‫االسم ‪ /‬طارق عمر مرسي أحمد‬

‫المرحلة ‪ /‬الثانيه‬
‫قسم الهندسة الكهربائيه‬

‫‪Report About Gauss Law‬‬

‫بأشراف ‪ /‬م‪.‬م اوس محمود‬

‫‪1‬‬
Gauss’ Law

Disclaimer: These lecture notes are not meant to replace the course textbook. The content
may be incomplete. Some topics may be unclear. These notes are only meant to be a study
aid and a supplement to your own notes. Please report any inaccuracies to the professor.

Preamble
In this lecture we learn a simple and powerful technique for calculating the electric field for
situations involving a high degree of symmetry.

Flux

Flux, Φ, is a measure of the amount of a vector field, F , passing through a surface with areaA
(direction defined perpendicular to the plane of the surface):

Φ = F⋅A = FAcosθ

where θ is the angle between the field direction and the normal to the area surface.

As one example, consider the flow of air or water through a surface. The voulume of ar passing
through the surface per unit time is given by:

Φ = v⋅A = vAcosθ

Obviously this flow rate depends on the orientation of the surface.

As another example, consider the light from the Sun impinging onto the surface of the Earth.
Obviously land near the equator receives a large light flux than that at the poles.

In this course, we will consider the flux of electric and magnetic fields (essentially light!) passing
through a surface.

2
 Consider the flux of electric field through a closed surface. Let’s break the surface into a large
number (N) of small elements of area ∆A that are nearly flat. By convention, let’s take the
direction of the area vector to be perpendicular to the surface and pointing out.

The flux of electric field passing through this closed surface is then:

Φ = ∑iN=1E⋅∆A

If we let N→∞ and ∆A→0 , then the small elements become infinitesimal and we can write:

Φ = ∫E⋅dA

This is a closed surface integral. It is a 2-dimensional integral over a 3-dimensional surface. The
“circle” in the integral sign denotes an integral over an entire closed surface (versus just a
single face).

3
Consider a square cube immersed in a constant electric field: E = E0xˆ . Calculate the flux through
each face.

A i is the area vector pointing out from cube face i, which has magnitude | A i |= s2 ,
where s is the side length of the cube.

Note that E ⋅A top = 0 since E ⊥ A top

E ⋅A bottom = 0

Also: E ⋅A front = 0

E ⋅A back = 0

What is left is:

E ⋅A right =|E || A right |= E0s2 since E A right
  
E ⋅A left = −|E || Aleft |= −E0s2 since E opposite Aleft

⇒Φ sum over all 6 faces

Thus, the total flux into the cube is balanced by the flux going out. This will hold for any
arbitrary shape of the surface, provided the electric field is constant

Flux of a Point Charge

Consider a spherical shell surface of radius r enclosing a point charge at the center.

4
Note that dA points out from the closed surface, and that since E points radially as well,
     

E dA so that E⋅dA = E

d
A

By Coulomb’s Law, E = K r2

So the flux through the spherical surface is:

Φ = ∫S E⋅dA = ∫S E dA

= E∫S dA since E is constant at fixed radius

∫ dA = 4πr
S
2
surface area of sphere

To see this explicitly, let’s do the surface integral: ∫ dA = ∫

S 0 r sinθdθ∫o2πdφ= 4πr2
π 2

So, the flux is:

1q4

Φ = E 4πr2 = K rq2 4πr2 = 4πε0 r2 π1r2

q

5
 ⇒Φ=
ε0

Note that this is a constant, independent of the size of the sphere, and only dependent
on the amount of charge enclosed. In fact, it turns out that it does not even depend on
the shape of the surface!

Gauss’ Law
Gauss’ Law generalizes the previous example, and states that:

qenc
Φ = E ⋅ dA =
∫
S
0

ε
So the amount of flux passing through any closed surface S depends only on the net
amount of electric charge enclosed.

Why is this general case true? Well, and arbitrary surface can always be inscribed by a
sphere within it. And the flux through that sphere, calculated in the previous example,
must be equal to the flux intercepted by the outer surface S.

Gauss’ Law relates the electric flux through a closed surface to the net charge enclosed. It
was derived as a consequence of Coulomb’s Law, but in fact is completely equivalent to
Coulomb’s Law. It can form an alternative starting point for calculating electric fields.

Applications of Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ Law is a powerful technique to calculate the electric field for situations exhibiting a
high degree of symmetry. 6
Infinite Sheet of Charge
Let’s calculate the electric field from an infinite sheet of charge, with a charge density of σ
(measured in C/m2).

 
E E
Aleft Aright

By symmetry,
we expect E to point perpendicular to the surface for a very large sheet (and far from
the edges). We would not expect any other angle, because why would any particular
direction be preferred over any other for such a symmetric situation?

Now consider a closed surface (which we will call a Gaussian surface) that extends
through the sheet of charge. The sides, here assumed cylindrical, are chosen to be
perpendicular to the sheet. SoE⋅Aside = 0. The caps are parallel to the sheet, so
E⋅Aleft = E⋅Aright since both vectors always point in the same direction. The total flux
through the surface is thus:

Φ = E⋅Aleft +E⋅Aright = 2EA

By Gauss’ Law, Φ = qenc , where qenc =σA. So:

ε0

Φ = 2EA =σA
ε0
σ
⇒E 2ε
= 0
This is exactly the same solution for the magnitude of the electric field from an infinite
sheet that we obtained by painstaking integration of rings of charge! And as noted
before, the electric field is a constant and does not depend on the distance from the
sheet.

7
Infinite Line of Charge
Let’s calculate the electric field a distance r from a line of electric charge infinite in
extent with charge density λ (measured in C/m).

y
r

x
E
dA
z

By symmetry, we expect that E points in the radial direction (no preferred direction):

E = E(r)rˆ

Choose a Gaussian surface with cylindrical geometry, with top and bottom caps aligned
such that their area vectors point in the same direction as the line of charge (and
perpendicular to the electric field): E⋅Atop = E⋅Abottom = 0.

So the total flux leaves through the sides:

Φ = ∫S E⋅dA = E(r)∫S dA = E(r)2πrh

since E is constant at a fixed radius. Thus,

λh
= qenc
ε0 ε0
2 Kλ Φ = E(r)2πrh =
λ
⇒ E (r ) 2πε r r
=
0 =

8
Spheres of Charge
Let’s calculate the electric field outside a spherically charged shell.

The radius of the sphere is R. A total charge Q is spread uniformly on the surface, so the
Q
charge density per unit area is σ= 4πr2

By symmetry we expect that the electric field points radially: E = E(r)rˆ

For our Gaussian surface choose another sphere with radius r > R, centered on the
charged sphere.

= )
Φ ∫ E⋅dA = E(r ∫ dA
S S

since E is constant at a fixed radius. The surface integral is just the integral of the
surface area of a sphere, so:

Q 2

Φ = = E(r)4πr ε0

Q Q
K
⇒ E(r) = 4πε r2 = r2

Exactly the same field strength as if all the charge on the sphere were placed at the
center of the sphere as a point charge! This result applies to a solid sphere of total
charge Q as well.

The situation changes for the electric field inside a spherical shell.

9
For r < R , then there is no net enclosed charge, and E(r) = 0. No force acts on any
point charge placed anywhere inside a charged shell (forces from all infinitesimal
charges in the shell balances).

For the electric field inside a solid sphere of total charge Q, then there is a net
enclosed charge. First assume that the total charge of a solid sphere is spread
uniformly throughout its volume. The volume charge density is therefore:

Q 3
). ρ=
(measured in C/m
4R3
π
3

The charge enclosed for r<R is:

Q
43 3 πQR 4 r3 = r33
qenc = ρ πr = 4 3 3π R

So Gauss’ Law tells us:

r3
Q 3

Φ = ∫S E⋅dA = E(r)4πr2 =εR0

Q
⇒ E(r) = 4πε0R3 r

10
That is, the electric field rises linearly from 0 at the center of the sphere to the magnitude
obtained at the surface of the sphere (which is the same as that from a point charge at a
distance R).

References
1- 'Gauss's Law' – Chapter 24 of Frank Wolfs's lectures at University of Rochester
2- 'The Electric Field' – Chapter 23 of Frank Wolfs's lectures at University of Rochester
3-  Purcell, Edward M.; Morin, David J. (2013).   Electricity and Magnetism,  (3rd ed.).
New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.  15–16.  ISBN  978-1-107-01402-2.
4- Purcell, p 25: "Gauss's Law: the flux of the electric field E through any closed
surface... equals 1/e times the total charge enclosed by the surface."
5-  Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd Edition), G.A.G. Bennet, Edward Arnold (UK),
1974, ISBN 0-7131-2459-8

11