicatio n i s commutative suc h products ca n b e handled, bu t this does no t
apply in general.
EXERCISE 8 . Sho w that the powers of elements obey the usual properties of
exponents
aßav =a ß+
\
(avY = a Vß
.
The first property implie s th e commutativ e la w fo r multiplicatio n o f power s
of a.
The set S of all powers of a forms a subgroup since S is closed under multipli-
cation and inverses exist (cf. Theore m 1 .1 ) .

Case 1 . Th e power s o f a ar e al l distinct . S i s the n calle d a n infinite cyclic

group.
Case 2. Ther e exis t integer s / an d k with , say , i < k suc h tha t a l = a k.
Multiplying o n bot h side s b y a~ l w e obtai n e = a k~~l. Thus th e se t o f positiv e
integers for which aß = e is not empty. Let d be the smallest such integer
ad — e =>* a qd = e fo r all integers q
(read: "implies " for "=>"). Conversely, if am = e, m is a multiple of d, for we may
write m = qd + r where 0 < r < d
ar = a m-qd = fl m -qd = £ ^
 1.2. SUBGROUP S 7

But d i s th e smalles t positiv e intege r fo r whic h a d = e. Henc e r mus t b e zer o

whence m = qd. Th e powers
a°,a\a2,...,ad-1
are all distinct for otherwise we would have
al = a k, 0 < i < k < d, o ra k l
~ = e\
this equation is impossible for 0 < k — 1 < d. An y other power of a must be equal
to one of these, for example ad = e, ad+l = a , . . . , or , in general,
aqd+r=ar9 0 < r < d.
Thus there are only d distinct powers of a. S is called a cyclic subgroup of order d
and d is called the period o f a.
THEOREM 1.5 The period ofany element ofafinite group is a divisor ofthe order
ofthe group.
PROOF: Thi s is an immediate consequence of Theorem 1 .4 . Le t G be a finite
group of orde r N an d a an y element o f G. I f d i s the period o f a, w e may writ e
N = dj. Fro m ad = e we have
adj =a N
= e.
This Statement for prime N i s equivalent to Fermat's theorem in arithmetic. D
COROLLARY If the order ofG is p, a prime, then G must be cyclic.
PROOF: Th e perio d o f an y elemen t mus t b e a divisor o f p an d i s therefor e
either p o r 1 . The only element of period 1 i s e. Consequently, if a e G and a ^ e
the period of a must be p. D
There i s "essentially " on e cycli c grou p o f orde r n. Phrase d differently , tw o
cyclic group s o f th e sam e order hav e the "sam e structure. " Th e notion o f "sam e
structure" will be examined later in more detail.
EXAMPLES. Le t us determine all possible structures of groups of order 4. The
period of any element must be 1 , 2, or 4. I f there is an element a of period 4 then
e, a, a 2 , a 3 exhaus t the group. O n the other hand, if there is no element of period
4, the n al l element s bu t e mus t hav e th e perio d 2 . Thu s i f e, a, b, c denot e th e
different element s of the group we have a2 = b 2 = c 2 = e. Conside r the element
x = ab. Fro m ax = aab = fcwe hav e clearly x = £ e, x ^ a. Fro m the uniqueness
of the Solution y = e of the equation yb = b it follows tha t x ^ b. Therefor e x
must be c. Th e commutative la w holds in this group, for i f x e G then x = x~ l
and consequently ab = (ab)' 1 = b~ la~l = ba. I t is a simple matter to write out
the multiplication table:
e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
 1. GROUPS

We have shown that there are essentially two groups of order 4 and both are com-
mutative.
Groups of orde r 6 are essentially o f two kinds, the cyclic group and the non-
commutative grou p give n i n Exercis e 1 . Thi s las t i s th e simples t exampl e o f a
noncommutative group. On e of the unsolved problems of algebra is that of classi-
fying all the groups of order n. There is, of course, always the cyclic group of order
n and for n prime, only the cyclic group. For nonprimes there is no general theory
although a Classification has been achieved for special cases. The table below gives
a summary for the first few cases:
N 4 6 8 9 10 12 14 15
ß 2 2 5 2 2 5 2 1
V 0 1 2 0 1 3 1 0
where /n is the total numbe r an d v the number o f noncommutativ e group s o f Or-
der N.
EXERCISE 9 . Th e two noncommutative groups of order 8 are essentially:
(a) Th e symmetries of the Square, i.e., the rotations in space which take the
Square into itself.
(b) Th e group formed by the quaternion units ± 1, ±/, ± j, ±k.
Construct the multiplication tabl e for those two groups an d show that they do not
have the same structure.
(a) The symmetries of the Square.
3I f a rotation replaces the vertices (1234) by the
vertices (a\02^3^4), then denote the rotation simply
by ((21 020304) . Th e identity is clearly e = (1 234) .
Denote b y a = (2341 ) th e counterclockwis e ro -
tation throug h 90° . Le t a 2 = b = (341 2 ) an d
c = a 1 = (41 23) . We have a4 = e. Th e powers of
a form a group S of order 4. If s denotes a rotation
of 1 80 ° abou t th e axi s 1 - 3 w e have s = (1 432) .
4 Th e coset sS i s simply
(1432), sa = (21 43 ) = t,
saL = (321 4 ) = 1 1 , sa" = (4321 ) = v;
these together with the powers of a exhaust the symmetries of the Square:
'a b c s t uv
e e a b c s t u V
a a b c e V s t u
b b c e a u V s t
c c e a b t u V s
s s t u V e a b c
t t u V s c e a b
u u V s t b c e a
V V s t u a b c e
 1.2. SUBGROUP S 9

(b) The quaternion group.

This is obtained a t once by the ordinary rules of multiplication o f the quater -
nion units
+ 1 +i +j +k -1 -J
+1 + 1 +i +j +k -1 —i -j -k
+i +i -1 +k -j —i +1 -k +j
+j +i -k -1 +i -j +k +1 —i
+k +k +j —i -1 -k -j +i +1
-1 -1 —i -j -k + 1 +i +j +k
—i —i +1 -k +j +i -1 +k -j
-j -j +k +1 —i +j -k -1 +i
-k -k -j +i +1 +k +j —i -1
The two groups do not have the same structure since the group of symmetrie s
has 5 elements of period 2 while the quaternion group has only one such dement .
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 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/02

CHAPTER 2

Rings and Fields

In the chapter o n groups we have isolated certai n properties o f ordinar y mul -

tiplication o f numbers an d examined these in some detail. I t has become obviou s
that the notion of group and multiplication in a group is a far more general concept
and has many more applications tha n that of multiplication o f numbers. I t is now
our purpose to dehne System s which will include som e of the ordinary propertie s
of number s (e.g. , addition , multiplication , an d later , division) . A t the sam e tim e
these Systems will remain sufficiently genera l to have wider application. Conside r
first a set for whose elements two Operations called "addition" and "multiplication"
are defined .

EXAMPLE. Th e additio n an d multiplicatio n o f od d an d eve n integer s obey s

the rules Eve n + Od d = Odd , Eve n x Eve n — Even , etc . Th e total behavio r o f
addition and multiplication o f Even and Odd is given in the tables:

+ Even Od d X Even Od d
Even Even Od d Even Even Eve n
Odd Odd Eve n Odd Even Od d

If "Even" is replaced by the number 0 and "Odd" by the number 1 , these tables are
the same as for ordinary addition and multiplication, together with the special rule
1 + 1 =0 .

Consider a set T whic h is closed with respect to two Operations, addition an d

multiplication. Th e element resulting fro m th e addition o f two elements is called
the sum a + b. We postulate that
(I) Th e elements of T ar e a group under addition.
The identity of this additive group is denoted by 0. The inverse of the element a is
denoted by — a. Accordin g to the customary Convention , the element a + (— b) i s
written a — b. The rules for the use of the minus sign before parentheses are easily
demonstrated:

a-(b + c-d)=a + {-[b + c + (-d)]}

= a + [-(-d) + (-c ) + (-b)] = a+d -c-b.

Note tha t th e orde r o f th e element s i n th e parenthesi s ha s bee n reversed . I f th e

commutative law holds the elements may be written in any order.
ii
12 2. RINGS AN D FIELD S

(II) Th e distributive laws.

If a, b,c e T, the n
[a] a(b + c ) = ab + ac
[b] (b + c)a = ba + ca
Consider the product (a + b){c + d). Fro m II[a] and then II[b] we have
(a + b){c + d) = (a + b)c + (a + b)d = ac + bc + ad + bd
and from II [b] and then II [a]
(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + fc(c + d ) = a c + a J + bc + bd.
Setting the two results equal yields
bc + ad = ad + ftc.
The distributive laws imply that elements which are products are commutative with
respect t o addition . Thu s onl y i f som e element s ar e not products—and thi s cas e
seldom occurs—is addition noncommutative. Consequently , instead of (I) we take
(I*) Th e elements of T form a commutative group under addition.
Now let us consider some other consequences of (II). We have
ab = a(b + c) = ab + ac
whence aO = 0 for all a.
In a similar way we can show
0a = 0.
The product of any element with zero is zero.
It is also possible to prove the usual rules concerning the minus sign in multi-
plication

I
aO = 0
ab + a(—b)
or ab + a(—b) — 0 . Therefore a{~b) = — ab. B y a similar proof
{—a)b = —ab.
From the combination of these results we have
{-a){-b) = -((-a)b) = -(-(ab)) = ab.
In som e o f th e literatur e a set T satisfyin g (I* ) an d (II ) i s calle d a ring and
mention is made of "associative rings," i.e., rings which satisfy th e postulate
(III) a,b,c £T = * a(bc) = (ab)c.
We adopt a more customar y usag e an d dehn e a ring to be a set whic h i s a n
"associative ring" in the sense above. A ring, then, is a set, closed with respect to
addition an d multiplication , tha t is a commutative grou p wit h respect to additio n
and obey s th e distributive la w of multiplication ove r additio n an d th e associativ e
law of multiplication.
 2.1. LINEA R EQUATIONS IN A FIELD 13

EXAMPLE. Th e integers unde r ordinar y additio n togethe r wit h th e rule tha t

the product of any two elements is zero. An y commutative group can be made to
furnish a ring in this manner.
We are also interested in rings which possess division properties, i.e., inverses
with respect to multiplication. Henc e we introduee the postulate
(IV) Th e set T, excluding zero, is a group under multiplication.
The multiplicative identity is hereafter denote d by 1 . A set F which satisfie s
(I), (II), and (IV) is called a field. Thus a field is a group with respect to addition,
satisfies th e distributive la w of multiplication ove r addition , and , except fo r the
additive identity , i s a group wit h respec t t o multiplication. Clearl y (IV ) implies
(III). Furthermore (I*) holds in this System since the existence of the multiplicative
identity mean s tha t ever y demen t ca n be expressed a s a product. Consequently ,
addition i s commutative a s a consequence o f (II). From (IV ) we also obtai n the
"cancellation law"
a ^ O , b^0=^ab^0
since zero is not an dement of the multiplicative group.
A commutative field is a field which obeys the commutative law of multiplica-
tion. I f a field is commutative, it is convenient to adopt the notation for fractions.
We write a/b for b~la where b ^ 0 . Thus a/b = c/d 4 ^ b~la = d"lc<£ > ad —
bc. Fro m this rule immediately follow s
ca a
rt = b'
EXERCISE 1 . Deriv e the usual rule s fo r addition, multiplication , an d taking
the reciprocals of fractions.

2.1. Linea r Equations in a Field

Consider the System of m linear equations in n unknowns
f L i = a\\X\ + ai2*2 H h a\nXn = b\
L2 — a 2\X\ + a22x2 + •" + a2nxn = b 2
[1]

L/m — &m\X\ ~ r ^m2*2 T " * * * r a mnXn — un

where the coefficients a^ an d bj ar e elements of a field F. Th e System [1 ] is said

to hav e a Solution in F i f there exis t c\, c2, . . ., cn e F suc h tha t [1 ] is a true
Statement whe n C( i s substituted fo r xi. I f the bj are all zero [1 ] is said to be a
System of homogeneous equations . A System of homogeneous equation s clearl y
has the trivial Solution all xt = 0. Any other Solution is called nontrivial.
THEOREM 2.1 If n > m, the System
[2] Li = anx\ + Ö/2* 2 Hh ainxn = 0 ( / = 1 , 2 , . . ., m)
ofm homogeneous equations in n unknowns always has a nontrivial Solution.
14 2. RINGS AND FIELDS

REMARK. Th e condition that the equations be homogeneous is quite neeessary

since, for example, the equations
x + y + z = l, x + y + z = 0,
can have no Solution in F.
PROOF: Weus e induction onm .
(1) lfm = 0 the theorem certainly holds since we have n > 0 unknowns and
no eonditions on them. We eould take all xl• = 1 .
(2) Assum e the theorem is true for all Systems in which the number of equa-
tions is less then m.
Case 1 . Al l a^ = 0. The theorem is true, for we may choose all xt• = 1 .
Case 2. Ther e i s a nonzero coefficient . Withou t los s o f generalit y w e ma y
assume specificall y a\\ ^ 0 sinee altering the order of the x t o r of the equation s
has no effect upo n th e existence o r nonexistenee o f Solutions . W e take a\\ = 1
sinee we may multiply on the left by a^. Le t us examine the system of equations
Li = 0
L2 -a 2\Li = 0
[3]

ümlLl = 0
obtained by "eliminating" the variable x\ fro m the last m — 1 equation s in [2]. Any
Solution o f [2 ] is obviously a Solution o f [3] . Conversel y an y Solutio n o f [3 ] is a
Solution of [2 ] since the Solution must satisfy L\ = 0 . I t suffices t o show that [3 ]
has a nontrivial Solution.
The system of equations
L 2 - Ü2\L\ = 0
[31
Lm Qm\'- J
\ 0
is essentially a system of m — 1 equations in the n — 1 unknowns x 2, x^, ..., x m.
From the induction assumptio n thi s system possesses a nontrivial Solution . Usin g
this Solutio n w e complete th e Solutio n o f [3 ] by substitutin g th e firs t equatio n t o
obtain x\. Th e proof of the theorem is in no way changed when the coefficients ar e
multiplied on the right. D
EXERCISE 2. Prov e by an induction similar to that of Theorem 2.1 :
THEOREM 2.2 A system ofn equations in n unknowns,
L\ = a\\X\ + ai2* 21
H - ain*n = b\
L2 = 021 * 1 + <222* 2 H h a 2nXn = b 2

Ln — Q<n\X\ + ^«2* 2 + * * * + ttnnXn = t> n,

 2.2. VECTOR SPACES 15

has a Solution for any choice of b\, b 2, • • •, bn e F if and only if the System of
homogeneous equations
[ L\— a\\X\ + fli2*2 H V a\ nxn = 0
L2 = a 2\X\ + a 22x2 H h a 2nxn = 0

Ln = a n\X\ + a n2x2 + • • • + a nnxn = 0

has only the trivial Solution.
EXAMPLE. Interpolatio n of polynomials.
The eoefficients o f a polynomial
f{x) = C o + c\x H h Cn^ix" 1 "1
of degree < n — 1 can be chosen to satisfy th e linear equations in the C[

/ f e ) = ßi
xt ^ Xj for i i=- j

f(xn) = ß n,
where x\, x 2,..., x n, ß\, ß 2,..., ß n ar e an y preassigne d numbers . Thi s follow s
from the fact that the system
/(*i) = 0 ,
f(x2) = 0 ,

/(*») = 0,
of homogeneous linear equations has only the trivial Solution since no polynomial
of degree less than n can have n distinct roots.

2.2. Vecto r Space s

A (left) vector space V ove r a field F i s a n additiv e commutativ e group . It s
Clements are called vectors. The identity of this group will be denoted by 0. There
is an Operation which assigns to any a e F, A e V, a product aV = B e V. W e
as£. t u a t tiii a u p e i a t i u n s a u s i ^ t u e p u ö t u i a t e ö .

(A) a(bA) = (ab)A,

(B) (a + b)A -aA + bA,
(C) a(A + B) =aA + aB,
(D) \A = A.
The last postulate is not a consequence of the other three for we could define a A =
0 for all produets and satisfy (A) , (B), and (C).
EXERCISE 3 . Show : (a ) a0 = 0 , (b ) 0 • a = 0 , (c ) -A = ( - ! ) • A.
16 2. RINGS AND FIELDS

(a) W e have
aO + aO = a(0 + 0) = aO.
Adding — aO on both sides we obtain
a0 = 0 .
(b) Similarly ,
0A + 0 A = ( 0 + 0) A = 0A .
Adding — OA on both sides gives
0A = 0 .
(c) Fro m ( 1 — 1 ) A = O A = 0 we have
lA + ( - l ) A = 0 ,
or (—1)A is the inverse of A, i.e.,
(-1)A = - A .
From these results we can prove that aA = 0 implies either a = 0 or A = 0 .
If a i=- 0 then from a A = 0 we have
a~l(aA) =0 = (a~ la)A = A .
Hence A = 0 .
The fi vector s Ai , A 2 , . . ., A n ar e said to be linearly dependent i f there exist
x\, *2 , • •.> xn € F wit h not all x; = 0 such that
[1] xi Ai + x 2A2 H h x„An = 0 .
Take n = 1 . A vector Ai i s said to be linearly dependent if there exists an x 7 ^ 0
in F suc h that x A = 0 , i.e., if A = 0 . I f the vector is not zero it is independent .
Assume that [1 ] holds for nontrivia l X(. The n we have, say, xn ^ 0 . I t is possible
to write
An = -x~ lxiAx - x~ 1 x2A2 x~ l
xn-\An-i.
A sum of the form
c\A\ +c 2A2-i h
is called a linear combination of the vectors A\, A 2,..., A n. Th e Statement that n
vectors are linearly dependent i s equivalent to the Statement that one of them is a
linear combination of the others.
The dimension o f a vector spac e V i s the maximum number of linearly inde-
pendent vectors in V . I f no such maximum exists the dimension of V is said to be
infinite.
EXAMPLE. Th e polynomials for m a vector spac e over the field of real num-
bers. I n particular, the polynomials 1 , x,..., x n ar e linearly independent. Clearl y
the dimension of the vector space of all polynomials is infinite.
The definitio n give s n o hin t o f a way t o obtai n th e dimensio n o f an y give n
vector space. In order to attack this problem we introduce
 2.2. VECTOR SPACE S 17

THEOREM 2. 3 Given n vectors A\, A 2j . . . , A n e V and if B\, B 2,..., B m are

m > n linear combinations ofthe A/ , £/zew £/ze Bj are linearly dependent.
PROOF: W e are given the linear combinations
B\ — a nAi + ai 2A2 H h ainAw
B2 — a 2\A\ + a 22A2 H h a^Ä,,
[1]

#m = ^mM l + #m2^ 2 H + « mwAw.

For the proof of the theorem we must find Xj e F suc h that
[2] x\B\ + x2B2 H h x mBm = 0
where not all Xj = 0 . Combining [1 ] and [2] we have
m

7=1
where
I L\ = X\Ü\\ + x 2a2\ + • • • + x mam\
L2 = Xi<2i 2 + X2«2 2 + • ' * + X mam2
[3]

J_jn — X\a\ n -f - % 2&2n \ ' ' ' ~ r Xm^-mn,'

It suffices t o find nontrivial x; tha t make all L/ = 0 . Since m > n , the system L; =
0 of n equations in m unknowns has a nontrivial Solution according to Theorem 2.1 .
It follows tha t there are je,-, not all of them zero, such that [2 ] holds and therefor e
the theorem is proved. D
COROLLARY If V is a vector space in which all vectors are linear combinations
ofn given vectors, then the dimension ofV is less than or equal to n.
The vector space V i s said to be spanned by the vectors A\, A 2,..., A n €V
if every vector B e V is a linear combination of the A t.
THEOREM 2.4 If V is spanned by n linearly independent vectors, then the dimen-
sion Ny ofV is precisely n.
By the corollary t o Theorem 2.3 we have Ny < n. Bu t there exist n linearl y
independent vector s (e.g. , A\, A 2 , . . . , A n) i n V an d Ny i s the maximum numbe r
of independent vectors in V. Consequently , Ny > n. Therefor e Ny = n.
THEOREM 2.5 IfVisa vector space offinite dimension n, then there are n linearly
independent vectors in V which span the space.
PROOF: I f n i s the dimension o f V , then V contain s a set of n independen t
vectors; cal l the m A\, A 2,..., A n. Le t B b e an y vecto r o f V. Th e n + 1 vec-
tors B, Ai , A 2 , . . . , A n ar e linearly dependent sinc e n is the maximum number of
independent vectors. Thus there are xt e F , not all zero, such that
x0B + x\A\ H h x nAn = 0 .
18 2. RINGS AN D FIELD S

It follows that XQ ^ 0 ; for otherwise we would have x\A\ +X2A2 H \-x n An =0

where not all x\, x 2,..., x n ar e zero. Th e At, however , ar e linearly independent .
Thus the possibility that XQ = 0 is exeluded. From xo ^= 0 we see at once that B is
a linear combination of the A;. We have proved, in fact, tha t any set of n linearl y
independent vectors in V Spans the entire Space. D
If W is a subspace of a finite-dimensional Space V, then obviously the dimen-
sion of W is not greater than that of V. More precisely we have the
COROLLARY IfWisa subspace of V and the dimension of W is the same as the
dimension ofV, then W = V.
PROOF: Le t the dimension of W be n. Then there are n linearly independen t
vectors in W which spa n W. Bu t these must also span V by last Statement in the
proof of the theorem. Therefore W = V. D
Given a field F an d a number n, w e can construct th e vector spac e V n over F
consisting of all ordered n-tuples of elements of F. If
A = (ai,a 2,. . . , a n ) , a t e F,
B = (bi,b 2,...,bn), bt e F,
we dehne
A + B = (a\ + b\, a2 + b 2,..., a n + b n),
aA = {aa\, aa 2, . . ., aa n).
EXERCISE 4. Verif y tha t V n satisfies the postulates for a vector space.
The dimension of the space V n is easily see n to be n. Fro m 0 = (0 , 0? . . . , 0)
it follows that the n vectors
E/i = ( l , 0 , 0 , 0 , . . . , 0 ) ,
t/2 = ( 0 , l , 0 , 0 , . . . , 0 ) ,

C/„ = ( 0 , 0 , . . . , 0 , 0 , 1 ) ,
are linearly independent sinc e
n
Y2CiUi = ( c l> c 2, • . . , Cn )
i=\
is not zero unless all the ct are zero. Furthermore , the n vectors span V n since any
vector (c\, c2,,.., c n) € V n can be written as a linear combination YH=i ci Ui• Th e
result follows from Theorem 2.4.
EXERCISE 5. Sho w that any vector field of finite dimension n over F i s iso-
morphic t o V n. B y "V is isomorphic t o V„ " we mean tha t V ha s essentially the
same structur e a s V n. I n other words , to each elemen t o f one space ther e corre -
sponds an element of the other which behaves in exactly the same manner unde r
 2.2. VECTO R SPACE S 19

the Operations among vectors. Thi s concept will be dealt with later in a more pre-
cise manner.
In V n, consider the equations
[1] x\A\ + x 2A2 H h xnAn = B.
Setting the components on one side equal to the corresponding components on the
other, w e obtain n linea r equation s i n n unknown s a s in Theore m 2.2 . Equatio n
[1] has a Solutio n fo r al l B e V n i f an d onl y i f th e A / ar e linearl y independen t
and therefore spa n V n. But this is equivalent to the assertion that the homogeneous
equation
x\A\ + x 2A2 H h xnAn = 0
has only the trivial Solution, all Xf = 0 . I n terms of the components this is exactly
the Statement of Theorem 2.2.
This page intentionally left blank
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/03

CHAPTER 3

Polynomials. Factorization into Primes. Ideals.

In the following section s we shall devote considerable attentio n t o the theory

which has arisen from th e attempts o f algebraists t o solve the general equation of
nth degre e
anxn + a n-\xn~l + h ÜQ = 0, a n ^ 0 .
This is the central problem of algebra and it was principally to handle this problem
that moder n algebrai c method s wer e developed . Wha t i s mean t b y a Solution t o
such an equation? In analysis a Solution is a method by which one can approximate
as closely as one likes to a number that satisfies th e equation. I n algebra, however,
the emphasi s i s o n th e natur e an d behavio r o f th e Solution . I t i s important , fo r
example, to know whethe r o r not an equation i s solvabl e in radicals. I n analysis,
this question is not necessarily relevant.

3.1. Polynomial s over a Field

Take for the domain of our discussion a commutative field F} A power series
over F is a sequence of elements of F which obeys certain rules of computation. A
sequence of elements of F i s simply a correspondence which associates with each
nonnegative integer n exactly one element c n of F. W e denote a power series by
oo
2 n
Co + c\x + c 2x H h cnx H — 5Z CyxV '
v=0
This notation is nothing more than a way of writing such a correspondence; it is not
to be interpreted a s a sum, no meaning is to be attached to the x 's o r their indices,
and c vxv i s not to be considered a s a product. A polynomial i s a power serie s all
of whos e element s fro m a certain elemen t o n ar e zero . A polynomia l coul d b e
defined a s an ordered n-tuple of elements of F , bu t this would involve difficultie s
in framing rule s of computation, which we avoid by handling power series as one
may see by attempting to specialize the following rule s to suit this definition :
The sum of two power series is defined by
00 OO OO

v b %v +b
J2®vx +Y^ v = X^ ^xV-
v=0 v=0 v=0
From this definitio n i t follows a t once that th e power serie s for m a commutativ e
group under addition with the zero element YlT=o ® ' %v-

All fields are assumed hereafter t o be commutative unless the contrary is stated.

21
22 3 . POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATION INT O PRIMES . IDEALS.

EXERCISE 1 . Sho w that the polynomials are a subgroup of the group of power
series under addition.
The product of two power series is defined by
00 00 OO

7 CyX 7 @>ßX — 7 C nX

v=0 ß=Q n=0

with
n
&n = / J Cv&ß =
/ J CyCln—v

v/tx> 0

By proving the distributive law of multiplication ove r addition and the associative
law o f multiplication , w e now sho w tha t th e se t o f powe r serie s ove r F form s a
ring.
The distributiv e la w follow s fro m th e linearit y o f th e produc t an d fro m th e
distributive law for the field elements. We prove this in general. Le t {a n} and {b n}
be two sequences of elements in F. Defin e the product {a n} -{bn} = d n to be linear
in the a's an d b's bu t otherwise arbitrary . Thu s d n i s of the form d n = Ha^üibj
with ciij e F. Consequently ,
kn}[{^} + {b n}] = {d n} with dn = Y^OtijCiiüj + bj) = Y^OiijCiüj + OtijCibj
or
{dn} = {c n} • {a n} + {c n} • {b n}.
EXAMPLES. Th e product of vectors in physics.
The scalar product is a • b = a\b\ + 0^ 2 + #3^ 3 and is therefore distributive .
The vector product a x b has components of the form ±(a tbj — ajb t) an d hence is
distributive.
The associative law follows immediately fro m

n—O \i6+v= w /

= m
E( E <vVpJ* .
Since the result is symmetrical, it is independent of the placing of the parentheses.
This completes the proof that the power series forms a ring.
It is a simple matter to enlarge this ring to a field. First we note that the ring
already has a multiplicative identity, namely
2
1 + 0 - J C + 0-JC + -.-.

To obtain inverses with respect to multiplication, w e have only to include all ele-
ments of the form
VJ a nxn, m > 0.
 3.1. POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD 2 3

Elements of the form

+00
2_]anxn
—00
th
cannot be included, for the n coefficient o f a product would be written
+00

v-\-ß—n v=—oo

This expression, however, is meaningless sinc e the result of an infinite numbe r of

Operations (in this case additions) is not defined.
EXERCISE 2. Prov e that the product of two polynomials is a polynomial.
It follows fro m th e closure of the set of polynomials wit h respect to multipli-
cation and from th e proof o f Exercise 1 that the polynomials ar e a subring of the
ring of power series. Th e multiplicative identity l + 0 - x + 0-Jt 2 + -- - i s also a
polynomial. This suggests
EXERCISE 3 . Sho w how the ring of polynomials may be enlarged to a field.
A polynomial is completely described if its nonzero coefficients ar e given. This
suggests the introduction of a finitenotation for a polynomial which omits all terms
with zero coefficients. W e denote the polynomial
oo n
y ^ akX k wit h ak = 0 for k > n by Y ^ a^xk {a^ ^0)

where w e adopt th e Convention tha t al l terms wit h a^ = 0 are omitted fro m th e

barred symbol. In order to include the exceptional case we define
2
Ö = 0 + 0-J C + 0-JC + ---.

We have the particular cases:

ä = a + 0'X + 0'X2 + '-- ,
x = 0+l'X + 0-x2-\ .
It is easy to show that computation wit h the barred Symbol s gives the same result
as computation with the polynomials. For this purpose it is sufficient t o prove
nn
^akxk = Y^ä k(x)
k
.
k=0 k=0

We use induction on n. The Statement is certainly true for n = 0 since

o

k=0

If it is true for n, it must be true forn + 1 .

Case 1 . a n+ i = 0 . The assertion is trivially true.
24 3. POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATIO N INTO PRIMES. IDEALS.

Case 2. a n+\ ^ 0 . We have

w+1 n n+\
2_]akX = 2~] akxk + a n+\xn+l =
k
Yjä^"(i) ^ + a n+\(x)n(x)

w+1
= J2äk(xf.
Since computation with the barred symbols is essentially the same as eomputation
with the polynomials, the bar may be omitted withou t danger of confusion. Thu s
we have created new symbols for the polynomials fo r whic h the signs of additio n
and multiplication have meaning.
A polynomial ao + a\x + • • • + a nxn ca n be used to dehne the function f(x)
which assigns to any c e F an d f(c) e F where f(c) — ao + a\c + • • • + a ncn.
EXERCISE 4. I f f(x), g(x) ar e polynomials and c e F, sho w that
f(x) + g(x) = h(x) = » f(c) + g(c) = h(c)

and

f(x) • g(x) = h(x) => f(c) . g(c) = h(c).

The degree of a polynomial is the highest index attache d to a nonzero coeffi -
cient. If the polynomial is zero, it possesses no degree in the sense of this definition.
To avoid the necessity of discussing special cases, however, the zero polynomial is
assumed to have any negative degree.
EXERCISE 5 . Give n two nonzero polynomials f(x) o f degree m an d g(x) o f
degree n, show that f(x)+g(x) ha s the degree max(m, n) if m ^ n and f(x) -g(x)
has the degree m + n.
EXERCISE 6 . Prov e the long division property for polynomials. That is, given
two polynomials f(x) an d g(x) ^ 0 , sho w tha t ther e ar e polynomials q{x) an d
r(x) suchtha t
[1] f(x)=q(x)g(x) + r(x)
where the degree of r(x) i s less than the degree of g(x).
PROOF: W e consider two cases:
Case 1 . Ther e is a q(x) wit h f(x) = q(x)g(x). Consequently , r(x) = 0 and
the Statement is proved. In this case we say f(x) i s divisible by g(x).
Case 2. N o such q(x) exists . I n that event consider the set of polynomials of
the form
[2] f(x)-q(x)g(x).
In this set there must be a polynomial o f least degree; call it r(x). Th e degree of
r(x) i s less than the degree of g(x). Fo r suppose the degree of g(x) i s m an d the
 3.2. FACTORIZATION INTO PRIMES 25

degree of rix) i s n > m , i.e.,

g(x) = a 0 + ai x H h am x m , a m7 ^ 0,
rix) = b 0 + bix + "- + b nx\ b n i=. 0.
Then we may define a polynomial
n m
rx(x) = r(x) - (b n/am)x ~ g(x)

of degree < n — 1 . But from

r{x) = f(x)-q(x)g(x)
we have
r i W = fix) - [q(x) + (b n/am)xn-m]g(x)
or r\{x) i s of the form [2 ] and has a degree less than that of rix). However , r(x)
was supposed to be the polynomial o f type [2 ] of least degree. Consequently , th e
degree of r (x) mus t be less than that of g(x).
We observe first that the result of long division is unique. For suppose we have
two representations
f{x) =qi(x)g(x) + ri(x)
f(x) =q2(x)g(x) + r 2(x)
where the degrees of r\ (x) an d r2(x) ar e less than that of g(x). Thi s implies
[qi(x) - q 2(x)]g(x) + [ri(x) - r 2(x)] = 0.
Consequently, q\ (x) —q2(x) = 0 since two polynomials of different degree s cannot
be equal. Thus r\ (x) — r 2(x) = 0 and the proof is complete. D
An immediate consequence of the long division theorem is the familiär remain-
der theorem. Let g(x) = x — a in [1]. Thus
f{x) =q(x)(x -a) + c.
Hence
f(a)=c o r f(x) =q(x)(x - a) + f{a).
COROLLARY The equation f(x) = 0 has the Solution x = a ifand only if f(x) is
divisible by x — a.

3.2. Factorizatio n into Primes

A polynomial f(x) ove r a field F i s said to btfactored i f it can be written as
the product of polynomials of positive degree:
f(x) = gix)-hix)--zix).
The polynomials g(x), A(JC), . . ., z(x) ar e calledfactors of fix). W e shall consider
two factorizations identica l i f on e can be obtained fro m th e other by rearrangin g
the factors an d multiplying eac h by some element of the field. If there are no two
polynomials o f positive degree which have the product fix), the n fix) i s said to
be irreducible in F.
26 3. POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATION INT O PRIMES . IDEALS.

For th e purpos e o f investigatin g th e Solution s o f equation s f(x) = 0 , i t i s

sufficient t o conside r irreducibl e polynomials . For , i f f(x) — g(x) • h(x) an d
f(a) = g(a) • h(a) = 0 , then either g(a) = 0 or h(a) = 0 . The polynomials have
the importan t propert y tha t ever y polynomia l possesse s a "unique " factorizatio n
into irreducible polynomials, where by "unique" we mean that any two factoriza -
tions of the same polynomial into irreducible factors are identical. The similarity of
this result and the theorem of unique factorization int o primes for integers is quite
striking. We are led to examine the properties common to the polynomials and the
integers in order to uncover the general principle of which those are special cases.
We note at once that the polynomials and the integers are both commutative rings,
with an identity element for multiplication, for which the law ab = 0 => a = 0 or
b = 0 holds. Thes e conditions are not enough to guarantee a unique factorizatio n
into primes. A s a counterexample, consider the numbers a + b\f^ 3 wher e a an d
b are integers. Clearly this is a ring of the given type. Yet we have
4 = 2.2 = (1 + - V ^ Xl - v^ä) :
unique factorization doe s not hold in this ring.
EXERCISE 7. Prov e that both factorizations o f 4 in the ring of a + b^/—3 are
factorizations int o primes.
Actually, i t is the existence o f lon g divisio n whic h guarantee s uniqu e factor -
ization int o primes i n the specia l case s o f th e polynomials an d the integers. Th e
long division theorem, however, involves the notion of "magnitude." In the case of
polynomials i t is the degree; in the case of integer s i t is the absolute value. Thi s
notion o f magnitud e i s not necessary, however , a s we shal l show . Wha t propert y
of the ring is it that guarantees the unique factorization theore m and is implied by
long division in these special cases?

3.3. Ideal s
Consider a ring R. A subset of R is called an ideal 21 if
(a) 2 1 is a group with respect to addition
„. a e 2t ] . nr
(b) b€R\=>abe*.

THEOREM 3.1 In the ring of integers there are no other ideals than those consist-
ing ofthe multiples of a given integer and the set consisting ofzero ahne.
PROOF: Le t 21 be an ideal in the ring of integers.
Case 1 . 2 1 consists of zero alone.
Case 2. Ther e is a nonzero a e 21 . If a < Othen — l-a = — a > Oand — a e 21.
Thus if an ideal contains nonzero elements it also contains positive elements. From
the set of positive integers in 21 take the least and call it d. B y (b) every multiple of
d i s an element of 21 . We prove that 21 is precisely th e set of multiples of d. Tak e
any a e 2t . By the division algorithm we have
a = qd + r , 0 < r < d.
 3.4. GREATEST COMMO N DIVISO R 27

But a e 2 t = ^r = a — qd e %l. Sinc e d i s the smallest positive integer in 21 and

0 < r < d, i t follows tha t r = 0 . Consequently , a = g<i . Thus, any element of 2t
is a multiple ofd. D
The same theorem holds for polynomials an d its proof uses the division algo-
rithm for polynomials in a similar way. This property of the integers does not hold
for rings in which the unique factorization propert y does not hold, e.g., the ring of
numbers a + &>/— 3 where a, b are integers.
EXERCISE 8. Sho w that the subset of elements for which a + b is even for m
an idea l i n th e rin g o f a + b V—3. Prov e tha t thi s idea l doe s no t consis t o f th e
multiples of any one element. (Se e Exercise 7.)
We make the definition :
An idea l i s calle d a principal ideal if i t is th e se t of al l multiples o f a given
element d of the ring.
Both for integers and for polynomials, where factorization i s unique, the only
ideals ar e principal. I n on e case wher e there i s no unique factorizatio n w e hav e
shown that this result does not hold. W e shall prove that the unique factorizatio n
theorem is a consequence of the following postulates:
(1) Multiplicatio n is commutative.
(2) Ther e is a multiplicative identity l e R.
(3) ab = 0 =» either a = 0 or b = 0.
(4) Ever y ideal in R is principal.

3.4. Greates t Common Divisor

Let R be a ring satisfying postulate s (l)-(4). Assum e a,b e R an d ab ^ 0 . If
there is a c e R suc h that a • c = b, we say, variously, "b is a multiple of a," "b is
divisible by a," an d "a is a divisor of bV L We write a\b (read : "a divides fe"). The
divisors of 1 ar e called the units of the ring.
EXAMPLES. I n the ring of integers the units are ± 1. I f R i s the ring of poly-
nomials over F its units are all a e F,a ^ 0 . The ring of Gaussian integers a + bi,
where a an d b ar e integers, possesses th e units ± 1 , ±i. I t is interesting tha t thi s
is a principal ideal ring. Th e primes of the subring of ordinary integer s ar e prime
in thi s rin g onl y i f the y ar e o f th e for m 4 n — 1 . Al l other s ar e no t prime , e.g. ,
5 = ( 1 + 2/)( l — 2i). Thi s is a consequence of the theorem that all primes of the
form 4n + l ca n be represented as the sum of two Squares.
If a\b and b\c, then a\c
aoi — b
f \ = » 3a, ß e R suchtha t
b\c ' bß = c.
(Read: "there is (are)" or "there exists(s)" for "3.") Consequently, aaß = c or a\c.
2
For rings containing element s a ^ 0 , b ^ 0 such that a • b = 0 is possible, we call a an d b
"divisors of zero."
28 3. POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATION INT O PRIMES. IDEALS.

If a\b, a\c then a\(b + c)

a\b
3s, t e R suchtha t \
a\c 1
at = c.
Therefore a(s + t) = b + c or a\(b + c).
\fa\b an d b\a, the elements a and b have the same division properties, that is,
a\c <$> b\c an d c\a 4 > c\b.
PROOF:
b\a , . c\a . ,
a\c a\b
Sinee a an d b appear symmetrically the proof is complete. D
If a\b and b\a, then a and b are said to be equivalent (with respect to division).
Two elements are equivalent if and only if they differ b y a unit factor.
PROOF: Le t a, b e R be equivalent, i.e., a\b an d b\a. Thi s means that there
are elements £ , rj i n R suc h that a = sb an d b = rja. Therefor e a = srja. Thi s
implies a(£?? — 1 ) = 0 . Sinc e a / 0, th e use of postulate (3) gives srj = 1 . Thu s
e| 1,7/| 1. Conversely, if er\ — 1 an d b = sa, the n & is equivalent to a. Fro m b = sa
we already have a|£. Multiplyin g by rj we obtain & = rjea = a or fc|a. D
Now suppose a 1? a 2,..., a n € /? . Consider the set
3
2l = a i # + a 2 # + hfl«/?
consisting of elements of the form
[1] a\X\ — a2%2 + fl3*3 H H Ö«X« ,

where JCI , * 2 , . . ., x n e R. 2 1 is an ideal. T o prove this we have only to show that

21 is an additive group (i.e., is closed under addition and subtraction) and is closed
under multiplication by elements of R. Ou r result is immediate since
nn n

i=\ i=l i=l

and
/n \ n

where x/, >v, z € iv . 2 1 is a principal ideal by postulate (4) applied to /?; therefore
2t consists of the multiples of a Single element d. W e now write
% = dR = a tR + a 2R H h a„£;
that is,
I a i s a multiple of <i, and
I a is expressible in the form [1].
3
The sum of tw o set s denoted b y S + T i s the set of elements s + t wher e s e S, t e T. Th e
union (o r logical sum) of the two sets is denoted differently b y S U T.
 3.4. GREATEST COMMO N DIVISO R 29

Furthermore, d € 21 since, by postulate (2), 1 e R and hence 1 • d e 21 . Also

#1, a2, • . ., an e 21 ; for we may take, say, x\ = 1 , X{ — 0 (/ > 1 ) in [1 ] above.
Consequently, there are x\, x 2 , . . . , x „ € J R such that
öf = ö l xi + a 2 x 2 H h a Mxw
where d|aj ( i = 1 , 2 , . . ., n). Thus d is called a common divisor of the a*.
Let S be any common divisor of the at, i.e., <5|ai, <5|a2 ,..., 5|a„. I t follows for
any choice of the xt tha t
S\a\X\ + a 2 x 2 + • • • + a nxn.
Hence S is a divisor of all elements of 2t. Consequently, S\d. Conversely, since d\ai
(i = 1 , 2 , . . ., «) , 8\d => 5|a,- . Thus, the common divisors of a? an d the common
divisors of d ar e the same. An y element having this property is called a greatest
common divisor of the a\. Th e greatest common divisor s of the at are equivalent
under division . Fo r if d an d d' ar e greatest commo n divisor s o f the at we have
d\d' and d'\d. Fo r this reason any greatest common divisor of the at i s called the
greatest commo n divisor . Equivalen t element s wil l not usually b e distinguished;
there is no danger o f confusion sinc e the behavior o f an element wit h respect to
division is exactly the same as that of any of its equivalents.
A linear diophantine equation in R is an equation of the form
a\X\ + a 2 x 2 + • • • + a nxn = b.
Such an equation can have a Solution if and only if b is a multiple of d, the greatest
common diviso r o f the a?. Thi s is a direct consequenc e o f dR = a\R + a 27? +
• + a nR.
EXAMPLE. Th e equation
32x + 74y-~ lSz = b
obviously has no Solution in integers if b is odd. On the other hand it has Solutions
for all even b.
The element s a\, a2 , . . . , a n o f R ar e said to be relatively prime i f 1 is their
greatest commo n divisor . Thus , th e integers 6 , 1 0 , 1 5 are said t o be relatively
prime. If the ai are relatively prime the diophantine equation
a\x + a2*2 H h anxn = 1
has a Solution. A n element p i s said to be prime i f it has no divisors othe r tha n
itself and 1 an d if it does not divide 1 . According to this definition the element 1 i s
not a prime.
THEOREM 3.2 Ifa prime p e R divides aproduct ab, then it divides at hast one
ofthefactors, i.e.,
p\ab) . .
p\a J
{Read: "p does not divide a "for p\a.)
30 3. POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATION INT O PRIMES . IDEALS.

EXAMPLES. Thi s theore m i s tru e i n genera l onl y fo r principa l idea l rings .

Consider, e.g. , 2 • 2 = ( 1 + >/—3)( 1 — V—3) i n the ring of numbers a + by/^3
where a and b are integers. Again , in the ring consisting of the even integers 6 is
prime and 1 8 is prime, yet we have 6-6 = 2 - 18.
PROOF: Th e greatest common divisor of p an d a i s 1 since p\a an d the di-
visors of p ar e only p an d 1 . Thu s p an d a are relatively prim e and the equation
px + ay = 1 ha s a Solution JC, y e R. Multiplyin g both sides of the equation by b,
we obtain
b = pbx + aby.
Since p\ab, th e right side is divisible by p. Henc e p\b. D
COROLLARY If p\a\a 2- —a n then p divides at least one ifthe a\.
PROOF: Thi s theore m i s tru e fo r n = 1 . W e us e induction . Assum e th e
theorem is true for n and suppose
p\a\a2ai-->anan+\.
By Theorem 3. 2 either p\a n+\ o r p\a\a 2 * * • an. I n the former cas e the theorem is
proved. In the latter case the theorem follows b y the induction assumption. D
Suppose an element possesses a factorization int o primes. Two such factoriza -
tions are said to be identical if the primes of one can be paired off with equivalent
primes in the other. Thus identical factorizations ar e the same except for order and
multiplication by the units. If all possible factorizations of an element are identical,
the element is said to possess a unique factorization int o primes.
THEOREM 3.3 If an element possesses a factorization into primes, the factoriza-
tion is unique.
PROOF: Assum e two factorization s
p\P2'"Pr = qiq2'-q s-
First w e hav e r = s. Fo r eac h p t divide s a q k an d n o q k possesse s mor e tha n
one pt a s a divisor. Therefor e s > r . Similarl y r > s. Therefor e r = s. No w
Pilqiqi'' * <?r- B y the corollary t o Theorem 3.2 , p\ i s a divisor o f on e of the q t\
P\ \q\ say. Since q\ ha s only itself and 1 a s divisors and p\ \ 1 i t follows that p\ an d
qi ar e equivalent, i.e., p = sq\. Consequently , we may write
sqiPi'" p r =q\qi--q r

or

(ep2)--Pr =q2'-q r.
The theorem follows by induction. D
It is conceivable that there are elements which possess no decomposition int o
primes. In other words, an element might be factored i n such a way that nonprimes
are include d i n th e factorizatio n n o matte r ho w fa r th e proces s i s carried . Fo r
integers an d polynomials there is no such danger sinc e the number of elements in
 3.4. GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR 31

the produet is limited by the "magnitude" of the element being factored. However ,
the result is true in general and therefore ever y elemen t o f R possesses a unique
factorization int o primes.
LEMMA Let a\, 0,2, . .. G R be a sequence ofnonzero elements such that a; + i|a;
for all i. Then all the at from a given element ort are equivalent.
PROOF: Le t 21 be the set of all multiples of the <z/. 21 is an ideal; for take any
a,b G 21 . We have
a G 2 t O a = ajC,
b G 21 O b = ajd.
Assume i > j, say. The n a r |a ; . Therefor e Bs e R with b = a ts. Hene e a ± b =
ai (c ± s); 2t is closed with respect to multiplication. Furthermore , 21 is closed with
respeet to multiplication by elements of R since for r G R, a • r = a t(cr). 2 t is a
principal ideal by postulate (4) and hence there is a d e R such that 21 = dR. Thu s
d • 1 G 2t and d is in 21. Therefore there is an an which divides d. Consequently ,
&n, ß „ + i , *W2 > . . . \d.

But ai\ai = > al• e 2 1 => a t G dR. Henc e d\a n, a„+i, ««+2, • • • • We have proved
that all the a\ for / > n are equivalent to d. D
THEOREM 3.4 Every a G /? w either zero, a unit, a prime, or a produet of primes.
PROOF: Suppos e a is none of these, i.e., a ^ 0 , af 1, and a is neither prime
nor a produet o f primes. Sinc e a is not prime i t can be expressed a s a produet
bc = a wher e neithe r b nor c is equivalent t o a. Clearl y i ^ 0 , c / 0 . I f c
and & wer e each eithe r a unit, a prime, o r a produet o f primes, the n a would be
in one of these categories. Thi s possibility is mied out . I t follows tha t one of the
divisors, say b, has the same property as a. But this reasoning could be carried out
indefinitely t o give a sequence of elements satisfying th e hypothesis of the lemma
but for which the terms do not eventually becom e equivalent. Thi s indirect proof
establishes the theorem. D
We have proved that every element can be factored uniquel y into primes. Sup-
pose a has the factorizatio n
a = pip2-- p r
where the pt ma y be the same or distinet. I t is possible that the same prime and
its equivalent s ma y appear mor e tha n onc e i n this expression . I f all equivalent
elements are taken together we may write
Vi Vi y cn

a = ep l1 p2~ "• p s% Vi > 0,

where the pi are now essentially distinet, i.e., Pi\pj, i # 7 . Clearly v\ + V2~\ h
vs = r. Any element of the form
d = p?lpZ2-'P?°, 0 < f t < v f,
is obviousl y a divisor o f a. Conversely , i f d\a it must be of this for m sinc e the
factorization o f d can contain no prime to a higher degree than its degree in a. W e
32 3 . POLYNOMIALS. FACTORIZATION INT O PRIMES . IDEALS.

may no w find an expression fo r th e greatest commo n diviso r o f tw o elements i n

terms of their factorizations. Suppos e a,b e R with the factorization s
a = p\ lp? •••?/, b = p?p?--.p?',
in whic h w e understan d tha t /x& , Vk ar e no t bot h zero . Thu s ever y prim e whic h
appears i n eithe r factorizatio n appear s i n both , i f onl y nominally . Th e greates t
common divisor of a and b is then
d = Px P 2 • ••Pr
where a,- = min(v (-, /x;). In a similar way we write the least common multiple
D = pfpf-p^
where ßt = max(v t, ß t).
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/04

CHAPTER 4

Solution of the General Equation of nih Degree . Residue

Classes. Extension Fields. Isomorphisms.

4.1. Congruenc e
Consider th e notatio n a = b. Th e sig n o f equalit y mean s tha t a an d b ar e
merely two ways of writing the same element. In other words, the symbols a and b
are interchangeable in any discussion. We have already considered relations which
are somewhat like equality i n this respect. Fo r example, in the preceding sectio n
"a is equivalent to fc" means that a and b are interchangeable in any discussion of
divisibility properties. Let us investigate relations of this kind in somewhat greater
generality.
Assume we are given a set S of elements a,b,c,... . A relatio n
a= b
(read: "a congruent fc")between two elements of S is called congruence (or equiv-
alence or similarity) if it satisfies the postulates
(A) a = a (reflexivity) ,
(B) a = b => > b = a (symmetry) ,
(C) a = b, b = c => a = c (transitivity) .
ExAMPLES. A relation nee d not satisf y an y o f th e postulates. Fo r instance ,
let S be the set of human beings with the relation "a loves bV Ever y day "a love s
a" i s violated by some suicide. Furthermore , " a love s fc" is nonsymmetric a s any
reader of novels can teil. True, an argument can be made in favor of the transitivity
of thi s relation unde r th e principle o f "Lov e me , lov e my dog"—bu t th e logic i s
dubious. Fo r a se t o f peopl e gathere d i n a pitch dar k room a t a seanc e we hav e
the relation "a can see b" which vacuously satisfie s th e last two postulates, but not
the first. A more orthodox example is the relationship "a approximates fc" among
the real numbers. If we understand this to mean that the difference betwee n a and
b lie s within som e give n limi t o f error , w e se e then thi s relation i s reflexive an d
Symmetrie but not transitive. A relation which violates only the Symmetrie law is
"a < b" i n th e se t o f integers . W e have show n b y th e las t thre e example s tha t
the postulates o f a congruence relatio n ar e independent; i.e. , n o postulate ca n b e
derived logically from the other two.
By means o f the congruence relation th e elements o f S ca n be classified int o
nonoverlapping "species. " For define S a a s the set of all s e S such that s = a. I f
Sa and Sb overlap at all they are completely identical. For suppose 3c e S such that
33
34 4. RESIDUE CLASSES , EXTENSION FIELDS , AND ISOMORPHISM S

c e S a, c e Sb- Then c = a , c = b. B y postulates (B ) and (C), a = b. I f d e S a

then d = a an d hence d = b. Conversely , an y element i n Sb is in S a. Thu s the
classes S a d o not overlap. Conversely , a covering of S by nonoverlapping subset s
furnishes a congruence relation; namely, a = b if a and b are in the same subset.
Let jf ? be a commutative rin g an d assum e a congruence relatio n i n R whic h
satisfies postulates (A), (B), (C) and is preserved by the Operations in the ring, i.e.,
™u J __ v a + b = c + d
(D) a = c, b = d =$> , j
a • d = c • d.
EXAMPLE. Le t R be the set of integers with the added relation: Tw o integers
are congruent if their difference i s even. Thi s is clearly a congruence of the above
type. By means of this congraence we divide R into two classes, the even numbers
and th e od d numbers . Not e tha t thes e tw o classe s ar e th e element s o f th e rin g
whose Operations are defined by the tables at the beginning of Chapter 2.
A congruence relation which satisfies (D) will always dehne a ring in the same
manner as in the above example. To prove this result, we first dehne
$a+b = S a + Sb

and

Sa-b = S a ' Sb',

i.e., S a+b is the set of elements c + d where c = a,d = b.
EXERCISE 1 . Sho w that this definition i s consistent with the former definitio n
of Sa+b a s the set of all elements congruent to a + b.
LEMMA The sets S x, x e R,form a commutative ring.
PROOF: Firs t w e sho w tha t the y constitut e a commutativ e additiv e group .
Closure is obvious. The associative law is trivial:
(Sa + Sb) + S c — S(a+b)+c = S a+(b+C) = S a + (Sb + S c).
There is an identity element:
Sa + So = S a.
To each element there is an inverse:
Sa + S- a = So.
The commutativ e la w i s obvious . Next , fo r multiplication , th e distributiv e la w
holds by
Sax^b i S c) = S a(b+c) = Sab+ac — S ab + S ac = ö a ' Ob H ~ o a • ö c.

The associative and commutative laws for multiplication clearly hold. D

Consider the set 2t = So of all a = 0.

 4.1.CONGRUENCE 35

(1) 2 1 is closed with respect to addition and subtraction. Fo r

a, & e 2 1 =^ a = 0 , b = 0=>a + b = 0.
Furthermore, we have a = b, but
a = b, —b = —b = > a — b = 0 .
Hence a,be%L=>a±be$l.
(2) 2 t is closed with respect to multiplication by elements of R

Consequently, 2t is an ideal. Thus we have shown that a congmence relation which

is preserved under the Operations in R defines a n ideal, the set of elements a = 0 .
Conversely, let 2t be an ideal in R. Us e 21 to dehne a new congmence relation:
a = b means a — b e 2t .
EXAMPLE. I f 2t is not an ideal, a congmence cannot be defined in this manner.
Suppose, for example , that 2t is the set of od d integers; then , by this mle a = £ a.
That th e ne w relatio n i s a congmence follow s fro m th e singl e fac t tha t 2 t i s a n
additive group.
(1) Wehav e
0 e 2 t =>• a = a.
(2) a = b ==» a — b G 2 1 = ^ -{a - b) e 2t . Hence
b — a e% o rb = a.
(3)
a =
1 => a -b, b - c e2l .
b= c J
Therefore a — c e 2 t o r a = e . W e show furthe r tha t thi s congmenc e
satisfies (D).
(4)
a= b
a — b, c — J G 2 1.
c= ä
Using the group property we have
a + c-{b + d)e% o ra + c = b + d.
Using closure under multiplication by elements of R, we obtain
(a - b)c, b(c - d) e 2 1 =* (a - b)c + b(c - d) e 21.
Consequently,
ac — bd G 2 1 o r ac = bd.
36 4. RESIDUE CLASSES, EXTENSION FIELDS, AN D ISOMORPHISMS

By means of this new congruence relation we may now define a n ideal So , the set
of all elements a = 0. But
aeSoOa = 0<^a-0 = ae^i.
Clearly, the speeification o f a eongraenee relation of this type and the specificatio n
of an ideal are completely equivalent .
The congruence defined i n R by means of the ideal 2t is denoted by
a = b (modSl).
The classes S ö, S&,... are called the residue classes (mod 21). In a principal ideal
ring, 21 consists of the multiples of one element d. I n that case we use the notation
(mod d) instea d of (mod 21).
ExAMPLES. Conside r the congruence defined in the set of integers by the ideal
consisting of the multiples of 7
a = b(modl) =»7|(a-fe) .
Thus a = b means a = Im + b: A n intege r i s congruent t o its remainder afte r
division b y 7 . Th e ring o f integer s i s spli t thereby int o the seve n residue classe s
So, S\,..., Sg . These classes are the elements of a commutative ring. We have, for
example, S2 + S 4 = SO , S2 • S4 = S\ 9 S3 + S 5 = S\. I t is convenient to omit the S' s
and denote the elements o f the ring by the subscript s 0, 1 , . . . , 6 alone. Th e ring
contains a multiplicative identity 1 . We further not e that all nonzero elements have
inverses:
dement 0 1 2 3 45 6
inverse 1 45 23 6
Thus the residue classes (mo d 7 ) form a field. Linear equations may be solved in
the usual way; if 3x — 4, then x = 3 - 1 4 = 5- 4 = 6 . Quadrati c equations can be
solved by completing the Square; thus

x2 + x + l=0= (x + lj) + ^ = ( j t + 4 ) 2 - l = 0 ,

and we obtain the Solutions

JC =— 4 ± 1 o r x = 4 , x = 2 .
Not all equations of degree higher than one have Solutions; e.g., consider x2 — 3 =
0.
If a n integer m i s not prime, then the ring of integers (mo d m) i s not a field.
For we have divisors a • b = m with a,b 7 ^ m and hence we have divisors of zero.
EXAMPLE. Th e integers (mo d 12) do not form a field since we have 3-4 = 0 ,
for example. Thus there are divisors of zero; these elements do not have inverses.
THEOREM 4.1 Let R be aprincipal ideal ring as defined by postulates (l)-(4 ) in
Chapter 3. If p e R is a prime, the ring ofthe residue classes (mod p) is a field.
 4.2. EXTENSION FIELD S 37

PROOF: Th e ring R (mo d p) ha s a unit dement (i.e. , multiplicative identity)

S\. I t is sufficient t o show closure under division; S a ^ SQ implies that S a ha s an
inverse. I f S a ^ So then a e S a =$> a ^ 0 (mod p). Henc e p\a. Sinc e the only
divisors of p ar e p an d 1 , the greatest common divisor of p an d a is 1 . Therefor e
we can find x, y e R suc h tha t ax + py = 1 . I t follow s tha t ax = l(mo d p).
Consequently, S aSx — S\. D
4.2. Extensio n Fields
Consider the field F o f integers (mo d 7) and construct a table of their Squares
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
x 0 1 4 2 2 4 1
2
The equation JC = 3 has no Solution in this field. What, then, does it mean to solve
the equation? I n order to answer our question, conside r th e field of real numbers
and the equation x 2 + 1 = 0 , which has no Solution in this field. In order to solve
x2 + 1 = Ow e construc t th e large r field of number s a + bi, wit h a , b real an d
i2 — i. Th e same construction whic h leads from th e real numbers to the complex
numbers allow s us to "solve" the most general equation wit h real coefficients. I n
our example, the equation x2 — 3 = 0 has a Solution in the field of numbers a+b V3,
where a and b are integers (mo d 7).
EXERCISE 2. Verif y tha t the set of numbers a + b«/3, wher e a, b are integers
(mod 7) , actually is a field.
An extension field of a field F is a field E suc h that E D F an d the Operations
for whic h E i s a field coincide in F wit h those alread y defined . F i s then calle d
a ground field with respect to E. T o solve an equation f(x) = 0 where / ( x ) i s a
polynomial over F mean s to find an extension field of F which contains an dement
a suc h that f(a) = 0, Th e dement a i s then called a root of f(x). Le t p(x) b e
an irreducible polynomia l ove r F. I f p(x) ha s degree 1 it has a root in F . I f th e
degree of p(x) i s higher than 1 , p(x) canno t have a root in F; sinc e
a e F , /?(a ) = 0 =£• (x — a)\p(x),
so that p(x) woul d be reducible.
THEOREM 4.2 Denote by F(x) the ring of polynomialsover F. If p(x) e F(x) is
irreducible, then there is an extension field E of F which is " essentially" the ring
ofresidue classes E = F(x) (mo d p(x)). We further assert that p(x) has a root
in E.
PROOF: Th e ring F(x)(mod p(x)) i s a field F b y Theore m 4.1 . I f </>(x) e
F(x) w e may writ e (ß(x) = c$ + c\x + • • • + c nxn. Th e residue class S<f,( X) € F
may be written
n=
SCo+c\x-\ \-c nx *^c o ~f " ^c\S x + * ** + o CnSx.

The residue classes can therefore be described in terms of only two types, Sa where
a e F , an d the class S x. Al l others ca n be obtained fro m thes e by addition s an d
multiplications.
38 4 . RESIDUE CLASSES , EXTENSIO N FIELDS , AND ISOMORPHISM S

Let us consider F = F (mo d p(x)), th e set of the S a, a e F. S a = Sb means

a = b (mod p(x)) o r p(x)\(a — b). It follows that a — b = 0ora = b. Thus every
element o f F contain s onl y on e element o f F. Furthermore , ever y elemen t o f F
belongs to an element of F. Th e elements of F can be paired off with the elements
of F. Moreover , we have
^a I " ^b — ^a+bi ^a ' ^b — ^a-bi

so that the computation wit h the elements o f F i s in no way different fro m com -
putation with the elements of F. W e have shown that F i s isomorphic to F. 1 No w
consider the equation
p(x) = a o + a\x + • • • + a nxn = 0.
The corresponding equation with coefficients i n F is
Sa0 + Sa j X + • • • + S ünX = So-
This possesses the Solution X = S x i n F, for we have
n
\*0 "I " ^ Ö I ^ X + * * * + b anöx = o fl0 + aiJC _| \-a nx — Sp(jc ) = oo -

We have obtained a n extension field E o f F , an d shown that it is isomorphi c

to F . I n order to obtain a n extension field E o f F w e have only t o replace thos e
elements o f F whic h ar e i n F b y th e correspondin g element s o f F . W e defin e
addition an d multiplication fo r F a s follows: wheneve r S a occur s in the tables of
addition or multiplication fo r F replac e it by a. Fo r example, S a + S x = S a+X in
F lead s to a + S x = 5 a + x i n F. A field is defined whe n we are given its elements
and rule s o f Operation . Eve n thoug h th e element s o f F hav e a mixe d nature —
some of them are classes of polynomials, others elements of F—it is nonetheless a
perfectly goo d field. By constructing this field F w e have proved the theorem. D
The introduction o f complex numbers into analysis proceeds in the manner of
this theore m a s a n extensio n o f th e real number s tha t contain s a root o f x 2 + 1 .
Long divisio n b y x 2 + 1 is s o simpl e tha t on e ma y immediatel y writ e dow n th e
residue classes.
EXERCISE 3 . Solv e th e equatio n x 2 + 1 = 0 by extendin g th e field of rea l
numbers.
We now develo p a more careful descriptio n o f th e elements o f F . Th e mos t
general residue dass i n F i s S^x)* </>(*) € F(x). Sinc e d[p(x)] = n (read : "th e
degree of p(x)" fo r "3[p(x)]"), we may assume 3[0(x)] < n. Fo r we can express
any polynomial </>(x) i n the form
0 0 ) = q(x)p(x) + r{x), d[r(x)] < n.
Hence (f>(x) = r(x) (mo d p(x)) o r S^^ = S r(X). O n th e othe r hand , suppos e
0(x), i/f(x) e F(x) wit h
3[0W], 3W(x)] < n.
See Section 4.3.
 4.2. EXTENSION FIELDS 39

If 50^ ) = S^x), i t follows tha t p(x)\[(p(x) — \/r(x)] and hence (p(x) — \//(x) = 0
or 4>(x) — \jf{x).
EXAMPLE. a + bi = c + di => a = c, b — d. Th e sum S«^) + S ^ ) =
S(p(x)+i/f(x) is at once in the prescribed form sinc e d[(j)(x) + xl/(x)] < n.
For the product, however, the result is not so simple. We may write
(j)(x)\jf(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x).
This yields
S(f)(x) ' S\ff(x) = S r(x).

Only in those cases where 9[000 • if(x)] < n is S^).^*) immediately an element
of the prescribed form .
We have shown that the elements of E are expressible in the form
^c 0 +cix+---+c n _ix n - 1 = c
0+ C
\SX + ' ' ' + C n-\SX

Two such elements are equal if and only if corresponding coefficients ar e equal.
EXAMPLE. Le t F b e the field of integer s (mo d 7). Th e equation p(x) =
x3 — x + 2 = 0 has no Solution in F. Consequently , sinc e p(x) i s of third degree
it is irreducible; for any factorization o f p(x) woul d have to contain a linear factor.
(On the other hand a fourth-degree polynomia l might have two quadratic factors. )
The extension field E consists of all elements a + ba + ca 2 where a,b,c e F and
p(a) = a 3 - a - 2 = 0.
We have a3 — a + 2, a4 — a 2 + 2a, a5 = a 3 + 2a 2 = 2a 2 + a + 2 , . .. . In this
manner any power of a—and henc e any polynomial in a—can b e reduced to one
of degree not greater than two.
Let F be a field, E a n extension o f F. Suppos e ot e E. W e distinguish two
cases:
Case 1 . Ther e is no nonzero polynomial over F which has a as a root.
EXAMPLE. Tak e F to be the field o f rational numbers. Th e real number e =
2.718 . .. i s the root of no polynomial with rational coefficients. I f a is an element
of this type it is said to be transcendental with respect to F.

Case 2. I f ot is not transcendental, ther e is a polynomial f(x) G F(x) suc h

that f(a) — 0. We say, then, that a is algebraic with respect to F. Amon g all the
polynomials whic h hav e the root a, ther e is one of least positive degree . Denot e
this b y p(x). Sinc e p(a) = 0 any multiple o f p(x) i s also a polynomial wit h
the root a. Conversely , suppos e f(x) e F(x) an d f(a) = 0 . W e can find q(x),
r{x) e F(x) suchtha t
f(x) =q(x)p(x) +r(x),
where d[r(x)] < d[p(x)]. Substitutin g a for x, we obtain
f(a) =q(a)p(a) +r(a) ,
40 4 . RESIDUE CLASSES , EXTENSION FIELDS , AND ISOMORPHISM S

whence r(a) = 0 . Bu t p(x) wa s assume d t o b e a polynomia l o f lowes t positiv e

degree whic h ha s th e roo t a. Therefor e r(x) = 0 o r f(x) = q(x)p(x). W e hav e
proved
LEMMA 4. 3 The polynomials for which a is a root are the multiples of the poly-
nomial p(x) of lowest degree.
EXAMPLE. Th e number \[l i s a root o f th e quadrati c polynomia l x 2 — 2 ove r
the field o f rationa l numbers . I t canno t b e a roo t o f a lower-degre e polynomia l
since i t i s irrational . Consequently , an y polynomia l whic h ha s y/l a s a root mus t
be a multiple o f x 2 — 2 .
LEMMA 4. 4 The polynomial p(x) is irreducible in F. For otherwise p(x) =
a(x) - b(x) where d[a(x)], d[b(x)] > 0 .
It follows tha t p(cc) = a(a) • b(a) = 0 , whenc e eithe r a(ct) = 0 o r fc(a) = 0 .
This contradict s th e assumption tha t p(x) i s a polynomial o f least degree .
LEMMA 4. 5 The only irreducible polynomials which possess the root a are the
polynomials c • p(x), c e F .
Hence an y polynomia l o f lowes t degre e i s equivalen t t o p{x). Therefore , ac -
cording t o th e Conventio n o f th e las t chapter , w e sa y p{x) i s the polynomia l o f
lowest degree .
Suppose F i s a ground field an d p(x) a n irreducible polynomia l ove r F. Le t E
be a n extensio n o f F whic h contain s a root a o f p{x). B y Lemm a 4. 5 p{x) i s th e
polynomial o f leas t degree for whic h p(a) = 0 . However , E ma y certainl y includ e
elements whic h ar e no t necessar y fo r th e Solutio n o f p{x) — 0 . Fo r example , i f
F i s th e field o f rationa l number s an d ou r proble m i s t o solv e x 2 — 2 = 0 , i t i s
not necessar y t o exten d F a s fa r a s th e rea l numbers . Wha t i s th e smalles t field
between F an d E whic h contain s al
The required field certainl y mus t contai n ever y elemen t o f the for m
(p(a) = co + C\OL H h c nan
where 0 ( x ) e F(JC) . Le t u s determin e ho w thes e particula r elements , th e polyno -
mials i n ot over F, equate , add , an d multiply .
Suppose </)(a) = \j/(a). The n (f>(x) = ^(x) ha s th e root or, whence

(Lemma 4.3) , o r
(f){x) = y/(x) (mo d p(x)).
Conversely, i f </)(x) — \jr{x) = p(x)q(x), the n
(j)(a)-i/(a) = 0.
Thus w e hav e prove d
(p(a) = \//(a) O <f>(x) = xj/(x) (mo d p(x)).
The rule s fo r additio n an d multiplicatio n o f thes e element s ar e obviousl y th e
same as for polynomials. Thu s we see that the set consisting of the elements 4> («) i s
isomorphic t o the se t of the residue classe s (mo d p{x)) o f the polynomials ove r F.
 4.3. ISOMORPHISM 41

4.3. Isomorphis m
The notion of isomorphism has already been touched upon here and there in the
text. We have mentioned an "essential sameness" of two mathematical Systems . It
has been implied that two Systems which are isomorphic differ in no important way;
Operations on the elements of one are "the same as" Operations on the elements of
the other. Th e purpose of this section is to replace this descriptive terminology by
a precise formulation .
Implicit i n the idea o f th e "essentia l sameness " of tw o set s is the knowledg e
that each element of one set has an "image" in the other. Specifically, conside r two
sets S and T. Th e set S is mapped into the set T if to each s e S there corresponds
ar e T, th e image of s. Th e Statements "S i s mapped into T" an d "f i s the image
of s" are denoted by
S — > T an d s — > t,
respectively. A mapping is nothing more than a single-valued functio n wit h argu-
ments in the set S and values in the set T. W e could have written t = f(s) instea d
of s - > t.
If ever y elemen t o f T i s a n imag e fo r som e elemen t o f S , w e sa y tha t S i s
mapped onto T an d write S — > T.
EXAMPLE. Fo r the set S take a group G. Le t the elements of T b e the cosets
of som e subgroup H c G. B y means of the mapping f(x)=xH,G i s mapped
onto the cosets of H. Fo r an isomorphism we require more, as this example shows.
Different element s of S should have distinct images. Thus if s\ ^ S2

From a mapping 5 — > T of this kind we can derive an inverse mapping T — > S.
For any t e T ther e is a Single s e S suc h that s— > t. Fo r the inverse mappin g
take t -+ s. Th e mapping has furnished a method of pairing off th e elements of S
and T. I n other words there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements
of S an d th e element s o f T. I n thi s cas e w e sa y tha t th e mappin g i s 1 - 1 (read :
"one-to-one" for "1 -1 ". )
EXAMPLES. Th e ordinary Photographie imag e of a three-dimensional objee t
does not provide a 1 - 1 mapping , if , say , the objeet i s transparent. Tak e p(x), a n
irreducible polynomial over a field F, and let a be one of its roots in some extension
field E D F. Fo r S take the se t consisting o f al l the elements o f E whic h deriv e
from additio n an d multiplicatio n o f a wit h th e element s o f F\ S i s th e se t o f al l
polynomials (p(a) over F. Fo r T take the set of residue classes T^ X) wher e \j/{x) e
T^x) mean s i/(x) = (f>(x) (mo d p(x)). W e have shown that
(j)(a) = \l/(a) => 4>{x) = yjr{x) (mo d p{x)).
From this Statement it is easy to see that there is a 1-1 correspondence between the
elements of S and T, namely , </>(cc) ^ > T^x). Furthermore , we have
42 4 . RESIDUE CLASSES, EXTENSION FIELDS, AND ISOMORPHISM S

and a simila r resul t hold s fo r multiplication . Thu s th e sum (or product) o f the
images of two elements is the image of the sum (or product) of the elements. This
is what is meant by the essential sameness of two fields.
What do we mean when we say that two mathematical System s have the same
structure? Before we answer this question it is necessary to specify wha t we mean
by a mathematical System . A mathematical System is concerned with fundamenta l
elements of various classes Si, S2,... . Everything eise is defined in terms of these
elements. I n analysis , th e fundamental element s ar e real numbers ; i n geometry,
points, lines , planes, Fo r simplicity, le t us assume tha t the fundamental ele -
ments are all of one dass S. Relations are defined for the elements of S. A relation
R(x\, X2, .. • , xn) i s a Statement involving the elements x\, x 2,..., x n. W e do not
mean to imply by this notation tha t the number of elements in a relation is finite.
For example, the Statement that a sequence of real numbers has a limit is a perfectly
good relation.
To write a relation for specific elements does not mean that it is true.
EXAMPLES. I f S i s the set of integer s an d R(x\,x 2) mean s x\ = x 2 the n
R(5, 5 ) is true bu t R(5, 7) is not. Labe l th e vertices o f a Square in accord wit h
the diagra m o n page 8 . Defin e R(x, y) t o mean tha t th e vertices x, y ar e adja -
cent. /?(1 , 3) i s false , bu t /?(1 , 4) i s true . A n Operatio n ca n be considere d a s
a relatio n connectin g thre e elements . Fo r example, th e Operation o f multiplica -
tion can be considered completely in terms of the relation R(a,b,c) whic h means
a-b = c. The relations of a mathematical System are defined by their special prop-
erties. Thes e ma y be clumsy t o write down. Fo r example, th e special propertie s
of multiplication in a group are given by the postulates on page 3. Using the nota-
tion abov e we see that the third postulate gives the property R(e, a, a) is true. A
mathematical System, then, consists of elements and relations defined among these
elements.
Two mathematical System s S and T ar e said to be isomorphic if there is a 1-1
correspondence betwee n the elements an d relations o f S and T suc h that truth of
a relatio n i n one System implie s trut h o f the corresponding relatio n i n the other
System, and falsity o f a relation in one System implies falsity o f the corresponding
relation in the other.
EXAMPLES. Fo r both S and T take the set of real numbers. Let R(x, y) be the
relation x < y for S. For the corresponding relation R r{x', y f) i n T take x' > y''. S
can be mapped isomorphically on T by the transformation x' — — x.

EXERCISE 4. Le t S be the set of vertices of the cube with the relation R(x, y),
x an d y hav e a n edge in common. Sho w tha t thi s i s isomorphic t o the set T of
faces of the octahedron where the relation R'(x', y r) means that the faces x', y' are
adjacent. (Se e Figure 4.1.) Label the faces of the octahedron accordingly .
For the projective plan e take the relation R(P,l) t o mean that the point P is
on the line l. T o set up an isomorphism between two planes, use central projection
from a point outsid e both. R(P,l) <& R(P',l f). Fo r ordinary Euclidea n plane s
only parallel projection wil l give an isomorphism.
 4.3. ISOMORPHIS M 43

FIGURE4.1

An automorphism is an isomorphism of S with itself. Hence an automorphism

is a 1 -1 mapping of a System onto itself which preserves the validity of the relation s
among its elements. Ever y Syste m has at least one automorphism—the identity —
the mapping which takes each element into itself.
EXAMPLES. Conside r the automorphisms o f the cube which preserve the va-
lidity o f th e relatio n R(x, y) : x, y ar e adjacent . Th e 90 ° rotatio n whic h take s
the vertices 1 ,2,3,4,5,6,7, 8 into the vertices 2,6,7,3,1,5,8,4 i s just such an automor-
phism. We denote it by
1 23 4 5 6 7 8
26 7 3 1 58 4
or simply by (26731584). 2 Thes e automorphisms ar e called the symmetries of the
cube and, as the nomenclature suggests, they are strongly connected with its regulär
geometric properties.
EXERCISE 5 . Determin e th e 4 8 automorphism s o f th e cube . I n th e se t o f
integers let R(x, y) mea n x < y. Th e translations
a— • a + n
are all possible automorphisms of this System. In the same set, we define R(a,b,c)
to mean a is between b and c.
EXERCISE 6 . Fin d al l the automorphism s o f the integers whic h preserve th e
validity of the relation R(a,b,c).
In addition to these examples, we introduce two important illustrations o f nu-
merical Systems:
(1) Th e only automorphisms of the integers which preserve addition are iden-
tity and the mapping x — • — x.
PROOF: Pu t 0' = a. The n 0 + 0 = 0 =>• a + a = a, and consequently, a = 0.
Furthermore, either l ' = l o r l ' = —1 . Fo r put V = b. It follows tha t
2' = ( 1 + 1 ) ' = b + b = 2b, y = ( 1 + 2Y = b + 2b = 3b, etc .
Hence every integer i s a multiple o f b. Therefor e b can only be one of the units,
either+1 o r - 1. D

Compare the notation o n page 8.

44 4. RESIDUE CLASSES, EXTENSION FIELDS, AN D ISOMORPHISMS

(2) Th e field of real numbers possesses no automorphisms other than identity.

PROOF: Th e elements 0 and 1 remain fixed in the automorphisms of any field.
For clearly 0' = 0 and therefore V = a ^ 0 . Consequently ,
l-l = l=^ö- a = a, a ^ 0 =>- a = 1 .
It follows that the integers remain fixed. For
2 = 1 + 1 -* 1 + 1 = 2 , 3 = 2 + l - > 2 + l = 3 , etc. ,
and furthermor e
n + (-w ) = 0 , v

As an immediate consequenc e th e rational number s mus t als o remain fixed: Th e

number x — m/n satisfie s the relation nx = m. Pu t x' — y
nf = n
=> ny — m.
m —m
The Solution of this equation is unique. Consequently, x map s onto itself. D
The ordering of the real numbers is not changed by automorphism, i.e.,
a < b => a! < b\
In derivin g thi s resul t w e may no t use limitin g relation s sinc e w e ar e concerne d
only wit h the field relations, additio n an d multiplication, an d it is only these that
need be preserved. W e assert that limiting relations i n a field of numbers ar e not
always preserved by automorphism. I n proof of this assertion we offer th e follow-
ing:
EXAMPLE. Le t F be the field of numbers a + b\flL where a and b are rational.
We use the result of
EXERCISE7. Sho w that the mapping a+b^/2 - > a—b«j2is a n automorphism
of F (i.e. , show that the mapping preserves addition and multiplication properties).
This automorphism leave s the rational elements fixed. W e can therefore approxi -
mate +Jl as closely a s we please by fixed elements 1 , 1 .4 , 1 .41 , 1 .41 4 , Eve n
so, A/ 2 is not fixed. We see that continuity properties ar e not preserved in this au-
tomorphism o f the field. Nevertheless , i t is not difficult t o prove the contrary fo r
the field of real numbers.
It is sufficient t o show that a > 0 => a! > 0 . To this end we use: a > 0 O 3b
such that b 2 = a. Henc e
a > 0 =^ a = b • b => o! = b' • b' =» a! > 0.
Consequently,
c> d = * c + (-d) > 0 => c + {-\)d' > 0 =» c 7 ></ 7.
Thus, in any automorphism of the field of real numbers the order of the elements is
preserved. An y real number is uniquely define d b y its inequalities with respect to
 4.3. ISOMORPHISM 45

the rational numbers (Dedekind cut). Since the rational numbers remain fixed, it is
clear that each element can go only into itself. The only automorphism is identity.
The field of complex numbers, on the other hand, has at least one nonidentical
automorphism, a + bi o a — bi. I n fact, the set of automorphisms of the complex
number field has the cardinal number
22*0.
Let p{x) b e an irreducible polynomial ove r a field F, an d E b e an extensio n
field of F whic h contains a root a of p(x). W e denote the smallest extension field
between E an d F by F(a), E c F(a) c F. I t has been demonstrated (p . 41) that
F(a) i s isomorphic to the field of residue classes of polynomials mo d p(x) unde r
the mappin g (j)(a) <- > 0(JC) . I f d[p(x)] = n + 1 , it i s unnecessar y t o conside r
polynomials of degree greater than n (by the proof on p. 38). Thus any element of
F(a) ca n be written in the form
Co + c\ot H V c n an
where Co , c i , . . ., c n e F. Th e su m of two suc h elements i s a t once o f th e sam e
form. Th e product can be handled by the method of the followin g
EXAMPLE. Th e polynomial p(x) = x 5 — x — 1 is irreducible ove r the field
R o f rational numbers. Henc e if a i s a root of p(x), al l elements of R(a) ma y be
written as above:
Co + c\(x + - • • 4- C4G? 4.
The product o f tw o suc h elements i s a polynomial i n a o f degree < 8 . I t can be
reduced to the prescribed form by means of the rules
a5=:l+a, a 6
= a + a 2, a 7
= a 2 + a 3, a 8
=a3+a4.
This method is applicable to any irreducible polynomial.
The onl y difficult y i n th e demonstratio n o f th e field properties o f F(a) lie s
in writing the quotient ^(a)/x//(a), x//(a) 7 ^ 0, as a polynomial o f the prescribed
form. Pu t
(f)(a)/\lf(a) = Co + C\OL H h c nan,
where the coefficients co , c\, . .., c n ar e to be determined. We write
(j)(a) = xl/(a)(c 0 + C\OL H h c nan).
If the right side is reduced according to the rules for multiplication of two elements,
we obtain
<p(a) = L 0 + L\OL H h L nan,
where Lo , L i , . . ., L n ar e linear combination s o f th e c t. Equatin g correspondin g
coefficients w e obtai n n linea r equation s i n n unknowns . Thi s Syste m o f linea r
equations always has a Solution since the System of homogeneous equations given
by <j>(a) = 0 ha s only the trivial Solution
co = c\ = • • • = c n = 0 .
We have obtained a method o f handling Operation s o n the elements o f F(a).
This treatment is based on the assumption tha t a i s the root of a given irreducibl e
46 4. RESIDUE CLASSES, EXTENSION FIELDS, AN D ISOMORPHISMS

polynomial. A s yet w e have hardly an y criteria fo r determinin g whethe r a given

polynomial is irreducible. We will formulate suc h criteria later.
EXERCISE 8 . Sho w tha t x 5 — x — 1 is irreducibl e ove r th e field of rationa l
numbers. This result can be derived fro m
EXERCISE 9 . Prov e tha t a polynomial wit h intege r coefficient s possesse s a
factorization int o polynomials with integer coefficients provide d it can be factored
at all.
We have considered several specific example s of isomorphism between fields.
Let u s no w analyz e thi s Situatio n i n complet e abstrac t generality . Assum e tw o
fields, F an d F , t o be given together wit h a n isomorphism whic h assign s to any
a e F a n ä e F. Thu s
a + b = c<&ä + b = c, a -b = c <S> a - b — c.
Therefore
0 + 0 = 0=^ 0 + 0 = Ö.
Hence Ö is the zero element of F. I n the same way we see that 1 i s the unit element
of F. Fro m these results w e shall see that subtraction an d division properties ar e
also preserved. We have
a + (-a)=0, a + (~a) = Ö,
whence
—a = (— a).
Consequently,

( a\ - , a

The isomorphis m betwee n F an d F ca n b e extende d i n a very natura l wa y

to the rings F(x) an d F(x) o f polynomials, ove r the respective fields. Give n the
polynomial
f(x) = ÜQ + a\x H h a nxn,
define
f(x) = äo + ä\x + • • • + a nxn.
Thus we have provided a 1 - 1 correspondenc e betwee n th e elements o f F{x) an d
F(x). I t is an easy matter to show that the isomorphism between F an d F extend s
to F(x) an d F(x), i.e. , to show that
f(x) + g(x)**f(x) + g(x),
f(x) -g(x) ** f(x) - g(x).
The usual properties of polynomials all go over in this way; e.g., a polynomial has
the same degree as its image. Th e irreducibility o f polynomials i s preserved. Fo r
suppose p(x) i s irreducible and p(x) i s not. Then we would have
p(x) = ä(x) • b{x) => > p{x) = a(x) • b(x),
 4.3. ISOMORPHISM 47

which contradicts the hypothesis. W e have shown that F an d F behav e in exactly

the sam e way. Th e differenc e betwee n F an d F i s like a difference o f color— a
very unessential distinction for fields.
THEOREM 4.6 Let p(x) be an irreducible polynomial over F, and p(x) the cor-
responding polynomial in the isomorphic field F. Let a and ä, respectively, be
roots (obtained by any means whatsoever) ofthese polynomials. The isomorphism
between F and F can then be "extended" to the fields F(a) and F(ä). (The map-
ping of F(a) on F(ä) is called an extension ofthe mapping ofthe groundfields if
it contains the given correspondence between the elements of F and F.)
PROOF: Th e elements of F(a) ar e polynomials
n
9 = c 0 + C\OL H h c n-ia ~\
where n = d[p(x)]. Ma p these elements onto the corresponding elements of F(ä) ,
6 = co + c\ä -\ h c n-iän~l.
For addition, we have
0\ + 62 = 0\ + 62.
For multiplication, however , w e may have to reduce the degree. Pu t 0\ = 0i(a) ,
02 = <fo(a) wher e 3[0i(x)], dlfaix)] < n:
0i(*) • <h(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x), d[r(x)] < n,
whence
01 (a) -02(a ) = r(a).
We must prove
01 (ä) -0 2 (ä) =f(x).
Since F(x) an d F(x) ar e isomorphic, we have
01 CO • 02(^) = q(x)p(x) + r(x) = 4>i(x) • 0 2 (x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x).
Putting x — ä w e obtain
0i (ä) -0 2 (ä) = r(ä) ,
and the proof is complete. D
EXAMPLES. Le t us consider isomorphisms of the field R o f rational numbers
with itself. Th e only automorphism o f R i s identity. I t follows tha t any extension
of thi s mappin g b y mean s o f a root o f th e irreducible polynomia l p(x) leave s R
fixed.
(a) Tak e p(x) = x 2 — 2 . Thi s polynomial ha s the roots y/2 an d — \fl i n the
field of real numbers. R(\fl) consist s of elements of the form a + bojl, R(—V2)
of element s o f th e for m a — b*j2, a,b e R. Clearl y bot h extension s giv e th e
same field. B y Theore m 4. 6 thi s prove s a n automorphis m o f R(V2). W e hav e
demonstrated th e resul t o f Exercis e 7 . However , th e metho d doe s no t generall y
give an automorphism. Conside r the example:
48 4 . RESIDUE CLASSES , EXTENSION FELDS , AN D ISOMORPHISM S

(b) p(x) = x 3 — 2 . Le t a = \/ 2 b e the real cube root of 2, and ä on e of the

complex roots. R{y/l) consist s only of real elements but R(ä) contain s element s
which are complex. The fields R(ä) an d R(y/2) ar e isomorphic but clearly not the
same.
(c) Th e points of the complex plane corresponding to the nth root s of unity are
the vertices of a regulär n-sided polygon. This fact allows us to handle polygons in
a very convenient manner.
Consider, for example, the regulär polygon of 1 7 sides.

C
8
It s vertices are given by the roots of the polynomial x17 — 1 ,

\ 8 whic h is reducible in R ( 1 is clearly a root). Factorin g out

jex — 1 we obtai n th e polynomia l p(x) = 1 + x + x 2 +
/l • • • + x 1 5 + x 1 6 . Assum e fo r th e present , withou t proof ,
that thi s polynomia l i s irreducible . Le t s b e th e comple x
number corresponding t o the first Vertex counterclockwis e
from 1 . Th e successive vertices are given by e, s2,..., e 1 6, s 1 1 = 1 . Th e first 1 6
powers o f s ar e obviousl y th e roots o f p(x). No w conside r th e extensio n fields
R(e) an d R(e 3). R(s 3) contain s e since (s 3)6 = s ls = s. Henc e #(£ 3 ) D R(s).
But R(s) D R(s 3) an d therefore R(s) = R(s 3). Th e isomorphism i s actually a n
automorphism which maps 6 e R(s) ont o 9 e R(e) wher e if
9 = Co + C\B + C 2S2 H h Ci 1 5
58

then
9 = c 0 + c xs3 + c 2s6 + • • • + c l5en,
where each power of s abov e the 1 5 th is reduced by using s 1 1 — 1 and p(s) = 0 ;
for example,
(s 3 ) 11 = (s) 33 = (s) 1 6 = _ ( i + s + . . . + £ 1 5 ).
If, instea d o f £ 3, w e tak e 6: u wher e v ^ 0 (mo d 1 7 ) w e ca n find an x suc h tha t
vx = = 1 (mod 1 7) . Henc e (s y)* = s . Therefore , b y the same reasoning a s above,
each value of v gives a different automorphis m of the field R(s). I t will be shown
that the nature of these 1 6 automorphisms permits us to see that the polygon of 1 7
sides possesse s a construction i n th e Euclidean sense . B y th e sam e methods w e
will be able to see that no construction exists for the 1 3-side d polygon.
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/05

CHAPTER 5

Galois Theory

5.1. Splittin g Fields

Let f(x) b e any polynomial over a field F.

THEOREM 5.1 There is an extension field E D F such that f(x) is the product of
linear factors in E. It is then said that fix) split s in the field E.

PROOF: Th e polynomia l fix) possesse s a unique factorizatio n int o irredu -

cible factors in F. Thu s we may write

f(x) = c(x - ot\)(x - a 2) • • • (x - a r)pi(x)p2(x) • • • p 5(x)

where a\, a 2, . . . , ot r ar e the roots o f f{x) i n F an d p\(x), p 2ix), • • •, p s(x) a r e

the irreducible factors o f degree higher than 1 .
If s = 0 then f(x) split s i n F an d w e need g o no further. Otherwis e solv e
px (x) = 0 in any extension field. Le t a be a root of p\ (x). I n the field F(a), p\ ix)
has a linear factor ,
p\(x) = (x -a)q(x).
Now take F(a) a s the ground field and factor f(x) i n F(a). Th e new factorizatio n
possesses a t least on e additiona l linea r factor , namel y x — a, an d perhaps more .
If f{x) split s i n JF(QO , F(a ) i s the desired extensio n field . I f no t we may repea t
the argument and obtain an extension field of Fia) i n which fix) ha s at least one
additional factor. Clearly , the process terminates, and we arrive in a finite numbe r
of steps at a field E i n which fix) split s into linear factors. D

An extension field E D F which is obtained by this method is called a Splitting

field o f fix) ove r F.

THEOREM 5.2 Let fix) be any polynomial in F and Q any extension field Q D F,
in which fix) can be split into linear factors,

fix) = c(x - <xi)(x - a 2) • • • ix - a n).

The smallest field in Qfor which fix) splits is the field E obtained by the method
of Theorem 5.1.

PROOF: I f there is a field £ , Q D E D F, i n which fix) splits , then E mus t

contain th e elements a\, a 2, . . . , a n. Sinc e E contain s F, i t contains al l possibl e
49
50 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

combinations o f sums and products of the a t wit h the elements of F\ i.e. , E con -
tains all polynomials i n the a*. 1 I f this set of polynomials is a field—and w e shall
prove that it is—it is certainly the smallest Splitting field of f(x) betwee n Q and F.
Consider the set of all polynomials
0(ai,a 2 , ...,«* )
with coefficients i n F. W e now prove that this is the field E o f the previous theo-
rem. Since ot\ i s algebraic over F the polynomials (j>{ot\) over F form a field F(pt\).
Furthermore, sinc e F C F(a\), a 2 i s algebraic in F(pt\). (I t satisfies th e equation
f(x) = 0 over F(qt\).) Therefore , th e set of al l polynomials i n a 2 whos e coeffi -
cients are elements of F(ct\) —that is , polynomials in ct\—form a field F(ct\, a 2).
It follows by induction that
E = F(ai,a 2, . . . , a w),

the set of all polynomials in the a t. Not e that this field is, in fact, th e same as the
field obtained in Theorem 5.1 . D
The field E i s called the Splitting field of f(x) betwee n F an d Q.
EXAMPLE. Le t F b e the field R of rational numbers, Q the field of real num-
bers. Take
f(x) = (x 2 - 2)(x 2 - 3 ) = (J C + V2)(x - y/2)(x + V3)(x - V3) .
Clearly, E = / f (V2, A/3 ) an d hence consists of elements
(a + bVl) + (c + dV2)V3 = a + bV2 + cV?> + dV6,
a, b, c,d e R.
The dimension o f th e vector spac e E o f th e polynomials 2 in the GL[ ove r F i s
called the degree of E ove r F. Thu s the degree of 7?(\/2, V3) i s at most 4.
EXERCISE 1 . Sho w that the degree of R(Vl, y/3) ove r R is exactly 4.
THEOREM Let /(JC) be a polynomial over F. Any two Splitting fieldsoff(x) over
F are isomorphic.
We shall prove this result in the more general form :
THEOREM 5.3 If f(x) is any polynomial over F and f(x) is the corresponding
polynomial over an isomorphic field F, and if E is the Splitting field of f(x), E of
f{x), then the isomorphism between F and F can be extended to E and E.
PROOF: Writ e the factorization o f f(x) int o irreducible factors ove r F:
f(x) = c(x - a\)(x -a 2)--'(x- a r)pi(x)p2(x) • • • p s(x)

A polynomial i n two variables JC , y is a polynomial i n y whos e coefficients ar e polynomials i n

x. A polynomial i n the n + 1 variable s x\, x 2,..., x n+\ i s a polynomial i n xn±\ whos e coefficient s
are polynomials i n the n variables x\, x 2,..., x n.
Cf. exampl e on p. 16.
 5.2. AUTOMORPHISMS O F THE SPLITTIN G FIEL D 51

where the pi (x) ar e the irreducible factors o f degree higher than 1 . Since F an d F
are isomorphic this gives the factorizatio n

f(x) = c(x - ä x)(x -ä 2)'-(x- ä r)pl(x)p2(x) • • • p s(x)

of f(x) int o irreducible polynomials over F. Le t n be the degree of f(x) an d r the

number of linear terms in the factorization. I n the proof o f the theorem we use an
induction in the following form :
If a theorem i s true for n an d if the truth o f the theorem for r + 1 implies its
truth for r, then it is true for all r < n.
If r = n, th e polynomial f(x) split s into linear factors i n F. Moreover , f(x)
splits in F i n exactly the same way. Consequently , E — F an d E — F. W e have
established the first step in the induction.
Assume that the theorem has been proved for polynomials having at least r + 1
linear factors , r < n. Suppos e no w tha t f(x) ha s r linea r factor s i n F. Sinc e
P\{x) split s in E, ß\(x) i n E, the y have roots ot r+\ e E, a r+\ e E, respectively .
Construct th e extension fields F(a r+\) an d F(ot r+\) an d extend th e isomorphis m
of F an d F to these fields by means of the transformation a r+\ <+ öT+ T (Theorem
4.6, Chapte r 4). Sinc e the isomorphism o f F(a r+\) an d F(ö^T ) contain s tha t of
F an d F, th e mapping f(x) ^ > f(x) i s retained. F(a r+\) an d F(ct^\) ar e now
taken a s the ground fields. W e again factor f(x) an d f(x) bu t now we obtain a t
least one additional linear factor (x — ar+\) i n F(a r+\) an d (x — ar+\) i n F(a r+\).
Thus f(x) possesse s at least r + 1 factor s i n F(a r + i). Furthermore , it is clear that
E i s the Splitting field of f(x) ove r F(ct r+\) sinc e f(x) split s in E an d certainl y
does no t spli t i n an y smalle r field between E an d F. Th e sam e results appl y t o
f(x). Hence , by the induction hypothesis, the isomorphism between F(a r+\) an d
F(ö7+T) ca n be extended t o E an d E. Sinc e E an d E ar e the respective Splittin g
fields of f(x) ove r F an d f(x) ove r F, th e induction is complete. D

The reason for provin g the more general theorem is that in order to be able to
use induction one must make the Statement of the theorem for r + 1 identica l with
that for n.

5.2. Automorphism s of the Splitting Field

Let F b e a field, E th e Splitting field of f(x) ove r F. Wha t ar e all the auto-
morphisms of E tha t leave F fixed? A partial answer is provided at once by

LEMMA 5. 4 If f(x) possesses a nonlinear irreducible factor p(x) with distinct

roots a\,(X2, • •. ,oi n e E, then by means of the transformation oti ^> <Z/ , i ^ j ,
we obtain an isomorphism of F(oti) with F(ctj). By Theorem 5.3 this isomorphism
can then be extended to give a nontrivial (i.e., nonidentical) automorphism of E.
Since F remains fixed in the automorphism of F(oti) with F{ptj), it remains fixed
in the automorphism of E.
52 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

EXAMPLE. Take/O ) = (J C 2- 2 ) (x2- 3 ) over the field R of rational numbers.

A Splitting of f{x) ca n be obtained in the field of real numbers, for we may write
Pl(x) =x 2-2 = (x + V2)(J C - V2) ,
p2(x) =x 2-3 = (x + V3)(x - V3) .
By means of the roots ± \ / 2 o f p\(x) w e can extend R i n two ways to obtain the
field R(y/2). Th e automorphisms o f R(\fl) ca n then be extended t o the Splittin g
field E o f f(x). No w conside r R(y/l) a s the ground field. R(y/2) canno t be the
Splitting field of pi(x) = x 2 — 3 by the result of
EXERCISE 2. Demonstrat e the impossibility of finding a,b e R suc h that
a + b\fl = V3.
If R{\/2) i s extended by either of the roots ±>/3 of p 2(x), w e obtain the Split-
ting field E = R(y/2, V3) . Thu s we have two automorphisms o f E whic h leav e
R{y/l) fixed. Combinin g our results we obtain four 3 automorphism s of E,
V2^ sfl -y/2 sfl -y/2
V3^ V3 V 3V 3 -y/3
which leave R fixed.
If Q is a n extensio n field of F, i t is conceivabl e tha t th e se t o f al l automor -
phisms which leave F fixed leave other elements fixed than those of F.
IN
EXAMPLE. Conside r th e automorphism s o f th e spher e whic h
preserve the distances of points. All automorphisms which leave
two diametrically opposite points fixed also leave fixed all points
on their common diameter. We shall show that no other elements
than those of F remain fixed if Q is the Splitting field of a certain
very general kind of polynomial over F.
THEOREM 5.5 Factor f(x) into irreducible polynomials over F:
[1] f(x) = c(x -oti){x -a 2)---(x -a r)Pi(x)P2(x)--- P s(x),

where the P((x) arefactors ofdegree higher than 1 . If

(a) E is the Splitting field of f(x) over F, and
(b) no linear factor appears more than once in the Splitting of Pf(x) in E,
i = 1 ,2 , .. . ,n (i.e., the polynomial Pt(x) has no multiple roots in E),
then no elements but those of F remain fixed under all the automorphisms of E
which leave F fixed.
PROOF: W e use an induction in the manner of Theorem 5.3. Pu t n = d[f(x)]
and let r be the number of linear terms in the factorization [1 ] . I f r = n then E = F
and the theorem is trivially true. Assume that the theorem is true in all cases where
there are at least r + 1 linear factors:
'Cf. th e result of Exercise 1 on p. 50.
 5.3. THE CHARACTERISTIC O F A FIEL D 53

If a r+\ i s a root o f P\(x) th e field F ca n be extended t o the field F(a r+\) i n

which f(x) ha s r + 1 linea r factors a t least. T o derive the factorization o f f(x) i n
F(ar+\), first obtai n th e factorization [1 ] of f(x) i n F an d then facto r th e Pt(x)
into irreducible polynomials over F(a r+\). Thi s method yields
f(x) = c(x - QTI ) • • • (x - a r)(x - a r + i)(x - ß x) • • • (x - ß ß)Q\(x) • • • Q v(x)
where each of the Qk(x) i s a nonlinear irreducible polynomial in the factorizatio n
of one of the Pt (x). Now , as we observed in the proof of Theorem 5.3:
(1) E i s the Splitting field of f(x) ove r F(a r+\).
Furthermore, since Qk(x)\P[(x)
(2) Th e Splitting of Qk(x) i n E contain s no repeated factors .
Otherwise a factor would appear more than once in the Splitting of Qk(x) an d hence
in the Splitting of P t (x), contrar y to (b). We have demonstrated that the polynomial
f(x) ove r F(a r+i) satisfie s th e conditions of the theorem. Thus , according to the
induction hypothesis , i f 9 e E i s left fixed by all the automorphisms o f E whic h
leave F(a r+\) fixed, the n 9 e F(a r+\).
Now suppose that 9 remains fixed under all the automorphisms of E that leave
F fixed. I t follow s tha t 9 remain s fixed under al l th e automorphism s tha t leav e
F(a.r+\) e F fixed. Consequently, 9 e F(a r+\). Pu t d[P\(x)] = t. I t follows tha t
9 = c o + ci« r + i H h Q-ia'"}
for som e Co , c\,..., c,_ i e F. Accordin g t o (b ) th e factorization o f P\(x) i n E
contains no repeated factors. Therefor e w e may write
Pi(x) = (x - a r + i)(x - a r+2) '"(x- a r+t),
ar e
where a r+\, ot r+2, . . ., a r+* th e t distinc t root s o f P\(x) i n E. I t follow s b y
Lemma 5. 4 that the t transformation s <x r+\ * > ot r+j provid e automorphism s o f E
which leave F fixed. But, since 9 is fixed under all such automorphisms i t may be
written in t different ways :
9 = Co + cia r+i H h Q_i^~} = C o + cia r+2 H h Q-1^+2

= Co + CiCXr+t H h C r _iQrJ + J .

Thus the polynomial

0 0 ) = (c o - 0 ) + c\x H h c r _ix r_1
of degre e a t most t — 1 possesses r distinct roots i n £ . I t follows tha t (p(x) = 0
whence all the coefficients ar e zero. From 0 — Co = 0 we see that 9 e F. D

5.3. Th e Characteristic of a Field

The elements of a field F form an additive group. Consider the cyclic subgroup
formed b y repeated additions and subtractions of the unit element:
1
1
[*] 1
. . . , -1
- , - , 0 , , 1 + 1 , 1 + 1 + 1 ,... .
54 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

We denote these elements by

4
. . . , - 2 , - 1 , 0 , 1 ,2,3 , . . . ,
respectively. Th e symbol 1 7 , say, now has two possible meanings, the integer 1 7
or the field element
1+1 + h l 1( 7times) .
This ambiguity o f meaning will not lead to confusion sinc e the ordinary rule s fo r
addition an d multiplication o f integers appl y to the corresponding field elements.
Thus
2 + 3 = 5 ; (1 + 1 ) + ( 1 + 1 + 1 ) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 ;
2 • 3 = 6 ; (1 + 1 ) • ( 1 + 1 + 1 ) = ( 1 + 1 + 1 ) + ( 1 + 1 + 1 ) .
We distinguish two cases:
Case 1 . Th e elements in the sequence [*] ar e distinct. The field F i s then said
to be of characteristic zero. Clearl y F contain s a subring which i s isomorphic t o
the integers. Fo r the same reason it contains a subfield, isomorphi c to the rational
numbers, which consists of elements m/n, n ^ 0 .
Case 2. Som e element appears twice in the sequence [*]. In that case, there is
a period, call it d. Th e element denoted by d is zero.
LEMMA 5.6 Ifthe additive cyclic group generated by the unit element of F has a
period d, then d is prime.
PROOF: Assum e d i s not prime. The n d = a • b where a an d b are positive
and less than d. Bu t
d = 0=^ab = 0=> eithe r a = 0 or b = 0
contradicting the hypothesis that d is least. D
Ifthe period ofthe unit element is the prime p, then any nonzero a e F has
the period p.
PROOF: W e may write the sum
a + a + - • • + a (n times)
in the form
1•a+1 • aHh 1 • a = ( 1 + H \-l)a = na.
Thus, since p = 0, p • a = 0. We have only to show that n is least. Bu t this is clear
since
n • a = Ol ^ .
J
^ D
We are at liberty to call anything by any name we please. I f a piece of chalk is called Emma
does that mean it is a human being? (No , it is a seagull.) Cf . Christia n Morgenstern, Die Moewen,
Die Moewen sehen alle aus
Als ob sie Emma heissen
 5.4. DERIVATIVE OF A POLYNOMIAL: MULTIPLE ROOTS 55

If th e nonzer o element s o f a field F hav e th e perio d /? , F i s sai d t o b e o f

characteristic p.

5.4. Derivativ e ofa Polynomial: Multiple Roots

To each polynomial fix) ove r F w e associate another polynomial fix), th e
derivative of f(x). I f
f(x) = a 0 + a\x H h a vxv -\ h a „ /,
we dehne
fix) = a\ + 2a 2x + • • • + va vxv~l + • • • + na nxn~l
where the coefficient va v o f xv~l i s the sum
vav — a v + a v + • • • + a v ( v times) .
The properties o f derivative s whic h ar e familiär fro m analysi s d o not necessaril y
have validity here . Fo r example, fix) = 0 does not always imply that fix) i s a
constant; e.g., if we set f{x) — x 1 7 i n a field of characteristic 1 7 then
1 6
f(x) = 1 7JC = 0 .

The ordinary rules for operating with derivatives, however, remain the same.
It is easy to verify tha t taking the derivative is a linear Operation, i.e.,
f
[af(x) + bg(x)]' = af(x)+bg (x)
where a, b € F.
LEMMA 5.7 For the derivative ofa product we have the usual rule
[f{x) • gix)] f = fix) • gix) + fix) • g\x).
PROOF: I f th e Statemen t o f th e lemm a i s tru e fo r tw o choice s f\ an d f o f
fix), i t is true for any linear combination af\ + fc/2, a,b e F: Assum e
(hg)' = f[g + fig', (f2g)' = fig + hg'-
It follows that
[(fl/i + bf 2)g]' = aifgY + bifgY = iaf + bf)g + (a/ i + bf 2)g'
r
= iaf l+bf2y§ + iaf l+bf2)g .
Since a polynomial i s a linear combination o f powers o f x, i t is sufficien t t o take
fix) t o be a power o f x. Moreover , sinc e the product o f fix) wit h gix) woul d
then be a linear combinatio n o f products o f powers o f x, w e need onl y prove the
lemma for products of two powers of x. Se t
fix) — x r an d gix) = x s.
This yields
ifgY = ix r+s)f = ( r + s)x r+s'1 = irx r~l)xs + x risxs~l). D
This lemma may now be used for the proof of the following:
56 5. GALOIS THEORY

LEMMA 5.8 Let a be a multiple root of fix); then it is a root of fix). Conversely,
ifa is a simple root of fix) then fiot) ^ 0 .
PROOF: T O say that a i s a multiple root of f(x) mean s that the factor x — a
appears at least twice in the factorization o f f(x) int o irreducible polynomials over
F(a). Consequently , we may write
2
f(x) = (x-a) (j>(x)
in the extension field F(a). Applyin g Lemma 5.7 we find that
fix) = 2(x - a)(/>(x) + (x- of)V(jc) ,
whence f\ot) = 0 . Conversely, if a i s a simple root we may write
fix) = (x — a)(f>{x) wher e 0(a) ^ 0 .
Lemma 5.7 yields
f(x) = <Kx) + (x-a)4>'(x)
whence
/'(<*) = 0(<*)^O . D
We now use Lemma 5.8 to determine the nature of those irreducible polynomial s
which may have multiple roots.
Let P(x) b e a polynomia l irreducibl e ove r a field F. Construc t F(a) 9 th e
extension o f F b y a root a o f P(x). I f th e multiplicit y o f a i s greater tha n 1 , it
follows tha t P'(a) = 0 or P\x) i s another equation i n F fo r a. Bu t we assume d
that P(x) i s irreducible; therefor e P(JC)|P'(JC ) (Lemm a 4.3, p. 40). However , by
definition, th e degree o f P'(x) i s less tha n tha t o f Pix) an d necessarily w e have
P'(x) = 0 . Thusifwese t
P(x) = «o + a\x + • • • + a nxn, a n ^ 0,
we obtain
P'(x) = a\ + la-ix + 3ß3X 2 + • • • + na nx
n l
~.
We conclude that P(x) ca n have a multiple root only if
a\ = 2^ 2 = 3^ 3 = • • • = na n = 0.
But n > 2 > 0 and an ^ 0 . Thus if F is a fieldof characteristic zero it is impossible
that na n = 0. This result yields the
COROLLARY An irreducible polynomial over a field of characteristic zero can
have only simple roots.
Assume now that F ha s the characteristic p. Unde r wha t conditions wil l the
polynomial P'{x) b e zero ? I f a vxv i s th e genera l ter m o f P(x), w e mus t hav e
vav = 0. Thus either a v = 0 or v — 0; for each nonzero coefficient a v, th e index v
must be a multiple of p. W e conclude that P(x) ma y be rewritten in the form
P{x) = c 0 + cix p + c 2x2p + • • • + c mx
mp
.
Setting
fix) = co + c\x -\ h c mx m
 5.4. DERIVATIVE O F A POLYNOMIAL: MULTIPL E ROOT S 57

we obtain P(x) = f(x p). I t may very well happen that f(x) ha s the same form as
2

P, i.e. , f(x) = g(x p) o r P(x) = g(x p ) . However, it is clear that there is a largest
integer r for which P(x) ca n be expressed in the form P(x) = 0(x p ) . Evidentl y
0'(jt) 7 ^ 0, for otherwise we would write c/>(x) = \j/{x p) an d hence r woul d not be
the largest. Furthermore, 0(JC) is irreducible, for otherwise
4>(x) = g(x)h(x) = > 0 ( * 'r ) - g(x pr)h(xpr) = P(x),
which contradicts the assumption that P(x) i s irreducible.
To recapitulate: <p(x) is irreducible and 0'(JC ) 7 ^ 0; the roots of 0(JC ) ar e then
all distinct. Tak e for the domain of the discussion the Splitting field of P(JC)0(JC) ,
i.e., the field which contains al l roots of both polynomials. Denotin g th e roots of
<t>(x) by ßi, ß 2, . . . , ß s, w e may write
<P(x) = (x-ß l)(x-ß2)-.-(x-ßs)

where no factor is repeated. P(x) ma y now be written

s
P(x) = l\(x pr -ßi).

It therefore suffice s t o discuss these factors.

Consider the equation
xpr -ßt=0
for th e (p r)th root s o f ß t. W e shal l demonstrat e tha t th e equatio n ha s onl y on e
Solution which must therefore appea r with multiplicity p r. I t is first necessary t o
prove the
PROPOSITION For any elements a, b in a field of characteristic p
(a±b)p =a p
±bp.
PROOF: Writ e the binomial expansion
(a ± b) p = {a± b)(a ±b)---(a±b) (p times )

= a p± ( P
\ap~lb + • • • (±1)' O^aP-ttf + • • • + (±l) p p
b,

(1 < / < p), wher e (^ ) = / , ( p ;1 )! i s a n integer. Sinc e p\i\(p — /)! it follow s

that p\(1 ). I f p i s an odd prime, the proposition follows a t once. I f p i s even, i.e.,
p = 2 , then — 1 = + 1 an d the proof i s complete. The proposition is obviously not
true for nonprimes;5 e.g., the coefficient 6 appears in the expansion of (a+b) 4. D
We can easily generalize the proposition to include the Statement
(a±b)pn =a pn
±b p
\
It has already bee n proved for n = 1 . W e have only to show that the truth of the
Statement for n implies its truth for n + 1 . Assume
(a±b)pn =a pn
±b p
\
p
'Editor's note : Mor e precisely, for a nonprime p , it may happen tha t p\( i).
58 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

Thenfor n + 1 ,
(a ± by" +l = (a± bY"" = [(a ± b)?Y = [a"" ± b»"]" = a^ ± ^" +'.
We note further tha t
[(a + b)+ cY = (a + b) p + c p = a p + b p + c p.
REMARK. I t follows fro m thi s las t resul t tha t i f m i s an integer i n a field of
characteristic p, i.e. ,
ra = 1 + 1 + h l (m times),
then
mP = lP + lP + ... + lP = m .
But this is a simple generalization of the famous Fermat theorem in arithmetic:
mp = m (mo d p).
Now let us return t o the problem: Th e Splitting field of P(x)(j)(x) i s also of char-
acteristic p sinc e 1 e F i s a n element o f an y extension field. I t follows tha t th e
extraction o f th e (p r)th root s o f ßt give s a unique result . Fo r i f oti is a root o f
xp — ßi then af = ßt. Consequently ,
xpr -ßi=x pr
-af =(x-a t)
pr
.
The Splitting of P(x) ma y now be written in the form
-]Pr
P(x) = \y[(x-a i)
•-1=1

which displays the fact that all roots appear with equal multiplicity p r.
EXERCISE 3. Verif y that the multiplicity p r o f the roots of an irreducible poly-
nomial P{x) ove r a field of characteristic p is the exponent of the greatest common
divisor of the nonconstant terms of P(x).

5.5. Th e Degree of an Extension Field

Assume given a ground field F an d let E b e any extension field of F. Fo r the
present disregard the general multiphcation in E an d utilize only multiphcation by
elements o f F. Fro m this point of view E i s a vector Spac e over F: namely , E i s
an additive commutative group, closed with respect to multiphcation b y element s
of F, an d i f a, b e F, A, B e E, the n th e postulate s o f a vector spac e (p . 1 5 )
are automatically satisfied . Th e dimension of this vector Space is called the degree
of E ove r F an d is denoted b y (E/F). I f the dimension i s infinite, th e degree is
said to be infinite. I f E i s spanned by som e finite number n o f its elements, the n
(E/F) < n (se e the corollary o n p. 1 7) . Moreover , i f these elements ar e linearly
independent, the degree is precisely n. T o say that E is spanned by a certain number
n of its elements,
co\, a>2, ... , c o n,
 5.5. THE DEGREE O F AN EXTENSION FIEL D 59

means tha t an y elemen t A i n E ca n be expressed a s a linear combinatio n

A = a\co\ + a 2(o2 H h ancon
where a\ , a 2, . . . , a w e ^ - W e then sa y tha t th e element s co\ , co2, . •. ,co n generate
the field E. If , further , th e &> ; are linearl y independent , the y ar e sai d t o for m a
linear basis o r simpl y a basis o f E ove r F . I n that case, (E/F) = n.
E X A M P L E . Le t F b e the field of real numbers, E th e field of complex numbers .
E consist s o f number s o f th e for m a + bi wher e a, b ar e real . Thu s / an d 1 are
generators o f E. Bu t i n addition ,
a + bi = 0 = » a = & = 0 ;
/ an d 1 are linearly independent . W e conclude thereb y tha t (E/F) = 2.
This example i s a special cas e o f
LEMMA 5. 9 Let P(x) be any irreducible polynomial in F, d[P(x)] = n. The
extension E = F(a), obtained by adjoining a root a of P(x) to F, possesses the
generators
l , a , a 2 , ... 1 n
9a - .

Indeed, ever y elemen t o f F(a) ca n be written i n the for m

n
9 = c 0 + c\a H h c n-ia ~\
where c t e F. Thes e generator s ar e linearl y independent , fo r otherwis e a woul d
be the root of a polynomial o f degree lower than n—but thi s is impossible (Lemm a
4.5, p. 40). I t follows tha t they for m a basis an d therefore (E/F) = n.
THEOREM 5.1 0 Let F be a ground field, E an extension of F, Q an extension of
E;QD E D F. It follows that
(Q/E)(E/F) = (Q/F).
PROOF: Conside r first th e case s wher e on e o f th e factors i s infinite :
(a) Assum e (Q/E) i s infinite . I n tha t cas e i t i s possibl e t o find a s man y
elements a s w e please , al l linearl y independen t wit h respec t t o E. Th e
same element s ar e manifestl y independen t wit h respec t t o F sinc e E D
F. I t follows tha t (Q/F) i s infinite .
(b) Assum e (E/F) i s infinite . I t i s the n possibl e t o choos e i n E a s man y
elements a s w e please , al l linearl y independen t wit h respec t t o F. Bu t
these ar e als o elements o f Q an d consequentl y ( ß / F ) i s infinite .
In thes e case s ther e i s n o produc t (Q/E)(E/F) i n th e prope r sense , bu t w e agre e
to define i t so as to include (a ) an d (b ) in the general Statemen t o f th e theorem .
Assume no w tha t (E/F) = n\ co\, 0)2,..., co n is a basi s o f E/F. 6 Similarly ,
let (Q/E) = m , an d le t Q\, ß 2 » . . . , £2 m be a basis o f Q/E. Ever y 6 e Q ca n b e
expressed a s a linear combinatio n
0 = <x\Q + a 2& H h a mQm,

6
Read: " £ ove r F" for " E / F . "
60 5. GALOIS THEORY

where oti e F . Eac h at i s likewise expressible as a linear combination over F ;

at = ancoi + ai2ü)2 H h a incon, a tj e F.
Combining these results, we obtain
mn

i.e., the elements ö^ß/ ar e nm generators of Q with respect to F. W e have only to

prove that they constitute a basis of £2/F . Fo r the proof tha t the coiQj ar e linearly
independent, se t
ai\coiQ\ + ai2ü)2&\ + • • • + a m\co\Qm + • • • + a mnconQm = 0 .
Rewriting, we obtain
(ßncoi + h a Xno)n)Qi H h (amicoi H h ß mw ^ w )ß m = 0
where the coefficients o f the Q t ar e now certain element s o f E. Sinc e the Q t ar e
linearly independent with respect to E, thes e coefficients mus t all be zero, i.e.,
ai\(JL>\ + Cli2(J02 + • • • + CLinCDn = 0 , / = 1 , 2 , . . . , m.

But the cot ar e independent wit h respect to F ; w e conclude that each a^ = 0 and
the proof is complete. D
COROLLARY IfQDEDFand (E/F) = ( ß / F ) , then Q = E.
This is a direct consequence of the following :
PROPOSITION
(E/F) = 1 => E = F .
PROOF: I f the degree of E/F i s one, then E i s generated by any singl e de -
ment whic h i s independent (i.e. , nonzero). Bu t 1 is independent; therefor e ever y
dement of E i s in F. Consequentl y E = F . D
This corollary ca n also be obtained a s a special case of the corollary t o Theo-
rem 2.5 (p. 17).

5.6. Grou p Characters

Given a field E and a multiplicative group G, then a function X(x) which takes
on values in F fo r arguments in G is called a character provided:
(a) X(x) ^ 0 for some x e G ,
(b) A.(*3 0 = Hx)Hy).
It is easy to establish that X(x) ^ 0 for an y dement o f G . Fro m (a) there is a
c e G such that X(c) ^ 0 . If for some a e G,\(a) = 0 , the n
_1
X(c) = Ä(a)A.(fl c) = 0 ,
a contradiction.
 5.6. GROU P CHARACTER S 61

LEMMA 5.11 Let X\(x), X 2(x), ..., X n(x) be n distinct characters of G with val-
ues in E. Then ifa linear combination
c\k\{x) + c2X2(x) H \-c nXn(x) = 0
for all x G G, itfollows that C[ — 0, / = 1 , 2, . . ., n.
PROOF: Le t us assume the contrary, tha t there are nontrivial linea r relation s
among the Xt. Selec t one of these for which the number of nonzero coefficients i s
least, say
[1] c\ki(x) + c 2X2(x) H h crXr(x) = 0
where c * ^ 0 , / = 1 , 2, . . ., r. Evidentl y r / 1 , for c\X\(x) = 0 implies tha t
c\ = 0 since A.I(JC) is never zero. Therefore r > 1.
The relation [1 ] is assumed to be true for all x e G. Consequently , it must be
true if we Substitute for x an y argument in G. Replacing x by ax where a e G , we
find
[2] ciXi(a)Xi(x) + C2X2(a)\ 2(x) H h crXr(a)Xr(x) = 0 .
Multiply by Ar(a) in [1] and subtract the result from [2] . This yields the relation
[3] c\[\\(a) - X r(a)]Xi(x) -\ \- c r_i[Ar_i(a) - X r(a)]Xr_i(x) = 0
which is shorter than [1 ] . If it can be shown that not all these coefficients ar e zero,
then this result contradicts the assumption that r is least and we are through.
We have assumed tha t X\(x) an d Xr{x) ar e distinct functions. Henc e there is
an a e G for which X\(x) ^ X r(a). Le t this be the a we have chosen above . I n
that cas e c\[X\(a) — Xr(a)] ^ 0 and [3] is a nontrivial relatio n whic h i s shorte r
than [1 ] . D
REMARK. Th e symbol a— > ä for a mapping is replaced by a functional no-
tation; in particular, the image of a field dement a through an automorphism a is
denoted by a(a). Clearl y
cr(l) = 1 ^ 0
and a(xy) = o(x)o(y). Therefor e a i s a character fo r the multiplicative grou p
consisting of the nonzero elements of the field. Lemma 5.1 1 provides us with the
important
THEOREM 5.12 Let E be afield, andco\, &>2, .. . ,co n distinct automorphisms ofE.
Then if
c\<D\(x) + c 2o)2(x) H h cncon(x) = 0
for all x G E, itfollows that C{ — 0, / = 1 , 2, . . ., n.
LEMMA 5.1 3 The set F ofall elements of E which remain fixed under the auto-
morphisms 0[ (i.e., the set consisting ofall a G E such that at (a) — a) is a subfield
ofE.
62 5. GALOIS THEORY

PROOF: I t is only necessary to show closure with respect to addition, subtrac-

tion, multiplication, and division. We have
ae F a,
' Sa u\^Oi(a±b)=a±b^a±be F.
be F Gi(b) = b '
Similarly, we perceive that ab e F and, if b ^ 0 , a/b e F. D
If F is the fixed field under a set of automorphisms of £, what is the degree of
E/Fl A n exact answer cannot be given unless we assume something further abou t
the automorphisms. However, we shall prove
THEOREM 5.1 4 IfF is the field consisting ofthe elements fixed under n distinct
automorphisms o\, a2, . . . , o n of E, then (E/F) > n.
REMARK. I t may very well happen that the degree of E over the field F fixed
under only one automorphism is already infinite. Fo r example:
EXERCISE 4. Le t E = F(x), the field of rational functions ove r F. 7 (W e shall
hereafter denot e the set of polynomials ove r F by F[x].) Sho w that the mapping
/ ( * ) - > / ( * + 1 ) is an automorphism o f the field E an d prove further tha t th e
fixed elements under this automorphism are the constants (i.e., the elements of F).
PROOF O F THEORE M 5.14: Assum e (E/F) = r < n and let CD\ 9 CD 2, . . . , co r
be a basis of E/F. Accordingl y there are ct e F for each 6 e E such that
[1] 6 = c\CD\ + c2co2 H h crcor.
The system
r
£i(7i(ä)i) + faiicoi) H h i;ncrn(coi) = 0
[2]
[l;i(Tl(C0r) + ^lG 1 {(x)r) H + SnOnicOr) = 0

of r linear homogeneous equations in n unknowns, n > r, has a nontrivial Solution

£1, £2» •••,£/! in £. Multipl y th e / th equation in [2] by ct e F. Sinc e c t is in F,
<jj(ci) = Cj 9 j = 1, 2 , . . . , «. Thu s we obtain
§i<ri(ciä>i) H h ? W O-„(CIÖ)I) = 0

[3]
Uiö*i(crö>r) H h ^o-„(cr ^ r ) = 0.
By adding the left side s in [3] we find
W o ) +$2*2(0 ) + ' • ' +$nOn(ß) = 0
where $i , $2, • • •» ?« a re n ot a H z e r o an d 0, given by [1], may be any elemen t of
E. Bu t this is contrary to the result of Theorem 5.1 2 an d therefore th e hypothesis
r < n is inadmissible. D
The rational functions ove r F are the symbolic quotient s of polynomials (p(x)/\ls(x), \jf{x) 7^
0, which ar e defined t o equate, add, and multiply in the same manner a s fractions .
 5.7. AUTOMORPHIC GROUPS OF A FIELD 63

EXAMPLE. Tak e E = Rix), th e field of rational functions ove r the field R of

rational numbers. Consider the result of

EXERCISE 5. Sho w that all six mappings

l
fto^fW. /(I) , /<!-,) , f(^-), f(^), f'"~
are automorphisms of R(x). (Not e that these automorphisms form a group.)8
If F i s th e fiel d consistin g o f th e element s whic h remai n fixed unde r thes e
automorphisms, then (E/F) > 6 . What are the elements of Fl I t is easy to verify ,
in particular, that
(x2-x + l) 3
7 W
" X 2 C _ ) 2
( J1

is i n F . Clearl y al l rationa l function s o f J(x) ar e i n F . I f w e denot e th e field

consisting o f th e rationa l function s o f J(x) b y FQ, we hav e E D F D F 0 an d
therefore (E/FQ) > 6 .
Now, clearly , E = Foix)', i.e., E ca n b e obtaine d fro m F 0 b y adjoinin g x.
Manifestly, x satisfie s a sixth-degre e equatio n ove r FQ, namely x 2(x — \)2J =
(JC2 - x + l) 3 . Consequently , F / F 0 > 6 (Lemma 5.9). I t follows tha t (E/F 0) =
6. Furthermore , th e equatio n fo r x i s irreducibl e sinc e b y Lemm a 5. 9 i t canno t
satisfy a n irreducible equation of lower degree. Sinc e F 0 = F (cf . th e proposition
on p . 60 ) w e hav e foun d al l rationa l function s whic h remai n fixed unde r thes e
automorphisms.
Similarly, for the fixed field F o f the subgroup of automorphism s
(a) f{x) - > fix), fil/x), iE/F) = 2 , and F consist s of the rational func -
tions of J = x + l/x.
(b) fix) - > fix), / ( l — x), iE/F) = 2 , an d F consist s o f th e rationa l
functions o f J = JC( 1 — x).
EXERCISE 6. Determin e the nature of the elements fixed under the subgrou p
of automorphisms o f order 3: fix) - > / ( x ) , /(rr*) » /(~)-
1—JC>

5.7. Automorphi c Groups of a Field

PROPOSITION T/Z ^ ^^ o/^// automorphisms ofa field or, for that matter, an y raar/z-
ematical System S is a group.
REMARK. Th e product of two automorphisms er ix) an d rix) i s defined t o be
the mapping cr(r(*)) o f 5 into itself. We denote this product briefly b y a z.
PROOF:
(a) Closure . Sinc e th e trut h valu e o f a relation amon g th e element s o f S i s
preserved b y automorphisms , i t i s preserved b y thei r products . An y produc t ox
is a 1 - 1 mapping ; for sinc e the argument T(JC ) runs through all the elements o f 5 ,
so must er (T(JC)) and , also , since the images of distinet elements o f S by r an d er

'Cf. Exercis e 1 , p. 1 .
64 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

are distinct, th e images by a r ar e distinct. W e conclude tha t the product o f two

automorphisms is again an automorphism.
(b) Th e associative law has already been proved for functions i n general.9
(c) Ther e is an identity / suc h that la = a. Thi s is the automorphism I(x) =
x whic h maps each element of S onto itself.
(d) T o each automorphism o o f S there is an inverse a~ x whic h associates to
each element an image by the inverse mapping; i.e., if er (x) = ) / w e define a~ x by
a~l(y) = x. Thu s
o~l(p(x)) = x = I(x).
The invers e mappin g i s clearly a n automorphism sinc e a relation i s true o r fals e
for image s throug h a aecordin g t o the validity o f the same relation fo r their an-
tecedens. It follows that the inverse mapping preserves the truth value of relations
in 5.
D
Consider a field E together with a finite number of its automorphisms a\, 02,
. . . , a n, and let F be the subfield consistin g of the fixed elements under the or,. W e
have proved (E/F) > n. I f it is possible t o find more automorphism s o f E fo r
which F remain s fixed, then this result may be improved. W e may immediately
improve the result by including all possible products of the at; for, if a e F is fixed
under two automorphisms o an d r, it is fixed under the product a r, that is,

x{a) — a \
There are two possibilities:
(1) W e may in this manne r be able to obtain an y number o f automorphism s
we please. In that case (E/R) — 00 .
EXAMPLE. Le t R(x) b e the field of rational function s ove r the field R of ra-
tional numbers . Fro m th e automorphism a r , f(x) - > / ( * + 1 ) , we obtain the
automorphisms
cr[f(x)] = f(x + l),
o2[f(x)] = f(x + 2),

on[f(x)] = f(x + n),

which are all distinct. The degree of R(x) ove r R is therefore infinite .
(2) O n the other hand, the set of all possible products of the a t ma y be finite.
In that event they form a group from the result of
9
See p. 2.
10
Cf. Exercis e 4, p. 62.
 5.7. AUTOMORPHIC GROUP S O F A FIELD 65

EXERCISE 7. Prov e that a finite subset of a group is a subgroup provided only

that it be closed with respect to multiplication.
In any case we may assume that the set of automorphisms a t i s a group G. Fo r
if not, we may append al l possible products of the a t; i f the identity is not amon g
these i t als o i s added ; furthermore , th e inverse s ma y b e adjoine d sinc e the y to o
leave F fixed. Once we arrive at a group it is impossible by this method to improve
our information abou t the degree of E/F an y further. I n faet, w e have obtained a
complete result:
THEOREM 5.15 Let E be afield, and a\, a 2, . . . , o n a group G of automorphisms
of E. If F is the fixed field ofthis group, then (E/F) — n precisely.
REMARK. Conside r the set consisting of the automorphisms

Since these are n distinct elements of G , it follows tha t they are merely the a's i n
another arrangement. Consequently , if
[1] a = o r 1 ( 0 ) + G r 2 ( ö ) + .--+or fI(0)

where 9 e £ , w e conclude that a e F\ i.e. , a is a fixed point. For we may write

nn n

cfi(a) = ai^2<y k(9) = Y^ aiak(9) = ^,o k(0) = a.

k=\ k=i k=\
Furthermore, all elements of F ma y be described in the form [1 ] . For by Theorem
5.12 there is a 0 G E fo r which a ^ 0. Therefore i n order to express any b G F i n
the form [1 ] , we have only to multiply 9 by b/a.
PROOF: Le t a\,ci2, ... ,ot m b e any m elements of E. Th e theorem is proved
by showin g that if m > n th e a's ar e linearly dependen t an d hence (E/F) < n.
From Theore m 5.1 4 i t the n follow s tha t (E/F) = n an d consequentl y tha t th e
group G contains all automorphisms which leave F fixed.
Consider the System
x\0\((X\) +^2^1 (^2 ) H \-x mai(am) = 0
[2]
Ui<r„(ai) + x 2an(a2) + h x man(am) = 0
of n linear equations in m unknowns, m > n. Thi s System has a nontrivial Solution
x\,x*i,... ,x m (Theore m 2.1 , p. 13) with say x\ 7 ^ 0. Clearly kx\, Xx 2,..., A,x m is
also a Solution for an y X e E. Selec t X so that Xx\ = 9 where 9 gives a nonzero
a G F by [1]. We may assume that x\ = 9 in our Solution.
Applying a t t o the System [2] we obtain
Oi(x\)Oi<jk(ai) + cr i(x2)cri<yk(a2) H h cri(xm)<TiCrk(am) = 0,
k = 1 , 2, . . ., n.
Since oio^ (k = 1 , 2 , . . ., n) ar e all n automorphisms , thi s is the same System as
[2] where x\, x 2i..., x m ar e replaced b y 07(*i), <Ji(x 2),..., <Ji(x m), respectively .
66 5. GALOIS THEORY

Consequently, <T Z-(JCI), . . ., <Ji(x m) i s als o a Solution o f [2] . Furthermore , fo r an y

System of homogeneous linea r equations the sum of two Solutions is again a Solu-
tion. It follows that x[, x' 2,..., x' m where
n

Xj = Y^ ai(xj)> j = l,2,...,m,

is als o a Solution . Th e Solutio n i s nontrivial , fo r puttin g x\ = 0 w e obtai n x[ =

Ö ^ O . Now , identity appear s amon g the Gt since they form a group. Therefor e on e
of the equations i n [2 ] takes the for m
x[a[ + x' 2a2 H h x'mam = 0
where x\ e F , / = 1 , 2 , . . ., m. Th e a's ar e linearly dependent . D
THEOREM 5.1 6 Let G be afinite group of automorphisms G\, G 2, . . . , o n of the
field E, and denote by F the fixed field of the G t. Then any element a of E is
algebraic over F; i.e., a is the Solution of apolynomial equation over F.
PROOF: Conside r o\(a), G 2(a),..., G n(a), th e image s o f a throug h th e el -
ements o f G . Pic k ou t th e a t = a t(a) whic h ar e distinct , sa y a\, oii,... , a r,
r < n. Manifestl y a itsel f i s on e o f th e a , sinc e / i s on e o f th e a t. No w
<7zai(ü0, <Ji<72(u), • • • ? <JiGr(ß) a re a U differen t sinc e th e image s o f differen t ele -
ments b y the sam e automorphis m ar e distinct. Bu t thes e ar e part of th e se t consist -
ing of G tG\ (a), G tG2 (a),..., G tGn (a) an d therefore ar e merely the distinct element s
a\, « 2 , . . . , oi r in anothe r arrangement . Se t
n

<I>(X) = Y\( X ~ a
k).
k=\
It follows tha t
rr

Gi((/)(x))Y\vi(x ~ <Xk) = Y\( X ~ G

i(ak)) = <I>(X).
k=\ k=\
Since the coefficients o f (j)(x) ar e unchanged by the automorphisms in G, we con-
clude that they are elements of F. Bu t </>(x) ha s the roots ai, a 2,..., a r o f which
one is a. Thi s is the desired conclusion. D
COROLLARY The polynomial 0 (x) over F is even irreducible.
Let f(x) b e any polynomial over F wit h the root a, f(a) = 0 , Th e G[ d o not
change the coefficients o f f(x). Therefor e
Gi(f(a)) = f(G i(a)) = f(a i) = 0
whence f(x) ha s atleast the roots a\, a 2,..., a r an d d[f(x)] > r. (p(x) is then the
polynomial o f least degree for a an d is therefore irreducibl e (Lemm a 4.4, p. 40).
Thus for any a e E the method of this theorem provides an irreducible polynomial
cp(x) over F which has « a sa root .
We note that the polynomial for a doe s not have a multiple root and hence the
case we have discussed (p . 55 ff.) canno t occur under the conditions for Theore m
 5.7. AUTOMORPHIC GROUPS OF A FELD 67

5.16. If the roots of an irreducible polynomial are all simple, the polynomial is said
to be separable. I n general, any polynomial will be called separable if each of its
irreducible factor s i s separable . Whe n the roots o f a polynomial ar e simple, it is
certainly separable . However , this is not a necessary condition since , e.g., [<t>(x)] 2
is separable. It will be recalled that Theorem 5.5 on fixed fields requires the use of
separable polynomials.

EXAMPLE. Conside r th e polynomial f(x) = x 4 — 2 over th e rational field

R. Le t us construct the Splitting field E o f f(x). I n the field of complex number s
x4 — 2 splits into the factors

(JC - l/2)(x + V2)(x - iy/2)(x + iy/2).

We conclude tha t E = R(y/2, it/l) = R(y/2), /) . Wha t degre e i s th e Splittin g

field? We have
(E/R) = (E/R(^2))(R(</2)/R).

(E/R(y/l)) = 2 since / satisfies the irreducible equation x1 + 1 = 0 of second

degree over the field R(\/2). No w V2 is irrational; for suppose there were integers
m, n such that A/ 2 = m/n wher e m and n are relatively prime. We may then write
2 = m 2/n2. Sinc e the quotient is an integer, we must have n2 = 1 whence m2 = 2 .
But this implies that A/2 is an integer, which is clearly not true. Thus \[2 canno t be
rational. It follows tha t x4 — 2 cannot be the product of two quadratic factors ove r
R. Consequently ,

(R(y/2)/R) = 4 an d (E/R) = 8.

What are all automorphisms of E which leave R fixed? We have shown (p. 44)
that the rational numbers always remain fixed. Hence we have only to find all au-
tomorphisms of E. Sinc e f(x) i s separable, Theorem 5.5 teils us that no elements
but thos e o f R remai n fixed. Bu t th e se t o f al l automorphism s i s a group an d R
is the fixed field of this group. W e conclude that there are exactly eight automor -
phisms. It is not difficult t o write these down:
n i EXERCISE 8 . Demonstrat e tha t thi s grou p o f eigh t
I n i automorphisms i s isomorphi c t o th e grou p o f sym -
0 m i metries o f a Square . Denot e b y er th e automorphis m
a1 -n i powers o f er form a cycli c
subgroup o f order 4. I f we denote by r th e automorphis m
a3 -in i
{y/2, i) -+ (y/2, - i ) , then w e can describe al l produets in
X n —i terms o f o an d r b y mean s o f the rules o 4 = / , r 2 = / ,
ax in —i xo — cr 3r, r<7 2 = a 2 r , rcr 3 = ax.
a2x -n —i
ah -in —i
 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

Let us determine all subgroups. These are elassified a s follows:

(1) Orde r 8 Gg : the entire group

(2) Orde r 4 (a ) th e cyclic group

C4 : / , or, (7 , <T

(b) th e four groups (all elements have period 2)

G41 : I, <7 , T, O X

G42 '. I, <J , <7T, O X

(3) Orde r 2 G 2 i: / ,a2

G 22 : /, T
G23: I,crr
2
G 24 : I,cr r
3
G 25 : / , a r

(4) Orde r 1 Consist s of the dement / alone .

The relations among the subgroups are indicated by the scheme

The subfield s o f E whic h correspon d t o thes e subgroup s ar e interrelate d i n

the same manner except, however , that the larger field corresponds t o the smalle r
group. Thus if Af is the order of a subgroup and F i s the corresponding field, then
(E/F) = N an d hence (F/R) = 8/N.
A group o f automorphism s o f a field determines a subfiel d consistin g o f th e
elements lef t fixed. Th e converse is not true; not every subfiel d ca n be describe d
as th e fixed field o f a grou p o f automorphisms . Fo r example , th e field R{y/l)
has only th e identity automorphism . Consequently , R canno t be described a s the
fixed field of some group of automorphisms o f R{y/l). Wha t is the distinguishing
characteristic of the fixed field of an automorphic group ?
 5.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF GALOIS THEORY 69

5.8. Fundamenta l Theorem of Galois Theory

If F is the fixed field of a finite group of automorphisms of the field E, w e say
E is normal over F o r F is normal under E an d write E/F i s normal.
THEOREM 5.17 E/F is normal ifand only ifE is the Splitting fieldofaseparable
polynomial over F.
PROOF: Sufficiency. Assume E is the Splitting field of a separable polynomial
f(x) ove r F. The n b y Theore m 5.5 , F i s th e fixed field under th e grou p o f al l
automorphisms whic h leav e at least every element o f F fixed. Therefor e E/F i s
normal.
Necessity. Assum e E/F i s normal, (E/F) = n. The n there is a basis co\, o>2,
. . . , o) n of E/F an d E i s obtained fro m F b y adjoinin g th e &>;: E = F(co\, a>2,
. . . , co n). Since (E/F) i s finite, each cot i s a root of an irreducible separable poly-
nomial pt(x) ove r F (Theore m 5.16, p. 66). The polynomial
fix) = p\(x)p 2(x)'--pn(x)

splits in E since each factor splits in E. Moreover , among the roots are co\, CL>2, • •.,
con. Hence no smaller field than E ca n possibly be the Splitting field of f(x). Th e
proof is complete. D
COROLLARY 5.18 IfE/F is normal and ifQ is any field intermediate between E
and F, F C Q C E y then E/Q is normal.
PROOF: E is the Splitting field of a polynomial f(x) ove r F and consequently
is the Splitting field of the same polynomial over £2. D
COROLLARY 5.1 9 If G is the group of E/F (i.e., F is the fixed field under the
group G of automorphisms of E), then there is a 1-1 correspondence between the
subgroups ofG and the subfields of E which contain F:
S C G O 3Q such that F C Q C E where S is the group ofE/ Q.
The proof is obvious.
EXAMPLE. (Cf . wit h exampl e o n p . 67. ) Conside r th e field E = R(J/2, i)
over the field of rational numbers. Eac h intermediate field between E an d R cor -
responds t o a subgrou p o f G . Thu s ther e ar e thre e subfield s o f degre e 2 corre-
sponding to the subgroups of order 4 and five subfields o f degree 4 corresponding
to the subgroups o f order 2. I t is easy to find the fields of degree 2: R(i) <e > G4,
R(V2) *± G41 , R(iy/2)<- > G42. O f degree 4 we have the fields R(i, y/l) o G 2u
R(V2) *> G 22, R(iy/2) ** G 24. However , i t is not alway s easy t o teil on sigh t
which field corresponds to a given group. What are the fixed fields of G23 and G25?
The fixed field o f G2 3 consist s o f element s whic h ar e no t change d b y a r ,
(v^2, i) - » (i\/2, —i). The general element of E ma y be put in the form
9 = c 0 + ciy/2 + C2V2 + c 3(J/2)3 + c 4i
+ c 5i^/l + c 6iV2 + c 7 i(v^) 3 ,
70 5 . GALOIS THEOR Y

whence
(0) = c 0 + c xiV2 + c 2(-y/2) + c 3(-iV2?) + c 4(-i) + c 5Ü2
+ c 6 /V2 + c 7 (-v / 23).
If 6 remains unchanged
Co arbitrary, c-i = 0, c 3 = — c-j, Q = 0 , ce arbitrary.
Namely,
6 = c 0 (l + i)\/2 + ceiy/l + c 3 (l - i)Vl?

= co( l + i)</2 + f [ d + i)V2} 2 ~ | [ ( 1 + 0 ^ 2 ] 3

whence (1 + / ) ^ 2 = tf^% generate s the field.

The interrelations o f th e subfield s an d their group s i s given by th e followin g
scheme:
E = R( AJ2,i)

EXAMPLE. Conside r th e field R{y/l) whic h i s o f degre e 3 ove r R an d ye t

possesses n o other automorphis m tha n th e identity. Th e number -s/l satisfie s th e
irreducible equation x3 — 2 = 0 over R. Fro m Theorem 5.17 it is clear that we must
go to the Splitting field of thi s equation i n order to obtain a better underStanding .
The other Solution s o f th e equation ar e co\fl an d co 2^/l wher e CD i s a root o f th e
irreducible polynomial JC 2 + J C + 1 = 0 ove r R(y/2). Thu s we wnte
x3 -2 = (x- y/l)(x - co\/2)(x - co 2^2)
whence E = R(y/2 9 co). I t follow s tha t (E/R) = 6 . Ther e ar e the n exactl y
six automorphism s o f £" , fo r E i s a Splittin g field an d therefor e normal . Thes e
automorphisms ar e determined b y th e manne r i n whic h the y transfor m th e roots
 5.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF GALOIS THEORY 71

of the above equations. Th e root \/2 ca n have only three possible images, CD only
two. Ther e are si x possible combinations an d sinc e there ar e si x automorphism s
all combinations occur. The automorphic group is given by the table:
I a a2 X ax a2x
^2 n o)\fi co2^/2 1/2 £«v2 co2^/2
CO CD CD CO CO1 CO1 a>2
The group multiplication follows the rules
o I, x 2 = / ; ax = a 2x, xa 1
= ax.
It is easy to verify that this is the group of symmetries of the triangle (cf. Exercis e 1,
P.D.
The group of E/R possesse s one subgroup of order 3, G3: I,a,a 2; an d three
subgroups of order 2,
G21: / , r ; (722 : /, ox\ G23 : /, a 2x.
The subgroup s correspon d t o the one quadratic field R(co) and three cubic fields,
R(y/2), R(coy/2), and R(co 2^/2), respectively.
EXERCISE 9 . Determin e the automorphisms o f the polynomial for which \fl
is a root.
Consider th e genera l proble m o f a n arbitrar y irreducibl e cubi c Pix) ove r a
field F wit h distinct roots a\, 01 2, a 3. Th e Splitting field
E = F(ai,a 2,a3)

is in general of degree six . If , however , the equation alread y split s in F(o?i) , then
(E/F) = 3 (Lemma 5.9) . I n this specia l cas e the group of E/F bein g o f prirne
order i s therefor e cycli c an d consists o f th e powers o f on e demen t I,a,cr 2. W e
conclude that a mus t permute the roots cyclically; for all other permutations would
leave one root fixed, and hence would consis t o f a t most the transposition o f two
roots and be therefore o f period 2. Thus a i s represented either by the permutation
(231) or (31 2 ) anc* ^ere ar e no other possibilities.
EXERCISE 1 0 . Fin d th e irreducibl e polynomia l ove r R wit h roo t 2 co s ^f.
Show tha t thi s i s a cubic o f th e abov e specia l type . (Hint: Us e sevent h root s o f
unity.)
On the other hand, suppose F(a\) i s not the Splitting field. Since x — a\ ma y be
factored ou t in F(ai) , w e must have (E/F{ct\)) = 2 and consequently (E/F) =
6. Ther e mus t the n b e si x automorphism s o f E whic h leav e F fixed. Thes e ar e
determined by the way they permute the roots. Since there are six permutations of
three elements, all permutations ar e possible. Thu s we have shown that the group
of automorphisms o f the Splitting field of an irreducible cubic is either the triangle
group or the cyclic group of order 3. N o other cases occur. W e shall see that this
result implies the solvability of the general cubic by radicals.
72 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

For the irreducible equation of fourth degre e there are 24 possible permutation s
of th e roots . I n mos t case s th e Splittin g field wil l actuall y b e o f degre e 24 . Th e
special case s correspon d t o subgroups o f the permutation grou p o f fou r objects . I n
order t o kno w al l possibilities, tak e th e grou p o f 2 4 element s an d find al l possibl e
subgroups correspondin g t o th e irreducibl e case . I n general , th e analysi s o f th e
general equatio n o f n th degre e involve s th e grou p o f permutation s o f n objects .
The Splittin g field i s mos t ofte n o f th e highes t possibl e degree— n\. I t wil l appea r
later tha t thi s metho d o f treatin g th e Solutio n enable s u s t o tei l whethe r o r no t an y
given equatio n i s solvabl e in terms o f radicals .
THEOREM 5.2 0 Let U be a field containing
(1) F, the ground field.
(2) E, the Splitting field of any polynomial f(x) (not necessarily separable)
over F .
(3) Q, a field intermediate between E and F , E D Q D F .
(4) Q\ an extension field of F which is isomorphic to Q in a mapping which
leaves the elements of F fixed.
Itfollows that Q f C E and that the isomorphism between £2 and Q ; is contained in
some automorphism of E.
Thus w e se e that it is possible t o generalize ou r argument s t o al l polynomials .
PROOF: Denot e th e roots o f f(x) b y a\, #2 , • • • , «„. Th e Splittin g field E o f
f(x) i s obtained b y adjoinin g th e roots:
E = F(ai,a 2, . . . , « „ ).
Since E D Q D F , E i s also the Splittin g field o f f(x) ove r Q. Furthermore , f(x)
is a polynomial i n Q' an d the Splittin g field o f f(x) ove r Q f i s som e field i n U
E' = ß ' ( a i , a 2 , . . . , « « ) .
By Theore m 5. 3 th e isomorphism betwee n Q an d Q f ca n be extended t o E an d E'.
Now le t CD be an y demen t o f Q , co f its imag e i n Q\ Sinc e co e E i t can b e writte n
in th e for m
co = cp(ai,a 2, . . . , < * „ )
where 0 i s a polynomial wit h coefficients i n F . I n the isomorphism betwee n E an d
E\ co can onl y b e mapped o n

where th e a[ ar e th e image s o f th e «/ . Sinc e th e coefficient s o f f{x) li e i n th e

fixed field F , th e a\ ar e again roots o f f(x) an d ar e therefore just th e a t i n anothe r
permutation. I t follow s tha t co' e E. W e conclud e tha t Q' c E an d tha t E' = E
since bot h ar e Splittin g fields o f f{x) ove r Q\ Thu s th e mappin g o f Q ont o Q ; i s
contained i n a n automorphis m o f F . Th e theore m i s proved. D
Assume E/F norma l an d le t Q an d Q' b e tw o fields intermediat e betwee n F
and F whic h ar e isomorphic unde r som e mapping whic h leave s F fixed. W e know
that ever y suc h isomorphis m o f Q an d & i s containe d i n a n automorphis m o f E.
 5.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF GALOIS THEORY 73

Conversely, an y automorphis m o f E whic h leave s F fixed clearl y map s Q upon

some intermediate field Q'. Let us denote the group of E/F b y G, that of E/ Q by
5. I t is natural to ask how many distinct mappings of Q onto isomorphic fields are
obtained through elements of G .
Choose (7, x e G . W e seek conditions tha t they both produce th e same map-
ping of Q. Now
cr(x) = x(x) O x~ xa(x) — x.
Thus, i f a an d r ma p Q in th e sam e way , the n Q remains fixed in the mappin g
x~xa. I t follows tha t x~ xo e S , the group of E/Q, o r a e xS. W e have proved
if a(x) = x(x) fo r al l x e Q that er an d r belon g to the same left cose t aS i n G
where 5 is the group of E/ Q.
The number o f different mappings o f Q through element s o f G i s simpl y th e
number of left coset s of S , the so-called index of the subgroup S. I f j i s the index
of S we have (Theorem 1 .4 , p. 5)
AT = ; n
where Af is the order of G , and n the order of S. Fro m (E/F) — N, (E/Q) = n ,
we see that (Q/F) = j.
Let ^2 r be an image of Q through a n dement o f G : a(£2) = S2 r. What is the
subgroup of £/ Q'7 It contains all r fo r which x(x) = x wheneve r x e Q\ i.e. , all
x for which x(cr(y)) = cr(y) when y e Q. But
r(a(j)) = cr(y) O cr~ lxcr(y) = y O a~ xxo e S < ^ r e aSa~ x.
Thus the group of E/Q' isaS<7~ x, the so-called conjugate of S with respect to o.
If for all a e G we have
aSa~x — S,
we then say S is an invariant subgroup of G. We now prove
LEMMA 5.21 If E/F is normal and has the group G, a necessary and sufficient
condition that an intermediate field Q, E Z > Q D F, be normal with respect to F
is that the group S of E/Q be an invariant subgroup ofG.
PROOF: I f Q/F i s normal, then from (Q/F) = j w e se e that al l j isomor -
phisms o f Q ar e automorphisms . Henc e fo r al l a e G w e hav e cr(Q) — Q o r
<JS<7~X = 5 ; i.e., S is an invariant subgroup.
Conversely, if oSa~ x = 5 for al l a, the n a(Q) = Q. Th e j isomorphisrn s of
Q are actually mappings of Q onto itself. The fixed elements under the j automor -
phisms of Q satisfy a(x) = x fo r all a e G and consequently ar e contained in F.
Since F i s the fixed field of the group of automorphisms of ß, i t follows that Q/F
is normal. D

If Q/F i s normal, the n ever y element o f G provides suitabl e automorphism s

of Q. However , we have already show n that there are only j distinc t mappings of
Q through elements of G . Thu s the automorphisms o f Q/F ar e the group G with
a new equivalence relation:
74 5. GALOI S THEOR Y

Two elements are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same coset
er = x <s > o(x) = r(x) fo r all x e Q O er e rS.
In this manner we dehne a new group G/S calle d the factor group of G with respect
toS.
EXERCISE 1 1 . Sho w that an equivalence relation which preserves multiplica -
tion in a group G,
a = b, c = d^a-c = b'd,
may be defined i n terms of a unique invariant subgroup S so that two elements are
equivalent if and only if they are contained in the same coset of S.
REMARK. Th e right and left coset s of an invariant subgroup with respect to a
given element are the same and, conversely, if the right and left cosets of a subgroup
with respec t t o an y elemen t ar e the same , the n th e subgrou p i s invariant , fo r w e
have
aSa~x =S OoS = So.
Let us determine al l the subgroup s an d factor group s o f an y cycli c group G .
Since the group is commutative, it follows by the remark above that every subgroup
is invariant. If G is of order N, w e may write its elements as follows:
CT, C T , (7 , . . . , C T , CT = 1 .

Let 5 b e an y subgrou p an d le t r > 0 b e th e smalles t positiv e powe r suc h tha t

ar € S. Fo r an y a s e S w e have r\s. Firs t w e ma y writ e s = qr + p wher e
0 < p < r. I t follows tha t cr p = a so~qr e S an d hence that p = 0 . Thu s r\s.
Now a N = 1 G S and therefore n = N/r i s an integer. Clearly , S consists of the
elements
i— r _ 2 r _( w —l)r

S is a cyclic group with generator a r an d the order of S is n.

Conversely, fo r an y diviso r r o f N, N = rn, ther e i s a subgrou p o f orde r n
generated b y th e elemen t a r. W e hav e show n tha t ther e ar e precisel y a s man y
subgroups as there are divisors of N.
What are the factor groups? We divide G into cosets of S
r
S = {\,o ,a2r,...,o{n-l)r}
r +1
a5 = {a,a , a 2 r +1 , . . . , a ( " -1 ) r +1
}

Gö = {a , er , . . . , ( 7} =< 7 o .
The cosets are better written
crS, (crS)2, . . . , (aSy~\ (crS) r
= S.
Hence the factor grou p G/S i s a cyclic grou p o f orde r r. I n brief, fo r an y cycli c
group, all subgroups and all factor groups are cyclic.
As an example, suppose the group of E/F i s cyclic of order 1 2 . The hierarchy
of fields normal with respect to F i s best described by the diagram in Figure 5.1.
 5.9. FINITE FIELDS 7 5

FIGURE5.1

Thus to reach a cyclic extension of degree 1 2 from F we must make two quadratic
extensions and a cubic extension.

5.9. Finit e Fields

A finite field F canno t have characteristic zero for otherwise it would contain
the infinite se t of elements 1 , 2, 3, B y Lemma 5.6 (p. 54) the characteristic of
F mus t the n b e a prime p. I t doe s no t hold, o n th e othe r hand , tha t ever y field
of characteristi c p i s finite. Consider , fo r example , the field of rational function s
F(x) derive d from th e ring F[x] o f polynomials ove r F b y forming al l symboli c
quotients of polynomials. More generally, we have
LEMMA 5.22 If R is a commutative ring and contains no divisors of zero}1 then
it can be imbedded in a "quotient" field F consisting of the formal quotients a/b,
b^O.
PROOF: W e use the usual ordered pair definition a s for rational numbers.
Equality: a/b = c/d O ad — bc
Addition: a/b ± c/d = (ad ± bc)/bd
Multiplication: a/b • c/d = a • c/b • d.
The proof tha t equality preserve s additio n an d multiplication i s left t o the reader.
D
REMARK. F contain s a ring isomorphi c t o R. I f a e R, the n clearl y a <+
a • b/b 9 b^O.
EXERCISE 1 2 . Le t F b e a field of characteristic 2 . Conside r th e field F(x 2)
that consist s o f th e rational function s i n x 2 ove r F. F(x 2) c F(x). Prov e tha t
(F(x)/F(x2)) = 2 . Thi s i s a n exampl e o f a nonnormal extensio n o f degre e 2 .
If th e characteristi c o f F wer e no t 2 , thi s quadrati c extensio n woul d alway s b e
normal.

Namely, ab = 0 = » a = 0 or b = 0 .
76 5. GALOIS THEORY

Let F b e a finite field of characteristi c p. F contain s th e field R p o f residu e

classes of the integers mod p
/?p = { l , 2 , 3 , . . . , p - l , J p = 0}.
Since the number of elements in F i s finite, the degree n = (F/R p) i s finite. Let
a>i, co 2, . . . , co n b e a basis of F/R p. The n every 0 e F ma y be uniquely describe d
in the form
0 = ci<ü i + c 2&>2 H h c neyn
where the Q are elements of R p. Th e number of elements in F i s therefor e

We have proved
LEMMA 5.23 The number q of elements in afinitefield F is the nth power ofthe
characteristic where n = (F/R p).
The q — \ nonzer o elements of F for m a multiplicative group of order q — 1 .
Hence for all nonzero a e F
q l
[1] a ~ = 1.
Therefore, for all a i n F w e have
q
[2] a = a,
a generalization o f the Fermat theore m o f arithmetic . I t follows tha t th e polyno-
mial x q — x ha s q roots—th e totalit y o f element s o f F . Sinc e th e degre e o f th e
polynomial is q, it can have no other roots. Hence
q
[3] x -J C = J~[(JC-GO .
aeF

REMARK. Thi s is equivalent to

xq — x = x Y\ ( x — oi)
aeF

or
xq - 1 = J^(jc-a) .
a^O
Settins x = 0 we obtain
-^c-D^n« a^O
whence
Y\a = (-l)q.
Since either q is odd, or the characteristic is 2 and — 1 = + 1 , we have

n«—i.
aeF
a^O
 5.9. FINITE FIELD S 77

which i s a generalization o f Wilson's theore m fo r R p

(p-l)\ = -l ( m o d p ) .
We have see n tha t F i s the Splittin g field o f x q — x ove r R p. No t onl y doe s F
contain th e roots o f this polynomial—it consist s entirel y o f the roots. Ther e ca n b e
no smalle r Splittin g field tha n F. S o ther e i s essentiall y n o mor e tha n on e field o f
degree n ove r R p. Fo r i f F r als o ha s p n elements , the n i t too i s a Splittin g field o f
the polynomia l
x""-x
and i s hence isomorphi c t o F.
Conversely, i f q = p n i s given , w e ca n construc t a field o f q elements—th e
Splitting field F o f f(x) = x pH — x ove r R p.
/'(*) = - l # 0 ;
therefore ther e ar e n o multipl e roots . W e ma y the n writ e f(x) = n f = i ( x ~ a t)
where th e « / ar e distinct . F contain s n o othe r element s tha n th e a t sinc e th e a t
already constitut e a field. I n proof , conside r an y tw o o f th e a's , sa y ot\ an d a 2 -
From oi\ = ct\, a^ = <#2 > w e deriv e the rules:

Addition: 12 ct\ ± 0L2 — af ± OL\ — (OL\ ± a 2)

pn

Multiplication: ((X\(X2) pn = ^1 ^ 2
pn
Division: iß\/^i) — ot\/ai1
{0 2 7^ 0)
Sums, products, an d quotient s ar e again roots a.
We have prove d
THEOREM 5.2 4 To each power p n ofa prime p there is exactly one field (apart
from isomorphism) with p n elements. There are no other fields.
In th e further investigatio n o f finite fields w e shal l require a number o f group -
theoretic lemmas .
LEMMA 5.2 5 Let a, b be elements of a commutative group and denote their peri-
ods by a and ß, respectively. Then there is an element c oftheform c = a vbß such
that the period of c is the least common multiple ofa and ß.
PROOF: Conside r th e factorization o f a an d ß int o primes (a s on p. 31 )

<* = <1 \ <l2 - - <lm >

ß = <l?<l2 2--<lSmm (r hSi>0).

The least commo n multipl e o f a an d ß i s

where t t = max(r/ , S(). W e choose v an d / x as follows :

v — ahah • • -a 8m

See the proposition on p. 57.

78 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

where if ti = r z w e take 8 t = 0, 6/ = t t, an d when r z- •=/=• r t w e take 5 Z = t^ 6 / = 0.

Denote the period of c = a vbß b y y';

Now suppose // = rt so that S* = 0, Si = f;. Raising c y' t o the power

ffi Vi ffm
ff? '
we then obtain

ff? ff?
But, by our assumption, /x has the factor qf* = ^. It follows tha t the exponent of
b is certainly divisible by ß. W e conclude that

v/ffl__ffm_

4
whence
vy q{ • • • a tm

<ti
or, in particular,
tm
vy'q? • •• a
4?
But r r = £;, 5/ = 0. Therefor e
<lo\Y'-
We immediately conclude that

On the other hand, if t t ^ r t the n & t = ^ =57 and £; = 0. Th e above relation

reduces to
foHy' ffl ff2 ffm = j
ff?
since the exponent of a is now clearly divisible by a. Consequentl y
Si i /

where s, = ?,. We have now proved that for the period y' of c

for all i. S o y\y'. However , obviously

(avb^)y = 1
and therefore y'\y . Thi s is possible only if y = y'. The proof is complete. D
 5.9. FINITE FIELDS 79

LEMMA 5.2 6 If G is an abelian (i.e., commutative) group and if the maximum

period achieved by any element is m > 0 , then
xm = 1
forallx e G.
PROOF: Suppos e a wer e a n element wit h a m ^ 1 . The n th e period a o f a
is such that a\m. Ther e is a b e G o f period m. Henc e by Lemma 5.2 5 w e can
construct an element c which has a greater period than m. D
EXAMPLE. I f G i s nonabelia n thi s lemm a i s n o longe r true . Consider , fo r
example, the case of the triangle group (Exercise 1 , p. 1).
Consider any field F, finite or not. Th e set of all nonzero elements of F for m
an abelia n grou p wit h respec t t o multiplication . Le t G b e a finite subgrou p o f
the multiplicative grou p in F. Denot e th e order o f G by N an d denote by m th e
maximal period of its elements. B y Lemma 5.26 the N element s o f G al l satisf y
the equation x m = 1 . We have an equation of m th degree with at least N Solution s
and therefore m > N. Bu t sinc e m i s the period o f som e element m\N, w e have
m = N; i.e., there is an element of G with period N. W e have proved
THEOREM 5.27 Every finite multiplicative subgroup of a field is cyclic.
More precisely, we have proved for a group G of order N tha t the elements are
the Solutions of the equation x N — 1. G consists of all the N th root s of unity.
If now we restrict F t o be finite, with say q elements, then the q — 1 nonzero
elements form a multiplicative group. But this implies the
COROLLARY The multiplicative group of a finite field is cyclic.
There is an element of period q — \ an d it is therefore impossible to reduce the
exponent in Fermat's theorem. I n other words, in a finite field there is an element
whose powers run throug h al l the nonzero element s o f the field. Fo r the integer s
(mod p) w e have proved the existence of a primitive congruence root.
If th e characteristi c o f F i s p an d i f a i s the element tha t generate s F , the n
clearly E = R p(a). No w q is a power of the characteristic (Lemm a 5.23); q = p n
where n = (F/R p). Therefor e a i s a root of an irreducible equation of n th degree .
(We have thus proved the existence of irreducible polynomials o f all degrees!) T o
obtain a field with p n element s we have then to find an irreducible equation of n th
degree and to adjoin a root to R p.
EXAMPLE. Le t us construct the field of 5 2 elements. The ground field is
R5: 0,1 ,2,3,4 .
The general polynomial of second degree is
2
[#] x + ax + b.
(It is no restriction on the roots to assume the leading coefficients i s 1.) Thu s there
are 25 equations of second degree. If the polynomial [* ] i s reducible at all it is the
80 5. GALOIS THEOR Y

product o f two linear factors. Ther e ar e five possible factors , henc e five polynomi -
als wit h doubl e roots , te n wit h distinc t roots . Th e remainin g te n polynomial s ar e
irreducible. W e not e immediatel y tha t x 2 — 2 an d x 2 — 3 ar e irreducible . W e ar e
thereby provide d wit h tw o ways o f constructin g th e field o f 5 2 elements . W e mus t
then b e abl e t o expres s V 3 i n term s o f >/2 . Le t 0 denot e a root o f x 2 — 2. Rs(9)
consists of the elements a + bO wher e a, b e R$, 0 2 = 2 . T o represent %/ 3 in Rs(9)
consider th e equation (a + b6) 2 = 3 , which i s equivalent t o
a2 + 2b 2 + 2ab9 = 3 .
We can onl y hav e a = 0 , b = ± 2 .
Let F b e th e field o f n th degre e ove r R p. Wha t ar e th e automorphism s o f
F/Rp? On e automorphis m i s a(a) = a p. B y th e propositio n o n pag e 5 7 w e se e
that
a(a ±ß) = (ot± ß) p =a p±ßp = cr(a) ± <x(ß),
and a simila r resul t hold s fo r multiplication . W e have onl y t o sho w tha t th e corre -
spondence i s 1 -1 :
a(ä) = a(ß) = ^ a p = ß p = » (et - ß) p
= 0 = ^ a = ß.
Having on e automorphis m w e may iterat e until w e ge t repetitions :
a=ap, a 2
= a p\ . . . , cr d
= a pd, . . . .
If d i s the period o f a, the n o d = I, th e identity automorphism . Thu s d i s the leas t
integer fo r whic h
er = a
for al l q element s a i n F. Th e equation x p — x = 0 must then have all q element s
as Solution s an d therefor e p d > q = p n. Henc e d > n. But , o n th e othe r hand ,
apH = ÖL fo r al l a. Consequently , cr n(a) = a fo r al l a, i.e. , a n = / . Th e perio d o f
o ca n be nothing othe r than n.
We have show n tha t the automorphism s
1, <T , (7 , . . . , O

are distinct. Sinc e (F/R p) = n ther e ar e no others . W e have proved th e importan t

THEOREM 5.2 8 The group of F/R p is cyclic of order n = (F/R p). Hence F is
normal over R p and must be the Splitting field of an irreducible separable polyno-
mial.
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/06

CHAPTER 6

Polynomials with Integral Coefficient s

There is yet one question which has occurred repeatedly and has not been dealt
with in any adequate way. This is the question as to whether any given polynomial
in th e rationa l field i s irreducible . W e cannot dela y th e answe r t o thi s questio n
any longer—fo r otherwis e w e shal l no t b e abl e t o solv e an y specia l equations .
Therefore w e shal l deviat e fro m th e mai n cours e o f thes e lecture s t o discuss th e
topic of irreducibility.
Let R be any commutative ring with
(1) n o divisors of zero,
(2) a unit element,
(3) uniqu e factorization int o primes; 1 i.e., every element o f R i s either zero,
a unit, a prime, or a product of primes.
Let R[x] denot e the ring o f all polynomials wit h coefficients i n R. W e write
a\f(x) if a e R i s a divisor of all the coefficients o f fix); i.e. , if we have fix) —
ag(x) wher e g(x) ha s coefficients i n the ring.
THEOREM 6.1 (Gauss) If p e R is a prime and f{x), g(x) e R[x], then

PROOF: Writ e fix) an d g(x) i n the form

fix) — ao + a\x + a^x 1 + V cijXj + • • •
g(x) =b 0 + b xx + b 2x2 + h bkxk + • • •
where a ; an d b^ are the first coefficients o f the respective polynomials whic h ar e
not divisible by p. Conside r the coefficient c/+ * of xj+k i n f(x) • g(x)
Cj+k = ajb k + aobj+ k + a\bj+ k-i H h a; -_i^+i + a j+\bk-\ H h a j+kb0.

Now p\üjbk bu t p divide s all the other terms. It follows that p\cj+k- D
The greatest common divisor of the coefficients o f a polynomial f(x) e R[x]
is called the content of f(x). I f the content of f(x) i s 1 , fix) i s said to be primitive.
Denoting the content of f(x) b y d, we write
f(x) =dgix).
Thus any polynomial may be written as the product of a ring element with a prim-
itive polynomial.
l
R i s therefore less special than a principal ideal ring.

81
82 6. POLYNOMIALS WIT H INTEGRA L COEFFICffiNT S

LEMMA 6.2 Any product of primitive polynomials is primitive.

PROOF: I f f{x) an d gix) ar e primitive, the n fix) • gix) i s primitive . Fo r
if fix) - gix) wer e divisible by any ring element, the n it would be divisible by a
prime p. Th e lemma follows directly from Theorem 6.1 . D

If for fix), gix) e R[x] there is an hix) e R[x] such that fix) = gix) -hix),
we say that gix) divide s fix) i n the strong sense, or simply gix) divide s fix) an d
we write gix)\fix). I f there is a ring element a such that gix) divide s afix), the n
gix) i s said to divide fix) i n the weak sense.
LEMMA 6.3 If gix) is primitive and gix) divides fix) in the weak sense, then
gix) divides fix) in the strong sense.
PROOF: I f gix) divide s fix) i n the weak sense , then there is an a e R an d
an hix) e R[x] suc h that
<*f(x) = g(x) -hix).
We may put
hix) = dhoix)
where d is the content of hix) an d hoix) i s primitive. Similarly , we may write
fix) = bfoix)
where foix) i s primitive. Thus we obtain
abfoix) = dgix) • hoix)
where d is the content of the right side and ab is the content of the polynomial on
the left . I t follow s tha t d\ab an d ab\d\ d an d ab ar e equal excep t fo r perhap s a
unit factor. B y including the proper unit factor i n one of the polynomials, we may
ensure ab = d. Th e fact tha t there ar e no divisors o f zer o permits the use of the
cancellation law so that
foix) = gix) • hoix)
from which follow s
fix) = bfoix) = gix) - bhoix).
This is the desired result. D

The ring R may be extended to the so-called quotient field F by the method of
Lemma 5.22 (p. 75). We shall now refer to the elements of R as integers and those
of F a s rationals. Th e ring R[x] o f polynomials wit h integral coefficients i s con-
sidered to be imbedded in the ring F[x] o f polynomials with rational coefficients .
If fix), gix) e R[x], gix) primitive , and if gix) divide s fix) i n F[x]\ i.e. , if
there is an hix) e F[x] suc h that
fix) = gix) -hix),
then gix) divide s fix) i n the weak sense and therefore i n the strong sense.
 6. POLYNOMIALS WITH INTEGRAL COEFFICIENTS 8 3

PROOF: Le t a denot e th e commo n denominato r o f th e coefficient s o f h(x).

Clearly
af(x) = g W -ah(x)
where a h(x) i s a polynomial wit h integra l coefficients . I t follow s tha t f(x) i s
divisible by g(x) i n the weak sense. D
We conclude
LEMMA 6.4 If f(x), g(x) are polynomials with integer coefficients, g(x) primi-
tive, then if g{x) divides f(x) in F[x], the quotient polynomial has integer coeffi-
cients.
If a fractional coefficien t arise s in the process of long division, we now can be
sure that there is a remainder.
THEOREM 6.5 If a polynomial with integer coefficients possesses factors in F[x],
itpossesses factors in R[x].
PROOF: Assum e f(x) e R[x] and h(x), g(x) e F[x] suc h that
f(x) = g(x) -h(x).
We may obviously write
ac
g(x) = 7 go(x), h(x) = -h 0(x),
bd
where go(x), ho(x) ar e primitive, a,b,c,d e R. I n that case,
ac
fix) = —go(x)h 0(x).
od
So f{x) i s weakly divisible by primitive polynomials, therefore strongl y divisible.
It follows that ac/bd i s integral. D
In R[x] ther e ar e two kinds o f Clement s whic h ma y b e called primes . Thes e
are the old primes i n R, th e constants, an d the nonconstant, primitiv e irreducibl e
polynomials.
Every polynomia l possesse s a unique factorizatio n int o prim e constant s an d
primitive irreducibl e polynomials . Fo r th e proof i t i s entirel y sufficien t t o sho w
that a prime which divides a product divides one of the factors.
THEOREM 6.6 If P is aprime in R[x] and P\f(x) • g(x), then either P\f(x) or
P\g(x).
PROOF:
(a) I f P e R the proof is immediate by Theorem 6.1.
(b) Assum e P = P(x) e R[x], P(x) irreducibl e an d primitive . Bu t th e
theorem has already been proved for irreducible polynomials over a field.
Therefore ther e exists an h(x) e F[x] suc h that, say,
g(x) = P(x)h(x).
By Lemma 6.4 it follows tha t h(x) e R[x] and the theorem is proved.
D
84 6. POLYNOMIALS WITH INTEGRAL COEFFICIENT S

EXERCISE 1 . Wha t are the units in R[x]l Complet e the proof tha t R[x] i s a
unique factorization ring .
EXAMPLE. R[x] satisfies the conditions of a unique factorization ring . There-
fore we may adjoin a new variable to obtain a new ring in which unique factoriza -
tion holds. Thi s is the se t of all polynomials i n y whos e coefficient s ar e polyno-
mials in x—the rin g R[x, y] of polynomials in two variables. Apparently, the ring
of polynomials in n variables over a unique factorization domai n is again a unique
factorization domain . A field is a unique factorizatio n domai n (ever y elemen t i s
either zero or a unit) so this remark applies to fields. We have proved even that the
polynomials ove r a field form a principal idea l ring. Thi s i s not tru e for polyno -
mials in more than one variable, however. Fo r example, the set of all polynomials
in two variables which are zero at the origin, i.e., have no constant term, definitel y
form an ideal—but it is not principal. For let & be the set of all polynomials f(x,y)
which vanish for x = 0, y = 0. Clearly x,y e &. But if £ consist s of the multiples
of a Single element 0 the n <p\x. Hence , either 0 = x o r 0 = c , a constant. Sinc e
y i s als o a multiple o f 0 w e must have 0 = c. W e cannot tak e 0 = c sinc e no
nonzero constant is in the ideal.

6.1. Irreducibilit y
Let us consider a specific example, the polynomial x 5 — x — 1 , in order to see
what difficulties occu r in proving irreducibility. Se t
p(x) = x 5 — x — 1 .
Does p(x) hav e a linear factor? I f so, it must have integer coefficients. Sinc e the
leading coefficient i s 1 w e may write
p(x) — (x -a)(x 4 H )
where a is an integer. Comparin g terms, we see that a\ 1 so that a = 1 or a = — 1.
Neither is a root so the possibility of a linear factor is excluded.
The only remaining possibility is that p{x) i s the product of a quadratic and a
cubic, say
p(x) = g(x) -h(x)
where
g(x) = x 2 + ax + b, h(x) = x 3 + ex 2 + dx + e,
a, b, c, d, e are integers. Le t us see what possibilities ther e are for value s of g{x)
for different value s of x:
X p(x) g(x)
2~ 29 ±1 o r ± 2 9
1 -1 ±1
0 -1 ±1
-1 -1 ±1
- 2 -31 ±1OT ±3 1
 6.1.IRREDUCIBILITY 85

From the value at x = 0 we see that b — ± 1. If x = 1 , g(x) = 1 + a ± 1 = ± 1 ;

therefore either a = 1 o r — 1 o r —3 . If x = —1 , g(x) = 1 — a + 1 = + 1 ; therefore
a = 1 o r — 1 o r +3. Hence a = ± 1 , and
g(x) = x 2 ± x ± 1 .
Thus |g(2) | canno t be 29, |g(—2) | cannot be 31 . g(x) mus t take on either o f the
values ±1 in five places. Therefore g(x) mus t take on one value three times, which
is impossible.
The same method is applicable to the general polynomial of the nth degree. We
wish to determine whether a polynomial
f(x) = c nxn + c n-\xn~x H h Co
has a factor of the rth degree , 0 < r < n, say
g(x) — a rxr + a r-\xr~l H \- a 0.
We must investigate at least r + 1 values of x sinc e to determine a polynomial of
rth d e g r e e w e mus t fix r + 1 points . So we construct a table

X fix) 8(x)
*0 /o d° d° d°
l
*1 /l d 1 ^Z 1 d

xr /r J r ^/ r
^/ r
a a
lj 2 '3 '* ' *
where the S ar e the divisors of fk. I t is clearly to our advantage to choose values of
x for which f(x) i s prime and large. The method is now to interpolate polynomials
through the possible values of g(x), e.g. ,
r
g(x0) = d^, g(xi) = d\, . . ., g{x )=d[.
If an interpolation doe s not lead to a polynomial with integral coefficients, w e can
reject it at once. Otherwise we must test by long division into f(x) o r by expanding
our table. The method must be repeated for all possible combinations of the d's t o
be a sufficient proo f of irreducibility.
This approac h i s obviousl y th e las t resor t o f th e desperate . W e shal l soo n
discuss certain sufficient condition s for irreducibility which are often o f great use.
EXAMPLE. Le t us determine the values of a for which
f(x) = x 5 — ax — 1
is irreducible. If f(x) ha s linear factors i t must have either +1 or — 1 a s a root
1- a - 1 =0;a =0
- l + a - l = 0 ;a = -2 .
If f(x) ha s a quadratic factor we may write
f(x) = je 5 - ax — 1 = (x 2 + bx + c)(x 3 + dx 2 + ex + f).
86 6. POLYNOMIALS WIT H INTEGRAL COEFFICffiNT S

Equating the coefficients o f the terms of equal degree we obtain the relations
[1] b + d = 0,
[2] e + bd + c = 0,
[3] f + be + cd = 0,
[4] bf + ce = -a,
[5] cf = -l.
Equation [5 ] yields
c = -f = ±l.
Using b = —d (from [1 ] ) in [3] we obtain
d(c-e) = -f = ±h
whence d = + 1 an d (c — e) = ± 1 . From [2]
e + c = l, e — c = ± 1,
whence either c = 0 or c = 1 . The first case is impossible if we are to satisfy [5] ,
So we obtain at once:
c= l,e = 0,/ = -l,d = l, b = -l.
From (4) we have a = — 1. There is then only one possibility for a quadratic factor:
x5 +x - l = (x 2 -x + l)(x 3 +x 2 - 1 ) .
There are only three reducible cases: a = 0 , a = 2 , a = — 1. In the first two cases
there cannot be a quadratic factor s o f(x) factor s int o a linear and a fourth degre e
factor.
Consider another example. For what values of a is the polynomial
/(JC) = x5 — x — a
reducible? There are obviously an infinite number of possibilities for linear factors
for we need only take a = b 5 — bis an y integer.
EXERCISE 2. Fo r how many values of a does the polynomial
f(x) = x 5 — x — a
have a quadratic factor ?
Hint: This problem leads to a diophantine equation which has only a few Solutions.
THEOREM 6.7 (Eisenstein) Iffor the polynomial
f(x) = a nxn + a n-\xn~x H h a0
there is a prime p such that
(1) p\dn,
(2) p\at for i = 0, 1 , 2, . . ., n - 1 ,
(3) p 2Wo,
then f(x) is irreducible.
 6.2. PRIMITIVE ROOTS OF UNITY 87

PROOF: Assum e f(x) = (j)(x) • \js{x) is a factorization o f f(x) int o polyno-

mials o f positiv e degree . Sinc e th e degree s o f 0 an d \js ar e less tha n n, w e may
write
0 0 ) = b 0 + b\x H h b n-ixn~l,
n
i^O) = C o + c\x -\ h c n-\x ~\

where some of the coefficients ma y be zero.

Now «o = boco and p\ao, therefore p\bo say. Since p 2\ao the n p\co.
Continue i n th e sam e manner : a\ — cob\ + c\b$. Sinc e p\c\bo an d p\a\
we mus t hav e p\cob\. Bu t p\co an d therefor e /?|£>i . Clearl y w e ca n prov e tha t
all th e £>' s are divisibl e b y p. Consequently , /?|0(x) , whic h implie s p\f{x) i n
contradiction to the assumption that p\a n. D

6.2. Primitiv e Roots of Unity

Let us examine the equation
xp - 1 =0
over the field R o f rational numbers. Thi s has the obvious root 1 and s o we may
write
1
XP - 1 = (x - 1 )/(JC ) = (J C - IX*'" + x p~2 + • • • + x + 1 ) .
The irreducibility o f f(x) ma y be proved by Eisenstein's criterion. Writ e f(x) i n
the form
xp — 1
/(*) = —^-
x— 1
Now the question of the reducibility of f(x) i s clearly equivalent to that of f(x + 1 )
so it is sufficient t o investigate
f(x + 1 ) = •
By an application of the binomial theorem this yields

fix + 1) = x"-1 + (f)*^2 + • • • + (£)* + P-

Since the binomial coefficients ar e divisible by p (cf . p . 57) and the last term p i s
not divisible by p 2, ou r assertion is proved.
Let us now attempt a similar proof for the exponent p n, n > 1 ,
*""-l=0.
This equation is clearly satisfied b y the (p n~l)th root s of unity so that
n
xP - 1 = ( Xpn-X - 1 )0(JC) .
We shal l prove tha t
n
XP -l
7
x^ — 1
 6. POLYNOMIALS WITH INTEGRAL COEFFICIENT S

is irreducible. Put
<P(x) = f(xP"~ l) = f(y)
where
yP 1
y=x'-\ f(y) = -
y-l
We have
f(y + 1 ) = y p~l + (term s divisible by p) + p.
Now
0(JC + 1 ) = /([J C + l]^" 1 )
=
f([ xpn " ^ (terms divisible by /?)] + l )
= [x p" + (term s divisible by p)]p + (term s divisible by p) + p
= x^ p~X)p + (term s divisible by p) + p.
The proof is immediate by Eisenstein's criterion.
The proof show s that
n
xP - 1 = (x pn~l - 1 )0(JC )

where <j>{x) i s irreducible. Th e formula give s the factorization recursively . S o for

all intent s an d purposes th e factorization i s complete. W e have show n tha t the
(pn)th root s o f unity includ e al l (p m)th root s o f unity fo r m < n. Clearl y (j)(x)
contains all the proper (p n)th roots—thos e which are not of lower order. The roots
of 0 (x) ar e called the primitive roots of unity.
By Theorem 5.27 (p. 79) it is clear that the multiplicative grou p of the (p n)th
roots of unity is cyclic. The generators of the group are the primitive roots, for no
root of lower order can possibly generate a primitive root and clearly no exponent
less than p n ca n be a period for a primitive root. Th e Splitting field o f xpn — 1 i s
then just the Splitting field of 0 (x) and is obtained simply by adjoining a primitive
root £, <j)(e) = 0 , to the ground field R. Th e degree of the Splitting field is that of
the irreducible polynomial <t>(x)\
n {
(R(6)/R) = (p-l)p -.
These methods may easily be extended to any mth roots of unity. The roots of
m
[1] x - i
form a cyclic group of order m. I f s is a generator, then the roots are 1 , s, e 1 ,...,
em~x. Whe n m is not prime, there are always roots of lower order—if d is a divisor
of m, the n e m,d i s a lower-order roo t of period d. Th e primitive roots are clearly
those s v wher e (v , m) = l (read : " v i s prime t o m" for "(v, m) — 1 ") . Th e
polynomial for the primitive mth roots of unity is therefore

<M*)= n <*-*") •
(y,m)=l
0<v<m—1
 6.2. PRIMITIVE ROOTS OF UNITY 8 9

The factorization o f [1 ] is then given by

m
[2] x -l = Yl*d(x).
d\m
It is very easy to compute a table of the <t>'s:
Oi(x) = x — 1 ,
<D 2 (*)=* + 1 ,
<D3(x) = X 2 + J C + 1 ,
<&4<» = J C 2 + 1 ,
4
0 5 (JC) = x + je 3 + x 2 + x + 1 ,
2
<D6(*) = x - x + 1 ,

EXERCISE3.
(a) Prov e that $>i m(x) = <f> m(—JC) for m odd.
(b) Prov e that if p\m, wher e p i s prime, then <b pm(x) = $> m(xp)/<&m(x).
Discuss the case when p\m.
The polynomials O m ar e called th e cyclotomic (circle-dividing) polynomials .
The field R(e), wher e s is a root of a cyclotomic polynomial, is sometimes called
a cyclotomic field.
This page intentionally left blank
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/cln/015/07

CHAPTER 7

The Theory of Equations

This discussion ha s reached a point of development wher e the theory may be

used fruitfully t o solve a number of important problems. W e begin with the prob-
lemof

7.1. Rule r and Compass Construction s

Among th e problem s passe d dow n b y th e ancien t Greek s ther e ar e th e tw o
familiär one s o f th e trisectio n o f th e angl e an d th e duplicatio n o f th e cube . Th e
problem o f dividin g a n angl e int o thre e equa l parts , i n particular, ha s frequentl y
been "solved " by numerous well-meanin g bu t guileless soul s wh o have not trou -
bled to discover wha t exactl y i s the problem. Th e ancient s alread y ha d a simpl e
means of trisecting angles:
In the figure, let 9 = /LAOB b e any an-
e
x^ ~ ^ \ A §l - Draw a circle about O of arbitrary ra-
[^^^^/ \ diu s r • Mar k off the length r on a straight
^^T\^--^/s \ edge . Plac e the ruler with its edge on A,
B
® T° on e mark on the line O B and the other on
\/ th e circle (see figure). It is easily verifie d
V ^ _ ^ ^ tha t a = Z AD O = 9/3. Bu t this is not a
Solution of the problem.
In a geometrical construction we are given various initial data, points and line
Segments, and we seek to determine other configurations b y means of a finite num-
ber of admissible Operations on the given Information. Wha t Operations are admit-
ted:
(a) markin g of arbitrary points,
(b) drawin g a line between two points (the only allowable use of the ruler),
(c) drawin g a circle with a given radius and a given point as center,
(d) determinin g a point as the intersection of two lines or two circles or a line
and a circle.
The give n dat a wil l includ e variou s length s x\, X2, . . . , x n. Usin g on e of th e
data a s a unit, w e construc t a Cartesia n coordinat e System . T o do thi s w e nee d
only pick an arbitrary pai r of points, draw the line through them , and erect a per-
pendicular anywher e on the line. Clearly , we can construct any point with integer
coordinates. I t is a simple matter to construct an y point wit h rational coordinate s
since a segment ca n be divided int o an y number o f equa l parts. W e shall restrict
the choice of arbitrary points to points with rational coordinates because these are
91
92 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

constructible an d sinc e any construction whic h cannot be performed wit h this re-
stricted choice of points is certainly impossible for a completely arbitrary choice.
Given any lengths i j we ca n
easily construct the sum x + y and
the difference x — y 9 and (see fig-
ure) th e produc t an d quotient , xy
and x/y. I t follow s tha t w e ca n
construct an y elemen t o f th e field
R(x,y) generate d b y thes e ele -
ments. In general, if x\, X2, ..., x n
are the given data, we can certainly1
construct an y elemen t i n the field
R(x\, X2, . . . , x n). W e may extend
the se t o f constructibl e element s furthe r b y considerin g th e intersection s o f cir -
cles with straight lines or with circles. Th e intersection o f two straight lines gives
nothing new. Th e coordinates of a point on a straight line satisfy a linear relation.
Hence the determination of a point as the intersection of two straight lines involves
the Solutio n o f a pair o f linea r equation s an d doe s no t tak e us ou t o f th e groun d
field. The problem of two intersecting circles can be reduced to the intersection of
a straight line on a circle and this will usually necessitat e goin g outside the field.
The determination o f a point a s the intersection o f a circle with a straight line in-
volves the Solution of a quadratic equation. Shoul d this be irreducible, we append
the Solution to the ground field and thereby obtain an extension of degree 2.
Thus, in any construction, w e begin with certain accessibl e elements, the ele-
ments of the ground field R(x\, X2, • • •, xn), an d at each step we obtain a new field
of accessible elements where, if say F n is the field at the nih step , we have
(Fn+l/Fn) > 2.
Consequently, if a construction can be performed i n n steps, the degree of F n over
the ground field must be a power of 2,
(Fn/F) = 2 v (v<n).
Suppose th e Solutio n require s a segmen t o f lengt h a, e.g. , a i s th e chor d o n th e
unit circle subtended by the angle 6/3. Th e length a must be an element of F n and
therefore th e field F(a) i s intermediate between F an d F n,

The degree o f F(ot) is a divisor o f th e degree of F n an d therefore mus t als o be a

power of 2,
( F ( a ) / F ) = 2 " <ji<v).
This is then a necessary conditio n that a given construction b e possible. Th e con-
struction must not involve the determination of any length which leads to an exten-
sion of a degree other than a power of two.
This result may immediately be applied to the famous problem of the Delphian
oracle, namely , th e constructio n o f a cube twic e th e siz e o f a given cube . I f w e
 7.1. RULER AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTION S 93

accept the sid e length o f th e given cube a s the unit, thi s problem i s equivalent t o
solving the irreducible equation
x3 = 2.
Since (R(y/l)/R) = 3 , the construction cannot be performed .
We have found a necessary condition that a length a b e constructible, namely,
that
(F(a)/F) = 2\
Thus, in many cases we can prove the impossibility o f a construction. I t is natural
to ask for a condition that is both necessary and sufficient. Sinc e any constructible
length can be derived from th e data of the problem by the rational Operations and
extractions o f squar e roots , thi s conditio n i s tha t i t b e possibl e t o find a field E
containing a fo r whic h ther e i s a chain o f fields with E a t th e to p an d F a t th e
bottom,
F = F X C F 2C • •• C F n = E,
and (iVfi/F v ) < 2 .
Let us examine the problem of constructing the m-gon, the regulär polygon of
m sides. Consider the factorization o f m into primes,
m
= P\ Pl '"Pr '
If the m-gon can be constructed, then plainly we can construct any d-gon where d
is a divisor of m. I n particular, we can construct the polygons of p\ [, p^ 2,..., p v/
sides. Conversely , i f i t i s possible t o construc t thes e p^-gon s ( / = 1 , 2 , . . ., r) ,
then we can construct the m-gon. For the numbers
v
m/p\\m/p%, ...,m/p /
are relatively prime and therefore the diophantine equation
mx\/p\x + mx 2/pV2 H h mx r/pvrr = 1
has a Solution in integers x\, x 2, . . . , x r. Dividin g b y m we obtain Y^( xi/P?) —
1/m. Henc e a n m th par t o f a circle consist s o f a su m o f (p^) th parts . W e need
therefore conside r only powers of primes.
EXAMPLE. Th e problem of constructing a 15-gon reduces by these considera-
tions to the problem of constructing an equilateral triangle and a regulär pentagon.
We must find integers x, y wit h
5x + 3y = 1 .
The numbers x = — 1, y = 2 work, —\ + \ = ^ - T o construct the 1 5 th part of a
circle we first construct an angle of 1 44 ° and then subtract 1 20° .
REMARK. W e shall say an imaginary number a + ib is constructible if the real
and imaginar y parts separatel y ar e constructible . Th e introductio n o f imaginar y
elements does not affect ou r theory. Th e sum, difference, product , and quotient of
94 7. TH E THEOR Y O F EQUATIONS

two constructible imaginaries ar e constructible. Furthermore , the Square root of a

constructible imaginary is constructible,

, \a + Va 2 + b 2 . -a + ja 2 + b 2
v^+^ = y — -— + *y .
The proble m o f constructin g a n m-go n i s equivalen t t o th e proble m o f con -
structing the length cos ^. I f this length is constructible, so is sin ^ an d also
2n 2iz
8 = cos h / sin — .
mm
e is a root of the equation 8 m = 1 . If m is a power of a prime, m = p v, then , by the
results starting on page 87, 8 is a root of the irreducible polynomial
x"v-l
%P — 1
which is of degree p v~l(p — 1). Bu t we can construct 8 only if the degree of the
extension field R(8) i s a power of 2, i.e., only if
pv-\p-\) = 2».
We can have only p = 2 or v = 1 . Except for 2 , no power of a prime higher than
the first can be admitted. In particular, the polygon of 9 sides cannot be constructed
and it is therefore impossible to trisect the angle of 1 20° . As a side result, we have
shown that the trisection problem cannot have a general Solution.
For v = 1 we have p = 2 ß + 1 . We are interested in all primes of this form. If
ix has an odd divisor, /x = X(2n + 1 ) , then
X
2^ + 1 = 2 x(2n+l) + 1 - (2 + 1 )( - • •)
is not a prime. The only primes which are allowable must therefore have the form
p = 2 2k + l.
The numbers o f this form ar e prime for values of k up to 4. Thes e are the primes
3, 5, 17, 257, 65537. Fermat' s famou s conjectur e i s that these numbers ar e prime
for al l values of k. Actually , this breaks down at 5; 2 32 + 1 is divisible by 641 . It
is not known whethe r there are an infinite numbe r of primes o f this form. I n any
case, the only constructible m-gons ar e those for whic h m i s a product of power s
of 2 with Ferma t primes, none of th e latter appearin g t o a power highe r tha n th e
first. We have really only shown that no other polygons are constructible. I n order
to sho w tha t th e constructio n o f thes e polygon s i s possible , w e shal l nee d mor e
refined tools.

7.2. Solutio n of Equations by Radicals

We consider a more general problem than that of ruler and compass construc-
tion. Whe n ca n a n equation b e solve d completel y i n terms o f rational Operation s
and roo t extractions ? I n orde r t o an s wer thi s question , w e mus t develo p som e
preliminary results.
 7.2. SOLUTIO N O F EQUATIONS BY RADICALS 9 5

Let E/F b e normal, an d G the group of automorphisms o f E/F. W e shall

employ the following:
Notation. I f a G E, o e G, we set
a(a) = aa.
In general, if a\, a 2,..., a n are integers, we shall write
ai a2
al(a )a2(a ) • • -o n(aan) = ^ 1 * 1 + ^ 2 + - + ^
For example, by the expression a 7+ai-3or2 w e mean
I(a) • <J\(a) a • cr\(a)

Furthermore, we have
ai a2
[aaxol+a2o2+...+anony = r [cr1 (a )a2(a ) • • -an (^")]
a Tcr
=a l l+a2T(J2+-+anT:crn

and this we set equal to

ar(aia\-\-a2(T2-\ \-a ncrn)

Hence, in general, we dehne

ß ß

Now, if the group of E/F is G = {<J\,cr2, . . ., or„}, we dehne the norm Na for
a e E to be the product of the images of a under G,
(Tl+ai+ +(Tn
Ate = o x{a)a2{a) • • -(^(a) = a '" .
We must have Na e F since
(iVa)T = a aTl+aT2+-+(7Tn
and the r^ ar e simply the elements of G permuted. If G is cyclic of order n,
G = {/,<x,<r 2, ...,(T n - 1 },
we have (using N(aß) = A/a • Afß)
M * 7 " * = (MX) 7 "* - a (/-a)(l+cr +fl r 2 +..-h,»-1 ) = „/-* » =a 0= l

What ar e all the elements a for which Af a = 1 ? Clearly , i f a = ß I~a fo r any

ß G £, we have
Na = Nß1~a = 1 .
That these are all such elements is proved in a remarkable theorem of Kummer's.
THEOREM 901 Ifthe group G ofE/F is cyclic with generator a, then the elements
a in E with the norm 1 are precisely those which can be written in the form
a = ßl~° (ß e E, ß # 0).

So-called because of its appearance under that number in Hilbert's Zahlbericht.

96 . 7 . THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

PROOF: Th e norm of any element /3 / _ o r , ß ^ 0 , is certainly 1 fo r

ol-o ß
ß =
^fy
whence
Niß1'0) = Nß/Ncr(ß) = 1.
Conversely, if Na = 1 there is a ß e E with a = yß /_a . Put
ß = 1 + oi + a / + * + a /+flr+flr2 + • • • + a /+ff+ - +ff "" 2 .
We have
a ß a = a + cx /+a + a /+flr+ff2 + • • • + a /+(7+ - +crn ~ 1 - 0
since Na = Q r/+ff+-+or'1 ~1 = l . Thus ß satisfies the relation aß° = ß, and if ß ^ 0
it follows that a = ß1'0. Bu t ß might very well be zero. This difficulty i s disposed
of by including extra factors. Le t 0 be arbitrary in E and set
ß = e + eaa + 0o r V + a + • • • + e° n ] +a+ +<T
~V - "~2.
Consider the expression
2 n 1-
aßa = 6Ga + 0oa1V+ö+ c r +
, _
• • • | n(J a
'a ho-"
+ 9„,I+cr-i
From a/ + a + +or " = Na = 1 ,0°" =0, w e have aßG = ß. If it is possible to find
a 6 for which ß 7 ^ 0, we have proved our theorem.
Suppose the contrary, that ß = 0 for every value of 0; i.e., that
0 + 0*C* + ^ V + 0 r + • • • + 0"«-V+CT+...-HT-2 = 0
for al l 0. Thi s i s a linear relatio n i n 0, <r(0), a 2 (0), . . . , cr" _1 (0), bu t no suc h
relation can exist (Lemma 5.11, p. 61). The theorem is proved. D
EXAMPLE. Th e field R(i) wher e / is a root of the equation x 2 + 1 =0 ove r
the rationa l field R has precisely tw o automorphisms, th e identity an d er, where
a(a + bi) = a — bi. We have
NQ + 4i)/ 5 = ( 3 + 4i)/ 5 • ( 3 - 4 0 / 5 = 1 .
Consequently, there is a ß with
(3 + 40/ 5 = jß /-flr.
The simplest possibility is0 = l,j 8 = l + a :
G
/ Q _i _ A ' \ I~

(1 + «)'-* = / _ _i J = (8 + 40/(8 - 4i ) = (3 + 40/5.

It i s extremel y usefu l t o kno w th e set of element s a fo r whic h Na = 1 .
We woul d lik e t o know wha t happen s whe n th e group i s not cyclic. Unfortu -
nately, thoug h man y attempt s hav e bee n mad e t o generalize th e theorem t o ar-
bitrary groups , n o answer to the problem ha s been provided . I t is even doubtfu l
that a general answer can be found.
 7.2. SOLUTIO N OF EQUATIONS BY RADICALS 9 7

EXERCISE 1 .
(a) Suppos e E/F normal , (E/F) = n. Conside r the n2 equation s
X(ji — X(jX T

in the n unknown s x G. Thes e hav e th e nontrivial Solutio n x a = ß !~°',

ß e E, ß 7 ^ 0. Show that this Solution is unique.
(b) Wh y does this problem reduce to Theorem 7.2 in the cyclic case?
The usefulness o f Theorem 7.2 is apparent in the following applications . As -
sume
(1) E/F i s normal and cyclic of degree n with the group /, er, . . . , cr n~l.
(2) F contains n distinct n th root s of unity 1 , e, e2, . . . , e n~l.
The field E must then be the Splitting field of an irreducible equation of the form
xn - b = 0
where b e F.
PROOF: Usin g the fact that s is in the fixed field, we have

It follow s tha t ther e i s a b e E, ß ^ 0 , suc h tha t £ - 1 = ß l~°. Henc e s~ l -

ß/a(ß) o r cr(ß) = sß. W e may therefore writ e
Hß) = ß,
cr(ß)=eß,
o\ß) = s 2ß,

an-l(ß) = e n~lß,
and these elements ar e distinct. Consequently , ß satisfie s a n equation o f degree n
over F (Theore m 5.1 6 , p . 66) an d therefor e E = F(ß). Furthermore , o(ß n) =
[cr(ß)]n = s nßn = ß n\ i.e. , ß n i s fixed in the automorphisms of E/F an d therefore
ßn G F. Consequently , ß i s the root of an equation
xn=b (beF).
The field E cycli c o f degre e n ove r F ma y b e obtained simpl y b y adjoinin g on e
radical, ß = \fb. Sinc e ß i s the root of an irreducible equation o f n th degree , we
conclude that
xn - b = (J C - ß)(x -eß)---(x- e n l
~ ß). D
EXAMPLE. Conside r th e field R(^/Tl) o f degre e 2 ove r R. Th e primitiv e
square root of 1 is in R, s = — 1. N(—l) = ( — l)2 = 1 . Thus Ns~ l = 1 . We can
therefore writ e —l=ß l~a,ß^z0, wher e ß has the form
ß = 0 + 0 ae = 0-e tT
.
6 = 1 is not acceptable . Consequently , 9 = VT T must work , an d i n fact yield s
ß = 2vTT .
98 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

The result we have just obtained is constructive in that we may single out the
element which generates the field. For ß w e take
ß = e + s- xe° + S- 29G1 + • • • + 8- {n-l)ean~{
since a(s) = e. Now ß cannot be zero for all n basis elements of E over F. Henc e
we need to try at most n values of 0 to determine ß. Havin g found ß, w e obtain ß n
and this must be an element of F .
Let us attac k the converse problem. I f F i s a field containing a primitive n th
root of unity, what is the Splitting field of the equation

Let ß be any root of ijf(x) and form the field E = F(ß). Sinc e the distinct elements
ß, eß, ..., s n~lß ar e al l roots o f \jr(x), w e conclude tha t E i s the Splittin g field.
Now two possible cases may arise:
Case 1 . x/s(x) i s reducible.
In that event let 0(x) b e the irreducible facto r ove r F , wit h (ß(ß) = 0 . (p(x)
will be responsible for a number of the roots

0w= n (*-^)-
some v
The constan t ter m i n 0(JC) , a n element o f F , mus t b e o f th e form ±s^ß r wher e
r = d[(p(x)]. Consequently, ß r = c e F ; i.e., ß satisfie s th e equation x r — c = 0
of r th degre e over F. Sinc e 0(JC) is irreducible of degree r, it follows (Lemm a 4.5,
p. 40) that
(j)(x) = x r — c.
Now E = F()8 ) = F(sß) = • • • = F(£ n~lß) sinc e £ e F . I t is clea r tha t
every s vß satisfie s a n irreducible equation of r th degree ,
xr - (s vßY = x r - s vrc = 0 .
We conclude that \j/(x) factor s int o polynomials al l of the same degree r an d con-
sequently that r\n. W e have ß r = c e F . Puttin g n = rs, w e obtain
ßn = ß rs
= c
s
=b.
Hence the reducible cas e occurs onl y i f b is a power o f c\ s\n. Conversely , i t is
evident if b = <r , s\n, tha t the polynomial yjr(x) ma y be factored int o polynomials
of equal degree r = n/s.
The reducible case is included i n the irreducible cas e since F mus t contain a
primitive r th roo t of unity if it contains a primitive nth root .
A wor d o f caution . Thes e criteri a ca n onl y b e applie d whe n F contain s a
primitive n th roo t of unity. Consider , for example, the polynomial x 4 + 4 over the
rational field R. Th e number —4 cannot be expressed as the Square or fourth power
of any element in Ä, yet we have
x4 + 4 = (x 2 - 2x + 2)(x 2 + 2x + 2).
 7.2. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS BY RADICALS 9 9

Nevertheless, a germ of the result remains even when the roots of unity are not
contained in the ground field. W e digress to discuss the one case in which we may
dispense with the roots of unity.
Let
x//(x) = x p — b, p prime,
and suppose that p is not the characteristic of F. Unless b is a p th power ofsome
element in F, \/f(x) is irreducible.
PROOF: Le t E b e the Splitting field of \jr{x). The roots of \//(x) ar e certainly
distinct since \j/\x) = 0 only if x = 0 and zero is not a root. Le t ß b e any one of
the roots. The roots of \/f(x) ar e then
ß, eß, s 2ß, .. . , e p~lß,
where s i s a primitive p th roo t o f unity. Henc e the Splittin g field of x p — b must
contain the p th root s of unity.
Now, if if(x) coul d be factored i n F, we could find some irreducible factor of
lower degree, say
<t>(x)= Y\(x-e vß).
some v
The constan t ter m i n (/>(x), a n elemen t o f F , i s o f th e for m ±s ßßr wher e r =
3[0(JC)] < p. Wehav e

eßßr =c e F , ß p
= be F .
Now r < p, p prim e =>• (r, p) = 1 . It follows that the equation
rx + py = 1
has a Solution in integers x, y,
cxby = (s ßßr)x(ßp)y = e^ß e F.
Clearly, then, if -^r(jc) is reducible it has a root in the ground field and b is after al l
a p th powe r in F. D

Case 2. x/rix) i s irreducible.

We are concerned wit h th e Splittin g field E o f a n irreducible equatio n o f th e
form
i//(x) =x n -b = 0
where the ground field F i s assumed to contain a primitive n th root of unity. There
are n possible automorphisms of F, these being given by the transformation s
crv(ß)=<Tvß
(cf. Lemm a 5.4, p. 51). The product of any two of these automorphisms is
crß(av(ß)) = <x ß{evß) = e» +v ß = a ß+v(ß)

or briefly
100 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

where tw o er' s ar e th e sam e i f thei r indice s ar e congruen t modn. Clearl y th e <r' s

constitute a cyclic group , the generato r bein g <x\, fo r w e have o v = o\. Th e grou p
of E/F i s cyclic .
The conditio n tha t F contain s a primitiv e n th roo t o f unit y mus t b e kep t i n
mind. Note , fo r example , tha t co s 2n/7 ca n b e obtaine d a s th e roo t o f a eubi e
equation with a cyclic Splitting field over R. I f we take the ground field R(co) wher e
- l / 2 + (V3/2 ) / i s on e o f th e primitiv e cub e root s o f unity , the n co s 2n/7
can b e obtaine d i n term s o f a Singl e roo t extractio n i n Rico). However , w e not e
that thi s i s th e famou s casus irreduciblis o f Cardano' s formula . Th e equatio n fo r
cos 2TV/7 ha s thre e rea l roots , ye t i t i s impossibl e t o expres s co s 2ix/l i n term s o f
real radicals .
In summary , w e have proved :

THEOREM 7.1 Given a field F containing a primitive n th root of unity, an extension

field E is normal and cyclic ofdegree n over F ifand only if E is the Splitting field
of an irreducible equation of the form
xn - b = 0 .

This condition is equivalent to the requirement that E be an extention of F by

means ofa Single adjunetion, E = F(ß), where ß is an n th root of an element of
F and no power of ß less than n is in F.
th
LEMMA 7.2 IfF is a field containing a primitive n root of unity and E = F{tfb),
b G F, then E is the Splitting field of the equation
n/r
x - b = Y\(* r ~
n
fli) = 0 (a t e F)

where r is the least power of^/b which is contained in F.

LEMMA 7. 3 If p is prime and F is any field whatever which does not have the
characteristic p, then a necessary and sufficient condition that the polynomial x p —
b be irreducible is that b is not a p th power of any element in F.

In investigating the equation x n —b = 0we hav e found i t useful t o go to a field

containing th e n th root s o f unity . Certainl y b y takin g a sufficientl y larg e field w e
can solv e an y equation . Perhap s b y takin g a suitabl e extensio n o f th e groun d field
it may b e possible t o obtain grea t simplificatio n i n the Solutio n o f an y problem. I n
any case , we ough t t o determine wha t gain s ma y b e derive d fro m thi s method .
Let f{x) b e a separable polynomial ove r F an d let F b e an y extension o f F i n
which w e hop e fo r som e simplificatio n o f th e Solution . Denot e b y E th e Splittin g
field o f fix) ove r F. W e write fix) a s a produet o f linea r factor s i n £ ,

fix) = ix - ai)ix -<x 2)'-(x- ot n).

The Splittin g field E o f fix) ove r F i s obtained simpl y b y adjunetio n o f th e root s

E = F ( a i , a 2 , ...,<**) .
 7.2. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS BY RADICAL S 101

The relatio n betwee n th e fields is given b y the scheme i n the figure below. De -
note the groups of E/F an d E/F b y G and G, respectively. Wha t relation exist s
between G and Gl
An elemen t ö o f G is an automorphisms o f E
that leaves all F fixed and consequently al l F. Now
each ä i s define d b y a permutation o f th e roots of
f(x). Consequently , ä map s th e field E = F(a\,
. . . , a n) ont o itself. Thu s eac h ä provide s a n auto-
morphism of E in which F is fixed. In this way we
associate an element of G with every element of G.
Furthermore, onl y on e element o f G is determine d
by an y ä sinc e ä an d its imag e ar e both uniquel y
determined by the same permutation of the roots.
Now if two successive automorphism s ä , f produc e a certain permutatio n of
the roots, then clearly so do their images, i.e.,
är = p <s > ox — p.
We conclude that G is isomorphic to a subgroup S of G. I t is easy enough to see
which subgrou p i t is. W e shall describ e S b y determining th e field to which i t
belongs.
Let Q be the field corresponding t o S. Q is
some field between E and F, and it consists of ex-
actly thes e element s o f E whic h ar e left fixed by
S an d hence consist s o f thes e element s o f E lef t
fixed by G . Bu t G leaves no other elements fixed
than those of F. Consequently , Q consists exactly
of thos e elements o f E whic h ar e also in F. Q is
the intersection or common par t of the two fields.
(We write Q = E n F.) A schematic diagra m is
shown.
In a measure this result is disappointing. Th e
extension F is helpful onl y insofar a s it contains a
part o f E. Whateve r econom y i s achieved b y the
introduction o f F alread y coul d hav e been achieve d wit h ß . However , w e may
console ourselve s wit h the knowledge tha t we have eliminated an y possibility of
introducing mysterious Solutions.
REMARK. O f course, there are other methods of obtaining roots than algebraic
extension. In the field of real numbers, for example, every fifth degree equation has
a root, the root being defined b y some limiting process. I f we adjoin on e element
to this field, the root of the equation x2 + 1 = 0, then all equations are immediately
solvable in the ground field. How does the introduction of limits tie in with solving
equations?
We shall not digress to answer this question here but leave it as a provocative
query.
102 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

Suppose the Splitting field of an equation is cyclic. If the ground field does not
contain n distinct n th root s of unity, then these may be adjoined excep t in the case
where the characteristic i s a divisor of n. I n that instance it is useless to hope fo r
a primitive n th roo t of unity. Fo r if p i s the characteristic w e may write n = p vm
where p\m. Bu t we have
xn - 1 =x pVm
- 1 = (x m - l) pV

(proposition o n p. 57). Thu s the n th root s of unity ar e the sam e as the m th. Fo r a
Solution in terms of radicals we must therefore assum e (n, p) = 1 . In that case the
equation x n — 1 == 0 plainly has n distinct roots.
However, something remains to be said for the case when the characteristic is
a divisor of the degree of the Splitting field. If the group is cyclic, we do not expect
a Solution in terms of radicals, but the Solution remains simple.
THEOREM 7. 4 Consider a field F of characteristic p. An extension field E is
normal of degree p over F if and only if E is the Splitting field of an irreducible
equation of the form
p
[1] x -x-a = 0.
This condition is equivalent to the requirement that E be an extension of F by
means of a Single adjunction E — F(a) where a is a root ofthe equation [1].
The root a behave s somewhat like the radical in Theorem 7.1 . W e shall occa-
sionally refer to such elements as "modified radicals. "
PROOF:
(1) If x p — x — s is irreducible in F 9 then the Splitting field E i s obtained by
the adjunction o f a Single root. I t follows tha t (E/F) = p an d therefore tha t the
group is cyclic.
The roots of the polynomial
f(x) — x p — x — a
are distinct sinc e f'(x) — —1. Th e Splitting field must therefore b e normal. No w
f(x) i s periodic of period 1 , for
f(x + 1 ) = ( x + 1 ) * - (j e + 1 ) - a = x p + 1 - x - 1 - a = f(x).
Consequently, i f a i s a root, f(a) = 0 , th e othe r root s ar e obtaine d simpl y b y
repeated addition of 1 :
a, a + 1 , .. . , a + p — 1 .
Having p roots, we have all.
The Splitting field of f(x) i s obviously F(a). Sinc e F(a) = F(a + /x) , each
root a + jii mus t satisf y a n irreducible equatio n o f th e sam e degree a s a ove r F.
Consequently, f(x) factor s into polynomials of equal degree. Clearly, then, if f(x)
is no t irreducible , i t mus t reduce int o linea r factor s an d al l the roots ar e alread y
in F.
 7.2. SOLUTIO N OF EQUATIONS BY RADICALS 103

If w e exclude th e case wher e f(x) ha s a root i n F , the n f(x) mus t b e irre-

ducible. F(pt)/F i s normal of degree p an d we must therefore hav e p automor -
phisms. These can only be the transformation s
ov(a) = a + v (v = 0, 1 , . . . , / ?- 1 ) .
The automorphisms a v clearl y constitute a cyclic group.
(2) I f E is normal of degree p over F (an d therefore cyclic), then it is obtained
by adjunction o f a Single element, a root of an equation of the form xp —x—a = 0.
Let a b e the generator of the group. The trace
6 + o(6) + o 2(e) + - - • + o p
-\6)
cannot be zero for every 0 e E (Theore m 5.12, p. 61). Select 9 so that
P-\

v=0
Since cr(b) = b it follows that b e F. Settin g
P-\

v=0
we obtain
o(ß) = a 2{9) + 2a\6) + • • • + (p - l)a p
-\0)
= a{9) + 2o 2{6) + 3a 3(9) + •• • + ( / ? - \)o {p l)
-0
2 {p l)
-[0 + a{6) + o (0) + a\9) + • • • + a ~ (e)l
that is,
a(ß) = ß-b.
If we then set a — —ß/b w e obtain
a(a) = -{ß)/b = (-ß + b)/b - -ß/b + 1 = a + 1 .
We have constructed a n element a fo r which
av{a) =a + v (v = 0, 1 , . . . , / ?- 1 ) .
The p images of a are plainly distinct and consequently a is a root of an irreducible
polynomial o f degre e p ove r F (Theore m 5.1 6 , p . 66) . W e conclude tha t E =
F{a). I t is only necessary to show that a satisfie s an equation of the form xp —x —
a= 0.
Set a — ap — a. W e have
a(a) = (a + l) p - (a + l) = a p + l - a - 1 = a.
Since a{a) — a it follows that a e F. Thu s a i s a root of the equation
xp - x - a = 0. •
EXAMPLE. Th e polynomial f(x) = x 5 — x — 1 is irreducible in the rational
field R. For , if f(x) wer e reducible in R it would certainly be reducible in R$. But,
from the foregoing, we see that x5 — x — a is reducible in Rs only if a = 0 (mod5).
104 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

The general case in which the characteristic of a cyclic field is a divisor of the
degree is handled in stages. Suppose E/F i s normal and cyclic of degree n — p vm
where p i s the characteristic an d p\m. Le t o b e the generator o f the group. Th e
element r = op v~xm generate s a cycli c subgrou p S o f orde r p. Th e grou p S
corresponds to a field Q\ whic h is normal and cyclic of degree p v~lm ove r F (cf .
p. 73 ff.). B y repeating this process we arrive at a chain of cyclic normal fields
E = Q 0DQiD '"DQ VD F
where (Q t/ ßf+i ) = p (i = 0 , . . ., v — 1 ) and (Q v/F) = m. I t follows that we can
obtain E fro m F b y adjunction o f m th roots of unity an d one other element, som e
combination of radicals and modified radicals .

7.3. Steinitz ' Theorem

The consideration o f Theorems 7. 1 an d 7.4 leads us to ask what ar e the con-
ditions that an algebraic extension field be obtainable by a Single adjunction. (O f
course, i t i s no t alway s a n advantag e t o emplo y a Singl e adjunction . Th e field
R(\/2, i) i s better understood in that representation than as R(i + y/l).) A beauti-
ful an d complete answer has been provided by Steinitz:
THEOREM A necessary and sufficient condition that a given field offinite degree
be generated by the adjunction ofa Single element is that there exist only finitely
many fields intermediate between the given field and the ground field.
REMARKS. Th e theore m i s connecte d i n som e measur e wit h th e notio n o f
separability. Fo r the Splitting field of a separable equation, the intermediate fields
correspond t o the subgroup s o f the Galois grou p an d th e number o f intermediat e
fields must of necessity be finite. We have proved nothing for an y other case. We
shall, in fact, giv e an example where an infinite number of subfields appear .
PROOF O F NECESSITY : I f a field of finite degree is generated by a Single ad-
junction, then the number of intermediate fields is finite.
Assume E = F(a) an d le t Q b e a n intermediat e field, E D Q D F. I t
follows that E = Q(a). Th e element a is algebraic, E being of finite degree, since
the numbe r o f independen t element s a, a 2, a 3 , . . . i s bounded . Thu s w e hav e a
polynomial equation for a and , in particular, a mus t satisfy a n irreducible relation
f(x) = 0 over F. Furthermore , a mus t satisf y a n irreducible relation P(x) = 0
over Q where P(x) i s one of th e irreducible factor s o f f(x) ove r Q. Sinc e E =
£2(a) we have (E/Q) = o[P(x)] (se e Lemma 5.9, p. 59).
Let ^o be the field obtained by adjoining al l the coefficients o f P(x) t o F. W e
are sur e tha t F C ^ o C £ 2 since w e hav e no t adjoine d an y element s bu t thos e
of Q. P(x) i s a n irreducibl e polynomia l ove r ß o sinc e i t i s irreducibl e ove r Q.
But (E/Q 0) = d[P(x)] = (E/Q) an d Q D Q 0- W e conclude that Q = Q 0 (se e
proposition on p. 60).
Any field Q between F an d F(a) i s determined a s the extension o f F b y the
coefficients i n Q of th e irreducible equatio n fo r a. Sinc e P(x) mus t be a divisor
of f(x) i n E an d f(x) ca n have onl y a finite number o f divisors , there ar e only
finitely many possibilities for Q. D
 7.3. STEINITZ ' THEORE M 105

EXAMPLE. Conside r the field R(\/2). Th e element \fl satisfie s the irreducible
equation
f(x) =x 4-2 = 0
over R. I n R(^/2), f(x) ha s the factorizatio n
f(x) = (x- V^)(J C + V2)(x 2 + A/2) .

Using the fact that the field of the product of any two factors is the same as the field
of the remaining factor, w e obtain three different cases :

P(x)=x-y/2, Q = R(^/l),
P(x) = x + V2, Q = R(V2),
4
P(x)=x -2, ß = R.
PROOF OF SUFFICIENCY : I f (E/F) i s finite and the number o f fields inter -
mediate betwee n E an d F i s finite, then E ma y b e obtained fro m F b y a Single
adjunction E = F(a). W e consider two possible cases:
(a) F consists of a finite number of elements.
Set n = (E/F). I t is easy to show (see Lemma 5.23, p. 76) that E contains q n
elements. We have proved (Corollary, p. 79) that the nonzero elements of E form a
cyclic group with respect to multiplication. I f a i s the generator of the group, then
E = F(a). Th e field consists simply of the powers of a Single element.
(b) F contains infinitely man y elements.
Since (E/F) i s finite, E can be obtained from F by a finite number of adjunc -
tions, trivially in fact, a s the set of linear combinations of the basis elements. I t is
therefore sufficien t t o prove that an extension of F b y means of two elements ca n
always be obtained by the adjunction o f a Single element, i.e.,
F(a,ß) = F(y)
for any a, ß, an d suitable y i n E.
Consider the elements
yc = a + cß,
where c e F. Sinc e w e have infinitel y man y c' s w e have a n unlimited numbe r
of the y c a t our disposal. Ther e are only a finite number of fields F(y c), however ,
since there are only a finite number of fields between E and F. Consequently , there
must be a pair c,d e F suc h that
F(yc) = F(y d)cF(a,ß).

Now
Yc, Yd G F(y c).
Hence,
(c-d)ß = (y c-yd)eF(yc).
106 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

Since (c — d) e F and c — d^0itfollows tha t ß e F(y c). Furthermore , a may be

written as a = y c — cß, whence also a e F(y c). I t follows tha t F(ct, ß) C F(y c).
We conclude that
F(a9ß) = F( Yc). •
Upon re-examining th e proof i t is clear that we need choos e a number of a' s
only one greater than the number of intermediate fields.
It is somewhat unsatisfactory tha t the two cases have to be treated differently .
As yet, n o proof unitin g bot h case s ha s bee n found . A s a matter o f aesthetic s i t
would be pleasant if such a proof were provided.
The connection of the theorem with separability is easily established .
LEMMA If E = F(a\, a 2, . . . , (x n), where each oti is a root of an irreducible sep-
arablepolynomial Pt(x), then there are onlyfinitely manyfields between E and F.
By our theorem it follows that E can be obtainedfrom F by a Single adjunction.
PROOF: Se t f(x) = P x(x)P2(x) • • • P n(x) an d extend E t o the Splitting field
Q o f f(x), Q D E D F. No w Q/F i s norma l sinc e £ 2 is th e Splittin g field of
a separabl e polynomia l ove r F. Th e fields between F an d Q correspon d t o th e
subgroups of the Galois group and therefore ar e finite in number. Henc e there can
be only finitely many fields between F an d E. D
Let us consider a n example with infinitely man y fields between the extension
and the ground field. Since every polynomial is separable for fields of characteristic
zero, the only exceptional cases are those where the characteristic is positive.
We shall employ a field of characteristic 2, E = R 2(x,y), th e field of rational
functions ove r R 2.2 A sample element would be any
x2 + xy + x 5
y5 + y 3x2
all the coefficients ar e 1 . For the ground field we take F — R2(x2, y 2), i.e. , the set
of all rational functions wher e all the powers of the variables are even. What is the
nature of the extension which gives El
Consider any 9 e E. W e can express 9 as a quotient of polynomials
= 4>(x,y)

Since the characteristic i s 2, the Square of a polynomial i s simpl y th e su m of th e

Squares of the separate terms and therefore w e have
_ 0(x,y ) _ (p(x,y)j/(x,y) _ </>(x,y)\lr(x,y)
2 2 2
if(x,y) f (x,y) \j/(x ,y )
The denominator \jf(x 2, y 2) i s a n element o f F . Th e numerator, bein g a polyno-
mial, can be written in the form
4>(x, y)ifr(x, y) = gi(x 2 , y 2) + g 2(x2, y 2)x + g 3(x2, y 2)y + g 4(x2, y 2
)xy,
2 2
where the gt(x , y ) ar e polynomials.
Rp i s the field of the integers mo d p.
 7.4. TOWERS O F FIELDS 107

We conclude that any 0 e E ca n be put in the form

0 = a\+ a 2x + a^y + a 4xy
where a v e F ( v = 1 , 2, 3, 4). W e have found a linearly independent basis, for if
ö = 0 w e ma y take out the denominator and get a polynomial relation
2 2
Mx\ y ) + f 2(x\ y )x + Mx 2, y 2)y + f 4(x2, y 2
)xy = 0 .
But a polynomial can be zero only if all the coefficients ar e zero. It follows that the
only linear expression for zero is the trivial one. Thus we have a linearly indepen-
dent basis of four elements, (E/F) = 4 .
It is impossible to derive E fro m F b y a single adjunction. Fo r if E = F(a)
then a mus t be the root of an irreducible equation of fourth degree . But any a e E
already satisfies a n equation of second degree since a2 e F. Contradiction .
It must therefore b e possible to find an infinite numbe r o f fields intermediate
between E an d F. Tak e any a e E. Sinc e a 2 e F i t follows tha t (F(a)/F) < 2 .
We may express any a e E in the form
a = a\ + a 2x + a$y + a 4xy
and if not all three of a2, «3 , a 4 are zero, then a £ F 9 (F(a)/F) = 2 . The elements
of F(a) ma y be written in the form
A + Bot = C + Ba^x + Ba^y + Ba 4xy
where «2,^3, a 4 ar e fixed with a. Th e proportion Ba 2 : Ba^ : Ba 4 i s constant fo r
the entire field F(a). Henc e t o obtain a n infinite numbe r o f fields we need onl y
take an infinite numbe r of proportions a 2 : a 3 : a 4. Fo r example, consider the set
of values a = x + y 2n+l. W e have a different field for each value of n with a2 = 1 ,
a3 = y 2 n ,a 4 = 0 .

7.4. Tower s of Fields

We have seen that an equation which leads to a cyclic Splitting field is solvable
in terms of radicals an d modified radicals . I n general, if there is a chain o f fields
from th e ground field F t o an extension E,
F = F 0C F i C F 2 C • • • C F n = E
where Fj+\/F i s normal and cyclic for all j, then clearly F n can be obtained fro m
F by means of root extractions an d modified radicals . I f there is such an array of
fields between E an d F, we say E/F i s a tower. Thus we have
THEOREM 7.5 IfE/F is a tower, then the elements of E are generatedfrom F by
means ofroot extractions, modified radicals, and the rational Operations.
EXAMPLES. An y cubic equation in the rational field can be solved in terms of
radicals. Fo r an irreducible cubic the Splitting field is either of degree 3 or degree
6. I n the first case the group is cyclic and can be solved in terms of cube roots of
unity an d one cubic radical. I f the group is the group of order six, it contains on e
invariant subgrou p o f orde r 3 . Th e field Q correspondin g t o thi s grou p satisfie s
(E/Q) = 3 an d therefor e (fi/F ) = 2 . Consequently , th e Solutio n o f a cubi c
108 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

reduces to the Solution of a quadratic, the introduction o f cube roots of unity, and
the adjunction o f a cube root of some element of £2.
To show that the general equatio n o f fourth degre e ca n be solve d in terms of
radicals would require a more intimate study of the permutation group of order 24.
But the same method would work. Fo r the general quintic equation, however , we
get the permutation group of order 120, and this cannot be broken down into a chain
of cycli c invarian t subgroups . Thi s doe s not yet prove that a Solution i n radicals
is impossible. S o far w e have only completed th e positive side of the proof; if we
can construct a chain of cyclic invariant subgroups, then an equation with rational
coefficients i s solvable in terms of radicals. It remains to prove the converse.
THEOREM 7.6 If E/F is normal with a commutative group G, then E is a tower
over F.
PROOF: B y takin g th e power s o f an y a e G , a ^ / , w e ca n easil y pic k
out a cyclic subgrou p S. Th e subgrou p S correspond s t o a field Q, E D Q 2> F.
Now Q is normal over F sinc e every subgrou p of a commutative grou p is invari-
ant. Th e group of £l/F i s simply the factor grou p G/S. Sinc e the entire group is
commutative, the factor grou p must again be commutative.
Repeating the process we can determine a field between £ 2 and F whic h has a
cyclic group under Q. In this fashion we can construct a tower of fields between F
and E. D
COROLLARY IfE/F is normal with a commutative group, then E can be ohtained
from F by root extractions and modified radicals.
Is it possible to effect som e economy i n generating E ou t of Fl W e employ
certain root s o f unit y an d othe r radical s an d i t i s desirabl e t o use radical s o f th e
smallest possible index. Thi s can be accomplished b y breaking dow n each cyclic
step into Step s of prim e order . Fo r example , i f a i s a n elemen t o f perio d 1 2 we
could take for the first step either the group of order 2 generated by a6 o r the group
of order 3 generated b y <r 4. I t is clear, then, that we need onl y use roots o f unity
and radicals for which the index is a prime divisor of the order of the group.
Let us consider the special case of R(s) wher e s is a primitive nth root of unity.
If n is a power of a prime, n = p ß, the n s satisfies an irreducible equation of degree
pß~l(p — 1). What , i n general, i s the nature of the group o f R(e)/R7 Th e only
possible automorphisms have the form
(*i(e) = s l,
where we must have (i,n) = 1 , for otherwise the period would be less than n.
EXERCISE 2. Prov e that all the transformation s
at(s) = e l, (i,n) = 1,
are actuall y automorphism s o f th e field R(e). Th e grou p o f R(s)/R i s clearl y
commutative sinc e we have
<Ticrk(e) = cfi(e k) = s ik.
 7.4. TOWERS O F FIELDS 109

Let us stud y th e case /x = 1 , n — p, a prime. Th e degree of R(e) i s p — 1 .

We can therefore construc t th e p th root s o f unit y b y mean s o f roots o f unity an d
radicals of lower Orders than p. Specifically , thes e Orders may be restricted to the
prime divisors of p — 1 . Consequently , i f p — 1 is a power of 2 we can generat e
the p th root s of unity from ± 1 an d various Square roots. W e have proved that if p
is a Fermat prime, the geometrical constructio n o f the regulär polygon o f p side s
is possible.
We have proved tha t i f a field is a tower i t can be generate d b y radicals an d
modified radicals . We require an approximate converse:
THEOREM 7.7 Let fix) be an irreducible separable polynomial over the ground
field F. Ifit is possible to give one roota of f(x) by means ofroot extractions and
rational Operations, then the Splitting fieldoff(x) is a tower over F.
PROOF: W e may assum e that th e index o f each radical i s a prime sinc e any
radical can be expressed in terms of radicals of prime order; e.g.,

If the characteristic of F is /?, then we can get rid of all p th root s in the expres-
sion for a. Fo r F(a p) i s a subfield o f F(a) an d a satisfie s th e equations
fix) = 0,
p p
x - a = (J C - a) p = 0,
in F(a p). Sinc e a i s a simple root of fix), th e greatest common divisor of fix)
and xp — ap i s x — a. Bu t both polynomials are in Fia p) an d so, therefore, is their
greatest common divisor. W e conclude that a e Fia p)\ i.e. , a ca n be written as a
polynomial expression in ap. Now , if a pth roo t occurs in a i t can be eliminated in
ap. W e need only employ the relations
(a + b) p =a p + b p an d (ab) p
= a pbp
together wit h th e fact tha t ^ = « / ml . Usin g th e polynomial relatio n be -
tween a an d a p w e get a new expression for a. B y repeating this process w e can
rid the expression fo r a o f al l radicals o f index p. I n other words, if a n equatio n
is solvable by radicals i t can be solve d withou t th e use of p th roots . W e assume,
therefore, that p th root s do not appear in the expression for a.
If pi, p2, . . ., p s ar e th e distinc t indice s o f th e radical s appearin g i n th e ex -
pression for a, w e adjoin to F the ip\) th, ipi) th, • • •, ip s)th root s of unity. The field
Fi i s clearly normal and a tower over F.
Pick out an innermost radical p ^fä in the formula fo r a. For m the field Fi —
p
F\i <i/ä). F2/F i s normal; namely, it is the Splitting field of the polynomial
ixPl - a)ix Pl
- l)ix P2
- 1 ) • • • (je* - 1 ) .
Furthermore, F2/F1 is cyclic (Theorem 7.1). D
110 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

We then repeat the process using the next innermost radical.

The only difficult y i s that we wish to have each successiv e field normal ove r
F. Suppos e then that we have reached a field Fi such that
(1) Fi IF i s normal,
(2) Fi/F i s a tower, each step being of prime degree.
The next field is to be obtained by adjoining a radical in some 9 e F t, sa y y/Ö. De-
note by Gt th e group of Fi/F. Fi is the Splitting field of some separable polynomial
fi(x). W e form the new polynomial

fi+i(x) = Mx)Y[(x q-<*(ß))

where th e a(9) ar e th e distinc t image s o f 6 throug h th e element s o f G/ . (Th e
inclusion o f the images 6 i s necessary t o insure that the automorphism s o f F t/F
are contained in the automorphisms of the new field.)
The polynomial
Y\(xq-a(6))
remains fixed in all the automorphisms of F t/F an d is therefore a polynomial in F.
Since q is not the characteristic, this polynomial is clearly separable. It follows that
/i+i (x) is separable and hence that the Splitting field Fi+\ o f f i+\ (x) i s normal over
F. Furthermore , F i+\ ca n be reached from F t b y successively adjoinin g q th root s
of th e <J(Ö) , eac h extensio n bein g eithe r cycli c o f prim e degre e o r involvin g n o
change at all. We conclude that F i+\/F i s a tower of prime Steps.
In the end we reach a field Q which is a normal tower of prime steps over F and
which contains a root a o f f(x). Sinc e Q/F i s normal, f(x) irreducible , it follows
that f(x) split s in Q (Theorem 5.1 6 , p . 66). Hence , if on e root o f a n irreducibl e
polynomial is expressible in terms of radicals, every root has such an expression.
Since f(x) split s in £2, the Splitting field E mus t be contained in Q. W e have
only to prove
LEMMA 7. 8 If Q/F is normal and a tower, E an intermediate field with E/F
normal, then E/F is a tower.
The proof may be accomplished in two ways:
(a) Th e group-theoretical method :
Let 0 b e the group of Q/F, G the group of E/F. Sinc e E/F i s normal it is
determined by an invariant subgroup y o f (5. Thus G is simply the factor grou p
G = <5/y.
Now (Ö is a solvable group. By this we mean that there is a sequence of subgroups
[1] 0 D Öi D © 2 3 •• • D /
such tha t 0/ + i i s a n invarian t subgrou p wit h respec t t o (5 * and th e facto r grou p
0//0/+1 i s cyclic. The lemma follows fro m a Standard theorem of group theory:
THEOREM If a group is solvable, then every one ofits factor groups is solvable.
 7.4. TOWERS O F FIELD S 111

PROOF: Give n the group 0 i n the decomposition [1 ] , let S b e any invariant

subgroup and put
G = 0/S.
The group G consists essentially o f the elements of 0 togethe r with a new equiv-
alence relation; tw o elements wil l be called equivalen t if they belong to the same
coset of S. Sinc e multiplication i s preserved i n the mapping of 0 ont o G (cf. Ex -
ercise 1 1 , p. 74) i t i s clea r tha t th e subgroup s 0 i D 0 2 2 > • • • D I ma p ont o
subgroups of G ,
G D G i DG 2D" Dl'.
0;+i i s an invariant subgroup of 0/. I t follows if o e 0/ , r e 0;+i , and s, t are the
corresponding images in G/ andG/ + i thatarcr - 1 e 0/ + i mdhence sts~ l e G;+i .
From 0/ — > G; , it follows that G;+i i s an invariant subgroup of G; .
We need only prove G//G/+1 cyclic. Since 0 / / 0 /+ 1 i s cyclic we may write the
elements as powers of some coset of 0/+i. I t follows tha t any element of G//G/+ 1
can be written as a power of the corresponding coset of G j+i. D

(b) Th e field-theoretical method:

Q/F i s normal and a tower; i.e., we have intermediate field s
F C F i C F 2 C •• • C F N = Q,
with F i+\/Fi cycli c of prime degree. Sinc e E i s normal i t is the Splitting field of
a separabl e polynomia l f(x) ove r F . Le t E t b e th e Splittin g field of f(x) ove r
Ft. Th e group of E i+\/Fi+\ i s isomorphic t o a subgroup of Ef/Ft (cf . p . 100 ff.).
The group of E\/F\ ma y be G , th e group of E/F. Bu t there must be a last / fo r
which the group Ei/Fi i s G since at the end E N = F N an d the group of E N/FN i s
/. A t the next step F/ + i/F/ + i mus t correspond to a proper subgrou p S. Th e field
between E t an d F t whic h is determined by S is simply E t n F i+\. Schematicall y
we have Figure 7.1(a). But the degree of F i+\/Fi i s prime and there can be no field
between F t an d F i+\. W e cannot hav e F / = E t D F/+ i fo r w e would the n hav e
S = G. Therefor e E t C\ F/ +1 = F/ + i, whenc e E t D F i+i. Ou r scheme simplifie s
to the arrangement in Figure 7.1(b).
Since F/ + i/F z i s norma l an d cycli c o f prim e orde r w e conclud e tha t S i s a n
invariant subgrou p o f G an d that th e factor grou p G/5 , th e group o f F/ + i/F/, i s
cyclic of prime order.
We now ascend the tower until we reach the next simplification, i.e. , until we
reach a level where Ek/Fk stil l has the group S but F^ + i/F^ + i ha s a smaller group
T. B y the sam e reasoning a s above, T i s a n invariant subgrou p o f S an d S/T i s
cyclic of prime order. Continuing in this manner we must arrive at a point where no
further simplificatio n ca n be attained since , at the last, the group of E/N consist s
of the identity alone.
Thus we obtain a chain of groups
[1] G = G 0DGl D ••• D G D /
where G/ +i i s an invariant subgroup of G; an d G//G/ + i i s cyclic of prime order.
112 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

"i + \

l+l

G
J+l )

(b)

(a)
FIGURE7.1

Consider wha t thi s mean s fo r fields betwee n E an d F. Denot e th e field at-

tached t o G t b y £; . G\ i s a n invarian t subgrou p o f G o an d therefor e E\/F i s
normal. Furthermore , the group of E\/F i s the factor grou p GQ/G\ an d is cyclic
of prime order . No w G\ i s the group of E/E\. Th e subgrou p G2 is an invarian t
subgroup an d therefore correspond s t o a field £2 norma l ove r £1 . Th e grou p of
E2/E1 i s G2/G1 , cyclic of prime order.
In thi s manne r w e ma y continu e b y norma l cycli c Step s unti l w e reac h E.
Clearly, then, E/F i s a tower.
If the group of an equation ha s the form [1 ] , then th e equation i s solvable by
radicals. Hence any group of that form is called solvable.

7.5. Permutatio n Groups

Let F be a given field, /(je) a polynomial with simple roots. If E is the Splitting
field of /(je) w e may write
f(x) = (x - ct\)(x - a 2 ) • • • (x - a n) (dt e E)

and

E = F(ai,a 2, ...,«*) .
An automorphism a o f £ i s completely determined if the images of the at unde r a
are known. Now
<*(f(<Xi)) = /(cr(ofi) ) = 0 =^ a(a/) = a k,
 7.5. PERMUTATION GROUPS 113

where a^ i s som e roo t o f f(x). Henc e eac h a ha s th e effec t o f a permutatio n

on th e dt. Thi s correspond s t o the origina l notio n o f Galoi s theory . Th e Galoi s
group attached to an equation was considered not as a group of automorphisms but
as a group o f permutations . Th e permutation grou p o f a n equatio n i s define d a s
the set of permutations of the roots which leaves unaltered all possible polynomial
relations among the roots. Thus, a permutation a belong s to the group if for every
relation
P(aua2, . . . , an ) = 0
we have also
P(or(ai), or(of 2), . • •, cr(an)) = 0 .
2 2
EXAMPLE. Conside r the equation (x — 2)(x — 3 ) = 0 . Denot e the roots of
the first factor by ot\, a?2, of the second by «3, #4. Since a\ — 2 — 0 and a\ — 3 = 0
we cannot have ot\ -> # 3 in any permutation.
The concept of the permutation whic h does not affect polynomia l relations in
the roots is much clumsier in application than that of automorphism of the Splitting
field. Nonetheless, there is considerable point in studying the actual permutations.
By knowledg e o f th e abstrac t structur e o f th e grou p w e coul d answe r al l field-
theoretical questions . No w by considering no t onl y the group but its effect upo n
particular elements we shall find it possible to answer a few questions we could not
answer before.
Consider the preceding example, the equation
U 2 - 2 ) ( J C 2 - 3 ) = 0,
in th e rational field R. Th e Splittin g field E = /?(v^2 , V3) i s o f degre e 4 sinc e
R(y/2, A/3 ) D R(V2) D R and x2 - 3 is irreducible in R(V2) b y the result of
EXERCISE 3 . Sho w tha t V 3 canno t b e expresse d i n th e for m a + bV2fov
rational a, b.
Since the degree of the Splitting field is 4, all four conceivable automorphism s
occur.
The field R(y/2, y/3) ca n also be written as /?(>/2 + V3 ) sinc e R{y/l + y/3)
contains 1 /(A/ 2 + >/3 ) — V 3 — \/2. If we apply the automorphisms of the field to
\Pl + V 3 we get four differen t image s and by Theorem 5.1 6 these are the roots of
an irreducible equation of fourth degree over F, namel y
2
x4 - IOJK +1 = 0 .
Thus th e sam e field and th e sam e grou p coul d hav e been obtaine d fro m a n irre-
ducible equation.3 From the structure of the group we cannot derive the reducibility
or irreducibility o f an equation! I t is just the additional knowledge of the specifi c
permutations of the roots which enables us to treat these questions.
Denote th e root s o f th e equatio n f(x) = 0 by a t. A n automorphis m o f th e
Splitting field effects a certain permutation of the roots
a(ai) =a vr

This is generally tru e by Steinitz' theorem .

114 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

We shall denote the roots by their subscript s alon e an d er wil l then be defined b y
the notation
/l,2,...,n\
\ V l , V 2, . . ., V n)

The product o f two permutations i s defined a s the result of applying them in suc-
cession. In the example of (x 2 — 2)(x 2 — 3 ) we have
/l 2 3 4\/ l2 3 4 \ / l2 3 4 \
\21 4 3J \2 3 4 l) " \l 4 3 2) '
In thi s instanc e the permutation grou p doe s not carr y ever y digi t ove r int o ever y
other digit since, e.g., ot\ canno t go into a^. If, o n the contrary, a group of permuta-
tions carries every digit over into every other digit, we say the group is transitive.
LEMMA 7.9 A necessary and sufficient condition that a group of permutations be
transitive is that the digit 1 can be carried into any other; i.e., as er runs through
the group, <r(l) runs through the digits 1 ,2, ... ,n.
PROOF: Th e conditio n i s obviousl y necessary . I n orde r t o prove i t i s suffi -
cient, we show it is possible to carry any digit j ove r into any other digit k. No w j
and k both appear as images of 1 . Thus there are permutations er, r wit h
cr(l) = j , r(l)=k.
In the inverse to er w e have cr~l(j) = 1 , whence r(a~ l(j)) = k. D
Suppose, for a given group G , that 1 is carried over into the digits 1 ,2,... ,r
and no others. (Thi s is no restriction sinc e we may label our elements s o that the
images of 1 are the first r indices.) B y the proof of Lemma 7.9 it follows tha t any
one of these digits can be mapped onto any other. Furthermore , no permutation of
the group will move any one of the digits 1,2,... ,r int o a digit k > r. Fo r assume
j < r with cr(j) — k. Sinc e j i s an image of 1 , j = r(l) , we have a r ( l) = k.
The grou p permute s r o f th e digit s i n a transitiv e way . Th e se t o f digit s
1,2, ... ,r i s calle d a domain of transitivity. W e ma y divid e al l th e digit s int o
domains o f transitivity , a domain o f transitivit y consistin g o f al l the integers tha t
can be carried into each other by the permutation of the group.
LEMMA 7.1 0 There is a one-to-one correspondence between the irreducible fac-
tor sofa separable polynomial f(x) and the domains of transitivity ofits Galois
group.
PROOF: Le t

P(x) = (x - <x\)(x -a 2)-"(x- a r)

be an irreducible factor o f f{x) ove r F. Fro m P(a\) = 0 we have P(a(a\)) = 0

where er is an y elemen t o f th e grou p o f f(x). Consequently , er(a\) i s on e o f
ct\, o?2, .. •, otr. Furthermore , ot\ has a t leas t r distine t image s fo r otherwis e i t
would satisf y a n equation o f lowe r degree (Theore m 5.1 6 , p . 66). I t follows tha t
each at, i < r, i s an image of ct\ in some automorphism, an d ot\ ha s no other im-
ages. In other words, the irreducible factor P(x) determine s the transitivity domain
1,2, ...,r. D
 7.5. PERMUTATION GROUP S 115

COROLLARY The group of an irreducible separable polynomial is transitive.

EXAMPLE. Th e field R(V2, >/3 ) = R(V2 + V3 ) ma y be considered a s the

Splitting field o f eithe r x 4 — 5x 2 + 6 or x 4 — 10x2 + 1 . Th e abstrac t grou p o f
both polynomials is the same and corresponds to the automorphisms V 2 — • ±y/2,
>/3—> ± \ / 3 . We denote these automorphisms by /, a, z, p according to the sched-
ule

/ o r P
V 2 ^ V2 -V2 V2 -V2
V 3 ^ V3 V3 -V3 -73

The effect o f the group on the roots of both equations is given in the tables

x4 - 5x 2 + 6 JE 4 - IOJC 2
+ 1

ai = V 2 , or2 - '-V2 of! = V 2 + A / 3 , #2 = A/ 2 — V 3

«3 = \/3, a 4 = •-V3 a 3 = — V 2 + V3 , #4 = — A/ 2 — V 3

1234 1234
/1234 / 1234
a 2134 (7 2143
X 1243 r 3412
P 2143 P 4321
In the first case we have two domains of transitivity, each containing two ele-
ments. In the second case we obtain a transitive group of order four. Th e Situation
is entirely different ye t the structure of the abstract group is the same in both cases.
We are particularly intereste d i n group s whic h ar e no t solvable . Apparentl y
most group s ar e solvable , the smalles t nonsolvabl e grou p being o f order 60. Th e
nonsolvable group of order 60 is a simple group; a simple group is a group which
has no invariant subgroup s othe r than itself an d the identity. Clearly , every cyclic
group o f prime orde r i s simple . Apar t fro m these , th e simpl e group s see m to be
very rare . Th e nex t nontrivia l simpl e grou p i s o f orde r 1 6 8 an d i s give n b y th e
symmetries of the abstract geometry of seven points.
This is a projective geometry defined by the postulates:
(a) ther e exists at least one line;
(b) ever y line contains exactly three points;
(c) ther e is at least one point not on a given line;
(d) tw o points lie on exactly one line;
(e) tw o lines intersect in exactly one point.
This geometry i s represented i n the table below an d in the accompanying fig-
ure:
116 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

l\ 124
h 235
h 346
u 457
h 561
h 672
Li 713
The simpl e grou p o f 1 6 8 elements consist s o f al l permutation s o f th e digit s
1, 2 , . . ., 7 for which the collineation relations of this geometry remain unchanged.
Thus, for example, the eyclic permutations belong to this group.
EXERCISE 4. Determin e all the permutations of the simpl e group of order 168.
The simpl e grou p o f orde r 6 0 also has a geometrical Interpretation . I t is th e
group of rotations of the icosahedron.
There has not yet been an y Solution to the problem of determining al l simpl e
groups.4 Th e first few hav e the Orders 60, 1 68 , 360, 504, 660, 1 092 , there bein g
one simpl e grou p fo r eac h order . However , ther e ma y b e mor e tha n on e simpl e
group of a given order ; ther e are two of orde r 20160. Th e most commo n simpl e
groups appear to be those of order p (p2 — 1) /2 where p is any prime greater than 3.
In particular, the group of the matrices ( acbd) wit h elements in R p an d determinant
equal t o 1 has a factor grou p o f orde r p(p 2 — l)/ 2 wit h respect t o th e invarian t
subgroup

(o ij ; ( o -i )
and this is simple.
It is probable that every group appears as the group of some equation over the
rational field but most equations have certain special groups. The general equation
of n th degre e leads to the so-called Symmetrie group of order n\. Thi s is the group
of all permutations on n objects. In general, the Symmetrie group is nonsolvable as
we shall prove.
A eyclic permutation wil l now be described by writing the digits in the eyclic
order, e.g.,

Such a permutation will be referred t o briefly a s a cycle.

PROPOSITION Every permutation can be written as a produet ofdisjoint cycles.
EXAMPLE.

"= ( 23 \ 4 6 7 5 ) = (1 23)(4)(567) .

Editor 's note: This is now known.

 1
1
7.5. PERMUTATION GROUP S 7

We agree to omit mention of any digit that remains fixed, e.g.,

a = (1 23)(567) .
If we employ the special Convention of writing the identity as / ever y permutation
can be described in this form.
EXAMPLES. Th e permutation group on 3 objects consists of
the identity: /
2-cycles:
1( 2) , (1 3) , (23 )
3-cycles:
1( 23) , (1 32) .
The permutation group on 4 elements consists of
the identity: /
1
2-cycles: ( 2) , (1 3) , (1 4) , (23) , (24) , (34 )
productsof 2-cycles : 1( 2)(34) , (1 3)(24) , (1 4)(23 )
1
3-cycles: ( 23) , (1 24) , (1 32) , (1 34) , (1 42) , (1 43) , (234) , (243 )
1
4-cycles: ( 234) , (1 243) , (1 324) , (1 342) , (1 423) , (1 432 )
with 24 permutations in all.
The period o f a cycle is clearly equa l to its length. I n the powers o f an y per-
mutation the disjoint cycles may behave independently. I t follows tha t
LEMMA 7.1 1 The period of a permutation is the least common multiple of the
lengths ofits constituent cycles.
The following rul e of computation will be found useful :
If r i s given in cycle decomposition, th e transform axo~ x i s obtained simpl y
by performing th e permutation o o n the separate cycles of r. Thu s if
r - (31 4 ) (25) (67)
a = (1 23X567 )
then

axa'1 = (1 24)(36)(75) .
There i s another representatio n whic h i s very useful. Ever y permutatio n ca n
be written as a product of transpositions (2-cycles) but here the terms are not nec-
essarily disjoint. Thus , in particular, we have for a cycle
(0, 1 , 2, . . ., n) = (0 , yi)(0, n - 1 ) • • • (0, 1).
Note. A n (n + l)-cycl e ca n b e writte n a s th e produc t o f n transpositions . Th e
representation a s a product o f transpositions fo r an y permutation ca n be obtained
by writing each ofits disjoin t cycles as above. This is not the only conceivable way
of writing a permutation as a product of transpositions but all such representations
have something in common.
118 7. THE THEORY O F EQUATIONS

LEMMA 7.1 2 In all the representations of a permutation as a product of trans-

positions the number of transpositions has the same parity', i.e., the number of
transpositions is either always even or always odd.
PROOF: Construc t the polynomial in the n variables x\, x 2,..., x n consistin g
of the product of their differences ,
P=
E l (*'-*;•)'
\<i<j<n
or, in expanded form ,
P = (xi - x 2)(xi - x 3) • • • (xi - x n)
(x2 - x 3) • • • (x 2 - x n)

\-%n — 1 X n).

If we permute the indices of the x;, then each factor goes into some other factor or
its negative. Thu s a permutation has either the effect o f changing the sign of P o r
leaving it the same. D
EXERCISE 5. Sho w that the effect o f a transposition is to change the sign of P.
If a permutation leaves the sign of P unchanged, it is said to be even; otherwise
it is called odd. The product of two even permutations or two odd permutations is
even. Th e product of an even and an odd is odd. I n view of Exercise 5 it is clear
that an even number of transpositions is required to represent an even permutation,
an odd number of transpositions to represent an odd.
COROLLARY The inverse of a permutation is even or odd according to whether
the original permutation is even or odd.
The even permutations, being closed under multiplication and taking inverses,
form a subgroup of the füll Symmetri e group. Th e subgroup of the even permuta-
tions is clearly invariant:
aSa'1 =S.
The order of the subgroup is easily determined :
There ar e as many eve n permutations a s odd, fo r th e produets o f th e distine t
even permutations wit h an y fixed odd permutation ar e distinet od d permutations .
Hence the number o f od d permutations i s at least a s great a s the number o f eve n
permutations. Bu t if we multiply the distinet odd permutations by any Single odd
permutation we get distinet even produets. Hence the number of even permutations
is not less than the number of odd. We conclude that the even permutations are half
the Symmetrie group. The y constitute a n invariant subgrou p of order \n\. Thi s is
the so-called alternating group on n elements.
The Symmetrie group contains an invariant subgroup of order \n! an d index 2.
The corresponding facto r grou p must then be cyclic. Bu t this, in general, is as far
as the decomposition o f the Symmetrie group can be carried. Excep t i n the case s
n < 4, the alternating group on n elements is nonsolvable.
 7.5. PERMUTATION GROUP S 119

THEOREM 7.13 The alternating group on n elements is a simple group.5

The proof will require the development of some preliminary results.
Denote th e Symmetri e grou p o n n element s b y S n, th e alternatin g grou p b y
An. I f we consider the cycle decomposition o f a permutation, w e can teil at once
whether i t is even or odd, a cycle in an odd number o f elements being even, oth-
erwise odd (see note on p. 117). Thus A3 consists of the identity and the 3-cycles,
3 element s i n all ; A 4 consist s o f th e identity , th e product s o f 2-cycles , an d th e
3-cycles, 1 2 elements in all.
PROPOSITION 7.14 IfG 7 ^ I is an invariant subgroup of A n or S n, n ^ 4, then G
contains either a 2-cycle or a 3-cycle.
PROOF: Selec t a r e G whose period is a prime p, x p = I. Fo r this purpose
we need only pick out any <r ^ / . I f the period of er i s not a prime, then it has a
prime divisor and this is the period of some power of a.
By Lemm a 7.1 1 (p . 1 1 7) , the cycle decompositio n o f r ca n onl y contai n p-
cycles. Hence, we have only the following possibilitie s for r :
( l ) r = (1 2), a 2-cycle , in which case we are finished.
(2) r = (1 2 ) (34) • • •, a produet of 2-cycles.
(3) r = (1 23 ) a 3-cycle, in which case we are done.
(4) r = (1 23 ) (456) • • •, a produet of 3-cycles.
(5) r — (1 234 5 or more) • • •, a produet of p-cycles, p > 3 .
We shall have to dispose of the cases (2), (4), and (5). G is assumed to be an
invariant subgroup of A n o r S n. Henc e if r e G , o e A n w e have
oxo~x an d ax~ x
x~x e G.

Case 4. r = (1 23 ) (456) • • •.
Taking o — (1234) we have by the rule on page 11 7
oxo~x = (1 34)(256 ) (al l other terms remain the same),
axa-xx~x = (1 4235X6) /
= (1 4235) .
Thus we have reduced case 4 to
Case 5. x = (1 234 5 •••/?)••• .
Taking o — (234) w e obtain axa~ x — (13425 • • • p) • • •, the dots indicatin g
elements which remain the same,
orror- 1 r- 1 = (l)(352)(4)(6)...(p) /
= (352) .
Hence if G contains an element of the type of 4 or 5 it contains a 3-cycle. It remains
to complete the discussion of
Case 2. x = (1 2 ) (34) • • •.
)
Editor's note: This is true only for n > 4.
120 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

Taking er — (123) we have

axo~x — (23)(14) (al l other cycles remain the same),
axa-lx-1 = (1 3)(24) I
= (1 3)(24) .
There are two possibilities:
n > 4 . I f G contains a product o f 2-cycle s r = (1 2 ) (34), then , takin g er =
(125), wehave
arcr-1 = (25)(34) ,
axa^x'1 = (1 52)(3)(4 ) = (1 52) ,
and G contains a 3-cycle.
n = 4. Se t r = (1 2)(34) , a = (1 23) . We obtain
axo~x = (23)(1 4) , oxo~ x
x-x = (1 3 ) (24).
Hence, G contains three elements of the same form. Thes e three elements together
with the identity form an invariant subgroup—the familiär four-grou p !F. D
COROLLARY The Symmetrie group onfour elements is a solvable group.
PROOF: S 4 contain s a n invarian t subgrou p A 4 which contain s F a s a n in -
variant subgroup . Henc e S 4 possesses a decomposition int o invarian t subgroup s
aecording to the following scheme :
/ < S 2 < ¥ < A 4 < S 4.
2 2 3 2
We have succeeded in proving that every equation ofthefourth degree possesses a
Solution in terms ofradicals. D
PROPOSITION 7.1 5 Ifn 7 ^ 4 the only invariant subgroups ofthe Symmetrie group
are An and S n.
PROOF: Th e cases n = 2 , 3 are trivial. Assum e n > 4 . Now , by Proposition
7.14, if G is an invariant subgroup it must contain either a 2-cycle or a 3-cycle.
If G contains a 2-cycle, say a = (1 2) , then it contains all 2-cycles. W e have,
e.p-
(234)(12)(234)- ! = (1 3 ) e G.
It follows tha t G is the whole Symmetrie group since every dement ca n be repre-
sented as a product of transpositions (2-cycles).
Similarly, w e can show if G contains an y 3-cycle it contains all . Fo r suppos e
G contain s er = (1 23) . I t is sufficien t t o sho w that an y digit can be transforme d
into any other, (1 23 ) - > (1 24 ) say . W e have (1 23) 2 = (1 32 ) = er 2 e G. Takin g
x = (1 2)(34 ) we obtain
xcr2x~x = (241 ) .
Thus G contains every 3-cycle. It follows tha t G contains A n b y
PROPOSITION 7.1 6 Every even permutation can be expressed as a product of 3-
cycles.
 7.6. ABEL'S THEORE M 121

PROOF: Represen t th e permutatio n i n th e disjoin t cycl e decomposition . I f

each cycle is decomposed according to the method of page 1 1 7 , we obtain an even
number of transpositions. Pair these off, th e first with the second, the third with the
fourth, etc. Two possible cases occur.
(a) Th e two transpositions in a pair may have exactly one digit in common.
In that case we may write the product as a 3-cycle,
(12)(13) = (1 32) .
(b) Th e two transpositions of a pair have no common digits. I n that case we
have
(12)(34) = (1 2)(1 3)(1 3)(34 ) = (1 32)(1 34) . •
The Statement is proved. D
As a consequence of the foregoing results we have
THEOREM 7.17 The Symmetrie group on n elements, n > 4 , is not solvable.
PROOF: I t contain s onl y on e invariant subgroup , th e alternatin g group , an d
this is a simple group of nonprime order. D
From thi s resul t w e shal l prov e that ther e i s n o formul a i n term s o f radical s
which ca n b e use d t o solv e th e genera l equatio n o f n th degree ; i.e. , ther e i s n o
formula whic h work s fo r ever y possible choic e o f the coefficients . W e will have
yet to preclude the possibility that each equation can be solved by a special method.

7.6. Abel' s Theorem

Let K b e any field and form the transcendental extension
F = K(a ua2, ...,a n)

by means of n free variables a\, a 2, . . . , a n. Th e equation

f(x) = x n + axxn~x + • • • + a n = 0
over F possesses no Solution in radicals for n > 4 .
PROOF: Le t E be the Splitting field of f(x). Th e proof will consist in showing
that the group of E/F i s the Symmetrie group on n elements.
In E w e may write
f(x) = (x - x\)(x -x 2)--(x- x n).

E is obtained from F by the adjunetion o f the roots of f(x)\

E = F(x\,x 2, . . . , * „ ) .
Since the a; ar e rational expressions in the x t,
a\ = - O i + x 2 H h x n)
a2 = +(x\X2 + x\x3 H h x n-\xn)
[1]
n
an = (~l) (xix2--xn)
122 7. THE THEOR Y O F EQUATION S

we have
E = K(x ux2, . . . , * „ ) .
The xt ar e not interdependent, as we shall prove. Hence the Solution of the general
equation of n th degre e will be given by the field of rational functions o f just n fre e
variables!
Let us investigate this field. Set
E = K(yi,y 2,..., y n)

where the y t ar e independent variables. We seek a field between E an d K isomor -

phic to F. Tnvially , al l n\ permutations o f the variables y t ar e automorphisms o f
E. Denot e th e fixed field of this grou p by F. Th e field F certainl y contain s th e
elements
\b\ = -(y\ + y 2-\ \-y n)
I b2 = (yiy 2 + y\y3 H \- y n-\yn)

lbn = (-iy( yiy2..-yn).

The field of these elements

* = K(bub2,...,b n)

is a subfield o f F. No w E i s clearly the Splitting field of the polynomial

/ ( * ) = x n + b xxn~l + ... + b n = (x- yi)( x - y 2) • • • (x - y n)
over O . W e have (E/F) = n\ an d E D F D O . T O prove O = F w e need only
showthat (E/&) <n\.
We have
E = *(yi,y 2 , . . . , y w ) .
If we put
Oi = * ( y i » y 2 , . . . , y i )
we have a chain of fields
$ C $ i C $ 2 C ' " C $ „= £ .
th
Now ( $ i / 0 ) < n since yi i s a root of the rc degree polynomial f(x). Similarly ,
since y 2 is a root of f(x)/(x — yi) w e have ( ^ / ^ l) < n — 1 . In the same way
(Qj+i/Qj) <n-j
whence we obtain
(£/0>) < n! .
Hence 4> = F an d (E/<t>) = n\. W e have shown that
7=K(bub2,...,bn).
In other words, every rational function i n y\,..., y „ which remains invariant under
all permutations of the yt i s a rational function o f fei,..., b n, the so-called Symmet-
rie functions i n the yt.
 7.7. POLYNOMIALS O F PRIME DEGRE E 123

The bt mus t the n b e fre e variables ; i.e. , ther e ca n b e n o algebrai c relatio n

among them. Otherwise we would have a nontrivial polynomial relation over K
P(bub29...,bn) = 0.
Substituting for the b's by means of [2] we obtain a polynomial relation
P(-(yi + yi + • • •), {yiyi + •••) , (-iTiyiyi • • • y n)) = 0 .
Since th e yt ar e free variables , thi s relation i s a n identity whic h hold s n o matte r
what we take for the y 's. Replac e y t b y X[. The n by [1 ] we have
P(x\,a2,... 9 an) = 0.
But the dt are free variables and consequently P is identically zero. Contradiction .
Since the bt ar e free variables the field F = K(b\, b 2,..., b n) i s isomorphic to
F = K{a\,a 2,..., a n) under the mapping ai o b t. Bu t f(x) i s the image of f{x)
under this mapping. Since E and E are the Splitting fields they must be isomorphic
by an extension of the mapping of F o n F (Theore m 5.3, p. 50). It follows that the
group o f E/F i s the Symmetri e grou p o n n elements . W e conclude b y Theore m
7.17 that the general equation of n th degre e possesses no Solution in radicals. D
So we must abandon any hope that all equations of n th degre e can be solved in
radicals by some general formula. W e must even discard the possibility tha t each
particular case can be solved by special methods.
7.7. Polynomial s of Prime Degree
Let f(x) b e an irreducible separabl e polynomial over F wit h d[f(x)] = /? , a
prime. I f f(x) i s solvable by radicals, what may we conclude about the group G ?
G i s essentially a transitive group on p digit s (Lemma 7.10). Furthermore , G is a
solvable group; i.e., there is a chain of invariant subgroup s
G = G n D G n-\ D • • • D G\ = I
such that the Orders of the factor group s Gj+i/G,- ar e prime. We shall need
LEMMA 7.18 An invariant subgroup H ^ I ofa transitive group G on p elements,
p prime, is again transitive.
PROOF: Le t 0, 1 , 2, . . ., k — 1 be a domain of transitivity of H. Thus , each of
these digits goes over into every other in the permutations of H an d no digit greater
than k — 1 appears a s an image of these. No w let j b e any digit whatever. Sinc e
G i s a transitive group there is a a e G with <J(0 ) = j . Fro m oHo~ l = H w e
conclude that H(j) = aHa~ l(j) = aH(0). But , since 0 goes into all digits fro m
0 to k - 1 i n H
aH(0) = or(0) , or(l), . . ., a(k - 1 ) .
Hence j i s containe d i n a domain o f transitivit y o f k digits . I n othe r words , al l
domains o f transitivit y hav e th e sam e size . I t follows tha t k\p. Bu t p i s prime,
k ^ 1 , and therefore k = p. H mus t therefore be transitive. D
From this lemma we conclude that all the groups G(,i > 1 , in the decomposi-
tion of G must be transitive.
124 7. THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS

LEMMA 7.19 Every permutation in G may be written as a linear transformation

in the digits 0, 1 , 2, . . . , /? — 1 , i.e., a transformation
z-> az + b (mod p)

whence a f £ 0 (mod p).

PROOF: Th e grou p G 2 is both cycli c o f prim e orde r an d transitive . Denot e
the generator of G 2 by er. G2 has order p an d a i s a p-cycle. Fo r if er had a cycle
of shorter length in the representation as a produet of disjoint cycles, then the digits
of that cycle would form a domain of transitivity in G. Consequently , by labeling
the digits properly, we may set

a = (0 , 1 , 2 , . . . , / ? - 1 ) .

The elements of G 2 are the transformation s

av = (z-+ z + v).
These transformations, w e shall see, are the only linear transformations whic h
leave no digit fixed. Hence , if the lemma is true, the only p-cycle s i n G ar e ele-
ments of G2 . What are the fixed digits of the transformation z — > az + bl Thes e
are Solutions of the equation

z = az + b (mod p)
or, equivalently, of
(a — \)z = —b (mo d p).
There are two cases:
Gase 1. a f £ 1 .
In this case the equation always has a Solution and it is unique.

Case 2. a = 1 .
The transformation ha s the form

z - > z + b.
This is the permutation cr b. It has either all digits fixed or no digits fixed. Thus in
a group of linear transformations th e p-cycles can have only this form.
Now, i f th e lemm a i s true for G t i t is true fo r G/ + i. Firs t o f all , the only p-
cycles in G/ ar e elements of G2 . Hence if r G Gi+\ the n rcrr - 1 i s a p-cycle (se e
rule on p. 1 1 7 ) in G/, r a r - 1 = a b. W e then have

XG — o bx.

Let us consider the effect o f r o n any digit k:

b
xa(k) =a x{k)
 7.7. POLYNOMIALS OF PRIME DEGREE 125

whence
r{k + 1 ) = r(k) + b,
r(k + 2 ) = r(Jf c + 1 ) + 1 = r(k) + 2b,

r(k + z) = r(k) + zb.

Setting k = 0we hav e
r( z ) = r(0 ) + zZ7
or, in the original notation,
T(Z) = bz + c
where c = r(0) .
Thus we have proved the lemma for G; +i i f it is true for G; . Sinc e the lemma
is true for G 2 it is true for al l G. W e have proved for a solvable equation of prime
degree that the only permissible permutations of the roots have the form
z - > az + b. D
THEOREM 7.20 The Splitting field of a solvable equation of prime degree is gen-
erated by any pair of roots.
PROOF: Le t ao, ot\,..., ot p-\ b e the roots of f(x) ove r F an d form the field
E = F(a 0,ai, ...,a p-i).

Choose any pair of OL{ , ot^ an d form the field Q = F(a t, o^) . Wha t is the group of
E/Ql Thi s is the subgroup of permutations whic h leave ott an d a^ fixed. But, by
the proof o f Lemma 7.1 9 the only permutation which leaves two elements fixed is
the identity. Hence the group of E/ Q is the identity and E = £2 . D
This theorem has an interesting consequence:
COROLLARY 7.21 A solvable irreducible equation of primedegree which has two
real roots has all roots real.
COROLLARY 7.22 If an irreducible equation is of primedegree greater than three
and possesses precisely three real roots, it cannot be solvable.
EXERCISE 6 . Fin d a n equatio n o f fifth degre e wit h intege r coefficient s an d
with precisely three real roots.
There ar e n o prove n result s concernin g th e frequenc y wit h whic h solvabl e
equations occur , bu t experienc e indicate s tha t mos t equation s hav e th e fül l Sym -
metrie group . Clearl y an y grou p ma y occu r a s th e Galoi s grou p o f a n equatio n
provided w e do not preassign th e groun d field. O n the other hand, i f th e groun d
field is the field of rational numbers , i s it alway s possible t o determin e a norma l
extension which has that group? Th e answer is probably yes, but nobody has suc-
ceeded in finding a proof. Naturally, we cannot expect such a result for any ground
field. For example, every polynomial in the field of complex numbers possesses a
Splitting in the ground field. In the field of real numbers any equation can be solved
126 7 . THE THEORY O F EQUATION S

by a n extension o f degre e 2 . Hence , ther e is no possible algebrai c answe r to the

problem, but it remains an interesting question in number theory.
Titles i n Thi s Serie s
16 S . R . S . Varadhan , Stochasti c processes , 200 7
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13 Olive r Bühler , A brie f introductio n t o classical , Statistical , an d quantu m mechanics , 200 6
12 J ü r g e n M o s e r an d Eduar d J . Zehnder , Note s o n dynamica l Systems , 200 5
11 V . S . Varadarajan , Supersymmetr y fo r mathematicians : A n introduction , 200 4
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9 A n d r e w M a j d a , Introductio n t o PDE s an d wave s fo r th e atmospher e an d ocean , 200 3
8 Fedo r B o g o m o l o v an d Tihomi r P e t r o v , Algebrai c curve s an d one-dimensiona l fields ,
2003
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6 Loui s N i r e n b e r g , Topic s i n nonlinea r functiona l analysis , 200 1
5 E m m a n u e l H e b e y , Nonlinea r analysi s o n manifolds : Sobole v Space s an d inequalities ,
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3 P e r c y Deift , Orthogona l polynomial s an d rando m matrices : A Riemann-Huber t
approach, 200 0
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1 Qin g H a n an d Fanghu a Lin , Ellipti c partia l differentia l equations , 200 0