Section 5 D6022682 Common Plumbing Processes

BPEC Level 2 Diploma in Plumbing Foundation 1
Section 5 – D/602/2682
Understand and carry out site
preparation, and pipework fabrication
techniques for domestic plumbing and
heating systems
The content of this document is © BPEC Ltd 2020 and may not be copied, reproduced or distributed without prior written consent
Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

D/602/2682 - Understand and carry out site preparation, and

pipework fabrication techniques for domestic plumbing and heating
systems
This combination unit provides learning in a range of basic pipework competences that underpin work on
plumbing and heating systems. The unit also provides an introduction to the range of work activities carried
out in plumbing and heating as well as methods of checking that pipework and plumbing and heating
components are leak free. On completion of the unit the learner will:
LO1. Know the types of hand and power tools used for domestic plumbing and heating work
LO2. Know the types of domestic plumbing and heating pipe work and their jointing principles
LO3. Know the general site preparation techniques for plumbing and heating work
LO4. Be able to apply general site preparation techniques for domestic plumbing and heating work
LO5. Know how to use clips and brackets to support domestic plumbing and heating pipe work and
components
LO6. Be able to apply fixings and brackets to domestic plumbing and heating pipe work and
components
LO7. Know the installation requirements of domestic plumbing and heating pipe work
LO8. Know the inspection and soundness testing requirements of domestic plumbing and heating
pipe work
LO9. Be able to inspect and soundness test domestic plumbing and heating pipe work
Learning Outcomes highlighted in Red indicates that these are covered by practical tasks from the learner
practical portfolio and will not appear in this book.

Learning Outcome 1
Know the types of hand and power tools
used for domestic plumbing and heating
work.

There are four Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 1:
AC1.1. State the purpose of hand and power tools used to carry out work on plumbing and heating
systems.
AC1.2. Identify the different types of hand and power tools used to carry out work on plumbing and
heating systems.
AC1.3. State how to safely use and maintain hand and power tools to carry out work on plumbing and
heating systems.
AC1.4. Identify pipe work materials used in domestic plumbing and heating work
AC1.1 State the purpose of hand and power tools used to carry out
work on plumbing and heating systems
and
AC1.2 Identify the different types of hand and power tools used to
carry out work on plumbing and heating systems
There are many different tools that a plumber/heating engineer should have in the tool kit. Some general
tools such as screwdrivers, saws and hammers, but others are specialised, such as pipe cutters, pipe benders
and soldering equipment.
In AC1.1 and AC1.2, we will look at some of the more common tools and their uses, as well as investigating
those tools more specific to plumbers and heating engineers.
Hand Tools
Flat Blade Screwdrivers
Used with slotted screws. The blade of the
Screwdrivers
screwdriver is available in many sizes and it is

important to use the correct sized blade for
the size of screw.

Phillips Screwdrivers
The Phillips head screw driver was designed to
prevent overtightening by ‘riding out’ when the
screw became tight. Largely superseded by the
pozidriv screwdriver.
Pozidrive Screwdrivers
Similar in appearance to the Phillips
screwdriver except that the head has an eight
pointed star instead of four. This ensures a
better grip in the screw head. It is not
compatible with Phillips screws.
Screwdrivers
Star head Screwdrivers

Also known as Torx screwdrivers, these are
seldom used except in appliances and specialist
installations.
Claw hammer
These are dual purpose hammers used for
driving in and extracting nails from wood. The
head is made from forged steel for strength,
Hammers
with the handles being made from a variety of

materials including steel, wood and carbon
fibre.
The claw is used in conjunction with the handle

to form a lever for extracting nails.

Club/Lump hammer
Designed for heavy duty hammering, such as
breaking masonry and concrete. Can be used
with masonry and bolster chisels.
Masonry Chisels
As the name suggests, masonry chisels (also
known as cold chisels) are used with a
lump/club hammer for breaking masonry and
concrete. There are many different types of
masonry chisels that can be used for a variety
of applications. Chisel types include plugging
chisel, bolster chisel and flat cold chisel. Many
chisels are now supplied with hand guards to
prevent hand injuries when using these tools.
Chisels
Wood Chisels
There are many different types of wood chisels
available. Plumbers generally use them when
notching floor joists.
Care should be taken when using these tools as

the blades can be extremely sharp, especially
when the chisels are new. To prevent injury,
always replace the blade guard after use.
Combination Pliers
Grips and Pliers
Grips and Pliers
These are a type of pliers used by electricians

and other tradesmen primarily for gripping,
twisting, bending and cutting wire and cable.
(continued)
They are also known as Linemen’s Pliers.

Long nose Pliers

Also known as needle nose pliers, these are
especially useful for getting into tight spaces
because of their long thin jaws. They are
predominantly used to bend, re-position and
snip wire. Their long nose gives good control
while the conveniently positioned cutting edge
near the pliers' joint makes them particularly
useful all-round tool.
Circlip Pliers
Many modern taps and valves have circlips
keeping the head workings in place inside the
tap body. Often, the only way these can be
safely removed without breaking them is by
the use of circlip pliers.
Made in a variety of sizes, these are a very

useful addition to a plumber’s tool kit.
Water Pump Pliers

Instantly recognisable as a plumber’s general
purpose tool, water pump pliers are used to
grip, tighten and loosen compression fittings,
unions and nuts and bolts. They are available in
a range of sizes.
Grips and Pliers
It is recommended to have at least two pairs in

various sizes.
Mole Grips
Also known as the ‘portable vice’, mole grips
provide a very secure vice-like grip. They are
especially useful for holding materials in a
secure position while they are permanently
fixed, soldered or welded.

Adjustable Spanner
Along with water pump pliers, the adjustable
spanner is probably the most used tool in a
plumber’s tool kit. It is generally used to
tighten compression fittings and unions, and is
particularly useful for use on chromed and gold
plated fittings as the smooth jaws do not mark
the plating. They can also be used to tighten
nuts and bolts. A plumber’s tool kit should
include 2 or 3 pairs in varying sizes.
Ring Spanner
Ring spanners are particularly useful when
servicing appliances, such as gas boilers and
gas fires. The ones shown in the image are
ratchet type, which makes the removal of nuts
Spanners (continued)
and bolts much easier.
Spanners
Spanners
Spanners
Open ended Spanner

Spanners
Again, open spanners are very useful when

servicing appliances.
Box Spanners
Box spanners are used to tighten taps onto
sanitary appliances and kitchen sinks. Larger
versions can be used to install and remove
immersion heaters.
Tap Spanner
Tap spanners are used to tighten tap
connectors and other compression fittings
when they are installed in inaccessible places
such as at the back of a bath, a washbasin or a
kitchen sink. There are many different types
available.

Footprints
Footprints are a traditional plumbers tool that
are used to tighten and loosen nuts, bolts and
compression fittings and unions. Care should
be taken when using these as have a tendency
to trap the skin on the hands and fingers if not
used correctly
Wrenches
Stilson type wrenches

Traditionally these adjustable wrenches are
used by heating engineers and pipe fitters for
installing and removing Low Carbon Steel
pipework and fittings. However, most
plumbers would also use them from time to
Wrenches
time and so are a useful addition to a plumber’s

tool kit. Various sizes are available.
Pipe Slice
Like the name suggests, the pipe slice is a tool
for cutting copper tubes from 10mm up to
28mm. the stainless-steel cutting blade is
replaceable.
For prolonged use, these tools require regular

Pipe Cutters
maintenance to keep the pipe rollers free from

Pipe Cutters
dirt and swarf.
Wheel Pipe Cutters

This is a general-purpose cutter for copper and
stainless-steel tubes from 10mm up to 54mm
sizes.
Like the pipe slice, the cutting wheels are

replaceable and the pipe rollers require regular
maintenance to keep them working correctly.
There are many different types available.

Plastic Pipe Cutters

These simple scissor action cutters are
specifically designed to cut plastic pipes with a
clean burr-free edge.
Many different types are available including

ratchet type cutters.
General-purpose Hand Saw

The general-purpose hand saw is extremely
useful for cutting wood, plasterboard,
Saws
insulation board, plastic pipe and many more

materials. The saw teeth are hard point,
designed to last much longer than traditional
hand saws.
Hack Saw
This saw is used to cut copper tubes, plastic
pipes and gutters and many types of metal
including Low Carbon Steel and cast iron. They
are not suitable for cutting wood.
When using a hacksaw, always ensure that the

correct blade type is fitted and that the teeth
are facing towards the front and that the blade
Saws
tension is adequate.
Junior Hack Saw

An essential tool for cutting tubes in tight
positions where access is difficult. Replace the
blade regularly and always ensure the blade
teeth face towards the front of the saw..

Floor board Saw

This saw is designed specifically for lifting
floorboards. Not only does it have teeth along
its long edge, but also on the end and partially
across the top edge. This allows the
floorboards to be cut whilst they are still in
position.
Scissor Pipe Bending Machine

Also known as a ‘handi-bender’, this is a
portable, lightweight bending machine for
precision bending of copper tubes in sizes
15mm and 22mm.
Tripod Pipe Bending Machine

Similar in operation to the scissor bender, the
tripod bending machine is for bending copper
tubes from pipe sizes 15mm to 42mm. The
Pipe Bending Tools
Pipe Bending Tools
main difference with this type of bending

machine is that the main bending roller on the
bending arm must be manually set to suit the
size of pipe. If it is set too tightly against the
bending guide, then throating of the copper
tube will occur. Similarly, if the roller is set too
loosely, then the tube will ripple on the inside
face of the bend.
Internal Pipe Bending Spring

Largely obsolete since the introduction of the
Pipe Bending Tools
scissor bending machine, the internal bending

spring is used to bend R250 grade copper tubes
over the knee.
Always anneal the tube first before bending to

prevent excessive rippling of the tube and
damage to the knee.

External Pipe Bending Spring

A useful tool for bending 8mm and 10mm
microbore tubing.
Spirit levels
Used for levelling appliances such as baths and
washbasins, it is advisable to have two sizes of
spirit level, 600mm and 1200mm.
Spirit levels
Torpedo level
Fitted with a magnetic strip, these are ideal for
levelling appliances such as boilers.
Soldering and brazing torch

This blowtorch is very portable and does not
require a separate hose and gas governor. It
can be used for both soft soldering, silver
soldering and high temperature brazing as it
gives a much hotter flame, especially when
used with MAPP gas. Gas usage tends to be
high.
Soldering tools
Blowtorch with separate governor and hose

and separate LPG bottle
This is the traditional plumber’s soldering
torch. It has a separate gas governor to control
the flow of gas and a hose. The nozzles of the
torch are interchangeable with various sizes
being available for soldering large fittings on
large size copper tubes. They are not as
controllable as other blowtorches on the
market.

Ratchet Stocks and Dies

This tool is for threading Low Carbon Steel
Pipe Threading tools
pipes. The dies are interchangeable for

different sizes of pipe. Although they can be
used in situ, they are best used by fastening the
pipe into a pipe vice.
Power tools
110V Power drill
There are many different sizes and types of
power drill from small hand held drills to large
hammer drills for drilling large holes with a
core drill. Most construction power drills use
the SDS system (Special Direct System) of drills
and chucks as these are far more secure than
those using key chucks and keyless chucks.
Care should be taken with large drills as the
power of the drill may cause injury to the wrist
if mishandled.
110V Rotary drills

Drills
This kind of drill has a standard chuck and key.

The chuck requires regular maintenance to
prevent it from seizing up.
Cordless drills
There are many different cordless drills from
simple screw driver drills to larger SDS drills
with the power to handle core drill bits. Typical
voltages are 7.2V up to 36V. They are an
extremely useful tool on construction sites
where a reliable 110V electricity supply is often
Drills
limited.

Circular saw
These are useful tools for lifting floorboards
and notching joists. Most blades are now
tungsten carbide tipped for long life. Because
of the high speed that the blade rotates, they
should never be used without the blade guard.
There are many different types of circular saw

including cordless types.
Electric Power Saws
Jig saws
Mainly used for cutting out worktops for
kitchen sinks and washbasins. The blades tend
to work loose and care must be exercised to
ensure that the blade guards are in place
before the tool is used. Many different blades
are available for both wood, plastics and
metals. Both 110V and cordless versions are
Electric Power Saws
also available.
Reciprocating saws
The reciprocating saw has few uses in the
plumbing and heating trades as it is mainly
used for demolition work. However, when used
with a metal cutting blade it can be useful for
removing old pipework etc.
Hand held electric pipe threading tool

Easy-to-use and portable, this pipe threading
machine that can be used either at a pipe vice
Pipe threading tools
or in situ. Used for threading Low Carbon Steel

pipes from ½ inch to 2 inch BSP pipe sizes.

Copper pipe socket crimping tools Copper pipe socket crimping tools
These are the latest addition to the plumber’s
tool kit. It is for crimping press-fit fittings on to
copper tubes.
A set of jaws crimps the fitting and sealing ring

to the copper tube to make a perfect,
watertight joint. These are ideal where ‘hot
working’ with blow torches is not allowed.
Miscellaneous and specialist tools

Hydraulic pipe bending machine
The hydraulic pipe bending machine uses the
Pipe Bending Tools
hydraulic power of oil to bend Low Carbon

Steel pipe.
Frequent maintenance is essential with

hydraulic bending machines and the oil level
should be checked at regular intervals.
Portable pipe freezing kit (refrigerant)

Pipe freezing kits create a plug of ice to hold
back water to allow maintenance and repairs
Pipe Freezing Kits
to be carried out. This type uses the freezing

qualities of a refrigerant gas to freeze the
water.

Electric portable pipe freezing kit

The electric freezing kit relies on the vapour
compression refrigeration cycle to freeze the
water. Although more expensive than the
refrigerant type, electric freezing kits have the
advantage that they never run out of
refrigerant.
Care should be taken when using any freezing

kit. Gloves should be worn at all times because
of the risk of frost bite.
AC1.3 State how to safely use and maintain hand and power tools to
carry out work on plumbing and heating systems
When used correctly, hand tools present little or no danger to the user. Only when unsafe working practices
are employed do hand tools cause harm. Accidents in the construction industry occur every year because of
unsafe working practices with both hand and power tools, such as using a hammer with a loose head or lifting
and lowering an electric drill by its electric flex. Many accidents involving the use of hand tools arise from:
1. Poor maintenance of tools.
2. Not wearing Personal Protective Equipment.
3. Using the wrong tool for the wrong job.
4. Using the wrong technique or using the tool outside of its safety limits.
5. Incorrect use of the tool. For example:
a. Using a screwdriver as a chisel
6. Ignoring manufacturer’s operating instructions and health and safety guidance on the safe use of
tools.
All tools can cause harm but some tools are more likely to cause injury than others. The most common tools
likely to cause injury are:
• Any sharp-edged tool such as chisels, saws and knives

• Any pointed tool such as screwdrivers and bradawls.
• Hammers can cause severe hand injuries if care is not taken.
• Wrenches, pliers and grips can trap fingers.
• Pipe bending machines can cause serious hand injuries if used incorrectly or not left in a safe position
after use (the bending arm should never be left in the raised position).
The safety rules to follow when using hand tools are:

1. Only use tools for the purpose they were designed for.
2. Do not use tools you are not trained to use.
3. Always replace worn or damaged tools.
4. Be careful when using sharp edged tools and always keep the blades sharp.
5. Keep moving parts oiled and free from dirt.
6. When working at height, make sure your tools are secure. Remember, a falling tool is a dangerous
tool.
7. Never put sharp, pointed tools in your pocket.
8. Clean and maintain tools regularly.
9. Use appropriate PPE i.e. googles, gloves etc. when using chisels, drills and saws.
Hand tools are an important part of your job. They must be treated, cared for and used in a professional
manner. By following these safety rules, many hand tool injuries can be avoided.
Use and Maintain Power tools

Power tools, like hand tools, need regular inspection and maintenance. Remember:
• Power tools should be PAT tested every 3 months.
Do’s
1. Inspect the tool, plug and cord before each use for signs of wear or faults.
2. Ensure that the tool is compatible with the voltage of the electrical supply.
3. Make sure the work area is clean, clear of debris and that there is plenty of light.
4. Ensure the correct method of working with power tools. Grip with both hands and take a firm
standing position.
5. Store electrical tools in a secure, dry place after use.
6. Keep drill bits and blades in good order and sharp.
7. Use appropriate PPE i.e. googles, gloves and ear protection, when using power tools.
8. Always take damaged or incorrectly working tools out of service and tag them as faulty.
Don’ts
1. Do not lift or lower a power tool by its cord.
2. Do not drag a power tool or cable/flex across the floor.
3. Do not use power tools that are visibly damaged or working incorrectly.
4. Do not use power tools in wet conditions.
5. Never use indoor-type extension cables in outside conditions.
6. Do not change blades or drill bits with the tool plugged in. Always switch off and remove the tool
from the power supply first.
7. Do not use power tools without the guards/blade covers in place.
8. Do not over – reach when working with power tools at height.

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Learning Outcome 2
Know the types of domestic plumbing
and heating pipe work and their jointing
principles

There are six Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 2:

AC2.1. Identify pipe work materials used in domestic plumbing and heating work
AC2.2. State the range of typical pipe material sizes available for use in dwellings.
AC2.3. State the acceptable methods of jointing new hot and cold water pipe to existing lead pipe
work.
AC2.4. Identify the general fitting types used in dwellings.
AC2.5. State the methods of jointing pipe work used in dwellings.
AC2.6. State the methods of bending pipe work used in dwellings.
AC2.1 Identify pipe work materials used in domestic plumbing and

heating work
and
AC2.2 State the range of typical pipe material sizes available for use
in dwellings
Copper tubes to BSEN 1057
Copper tube is
Copper tube pipe sizes for R250 Grade tube
manufactured to Copper tube R250
BSEN 1057 and has Half hard light gauge
Nom. Outside tube
been used in UK
Diameter Diameter Maximum
plumbing systems (mm) (mm) Thickness Working
since the 1940s. (mm) Pressure
(N/mm2)
The type of copper
6 6 0.6 13.3
used is today
8 8 0.6 9.7
phosphorus de-
10 10 0.6 7.7
oxidised copper 12 12 0.6 6.3
Copper tubes that has a minimum 15 15 0.7 5.8
copper content of 18 18 0.8 5.6
99.9%. De-oxidised copper has a melting point of 1083 C o 22 22 0.9 5.1
and can be soldered, brazed and welded with ease. 28 28 0.9 4
35 35 1.2 4.2
Between 20oC and 100oC it has a linear expansion rate
42 42 1.2 3.5
0.00000166 per oC.
54 54 1.2 2.7
Chromium coated copper tube is available where there are 67 67 1.2 2

76.1 76.2 1.5 2.4
aesthetics considerations and plastic-coated copper
108 108.1 1.5 1.7

(known as kutelex) is available where protection from the elements is essential.
Copper tubes can be used for hot and cold water services, central heating systems, gas installations, medical
gas systems, oil systems and sanitation systems. It is available in the UK in 3 grades (see below):
Grade Description
Soft copper tube, full annealed and supplied in coils from 10m to 50m in length. It is thicker
R220 walled than other grades of copper tube. Used for underground water services (sizes 15, 22,
28mm) and micro-bore central heating systems (sizes 6, 8 and 10mm).
The most widely used grade of copper tube for plumbing and heating applications. Supplied in
R250
straight lengths of 3m or 6m in sizes 15, 22, 28, 35, 42, 54mm. It is known as half-hard tempered.
R290 Hard tempered, thin walled and very unsuitable for bending. Not normally used in the UK.
Low Carbon Steel to BSEN 10255:2004

Not really used in domestic installations and its
use should be restricted to wet central heating
systems and gas installations. Low Carbon Steel is
used extensively on commercial and industrial
systems for specialised water systems, heating,
gas, compressed air and many other specialised
applications. It is often referred to as mild steel
pipe. LCS is supplied in lengths up to 6m with
either threaded or plain ends. It is usually painted
either black or red. It can also be supplied with a
galvanised coating. There are 3 grades of LCS. The
Galvanised Low Carbon Steel Pipe grades are related to pipe wall thickness:
Grade Colour Code

Light Brown Seldom used except with fire suppressant sprinkler systems. The pipe wall is
thin.
Medium Blue The most common grade used in plumbing installations.
Heavy Red The same as medium grade but can also be used below ground. The thickest
pipe wall of all LCS grades.

Diameter Nominal Outside Low Carbon Steel pipe sizes are listed in the table left:
Diameter
(inches) mm From the table it will be seen that both metric and imperial
(mm)
1/8 6 10.3 pipe sizes have been given. While both measurements are
1/4 8 13.7 interchangeable, they refer to the internal diameter of the
3/8 10 17.145 pipe, the outside measurement being considerably larger.
1/2 15 21.336 Fittings for LCS pipe are still stamped with imperial
3/4 20 26.67 measurements and not metric, which can cause confusion.
1 25 33.401
1 1/4 32 42.164 Plastic pipework
1 1/2 40 48.26 Plastic pipe materials have transformed modern plumbing
2 50 60.325 systems and greatly reduced installation times whilst
2 1/2 65 73.025 increasing system efficiency with superior flowrates but
3 80 88.9 just like a plumber must know their metals, a good
knowledge of plastics is essential to stop mistakes being made. Using plastic pipe for systems that it is not
designed for can have a detrimental effect on the system and gives plastic and undeserved bad name.
There are two types of plastic pipe:
A. Plastic pressure pipe (for hot and cold water and central heating systems)
B. Plastic sanitary pipe (for above and below ground drainage, waste pipes and gutter systems)
Plastic pressure pipe (for hot and cold water and central heating systems)
Plastic pressure pipe is plastic pipe that can be installed in high-pressure plumbing systems, such as cold
water supplied from a water main. There are two types of plastic pressure pipe
o Polyethylene – this is used for mains cold water pipe (coloured blue) and gas pipe (coloured yellow).
There are two grades:
§ Medium density polyethylene (MDPE) – often

referred to as ‘alkathene’, it is manufactured to
Water Standards ISO4427: 2007 for below ground
use. It is light and flexible, and ideal for carrying
wholesome, potable water as well as a variety of
chemicals. However, it does degrade under the
effects of ultra-violet light. Because of this, it MDPE pipe
should not be used for above ground installations
and it is recommended that no more than 150mm of blue MDPE be exposed when
it enters a dwelling. It is available in 25m, 50m and 100m coils in the following pipe
sizes – 20mm, 25mm, 32mm, 50mm and 63mm.
§ High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). Used for mains cold water pipe until the mid-

1980’s until replaced by MDPE. Coloured black and available in four grades: A, B, C
and D.
o Polybutylene – Produced for pressurised plumbing

systems and central heating installations. Because it is
flexible, it can be cabled easily through holes cut into
timber joists. This ensures that fewer joints are required
and the installation process decreases the installation
time. It has:
1. A high temperature/pressure resistance with low
Polybutylene pressure pipe
noise and thermal transmission.
2. Smooth internal bore giving it better flowrate characteristics than copper tube.
3. High resistance to corrosion and scaling.
However, polybutylene is micro-porous, which allows air to be leeched through the walls of the
pipe and while this is not a problem for hot and cold water supplies, central heating installations
would suffer increased corrosion as a result. To counteract this, polybutylene pipe is
manufactured with an impervious barrier to prevent the air from infiltrating the central heating
system water. It is available in sizes 10mm, 15mm, 22mm and 28mm in straight lengths of 3m
and coils of 25m, 50m and 100m lengths. The pipe sizes are compatible with copper tubes to
BSEN1057 meaning standard compression fittings can be used.
Plastic sanitary pipe (for above and below ground drainage, waste pipes and gutter
systems)
Modern sanitary plumbing systems utilise modern materials. This involves the use of plastics of one type or
another. Plastics have an extremely smooth internal surface, which helps the flow rate when compared to
more traditional materials such as cast-iron and clay pipes. There are 4 types of plastics that are used
extensively in modern sanitary systems:
• PVCu – Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride. Manufactured to BS4514, PVCu pipes are used mainly for
above and below ground sanitation systems, soil and vent pipes, waste pipes and overflows, push-fit
and solvent weld fittings, gutter systems and rainwater pipework. Despite its good resistance to
ultra-violet light, PVCu can suffer from photo- degradation and it’s coefficient of linear expansion is
high. It is available in the following sizes:
o 150mm and 110mm for soil pipes, vent pipes and below ground drainage systems
o 50mm, 40mm and 32mm for waste pipes
o 22.1mm for overflow pipes.

• PVCmu – Modified Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride. Manufactured to BS5255, PVCmu is mainly

used for solvent weld waste and overflow pipes. It has better performance than other plastics at high
temperature and is much more durable than PVCu. It is available in the following sizes:
o 50mm, 40mm and 32mm for waste pipes

o 22.1mm for overflow pipes.
• ABS – Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene. Mainly used for soil and vent pipes and mains cold water
pipework. It is much tougher than PVCu, possessing good impact and mechanical strength but
degrades quickly when exposed to ultraviolet light. The jointing methods and sizes are the same as
PVCu.
• Polypropylene. One of the most widely used plastics in the plumbing industry, Polypropylene is used
for waste pipes, cisterns, WC siphons and overflow pipework. Unlike the other three types of plastic,
polypropylene cannot be solvent welded. Jointing is normally either push-fit or compression fittings.
AC2.3 State the acceptable methods of jointing new hot and cold
water pipe to existing lead pipe work
Lead pipe was used extensively in plumbing for hundreds of years but as we discovered in the health and
safety unit, lead is a highly toxic substance. Because of this, it’s use declined when safer alternatives, such as
copper pipe, became available in the 1940s and 1950s. Finally, in 1986, it’s use was banned under the new
101 Model Water Byelaws. There are, however, still many thousands of homes and businesses still connected
to a lead mains cold water supply and there will be situations where these will need to be repaired or
replaced. The old practice of ‘wiping’ a lead solder joint with a moleskin wiping cloth has also been prohibited
by the Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 1999 and so alternative methods have had to be developed.
There are two main lead to copper/plastic jointing alternatives:
• The leadlock compression fitting

• The Philmac Universal Transition coupling.
The LeadLock Compression fitting

Leadlocks are the most common fitting used to convert lead pipe to copper/polybutylene pipe. Connection
is made via a rubber ‘O’ ring being compressed against the lead pipe. There are six parts to this fitting:
• The fitting body, made of brass – the physical connection between the copper and the lead pipes
• A compression nut – to hold the lead and copper pipes to the fitting body
• A rubber sealing ring – to make the seal to the lead pipe
• A copper compression ring or ‘olive’ – to make the seal between the copper and the fitting body
• A copper grab ring – to prevent the lead from pulling out of the joint

• A friction ring – to prevent the tightening process from destroying the rubber sealing ring.
The most common problem with leadlocks is establishing the correct size of the lead pipe. Lead pipe was
generally bought by weight as well as size. The following size/weights were common:
• 3/8” - 5lb
• 1/2” - 6lb
• 1/2” - 7lb
• 3/4” - 8lb
• 3/4” - 9lb
It is therefore, important to know the size/weight of the pipe before buying

the leadlock. This was usually stamped into the outside wall of the pipe at
A leadlock fitting
regular intervals.
Making a leadlock joint

1. Firstly, the lead pipe must be as round as possible. This can sometimes prove difficult, especially
when lead has been buried in floors or underground for many years. If the pipe isn’t round, the fitting
may be difficult to push on to the pipe and the rubber sealing ring may not seal properly and the
fitting will leak.
2. Any markings on the pipe must be removed with a file or a rasp and ensure that the end of the pipe
is cut square.
3. Dis-assemble the fitting and slide the compression nut over the pipe. Follow this with the grab ring,
the friction ring and finally the rubber sealing ‘O’ ring.
4. Slide the fitting onto the end of the pipe, ensuring that it travels all the way to the pipe stop in the
fitting.
5. Now, slide the compression nut/grab ring/friction ring/‘O’ ring combination up to the fitting and turn
in a clockwise direction until the fitting is hand tight.
6. Tighten the compression nut with an adjustable spanner. Hold the fitting body with a second spanner
to stop it from turning. The compression nut will wind down compressing both the rubber ‘O’ ring to
make the seal and the grab ring, which will bite slightly into the lead preventing it from blowing off
when the system is pressurised with water. The friction ring will prevent over-tightening of the fitting.
7. When this is completed, the copper end of the fitting can be completed by following the method for
making a compression joint, outlined later in this unit.
8. Turn on the water slowly and test the completed joint.
Important point: whilst leadlocks are a recognised method of making lead to copper joints, it must be

remembered that a lead/brass/copper combination may cause galvanic action (as outlined in Scientific
Principles) and the lead may corrode quickly, depending on the type of water. Always seek the advice of the
local water authority before using leadlocks.
The Philmac Universal Transition coupling

An alternative to the
lead lock, which does
not cause galvanic
action, is the Philmac
Universal Transition
Coupling. This fitting
is designed to
A Philmac transitional coupling
connect many
different types of pipe together using a common fitting body and a selection of different inserts to
accommodate the different types of pipe available. One of the benefits of using this system is that the fitting
has a greater tolerance to the lead pipe being deformed or mis-shaped and will accommodate most lead pipe
sizes with a single adapter or insert. It is also much easier to dis-mantle and refit, if necessary.
Making a Philmac joint

• Ensure that the lead pipe is cut square
• Any markings on the pipe must be removed with a file or rasp
• The fitting does not need to be dis-mantled. Ensure that the locking nut is open and that 3 turns of
thread are visible
• Hold the fitting next to the pipe with the pipe end against the stop flange
• Mark the pipe so that you know when the pipe is full inside the fitting
• Push the fitting on to the pipe up to the mark you have made on the pipe
• Now, using a pair of water pump pliers, tighten the compression nut. Use a second pair of water
pump pliers on the fitting to prevent the whole assembly from spinning
• Ensure that the joint is fully tightened and once both ends of the fitting are complete, slowly turn on
the water up to full pressure and check for leaks.
AC2.3 Identify the general fitting types used in dwellings

For a plumber to be able to their job, they must be able to identify and select the correct fitting for the
installation. In AC2.3, we will investigate the jointing methods and some of the common fittings used to joint

copper pipe, mild steel pipe and plastic pipes. The fitting types shown are not extensive and manufacturer’s
data sheets and fittings catalogues should be consulted.
Common fittings for copper tubes for BSEN 1057 Copper tube
Capillary
Capillary End
Fitting Compression integral Push fit Press fit
Feed
solder ring
Couplers
Elbows and
bends
Equal tees
Reducing tees
– reduced end
Reducing tees
– reduced
branch
Reducers
Stop/cap ends

Tap connectors for BSEN 1057 Copper tube

Capillary integral
Fitting Compression Capillary End Feed Push fit
solder ring
Tap connector
- straight
Tap connector
- bent
Manifolds and tank connectors for BSEN 1057 Copper tube
Capillary integral
Fitting Compression Capillary End Feed Push fit
solder ring
Tank
connectors
Manifolds
Stopvalves, isolation valves and gate valves for BSEN 1057 Copper tube
Capillary integral
Fitting Compression Push fit
solder ring
Stop taps

Gate valves
Service valves
Fittings for BS EN 10255:2004 (formally BS1387:1985) Low Carbon Steel

Whiteheart fittings: Blackheart fittings:
These have a rounded bead These have a square bead around
around the mouth of the fitting. the mouth of the fitting
Whiteheart Screwed fittings
Sockets Reducers
Equal tees Unions
Elbows Nipples
Bends Bushes

M/F Elbows Plugs and Caps
Pitcher tees
Fittings for Plastic Pressure pipe

All fittings Hep2O
Couplers Elbows
Reducing tees –
Equal tees
reduced end
Reducing tees –
Reducers
reduced branch
Tap connector Manifolds
Tank connectors Service valves

Stop ends Insert
Fittings for Plastic Sanitary pipe

Soil Soil Waste Waste
Fitting Waste (universal)
(solvent weld) (push fit) (solvent weld) (push fit)
Socket
Knuckle
bend
Large
radius
bend
Push fit only
Junction
(tee)
135o
bend
Reducers

Boss
pipe
Access
boss
Patch
boss/
Strap
boss
Traps
Anti-syphon
P Trap S Trap
Trap
Bottle Trap Shower Trap Running Trap
Washing
Bath Trap In-line trap
Machine Trap
AC2.5 State the methods of jointing pipe work used in dwellings

In AC2.3, we looked at the different fittings available in copper, low carbon steel and plastics. In AC 2.4, we
will look at the methods we use to make a water tight, leak free joint.
Jointing copper tubes

There are four methods of jointing coper tube used frequently in plumbing and heating systems:
a) Capillary (BSEN1254: 1998)

a. Integral solder ring

b. End feed
b) Compression
a. Type A – non-manipulative
b. Type B- manipulative
c) Push-fit
d) Press-fit
Capillary fittings to BSEN1254: 1998

Capillary type fittings are heated by a blow torch. They use the principle of capillary attraction to draw the
solder into the fitting as it is heated.
Integral solder ring capillary fittings

This type of fitting already contains the solder to
make a watertight joint. The solder is contained in
a raised section of the fitting and releases into the
joint when it is heated by a blowtorch. Extra solder
is not required.
End feed capillary fittings

End feed fittings require the solder to be applied
by the plumber at the mouth of the fitting while
the fitting is hot. It does not contain its own solder
To successfully make a capillary fitting, the following method should be used:
a) Cut the copper tube using either pipe cutters or a hacksaw and de-burr the end.
b) Clean the inside of the fitting and the outside of the pipe using either steel wool or emery cloth.
c) Apply a suitable flux to the tube end only and insert the tube into the fitting. A slight twist of the
fitting will ensure that the solder is evenly spread throughout the whole joint.
d) Apply heat to the fitting from the blowtorch and wait 10 seconds before applying any solder. End
feed fittings should be fed at the mouth of the fitting. Solder ring fittings do not require this as the
solder will appear at the mouth of the fitting when it has been successfully soldered. After the
fitting has been heated, check that the solder has flowed around the entire fitting. Do not use
excessive heat or the flux will turn black and the solder will not take to the tube.
e) While the fitting is still hot and the solder fluid, wipe any excess solder away with a cloth. Care
should be taken to ensure that the fitting is not disturbed or you may cause a leak.
f) Once cooled, wipe any excess flux away with a damp cloth.

Fluxes and solders

Solders
The Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 1999 require that only led free solders are used when installing
hot and cold water supply. There are several types of lead free solder available and most are a mixture of tin
and copper. They are manufactured to BSEN29453 and are known as ‘number 23 tin based solders’ and have
a melting point range of between 230oC to 240oC.
Solders that contain lead can be used on systems such as gas installations and central heating. However,
there is a risk that the wrong solder will be used when installing hot and cold water systems and so its use
should be avoided if possible.
Fluxes
Fluxes are necessary during the soldering process to remove any surface oxides on the copper tube and to
assist with the free flow of the solder in the fitting itself. Fluxes take two forms:
• Active flux – known as self-cleaning flux, this flux cleans the copper tube and the fitting during
soldering making pre-cleaning with an abrasive material not necessary. Some active fluxes contain
hydrochloric acid, which encourages corrosion if not completely cleaned off the copper tubes after
use. Active fluxes are water soluble and are therefore thoroughly washed out when the water
systems are flushed through when the initial flushing of systems is carried out.
• Traditional flux paste – traditional flux has been used successfully to make soldered joints for many
years and contains zinc chloride and amines that act as active agents. However, it is reliant on the
copper tube and the fitting being totally clean. Therefore, cleaning of both the tube and the fitting is
required. It is not water soluble, which means it can stay in the pipework for many years after
soldering has taken place and even after flushing with cold water. Because of this, it should be used
with care.
Compression fittings to BSEN1254: 1998

Compression fittings are mechanical and require spanners to tighten them to make a leak-free joint. Care
should be taken to avoid overtightening as this will distort the tube and cause the fitting to leak. Again,
there are two distinct types:
Type A Non-manipulative fittings – these fittings are called non-manipulative because the copper tube does
not have to be worked or ‘manipulated’ to enable a leak free joint to be made. Made from brass or gun
metal, they contain three parts:
1. The fitting body

2. The Compression nut

3. The compression ring or ‘olive’.
When the fitting is tightened, the compression nut

compresses the olive on to the copper tube slightly
so that the fitting does not come apart or leak
when the joint is under pressure.
To make a successful Type A non-manipulative

compression joint follow the steps below:
• Cut the copper tube with a pipe cutter or hacksaw and de-burr the end.
• Slip the compression nut and olive over the end of the tube and re-assemble the fitting until it is
hand tight.
• Using an adjustable spanner, tighten the joint 1 ½ to 2 turns. Do not overtighten as this will deform
the olive and the copper tube and may cause a leak.
Note: Manufacturer’s say that compression joints do not require any jointing paste or PTFE to make a
successful joint. Jointing pastes and compounds should only be used in the event of the fitting leaking after
normal assembly procedures.
Type B Manipulative fittings – These fittings are

called manipulative because the end of the
copper tube must be worked or manipulated
before a joint can be made. The end of the
copper must be flared out with a swaging tool.
The fitting is comprised of the fitting body, the
compression nut, a compensating ring and an
adapter to allow the copper to make a leak free
joint with the copper tube.
Generally, these fittings are used on R220 grade

soft copper tubes for underground water service
pipes.
To make a successful Type B non-manipulative compression joint follow the steps below:
• Cut the copper tube with a hacksaw and de-burr the end. Do not use a pipe cutter because these
tend to reduce the internal bore of the copper making insertion of the swaging tool difficult.
• Slip the compression nut and the compensating ring over the tube.
• Insert the swaging tool into the pipe end and strike 2 or 3 times with a hammer. This will flare open
the tube ready for the adapter.
• Ensuring that the adapter is in place in the fitting, locate the flared end of the copper over the adapter

and hand tighten the compression nut.

• Using an adjustable spanner, tighten the joint 1 ½ to 2 turns. Do not overtighten as this may deform
copper tube and may cause a leak.
Compression Fittings are manufactured from Duplex Brass, Gun-metal or corrosion resistant (DZR) Brass and
can be used on hot and cold water systems, central heating installations and gas pipework. Brass is an alloy
made from Copper and Zinc. Gunmetal is a type of bronze – an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc.
Push-fit fittings for copper tubes

Push-fit fittings relay on a stainless-steel grab ring and a neoprene rubber seal ‘O’ ring to make a successful
joint. The grab ring holds the joint together, whilst the rubber sealing ring prevents any leakage. There are a
number of similar types available and all use this method of jointing. Some fitting types are de-mountable,
Temperature not exceeding Max. Working pressure in other words, they can be taken off the
300C 16 bar tube for re-use with the aid of a special
650C 10 bar ‘de-mounting’ tool.
900C 6 bar
Under normal working conditions, the
pressures in the table (above) are applicable.
A non-demountable push- The fitting itself is made from either copper or

fit fitting corrosion resistant brass (DZR) and some
manufacturer’s use gunmetal (also corrosion
resistant).
To make a successful push-fit joint follow the

steps below:
A demountable push-fit
fitting • Cut the tube with a tube cutter. The tube
needs to be rounded and slightly bevelled at
the end for ease of inserting it into the fitting.
Do not use a hacksaw as the roughness of the
tube may damage the rubber sealing ring.
• At this stage, it is better to offer the tube against the fitting and mark the fitting depth on the tube
with a pencil or marker. This is so you can check to make sure that the tube is fully in the socket once
the joint has been completed.
• Apply a little silicon lubricant on to the end of the fitting and push the tube fully inside the socket
until resistance is felt.
• Check against the mark on the tube to ensure that the fitting is fully on the tube.

Press-fit fittings for copper tubes

Press-fit fittings are the latest fitting type for copper tubes to
become available. They use a special electrical crimping tool to
crimp the fitting on to the tube to ensure a water tight and
secure joint. They are used widely on commercial and industrial
installations, especially where hot working with a plumber’s
blow torch is not allowed.
As can be seen by the photograph left, the fittings contain a

rubber ‘O’ ring seal and a grab ring to ensure pipe security and
water tightness. Tube sizes available range from 12mm up to
108mm.
Press-fit can be successfully used on hot and cold water

installations, heating systems, chilled water installations and
solar hot water systems. For gas installations, a special fitting
The crimping tool and press-fit fitting with a yellow ‘O’ ring seal is available.
Temperature not Max. Working

exceeding pressure
200C 16 bar
1100C 6 bar
Jointing Low Carbon Steel pipes (BS EN 10255:2004)

There are 3 methods that are used to join LCS pipes:
• Screw threaded joints using British Standard Pipe (BSP) threads (BS EN 10226-1:2004, BS EN 10226-
2:2005, BS EN 10226-3:2005)
• Compression joints using a special compression fitting
• Welded joints. These are outside the scope of plumbing work and will not be discussed here.
Screw threaded jointing of Low Carbon Steel pipes

The screw threads on Low Carbon Steel pipes and fittings are manufactured to BSEN1025: Pipes threads
where pressure-tight joints are made on the threads. Verification by means of limit gauges
Low Carbon Steel pipe is usually supplied from the manufacturer’s with threads already cut on to the ends
of the pipe. Additional threads are cut using either manual stocks and dies or electric threading machines.
There are two types of thread used:

Tapered threads – This is the standard thread cut

on to the ends of LCS pipes and blackheart male
fittings. The principle of the thread is that, because
it is tapered, it tightens the further it is screwed into
the fitting. However, with some fittings this can
either lead to the fitting stretching or, at worst, the
fitting fracturing.
Parallel threads – The parallel thread is so called

because the thread is of uniform diameter along its
entire length. It is used on pipe sockets and
whiteheart female thread fittings.
Male (m) and female (f) threads

A male thread is an external thread found on pipes and fittings. Also sometimes referred to as a spigot. These
can be tapered as shown in the left hand photograph, or parallel.
A male thread A female thread
There two types of fittings for use on Low Carbon Steel pipes that use these two distinct thread types. Fittings
for LCS are manufactured from malleable iron to BS EN 10242 and BS 1256.
Blackheart fittings – These have both tapered male and female threads. They are
made from malleable cast iron and tend to be quite brittle. Because of this, they are
susceptible to splitting if the fitting is overtightened. The fittings are marked with
the letter ‘B’ and are identifiable by a square edged bead around the head of the
fitting.
Whiteheart fittings – these have tapered male threads and parallel female threads.
Again, they are made from malleable iron but the metal has a high ferrite content,
making them much more malleable than blackheart fittings. They tend to stretch
rather than fracture when overtightened, making much less susceptible to splitting.
The fittings are marked with the letter ‘W’ are identifiable by a round edged bead

around the head of the fitting.
Jointing compounds, pastes and tapes

When a fitting has been made on to a length of pipe, one and a half to
two threads should be visible when the joint is completed.
There are several jointing compounds, pastes and tapes that can be used
in conjunction with threaded pipes and fittings to ensure that the fittings
do not leak when tested. The table below highlights the most common
types of compounds available.
Figure 1: Joint with 2 threads showing
Used in conjunction with hemp on wet central heating systems and compressed
Linseed oil based air lines.
compounds
Caution: Not suitable for use on natural gas installations.
Unsintered A thin, white (or yellow if used on gas) tape that can be used on almost all
Polytetraflourethylene installations, from hot and cold water to gas installations.
(PTFE tape)
PTFE based jointing A compound specially made for use on potable water systems. Caution: Not
compounds suitable for use on natural gas installations.
Heldite jointing A universal compound that can be used on most installation types such oil, gas,
compound hot and cold water, central heating, compressed air lines and vacuum lines.
Manganese paste Specialist compounds for use with high temperature hot water and steam
Graphite paste installations
Gas seal paste A compound specifically made for use with natural gas and LPG installations.
Compression jointing of Low

Carbon Steel pipes
Compression fittings for Low Carbon
Steel are a fairly recent addition to the
LCS jointing methods. They differ from
copper compression joints in having a
rubber compression ring to seal the joint
rather than a brass olive.
A compression fitting for steel pipe

Jointing plastic pressure pipes

There are 3 types of plastic pressure pipes used by plumbers:
• Polyethylene (PE, HDPE and MDPE)

• Cross – linked polyethylene (PE-X)
• Polybutylene (PB)
Each of these different materials can be jointed by the same techniques:
1. Push-fit – plastic push-fit fittings use the same method of jointing as seen earlier. The main difference
here, is that, because the pipe wall is relatively soft, the pipe requires reinforcing with a stiffened
pipe insert to prevent the fitting from pulling off when the water is under pressure.
Polyethylene Cross-linked polyethylene Polybutylene

(speedfit) (Hep2O)
Push – fit fittings for plastic pressure pipe
MDPE Compression brass 2. Compression for MDPE pipe – compression fittings for
MDPE come in 2 different styles:
a. Compression fittings made from brass – these are

specifically made to fit the diameters of MDPE pipe. The method
of installation is the same as the compression fittings mentioned
earlier but with one exception. The pipe requires a copper or nylon
insert to be placed inside the pipe to strengthen the pipe wall.
Because these are used on underground water supplies, they are
made from corrosion resistant brass or gunmetal.
b. Compression fittings made from plastic (philmac) – these

are designed so that any kind of pipe from MDPE, HDPE, copper
etc. can be joined to other different pipework materials. The pipe
A brass stoptap for MDPE pipe fitting remains the same but each different pipe material has a
different colour coded insert.

Using compression fittings on PE-X and PB

Both PE-X (speedfit) and PB (Hep2O) are manufactured to standard copper tube sizes (10mm, 15mm, 22mm).
This means that standard compression fittings for copper tubes to BS EN 1254 can be used to joint them
provided a pipe insert is used inside the pipe to support the pipe wall. The method of use and installation is
the same as for copper tubes.
Jointing plastic soil and waste pipes

There are 3 basic methods of jointing soil and waste pipes. These methods depend on the pipe material. They
are:
1. Solvent weld – for PVCu and ABS soil and waste pipes
2. Push-fit:
a. for PVCu waste pipes
b. for polypropylene waste pipes
3. Compression – a universal fitting to connect pipework of differing materials.
Solvent weld – for PVCu and ABS soil and waste pipes
Solvent weld fittings use a solvent cement that literally melts the surface of the plastic and fuses the fitting
and the pipe together. Care should be taken when using solvent weld adhesive as the fumes given off can be
overpowering. It is recommended that its use should only be restricted to outside or a well-ventilated room.
To make a solvent weld joint on PVCu, muPVC and ABS, the following procedure should be followed:
1. Cut the pipe with either a hacksaw or a multi-purpose saw and remove the burr from the inside and
outside of the pipe with a file
2. Wipe the dirt and manufacturer’s oils off the pipe with a clean, soft cloth
3. Clean the inside of the socket and the outside of the pipe with the correct solvent cleaner
4. Apply the solvent weld cement to the inside of the socket first, and then to the outside of the pipe.
This will allow more time to make the joint as the cement cures much quicker when exposed to air.
5. Insert the pipe into the socket and slowly twist it into place. The twisting action allows for an even
spread of cement throughout the socket.
6. Wipe off any excess cement with a clean, dry cloth.
After completion, the joint must be left up to 24 hours before testing can begin.
Solvent weld soil fitting Solvent cement Solvent cleaner

Push-fit – for PVCu and ABS soil pipes

Push-fit joints are probably the most common jointing method for soil and vent pipes. The fittings have a
single neoprene chamfered rubber sealing ring in them which allows for easy jointing. There are two points
to remember when making push-fit joints:
1. Always chamfer the pipe before you try to push the fitting and the pipe together
2. Always use a silicon lubricant to help ease the pipe into the socket. Do not be tempted to use washing
up liquid or similar soap because as this dries out, the joint will seize up and movement will be
restricted. Also, soap eventually corrodes the rubber seal and so the joint may leak in the future.
To make a push-fit joint on PVCu, muPVC and ABS, the following procedure should be followed:
2. Chamfer the end of the pipe to about 45o with a rasp or a file
4. Apply a little silicon lubricant grease to the end of the pipe and to the rubber seal inside the fitting
5. Push the pipe all the way into the socket
6. Withdraw the pipe 10mm. This will allow for expansion of the pipe. Pipes must be supported by a
pipe clip or bracket to ensure that the fitting/pipe does not slip.
Push-fit soil fitting Silicon spray lubricant Push-fit fitting for Polypropylene
waste pipe systems
Push-fit – for Polypropylene waste pipes

Polypropylene waste pipe fittings are push-fit containing a single neoprene rubber ring seal. It cannot be
solvent welded as polypropylene is unaffected by the solvents used in solvent weld cement.
To make a push-fit joint on polypropylene, the following procedure should be followed:

2. Chamfer the end of the pipe to about 45o with a rasp or a file

4. Apply a little silicon lubricant grease to the end of the pipe and to the rubber seal inside the fitting
5. Push the pipe all the way into the socket
A note about solvent weld and push-fit waste pipes and fittings – push-fit and solvent weld fittings are not
compatible with each other. They have different outside diameters and the fittings will only fit their
recommended pipe.
AC2.6 State the methods of bending pipe work used in dwellings.

In this next section, we will look at the methods we can use to bend the different types of pipe.
Bending copper tube

Bending copper tube is a skill that becomes easier with practice. The art to good pipe bending is knowing the
limitations of the bending machine you are using, whether that machine is a scissor bender, tripod bender
or spring.
Using a bending machine

Using a bending machine is an economical way of installing copper pipes as each bend we produce saves
time and money on fittings purchasing, preparation and completion. Where lots of changes of direction must
be performed, these can be completed by bending the pipe much more precisely and much neater than by
using fittings. The end result is a professional looking installation with less leakage potential.
Both the scissor bender (also known as the handibender) and the tripod bender use the same technique to
bend the pipe. The following methods can be performed on either of these two machines easily and to the
same degree of accuracy.
As you work through the different bends, it will become apparent that the accuracy of the bends relies upon
determining the bending point and the position of the tube in the machine. Accurate templates and marking
of the tube are also vitally important if an acceptable degree of accuracy is to be obtained.
These notes assume that you will be performing most your bends on a scissor bending machine.
90o Bends
There are two ways of performing a 90o Bend:
• 90o bend from a fixed point

• 90o bend using a short piece of tube

90o bend from a fixed point

90o bend using a short piece of tube

Sets and offset bends – 45o sets

Sets and offset bends – offsets

Passover bends

Partial Passover bends

Bends in two planes

Rippling or throating of Tube in Machine Made Bends

Bending machines are designed to produce a bend with a
diameter of 4 x the diameter of the tube. So, for instance, a
90o bend on 15mm tube will have a centre radius of 60mm.
The bending former on the machine supports the tube
through the bending process at its throat and sides, whilst the
bending guide supports the top of the tube. When bending
takes place, two actions occur simultaneously:
1. The outside of the bend is subjected to stretching
2. The inside of the bend (called the throat) is subjected to

crushing.
Figure 4: Bend radius
The bend is dependent on the bending guide

being placed in the correct position and the
correct pressure being applied from the
bending roller, through the bending guide to
the tube. If this pressure is incorrect, or the
guide is positioned incorrectly, then, again
two outcomes could be possible:
3. Too much pressure will result in the

tube ‘throating’ excessively. In other words,
the bend will show signs of crushing
deformation on its throat.
4. Not enough pressure will result in

the tube rippling along its throat.
Look at the drawing left. The top drawing

shows that the bending roller on the
bending machine has not been tightened
sufficiently. Both the roller and the guide are
too far forward. This will result in the tube
rippling on its throat. The slack roller is
indicated in the bottom drawing. When the
Figure 5: How to avoid rippling and throating
bending arm is placed tin the correct upright
position, a gap appears between the roller and the guide, indicating that the roller isn’t tight enough. For the
bend to be performed correctly in this instance, the roller must be tightened.
The rollers on tripod and bench bending machines can be adjusted successfully. With scissor benders,

however, the rippling effect occurs over time as the machine is used. This is because the bending former is
made from aluminium, which, being a soft, light metal, stretches with use. Because the roller is fixed, it
cannot be re-adjusted and so rippling occurs. As a temporary measure, a thin strip of metal the thickness of
a hacksaw blade can be placed on the top of the bending guide to close the gap between the roller and the
guide. Usually, though, it’s an indication that the bender has come to the end of its useful life.
Using a bending spring

Bending springs are used to support the wall of the pipe during the bending process. Springs are available to
suit copper tube grades R220 and R250, so it’s
important that the correct size of spring is used as
these two grades of copper have different wall
thicknesses.
The bending radius with spring bends, at 5

diameters of tube, is slightly larger than for
machine made bends but 4d can be achieved
comfortably.
The big advantage with spring bending is that the

radius of the bend can be varied as it is not fixed
by a bending former. This allows centre to centre
measurements to be continued around bends.
See the drawing left.
Figure 6: Concentric spring bends

Setting out 90o spring bends
On R250 grade copper tube, spring bends should be limited to 15mm and 22mm as bending over this size is
not only difficult but can also damage the knee. The point to remember is that the tube will appear to ‘gain’
length when it is bent. If wastage of tube is to be avoided, then we must calculate the actual length of the
bend.
1. Decide on bend radius. Yorkshire Copper Tube recommend 5D. Any radius can be determined by a
drawing a template first.
The length of the pipe taken up by a 90° bend can be calculated using the formula:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 (𝑹) 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝝅 (𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟐)

𝟒
2. Assuming that a 15mm pipe is to be bent to a radius of 5D, to find out how much pipe will be taken
up by the bend:

Radius of bend is 5D = 5 x 15 = 75mm.
Using the formula:
𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒
= 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝒎𝒎 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟒
Length of bend = 120 mm
3. Mark off the required distance from

the end of the tube to the centre-line of
the bend (the end-to-centre
measurement)
4. Divide the calculated length of tube by

three (for 15mm tube this will be three
equal measurements of 40 mm)
5. From the original measurement,

mark 40mm forward and 80 mm back
6. The bend can then be pulled between

the second and third marks ensuring that
it is kept within the three 40 mm
measurements, this will keep the centre of
the bend the correct distance from the
fixed point.

Setting out offset spring bends

Bending Low Carbon Steel

There are two common methods of bending Low Carbon Steel pipe:
1. By hydraulic bending machine. Hydraulic bending machines use hydraulic oil in a pressurised cylinder
to exert enough force to bend the steel pipe via a bending former. Unlike copper bending machines,
LCS bending machines do not need a bending guide as the pipe can withstand the effects of bending.
This prevents problems such as rippling occurring. The LCS pipe tends to spring back a little when a
bend has been formed and so it is recommended to overbend the bends slightly as the pipe will
spring back into its correct position once the pressure on the pipe has been released. This method
generally known as cold bending.
2. By using heat. This is mainly used on industrial installations and involves the use of oxy/acetylene
torches to heat the steel pipe enough to allow bending to take place by hand. This method generally
known as hot bending.
The following bends are performed using the cold bending method in a hydraulic bending machine.
Bending a 90o bend using a hydraulic bending machine
1. Measure the distance required and mark a line on the pipe to the centre line of the required bend.
2. From this mark, measure back towards the pipe end or fixed point 1 diameter of the internal bore of
the pipe to point A.

3. Place point A at the centre of the bending former on the bending machine. The centre point will be
marked on the bending former.
4. Pump the handle of the bending machine until an angle of 900 + 50 (this allows for the pipe springing
back) has been achieved. Always stand to the side of the machine. DO NOT stand in front of it whilst
bending is being performed.
Bending an offset bend using a hydraulic bending machine
1. Mark a line at the first bend onto the pipe
2. Place pipe in machine on that line. Do not make any deduction. The measured distance mark goes
on the centre of the former. The measurement A is from the fixed end of the pipe to the centre of
the set
3. Bend the pipe to the offset angle (usually 30o or 45o) and check the angle using a template or a set

square.
4. Release the pipe from the bending machine and place a straight edge against the back of the pipe.
Measure the required offset distance and mark bending point B.
5. Place the pipe back into the machine and line up point B with the centre of the former. Make sure
that the first bend is pointed away from the machine. Bend the second bend and check with the
template or set square.
Bending a Passover bend using a hydraulic bending machine
1. Mark on the tube the position of the initial bend at the centre of the obstacle. Now, go forward of
that mark ¼ of the obstacle diameter e.g. if the obstacle is a pipe of 35mm diameter then:
𝟑𝟓 ÷ 𝟒 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒑
Now mark the pipe 10mm past the fixed end point. This is where the initial pipe bend will be made.

1. Find the correct angle to allow clearance of the obstacle by multiplying the diameter of the obstacle
(if it’s a pipe) by 3 and then deducting this distance from a 600mm rule and opening a 600mm folding
rule at this distance e.g. if the obstacle is a pipe of 35mm diameter then:
𝟑𝟓 𝒙 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝟔𝟎𝟎 – 𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓
So, the folding rule will need to be opened to a distance of 105mm, creating the bending angle.
2. Place the pipe in the machine ensuring that the bend mark (not the fixed end point) is in the centre
of the former. Bend the pipe taking care not to over bend.
3. Making sure that the bend clears the obstacle, place a straight edge over the bend and mark both
sides. Now, complete a cross on the marks that correspond to the centreline of the pipe. These are
the bending marks for the completing return bends.
4. Position the pipe in the machine so that the cross falls in the centre of the former. Care is needed
here to make sure that the bend is not twisted in the machine. Bend the return bend taking care to
check for pipe twisting and the correct return angle.
5. Now, turn the bend around and follow the same procedure again to complete the cross over.
Bending plastic pressure pipe (polybutylene and cross-linked polyethylene)
Bend radii for plastic pressure pipes

10 15 22 28
Diameter of pipe - mm
Radius dimension A - mm 80* 120* 160* 224*

Cold forming bend fixture
*can vary depending on the manufacturer of the pipe
Plastic pressure pipe can be bent by hand without the use of a bending machine. However, to prevent pipe
distortion, it is recommended that cold forming bend fixtures of the type shown left should be used wherever
possible. Cold forming bend fixtures are metal braces that hold the pipe at 90o. It is also possible to brace
the bend by the use of pipe clips positioned to ensure the correct bend radius as shown in the table.

Learning Outcome 3
Know the general site preparation
techniques for plumbing and heating
work
There are eight Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 3:

AC3.1. Define the typical range of activities to be carried out when working on plumbing and heating
systems
AC3.2. State what information should be passed on to the customer when carrying out work on
domestic pipework systems.
AC3.3. Identify how to check for pre-existing damage to the building fabric or customer property
before the work commences.
AC3.4. Identify how to protect the building fabric or customer property before the work commences:
AC3.5. Identify the method of storing tools, equipment and materials when working in new buildings
and existing dwellings
AC3.6. Identify the range of hand and power tools required to complete work on domestic pipework
systems.
AC3.7. State the checks to be carried out on tools and equipment to ensure that they work correctly
and are correctly calibrated.
AC3.8. State the work methods for preparing building construction features for installation work
AC3.1 Define the typical range of activities to be carried out when

working on plumbing and heating systems
Plumbing systems require designing, planning, installation and commissioning.
a. Designing and selecting materials and equipment – this involves calculation of flowrates, heat losses
from the building fabric, capacities of cisterns and pipe sizes. It also includes planning the installation
with regard to the positioning and selection of components and appliances.
b. Preparing work sites - The preparatory work we perform before we can begin the installation is as
important as the installation itself. More often than not, good prep work ensures that the installation
is trouble free. Preparatory work includes removing furniture, lifting carpets and floorboards,
removal of old equipment and pipework and protecting the customers property. As with all good
installations, consulting the right documents is an important aspect of the job.
• Statutory regulations – these are vital because they state clearly what we can and
cannot do. All regulations are enforceable in a court of law:
o The Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations – important in the installation of
bathrooms, kitchens, wet rooms, shower rooms, utility rooms, underground
water services, water metering and backflow protection.
o The Gas (installation and use) Regulations – should be consulted when

preparing to install wet central heating, boiler replacements, gas fires, gas
cookers and all domestic gas pipework.
o The Building Regulations – important when structural alterations become part

of the installation, such as conversions of garages into flats and bedsits, loft
conversions etc.

o The IET Regulations – where any plumber’s work involves the planning,
installation or alteration of electrical work, these should be consulted to ensure
compliance with the law and the safety of the customer.
• Industry standards – the British Standards take the form of recommendations. By

ensuring that the installation meets the requirements of the British Standards, the
installation will meet the strict requirements of the regulations.
• Manufacturer technical instructions – no one knows the equipment better than the
people that designed and built it. Again, by following manufacturer’s preparation and
installation requirements, the installation will not only meet the Regulations, but will
also ensure that the manufacturer’s guarantee is valid and in force.
• Building plans – these show the intended position of the equipment and appliances.
Some building layouts also show the position of any existing services and pipe work etc.
• Specifications – these not only state what equipment is being installed, but, often the
make of the equipment and, often, the British Standard also. A specification should not
be altered without the permission of the customer or the Architect.
c. Installing systems and components – this should be conducted with care and professionalism.
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions when installing equipment and appliances and always
consult the British Standards and Regulations when necessary.
d. Maintaining and dealing with faults on systems and components – once the system has been
installed, maintenance is the key to keeping it in good working order. Maintaining systems prolongs
the systems life, encourages early diagnosis of potential problems and prevents breakdowns. If a
component should fail, always use the manufacturer’s instructions for a proper diagnosis of the fault.
e. Decommissioning systems and components – temporary and permanent – this is where a system is
either permanently or temporarily taken out of service.
f. Soundness testing systems and components – once the installation is complete, soundness testing
will determine if there any leaks on the system. Different pipework materials have different testing
regimes and the Regulations and British Standards, as well as the manufacturer’s instructions, should
be consulted before testing begins.
g. Commissioning systems and components – when the system has been installed and tested, then
commissioning can begin. Commissioning is where the components and appliances are ‘set up’ for
everyday use. It is also where we find if our design calculations are correct. Flow rates, temperatures
and component operation must all be checked to ensure that they meet the specification, design and
customer satisfaction.

AC3.2 State what information should be passed on to the customer

when carrying out work on domestic pipework systems.
Many customer complaints centre around the lack of information given to them regarding the installation of
their new bathroom or central heating system etc. In almost all cases, this is down to poor customer liaison
and by following a few simple rules, can be avoided. Before the installation begins:
ü Make sure that the customer is completely in agreement on what day and time the job is going to
start. Agree a start time and stick to it. Early morning starts are not always welcome as families need
to prepare their day in privacy without having to worry about their routine being placed into chaos
by the arrival and disruption of a working plumber.
ü Point out any carpets and furniture that will need to be removed from the area that you will be
working in and ask the customer to remove them. It may be that the customer is happy for you to
remove them but the customer must be given the opportunity to remove their possessions first. This
is especially important with carpets and floor coverings as old carpets can fray easily and have been
the cause of many customer/plumber disputes in the past.
ü Agree the position of appliances and equipment BEFORE you install them. It may be that the wall
where a radiator is going to be installed is needed for a piece of furniture etc. This is especially
important when exposed pipework cannot be avoided as customers do not like to see pipework, no
matter how neat it is.
ü Keep the customer informed about any problems that you come across, especially if there is an added
cost involved. Non-agreed extras can come as a shock and, if they have not been agreed in writing
beforehand, there is no legal requirement for the customer to agree to payment.
ü Keep the customer informed when services – gas, water, electricity – are going to be turned off, or
appliances, such as WCs are going to be decommissioned and removed. Always ensure the customer
has enough water in the short term and, if working on central heating systems during the winter, try
to ensure that they have other forms of heat, such as fan heaters etc.
AC3.3 Identify how to check for pre-existing damage to the building

fabric or customer property before the work commences.
Before work commences, it is advisable to liaise with the customer to identify any existing damage to the
property both internally and externally. Although a time-consuming task, this will ensure that there are no
misunderstandings later as the job progresses. Before discussing this with the customer, make sure that you
are aware of the problems before hand and make written notes. Check for:
• Internal damage to walls and wall coverings, including marks and dents on walls, loose, torn and
missing wall coverings, damaged skirting boards, architraves and doors. Cracked or broken window
panes etc.

• Visible damage to carpets, furniture, personal possessions and appliances such as cookers, washing
machines, tumble dryers, fridges and freezers, tables and chairs etc.
• Damaged visible wiring and existing plumbing
• External wall damage to brickwork, rendering, guttering, rainwater pipework, facia boards and
soffits.
• Damage to any vehicles, cars, motor bikes etc. This is especially important if some of the work is to
be done externally.
Also point out:
• Loose and creaky floorboards, badly fitting internal doors etc.

• Existing holes in brickwork both internally and externally.
• Missing roof and ridge tiles (if working outside).
This may seem a little excessive, but often the customer is unaware of these issues and when they are
suddenly discovered, it is all too easy to put the blame on the last person to work on/in the property.
REMEMBER! It is easy to ask the customer to move or remove something that may be in danger of being
damaged because of the work activity. For example, car paintwork can be damaged by brick dust and debris
as a result of installing a boiler flue or new soil stack. These situations need to be avoided as claims on
company public liability insurance can be costly when the premium has to be paid after such a claim.
AC3.4 Identify how to protect the building fabric or customer property

before the work commences
Use of dust sheets
Ensure that you cover with suitably clean dust sheets all furniture, fixtures, fittings and carpets that cannot
be removed in the areas where you are working, including halls, stairs and landings etc.
Protection from flame damage

When using soldering equipment, always ensure that you protect the customers property and decoration by
the use of a heat mat or flame retarding gel. Never point the nozzle of the blow torch directly at walls or
skirting boards as this creates a lot of heat/fire damage.
Use of walking boards – lawns/flower beds

When working outside, always ensure that the customers lawns and flower beds are protected by boarding,
especially in areas where ladders and tower scaffolds are to be erected, to prevent damage by access
equipment and tools.
Application of packaging to protect components during partially completed works

Where equipment has only been partially installed, it is a good idea to use the packaging that the equipment

came in to protect it during the installation process. This is especially critical with bathroom and kitchen
equipment that can become easily damaged during installation.
Circumstances in which furniture, breakable items and carpets need to be removed from the work area
Any carpets that have to be removed should be rolled up and stored in a safe place. Removed furniture
should be placed in a room where there is no work activity and they should be suitably covered over. Liaising
with the customer is a good idea when this is being done so that removed furniture and carpets are not
placed in areas where they will cause a nuisance or inconvenience.
Circumstances in which damage to vehicles may occur

When working outside, always ask the customer to move their vehicles to prevent falling masonry, tools and
materials from damaging them.
AC3.5 Identify the method of storing tools, equipment and materials

when working in new buildings and existing dwellings
The storage of tools and materials is an important part of planning any installation. Tools left on site or in a
customer’s care overnight are often not insured unless it can be proven that they were securely locked away.
Plumbers often have £1000s worth of tools that are expensive to replace if they are stolen. More often than
not, stolen tools are never recovered and the cost of replacement can be a shock to the bank account, which
is often doubled if the insurance company refuse to pay for the replacements. By following some simple
rules, these disrupting occurrences can be prevented:
1. Lock all tools and materials in a secure lock-up or site cabin when they are not being used
2. Return all unused materials to the stores and make sure they are signed back in.
3. Ensure that fragile materials, such as WCs, washbasins etc are kept in a safe area of the stores and
ensure they are not stacked too high. They can also be covered for extra protection.
4. Ensure tools are kept away from materials. It is usual to keep tools to the front of the stores to
prevent damage to fragile items.
5. If working for a private customer, agree a place where the materials can be stored and ensure they
do not disrupt the normal family activities.
6. Keep all delivery advice notes in a file so that a check can be made on the stock held against stock
used.
7. Protect partially installed appliances such as washbasins, WCs and baths, from damage.
AC3.6 Identify the range of hand and power tools required to

complete work on domestic pipework systems
A full range of hand tools and power tools that a plumber may use was identified in LO1, AC1.1 of this unit.

AC3.7 State the checks to be carried out on tools and equipment to

ensure that they work correctly and are correctly calibrated.
Tools and equipment are expensive items and should be kept in good condition for a prolonged working life.
Before use, always check them for damage and loose parts. Ensure that any working parts are suitably
checked and working and oiled if necessary. Check hammers for loose heads. Electrical tools should be
checked to ensure:
• Blades and cutting edges are secure and set to the correct depth for cutting
• Safety guards are in place
• The tool casing, cable and plug are not damaged in any way
• Drill chucks are oiled and working correctly
A full list of hand and electrical tool safety checks can be found in LO1, AC1.3 of this Unit.
AC3.8 State the work methods for preparing building construction

features for installation work
Preparing the work area
Much of the work we do in private dwellings will involve installing pipework under floors and in/through
walls. These are skills that, to some degree, we learn on the job. However, there are tried and tested methods
to do this work and certain unwritten rules that will help save time and damage to the customer’s property.
Lifting and removing floorboards

There are two methods we can use to lift and remove floor boards:
• Lifting floorboards using electrical tools

• Lifting floorboards using hand tools
Lifting floorboards using electrical tools

Before attempting to lift floorboards ensure that you have the correct tools available:
• A circular saw (110V or cordless)

• A sharp bolster chisel
• A nail punch
• A claw hammer
• A pencil

To lift floorboards using power tools

1. Decide which boards you need to remove and number them. This will help in laying them when you
have finished
2. Locate the joists where the boards are to be cut. This can be done easily by looking for a row of nails
that hold the board to the joist
3. Mark across the centre of

the joists position on the
board. This is where you are
going to cut the boards
4. Using a nail punch, punch

the nails in the boards being
removed below the surface of
the board and into the joist
below
Number the boards
5. Set the depth of cut on the
circular saw to just above the maximum depth of the floorboard. This will ensure that any pipework
or cables below the boards are not damaged in any way. Now carefully cut across the boards that
are being lifted with the circular saw.
6. If the boards are tongued

and grooved types, run down
the tongue on both sides of the
board. This will ensure that the
board is removed without
splintering or damage.
7. Using the bolster chisel,

blade just above floorboard thickness
carefully prise up the board.
There should be no resistance
and the board should come up
cleanly and without damage.
Lifting floorboards using hand

tools
Before attempting to lift
Carefully remove the boards floorboards ensure that you
have the correct tools available:

• A sharp floorboard saw

• A sharp bolster chisel
• A nail punch
• A claw hammer
• A pencil
To lift floorboards using hand tools

1. Follow points 1 to 4 of the previous method
2. Carefully cut through the tongue of the floorboard with the floorboard saw. Alternatively, carefully
drive the bolster chisel through the tongue with a claw hammer.
3. Now carefully cut across the boards that are being lifted with the floorboard saw.
4. Using the bolster chisel, carefully prise up the board. There should be no resistance and the board
should come up cleanly and without damage.
Lifting chipboard flooring using power tools

Chipboard flooring is very different to traditional floorboards. It is laid in 2m x 0.6m sheets that are glued at
the tongue and groove and often they are also glued to the joist. They are very susceptible to movement and
quite often break when they are being removed. Chipboard flooring needs support at every edge and so, if
part of the board is lifted, it will require support noggins to be installed before the board is re-laid. Lifting
chipboard is best done using power tools.
To lift chipboard flooring using power tools

1. Decide which boards you need to remove and mark them with a pencil. There is no need to mark the
joists as the long joint in the chipboard indicates where these are. You only need to mark the area of
board to be lifted as shown in the drawing left.
2. Using a nail punch, punch any nail

heads below the surface of the board and
into the joist below
3. Set the depth of cut on the circular

saw to just above the maximum depth of
Mark the boards the chipboard. This will ensure that any
pipework or cables below the boards are
not damaged in any way. Now carefully cut across the marks, on the boards that are being lifted,
with the circular saw.

4. Using the bolster chisel, carefully prise up the board. There should be no resistance and the board
should come up cleanly and without
damage providing it has not been
glued to the joist.
5. When replacing the board, the

edges need to be supported by
wooden noggins. This can be done as
shown in the drawing left:
Fixing noggins
Notching and drilling joists

Joists need to be notched or drilled to accommodate the pipework and fittings below the floor. These
operations should be carried out properly and with extreme care if weakening of the joists and structural
damage is to be avoided. The structural integrity of the joist must in no way be compromised. Notches that
are too deep or incorrectly positioned and holes that are too large or too close together can weaken a joist
to the point where its use as a load bearing structural support capability is diminished significantly.
Look at the drawing below:
Notch position
In calculation form:
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝒎
𝟕% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎
Therefore, any notches made in the joist must start 350mm from the beginning of the joist span and must
finish 1.25m from it. This gives 900mm in which to make the notches and can be done from both ends on a
5m joist.
Notches must not exceed 12.5% (or 1/8th) of the depth of the joist. So, if a joist measured 300mm in depth,
then the depth of the notches must be no more than:
𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝒎𝒎
Drilling or cutting holes in joists follows a similar procedure. Holes must only be drilled within an area that
begins at a distance equal to 25% of the span measured from the end of the joist and ends at a point equal
to 40% of the span. The hole size must not be greater than 25% of the depth of the joist when measured
from the centre line. Circular holes must be at least 3 diameters of the hole size apart measured centre to
centre. Look at the drawing below:
In calculation form:
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝒎
𝟐𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝟒𝟎% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟐𝒎
In this example, holes can be cut or drilled in the joist providing that they fall within a 750mm area that starts
1.25 m from the end of the joist and finish no more than 2m away from the same end. Again, this can be
done at both ends, so 2 sets of holes can be drilled if required.
The position of holes in joists
To calculate the hole size:
𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒎
This measurement must be equidistant either side of the centre line of the joist.
Note: No holes must be drilled in a joist within 100mm of a notch.
Cutting chases in walls

Cutting chases in walls is sometimes necessary to conceal pipework, cables and the like, especially if the
customer has requested that there be no visible pipework after the installation is completed. Inevitably, this
will involve the use of an angle grinder fitted with an appropriate stone or concrete/masonry grinding wheel
to cut the outline of the chase into the wall before removing the unwanted
brickwork with a bolster chisel and lump/club hammer. This needs careful
consideration as there are potentially serious health and safety implications:
• Always wear the correct PPE for this operation. This will include the use of
o Appropriate eye protection to guard against flying chips of

masonry and dust. Full goggles should be used as safety glasses
do not offer adequate all round eye protection’
o Gloves to protect the hands,

A respirator dust mask
o Overalls, and;
o A good quality dust mask. Masonry dust can do serious harm to the lungs if breathed in. A
respirator type dust mask of the type shown in the image would be appropriate.
• Always check the angle grinder beforehand. Make sure that:
o The grinder has a current PAT certificate and is in good condition.
o The correct cutting wheel is in fitted.
o The wheel is secure and the wheel guard is in place.
It is important to remember that grinding out chases in walls creates a huge amount of both surface and
airborne dust and undertaking grinding in rooms that contain furniture and carpets is not advisable.
However, if this is unavoidable, sheeting down all carpets/furniture must be carried out. Ensure that there
are no interconnecting doors open that will allow the dust to spread to other rooms and if possible, open a
window to let air in and some of the dust out. Chases in walls must not exceed:
• Horizontal chases no deeper than 1/6 of the wall thickness

• Vertical chases no deeper than 1/3 of the wall thickness.
A note about hot and cold water pipes – the Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 1999 state that no

pipe shall be buried in any wall, floor or ceiling unless the pipework is accessible. Obviously, if a pipe is going
to be buried in a wall, then the question of access becomes of paramount importance. If in doubt, advice
should be sought from the Water Regulations Advisory Service (WRAS).
Making good the building fabric

During any installation, there will be times when the building fabric will need to be altered, whether it’s a
simple task, such as drilling holes, or breaking out brickwork to fit a boiler flue. Whatever the reason, making
good after the installation is an important aspect of our work, and unless it’s stipulated otherwise in the
contract of work, any holes, chases or plaster patching will need to be completed by you, the plumber.
Making good involves having a few basic skills that we would normally associate with other trades such as a
brick layer or a plasterer.
• Making good to brickwork – holes made by drills and masonry bits can be filled with a 4:1 mixture
of sand and cement mortar (4 parts sand to 1 part cement) mixed to a fairly stiff consistency. Larger
holes may need the replacement of bricks. New bricks will need to match the existing bricks. The wall
should be neatly pointed up using a pointing trowel and brushed over with a soft brush.
• Patching plaster work – the type of plaster to be used in the repair will depend on the type of wall
that is being repaired. Plasterboard walls require a board finish type plaster, whilst masonry walls
will require a good multi-finish plaster. The two types of finish are quite different. Board finish is
harder to skim to a smooth finish because it dries quickly. The art to plastering is have a clean, smooth
trowel and plenty of water for the smoothing or ‘skimming’ process.
Finally, after making good wall surfaces, ensure that all waste materials are cleared away and the area
cleaned thoroughly.

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Learning Outcome 5
Know how to use clips and brackets to
support domestic plumbing and heating
pipework and components

There are four Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 5:
AC5.1. State how to measure and mark out for fixings to pipework and plumbing and heating
components.
AC5.2. Identify the range of general fixing devices
AC5.3. Identify the range of specialist fixing devices
AC5.4. Identify clip and bracket types for domestic plumbing and heating work
AC5.1 State how to measure and mark out for fixings to pipework and
plumbing and heating components
Each different pipework material has different requirements for fixing and clipping. The distances between
clips and brackets often reflect the type of pipework material that is being installed. For example, when
installing clips for Low Carbon steel, the distances between the clips will be greater than for those for, stay,
polybutylene pressure pipe. This is simply because the steel is much stronger and less likely to be damaged
or sag between the pipe clips than the polybutylene.
In AC4.1, we will investigate each of the different pipework materials and their clipping distances in line with
the British Standards and manufacturer’s data.
Clipping distances for copper tubes

Below is a table showing the clipping distances of the common sizes of copper tubes:
It will be seen that the vertical and horizontal

Horizontal distance Vertical distance clipping distances are quite different. The
Tube size
between the clips between the clips distance between vertical clips is greater than
for horizontal clips. This is because when fixed
10mm 0.8m 1.2m
horizontally, pipework is more likely to sag
15mm 1.2m 1.8m
than if the pipework was fixed vertically. For
22mm 1.8m 2.4m
this reason, horizontal clipping distances are
28mm 1.8m 2.4m
reduced to take into account the semi-rigid
35mm 2.4m 3.0m
nature of copper tubes.
42mm 2.4m 3.0m
54mm 2.7m 3.0m The correct clipping of copper tubes is
essential as clipping prevents noise, vibration, excessive movement and water hammer. Fittings failure is also
less likely to occur if the pipework is protected from excessive movement. Clipping also helps to guard against
accidental and intentional pipework damage.
Copper tube is easily jointed and bent and can produce installations that not only look good but are
economical both in terms of copper tube usage and installation costs. Careful planning of pipework routes,

use of pre-fabrication techniques and installation techniques that are sympathetic to the building in terms of
visible, well-clipped pipework ensure that the installation performs to the design criteria.
Clipping distances for Low Carbon Steel Pipes

The clipping distances for low carbon steel are listed in the table.
As with copper tubes, the vertical and horizontal

Pipe size Horizontal Vertical clipping distances differ. In all cases, the
½” 1.8m 2.4m distances are much greater for LCS and this
¾” 2.4m 3m reflects the rigid nature of the pipe. The clips
1” 2.4m 3m and brackets used need to be robust as they will
1 ¼” 2.7m 3m need to carry the weight of the pipe. The types
1 ½” 3m 3.6m of clips and brackets for LCS are limited and will
2” 3m 3.6m be discussed later in the unit.
Clip distances for PVCu soil and waste pipes

Clipping distances for PVCu soil and waste pipes are listed in the table below:
Clipping distances for PVCu pipes When we install plastic pipework,

Maximum support distance Maximum distance the use of the manufacturer’s
between recommended clipping distances
Vertical Horizontal
expansion joints becomes a necessity, especially in
Pipe size - soil multi-storey buildings where care
82mm 2m 0.9m 4m must be taken to ensure the
110mm 2m 1m 4m provision of expansion and thermal
160mm 2m 1m 4m movement. Plastic is light and easily
Pipe size – waste broken if mistreated and, if installed
32mm 1.2m 0.5m 2m in direct sunlight, will sag as the pipe
40mm 1.2m 0.5m 2m becomes warm. PVCu pipes cannot

be bent in any way because of its
50mm 1.2m 0.9m 2m
brittleness. The manufacturer’s
place great importance on the clipping of PVCu pipes to ensure that the system remains efficient and reliable
once installed.
Clip distances for Polypropylene push-fit waste pipes

Clipping distances for polypropylene push-fit waste pipes are listed in the table below:

Clipping distances for polypropylene pipes Polypropylene, although more

Maximum support distance Maximum distance robust than PVCu, starts to soften at
between around 70oC and, if it is not clipped
Vertical Horizontal
expansion joints correctly, will sag between the clips.
Pipe size – polypropylene waste pipe Waste pipe manufacturer’s
32mm 1.2m 0.5m 2m recommend that the waste pipe
40mm 1.2m 0.5m 2m should be clipped at every change of
50mm 1.2m 0.6m 2m direction, close to the fittings to
support the fitting and to prevent
sagging.
Like PVCu, polypropylene has a high rate of expansion and so should be clipped at 2m intervals between any
expansion joints.
Clipping and supports for Polybutylene and Cross-linked Polyethylene pipe

Plastic pressure pipe is extremely flexible and can sag between clips if not clipped to the manufacturer’s
instructions. Cross-linked Polyethylene is slightly more rigid than polybutylene and can be difficult to
straighten out, especially when installed directly from the coil. This tendency to coil back up again can cause
problems if it is not clipped correctly, which can put excess pressure on joints and changes of direction. The
clipping distances are shown in the table below:
Clipping distances for Polybutylene pipes Plastic pressure pipe can be run
Pipe diameter Horizontal spacing Vertical spacing successfully through joists under
mm m m floors without clipping, provided it is
10 0.3 0.5 adequately supported and provided
15 0.3 0.5 that:
22 0.5 0.8
1. The pipe does not form part of an
28 0.8 1.0
open vent to a hot water or central
heating system where the pipe is likely to become hot
2. The pipe is not part of a distribution system or circuit where poor pipe alignment may affect the
venting of air
3. Any hot water pipe is not likely to come into contact with cold water pipework
4. Where there is no risk of the pipe coming into contact with abrasive or sharp edges.
Select and fix clips and brackets appropriate to the system pipework and the
industry recommended spacing
The type of brackets and clips that we use on an installation are chosen depending on the following
requirements:

• The type of pipework material being installed. This could be copper tubes, LCS pipes or plastic
pressure pipe. Copper and plastic are more likely to be used in domestic installations, which simplifies
the choice of pipe clips.
• The type of building, whether it is domestic or industrial/commercial.
• Whether the pipework is to be:
o Surface mounted, fixed to internal or external walls.
o Fixed below ground or in roof spaces
o Installed in pipe boxings or ducts
o Hung from ceilings.
Copper tubes
Domestic properties are probably the easiest installation to select brackets and clips for. In most cases, where
the pipework is visible, the pipework will be copper tube and will be fixed to the wall using surface mounted
clips that are screwed directly to the wall surface. Wall mounted clips are generally made of white
polypropylene and are available in several forms to suit different installation situations:
• Single clips, with or without a securing clip over to keep the pipe in place.
• Double clips, particularly useful when 2 pipes need to be installed side by side (hot and cold pipework
or central heating flow and return)
• Interlocking clips. These are used to create banks of multiple pipes of differing sizes. They ensure that
pipe centres are maintained along the entire pipework run, maintaining neatness.
Care should be exercised when installing plastic clips in external situations because, over time, direct sunlight
affects and breaks down the plastic structure and this is likely to lead to failure of the clips, meaning that the
pipework will be unsupported and vulnerable to damage. For outside situations, brass schoolboard clips offer
a greater, longer lasting solution.
In all cases, the clip centres and distances should be maintained as specified in section 4.1. bends, elbows
and changes of direction should be supported as near to the bend as practicable.
Clipping copper tubes in commercial/industrial installations

In most cases, plastic clips do not offer the strength required for pipework installed in commercial and
industrial buildings. In these situations, the pipework is often subjected to severe knocks and strains. More
robust options are available in all situations:
• Pipework fixed to walls both internally and externally can be completed using 1 of 2 options:
o Brass schoolboard clips, either strip brass or cast brass type offer a good, sturdy method of
wall mounting copper pipework.
o Brass munsen rings and backplates, although slightly more expensive, offer the best
protection for copper pipework when fixed to walls.
• Pipework that is to be installed at high level can be completed using:

o Munsen rings used with either 10mm tapped rod and backplates or direct fixing anchor bolts,
or;
o Unistrut type channel, where multiple runs can be installed without the need for many ceiling
fixings.
Plastic pressure pipe

Where plastic pressure pipe is to be installed, strict control of the clip distances mentioned for plastic
pressure pipe in section 4.1, should be maintained if damage to the pipework is to be avoided. Because of
the soft, flexible nature of plastic pipe, sagging is likely, which puts greater pressure on joints and fixings.
Plastic pipe has the advantage that it can be ‘cabled’ through joists in continuous, unbroken lengths, making
installation easier. However, plastic pipe also expands much more than copper exacerbating the problem of
sagging. In general, it’s accepted practice that, if plastic pipe is installed, any visible pipework will be
converted to copper for aesthetic reasons.
Low Carbon Steel

The big advantage with LCS is that it is very rigid. However, it is also very heavy, so any type of bracket or clip
needs to be robust enough to carry the weight of the pipework. Brackets for LCS are very limited to just 3
different types:
• Malleable iron school board clips,

• Munsen rings with either back plates or direct anchoring, or;
• Munsen rings in conjunction with unistrut
In the majority of industrial installations, the pipework is hung at high level. Modern unistrut systems are
ideal for this because many runs
of pipework can be installed with
the minimum of anchorages.
This also allows pipework of
different materials, and even
electrical supplies, to be run
almost side by side saving space
and installation time. Double
munsen rings add another
advantage allowing pipes to be
placed one above the other, thus
Using unistrut
Drawings by author making better use of the space
available. Again, the pipework
spacings mentioned in section 4.1 for LCS pipe should be adhered to.

AC5.2 Identify the range of general fixing devices

Fixing devices can be classified into five groups:
• Nails, both masonry and timber

• Screws
• Heavy duty fixings
• Lightweight and plaster board fixing
• Chemical fixings
Nails, both masonry and timber

Masonry nails - used for making fixings to masonry surfaces. Manufactured
from hardened zinc
Floor brads – used to fasten floorboards in older properties. These are 50mm
long.
Galvanised clout nails – for fixing slates and roof tiles
Round bright wire nails – used generally for carcass joinery work where
appearance is not important.
Oval bright wire nails – Suitable for joinery work where appearance is
important. The head is lost when driven into the timber with a nail punch.
The table above shows just some of the many hundreds of different nail types that are available. It is not
necessary to know ALL nail types but the ones shown here are the ones that you are more likely to come
across.
Nails are described by the size of the head and by their length. So, a 40mm long galvanised clout nail with a
2.65mm head may be described as a 40 x 2.65 clout nail. All nails are sold by their weight in kilograms (kg).
Screws
Slotted head Countersunk Screw. Not often used. Mainly joinery applications.
The head sinks flush or a little below the wood surface.

Cross Head/Pozi Drive Screw (Countersunk). Used for general work but unlike
the counter sunk screw, it needs a pozidrive head screwdriver, which does not
slip out of the screw head. A general purpose screw.
Round Head Screw. Used for fixing copper saddle clips.
Spider/star head screw. Designed to give a much more positive drive into the
fixing without the risk of slipping.
Mirror Screw. Used for fixing mirrors and bathroom fittings such as bath
panels. The chromed cap screws into the screw head to hide the screw.
Chip Board Screw. Used for securing chipboard and Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF). Various types of heads are available.
Screws can be made from a variety of metals including steel, stainless steel and brass. A range of head types
is also available. They are often coated with a protective coating to prevent corrosion. Screws are specified
by the length of the screw in mm and the gauge. Below is a screw chart showing the standard gauges and
lengths:
Gauge Metric equivalent Pilot hole Clearance hole Masonry plug colour
3 2.5mm 1.0mm 3.0mm Yellow
4 3.0mm 1.5mm 3.5mm Yellow
6 3.5mm 2.0mm 4.0mm Red
8 4.0mm 2.5mm 4.5mm Red Brown
10 5.0mm 3.0mm 5.5mm Brown
12 5.5mm 3.5mm 6.0mm Brown
14 6.5mm 4.0mm 7.0mm Blue
for plumbing installations, the most common sizes range from 15mm x 6 for fixing saddle clips to 50mm x 10
for hanging radiators.

Plastic wall plugs

Screw Plug length Hole diameter
Colour
gauge/size mm mm
Yellow No. 4 - 10 25 5
Red No. 6 - 12 35 6
Brown No.10 - 14 45 7
Orange No. 8 - 12 25 6.5 Plastic wall plugs
Grey No. 8 - 10 35 5.5
Plastic wall plugs are a tried
White No. 8 - 12 35 6.5
and tested method of fixing
Blue No.10 - 14 35 8
radiators, sanitary
appliances and many other components securely to wall surfaces such as brick, stone and concrete. They are
available in many different sizes to accommodate the many sizes of screws available. Each plug size is colour
coded to a specific drill bit size so that, once drilled, the plug fits perfectly in readiness of the screw.
Using plastic wall plugs

1. First, carefully mark the hole to be drilled.
2. Choose the correct sized masonry bit for the plastic wall plug.
3. Using an electric drill or battery drill, carefully drill the hole to the correct depth. Remember to pay
attention to all health and safety requirements. Wear the correct PPE at all times and check the drill
before use.
4. Insert the wall plug to slightly below wall surface.
5. Insert the screw and carefully tighten until resistance is felt.
AC5.3 Identify the range of specialist fixing devices

Heavy duty fixings
There are a number of heavy duty fixings that plumbers use from time to time. These are:
• Coach screws
• Fischer bolts
Coach screws. These usually come with purpose made wall plugs. They are used
for fixing heavy fixings such as mounting boilers. Can be tightened with a spanner
but some have pozidrive screw heads.

Fischer bolts – these are also known as a heavy-duty expansion anchors. They are
easy to use with good load-carrying capacity and can be used in all masonry and
concrete types for fixing heavy appliances and large diameter pipework.
Plaster board and light structure fixings

Plasterboard, because of its lightweight nature, is notoriously difficult to fix to. Most plasterboard walls will
not take the weight of a substantial appliance, such as a boiler. However, some components such as radiators
can be hung without fear of them coming off the wall. In all situations, a proper plasterboard fixing, used
correctly, will suffice. The common plasterboard fixings are shown below:
Collapsing cavity fixings – a good, strong plaster board fixing.

Used to hang sanitary ware, radiators and many other types of
appliances.
Self-drill plaster board fixings – Used to hang small appliances

and radiators. The body of the fixing is self-drilling and is screwed
directly into the plaster board, without the need to drill a hole
first.
Spring loaded toggle bolts – also known as butterfly bolts.

Suitable for hanging radiators and other small appliances.
Figure 7: Plaster board fixings
Unistrut pipe hanging system

The unistrut system is ideal on commercial and industrial installations where banks of pipes are to be hung
in straight lines.

Unistrut uses a galvanised steel channel that can be fixed to the ceiling with pipes hung from it or with
pipework fixed directly to the unistrut
Unistrut can be used with all pipes and tubes across all pipe sizes.
Chemical Resin fixing methods

Chemical or resin anchors are used to bond steel studs, bolts and other anchorages directly into the
substrate, usually brick or concrete. They are ideally suited to high loads and normally result in a bond far
stronger than the substrate itself. They are ideal for use in substrates of low compressive strength such as
thermalite blocks.
Chemical fixings are a relatively new method of securely fixing pipes and appliances to walls, floors and
ceilings. There are a number available:
1. Polyester resin – used instead of rawlpugs, rawlbolts and anchors, polyester resin is used to fill a pre-
drilled hole. Once filled, the tapped rod is inserted into the hole and the resin allowed to cure. This
provides a good bonding in stone, concrete, brick and blockwork.
2. Vinylester resin – uses are similar to polyester resin. It is an injection resin for the bonding of studs,
sockets and fixings into concrete and masonry substrates.
AC5.4 Identify clip and bracket types for domestic plumbing and
heating work
There are many different types of clips, brackets and fixings for pipes and tubes. Some will be familiar to you,
others maybe not so. In this section, we will look at the various pipework materials and the brackets and clips
we can use to make them secure.
Clips and brackets for copper tubes and plastic pressure pipe
Copper Saddle clips Generally used when fixing pipework to
skirting boards. Not suitable for fixing
pipework to plastered walls or masonry,
stone or concrete.
Nail-on clips Useful for fixing pipework under floors

against wooden joists. Caution should be
exercised as pipework expansion can
loosen the clips making the pipework
susceptible to sagging.

Interlocking clips Ideal when banks of pipework are to be

installed. The clips simply slide together
meaning runs of different sized pipework
can be fixed easily and quickly.
Single plastic clips The standard clip for most pipework

installations. Can be used with copper or
plastic pressure pipework.
Double plastic clips Excellent for use on heating installations

or hot and cold pipework when more
than one pipework run is required.
Strip brass school board clips
Usually used where the pipework fixing

needs to be a little more robust, such as
Cast brass school board clips schools, commercial buildings and
industrial installations.
Munsen rings Munsen rings and backplates provide a

very robust fixing for copper pipework.
Munsen rings can be combined with
10mm tapped rod and backplates for
Back plate
when pipework is to be hung from the
ceiling or with unistrut channel type
fixings.
Figure 8: Clips and brackets for copper tubes
Clips and brackets for low carbon steel pipe

Low Carbon Steel, by its nature, is very heavy. Because of this any clips or brackets need to be very robust to
be able to carry the weight of the pipework. There are two types of clip that are readily available for fixing
Low Carbon Steel:

malleable iron school School board clips are a very robust bracket for
board clips single pipework runs. Care must be exercised
when these are being installed as they can bend
if they are mis-treated.
Munsen rings for Again, munsen rings with backplates are the
10mm tapped rod and bracket of choice when undertaking heavy
Malleable iron industrial installations. Munsen rings can also be
backplates used with rawlbolt anchors when being hung
from concrete structures and ceilings.
Double munsen rings are also available for
multiple pipework runs.
Clips and brackets for plastic Soil and Waste pipes

Soil and vent pipe clips
110mm Plastic saddle clips
Both of these pipe clips are suitable for

fixing 110mm soil and vent pipes. The
top pipe clip is more suited to domestic
installations. The bottom bracket is
110mm Galvanised metal pipe used where the installation needs to be
clip tough enough to withstand knocks.
Waste pipe clips
32mm, 40mm and 50mm Plastic

saddle clips A simple plastic band suitable for
clipping 32mm, 40mm, 50mm waste
pipes in most installation situations.

Learning Outcome 7
Know the installation requirements of
domestic plumbing and heating
pipework

There are two Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 7:
AC7.1. Identify the methods of installing domestic plumbing and heating pipework
AC7.2. Identify how to select pipework materials and fittings from instructions including plans and
drawings
AC7.1 Identify the methods of installing domestic plumbing and

heating pipework
The installation of pipework, whether it is for hot water, cold water, central heating or sanitation, needs
careful thought. It is a fact that not all pipework we install can be hidden and there will be occasions when
surface mounted pipework will need to be used because of the constraints of the building or the
requirements of the regulations. This being the case, surface mounted pipework will need to be as
unobtrusive and as neat as possible. A pipe that is not level or plumb is an eyesore. It is, therefore, of great
importance, that we think about where and how we are going to position our pipes beforehand.
Surface mounted pipework

Planning is the key to good surface mounted pipework. It should, if possible, take the shortest route. This is
not only important from a visual point of view, but also in respect of the design. Flow rates and pressures
can be adversely affected by large numbers of bends and elbows.
Marking out for pipework, especially in occupied premises, should be kept to a minimum to avoid defacing
the customer’s decorating. Use a pencil rather than pen or markers. Carpets and furnishings should be well
protected with dust sheets and coverings.
The selection of clipping method for the surface mounted pipework requires careful thought. The question
to be asked is, where is the pipework being installed? Think about the following:
• Pipework mounted to skirting boards would look too bulky if stand-off type clips, such as plastic clips,
were used. Instead, consider the use of copper saddle clips that lie flat to the timber. When the
pipework is painted, it would not look as unsightly as a pipe that is standing away from the timber
skirting boards.
• Try to hide surface mounted pipework in the corners of rooms where they may be successfully boxed
in. Once decorated, these tend to blend into the wall a little and become less noticeable.
• If a number of pipes are to be installed in the same location, arrange them in banks using interlocking
clips. Not only does this require less drilling and screwing but also keeps the pipework runs parallel
across the entire run. This is particularly useful when installing pipework in airing cupboards, boiler
room and roof spaces where long lengths of pipework may be placed in the same direction.

• Consider the type of building. Whilst plastic clips and saddle clips are useful in domestic properties,
they would not stand up to the everyday knocks of life in, say, a factory or a supermarket. Similarly,
large bulky clipping methods usually used in commercial buildings would look out of place in a home.
Concealed pipework
Installation of pipework often means that most of the pipework be concealed out of sight. When first fixing
takes place, this is where the majority of the pipes would be hidden from view under the floors or buried in
studded walls and sometimes even placed behind the dot and dab plasterboard on the inside of external
walls.
Whilst the idea of concealed pipework means that the walls of the property are ‘pipework free’, we also have
to take into account the requirements of regulations and British Standards with regard to concealed
pipework. Consider this from the Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 1999:
Schedule 2, Regulation 7 states:
7. (1) No water fitting shall be embedded in any wall or solid floor.
(2) No fitting which is designed to be operated or maintained, whether manually or electronically, or

which consists of a joint, shall be a concealed water fitting.
This means that if we cannot install the pipe behind the wall without joints, then the pipe should not be
installed in the wall and we should consider surface mounted pipework. Why is this? Simply, every joint is a
potential leak. Even if no leaks are found during testing, that doesn’t mean that the joint won’t leak in the
future. Leaks in walls are notoriously difficult to find because water can travel some distance before it
emerges into view. These are points that should be considered at the planning stage.
Sleeving pipework
Sleeving pipework through masonry and concrete walls is essential to prevent the masonry/concrete wall
from having an adverse effect on the pipework. Sleeving a pipe has several functions:
• It prevents the pipework from coming into contact with the wall surface, thereby preventing
abrasion, and corrosion from the effects of the masonry or concrete materials.
• It allows for thermal movement.
• It prevents damage from building movement due to subsidence etc.
The sleeve should be at least one pipe size larger than the pipe being passed through the wall and should be
sealed on the inside and outside with an approved silicon sealant to prevent the ingress of rain/snow etc.
and insects/vermin. Where sleeves are carrying gas pipework, the sleeve should only be sealed on the INSIDE
of the property. The external end of the sleeve should be left open.

Fire stopping pipework installations

Pipework that passes between floors must be fire stopped to prevent the spread of fire. This can be done in
two ways:
• By the use of an intumescent collar, or;

• By the use of intumescent sealant.
The photograph (left) shows an intumescent collar,

which is placed around the pipework as it passes through
a floor. Should a fire occur, the heat from the fire causes
the bonded material inside the collar to expand,
completely sealing the space around the pipe preventing
the spread of fire, smoke and hot gases to other areas.
This helps to:
1. Contain the fire in the room where it started

2. Maintain escape routes
An intumescent collar
3. Reduce the damage caused by the fire and reduce
the effects of smoke.
Intumescent sealant works in the same way but is injected into the space around the pipe.
Fitting an intumescent collar
Measure, mark and cut pipework materials for Installation

There are many methods used when installing plumbing systems. Each plumber will have their own way of
installing pipework, setting out, marking out and fabrication. In many cases, pipework may even be
prefabricated before it arrives on site to be installed. Many plumbing systems and components are now
supplied ‘pre-plumbed’ making the plumber’s job that much easier.

Prefabrication of pipework
Prefabrication takes place on large housing contracts where many of the same type of buildings are being
constructed or where a large block of identical apartments is being built. Pre-fabrication of bends, fittings
and pipework has the advantage of saving time and can be of benefit where ‘hot working’ with blow torches
is forbidden.
Prefabrication off-site means that the measurements for the pipework can be taken from either on-site or
taken from the working drawings. Often, it’s much better to work from measurements taken on site because
plans and drawings can sometimes change and the actual building be slightly different from that drawn.
Whichever way is chosen, the pipework is measured, marked, cut, formed and jointed in the workshop and
then transported to site for installation.
Fabricating pipework to clear obstacles

Working on site will also involve pre-fabrication of pipework. Precise measurements, cutting, bending and
jointing will all take place to suit the obstacles that we come across. Consider the drawing:
By using the correct setting and marking out procedures, and using the correct bending methods, it is possible
to bend the pipe from fitting 7, through bends 1 to 6 and up to fitting 8, out of a single piece of copper tube.
When marking out the tube for one-piece bending, there are several pieces of information that we need to
know:
1. The size of the tube

2. The ‘X’ dimension
of any fittings required. In
this case 2 end feed capillary
elbows.
3. The distance from
the wall to the centre of the
clip
4. The dimensions of
the space where the tube
5. will finally rest
6. The pipe gain of
'x' dimensions the machine-made bends.
Look at the drawing. The pipe is going to be installed around a concrete nib, located in a small space. The
overall dimension is:
1100mm or 1.1m wide, 600mm deep, with a raised nib measuring 500mm wide by 450mm deep. There are:
• 6 machine-made bends, 4 internal and 2 external, and;

• 2 endfeed capillary elbows.
We can assume that:
• The tube size is 15mm copper

• The ‘X’ dimension of a 15mm endfeed elbow is
12mm as shown by the drawing
• The distance from the wall to the centre of the clip
is 15mm
• The pipe gain of a machine made bend is 1.5 times
Measuring the 'X' dimension of a fitting the pipe diameter. Therefore, pipe gain is 22.5mm.
rounded down to 22mm.
Method
Total up the amount of pipe needed.
From elbow 7 to bend 1 the distance is 600mm and because pipe clips are fitted inside and outside of the
space, the distance is not altered. There is an endfeed elbow at elbow 7 and this has a 12mm ‘X’ dimension,
which we need to deduct:
600 – 12 = 588mm
So, from elbow 7 to bend 1 - the first machine bend 1 can be marked 588mm from the end of the pipe.
From bend 1 to bend 2 is 400mm centre to centre of pipe. From this we need to deduct 2 clip distances
totalling 30mm. 400mm – 30mm = 370mm (this is the measurement after the deduction of 2 clips to the
centre). Bend 2 can be marked at this distance.
From bend 2 to bend 3, the distance is 300mm and since there are clips on the front of the nib, this is the
distance we use.
Bend 3 to bend 4 carries the tube around opposing sides of the nib and because the clip centre is 15mm we
add 2 x 15 = 30mm to the overall nib size. Therefore, 300 + 30mm = 330mm.
Bend 4 to bend 5 is the same as bends 2 to bends 3, as the two dimensions are identical. 300mm.
Bends 5 to bend 6 are identical as from bend 1 to bend 2, so the same dimension can be used. 400mm –
30mm = 370mm. Mark the bend at this distance.
From bend 6 to elbow 8 is identical as from elbow 7 to bend 1. Therefore, 600 – 12 = 588mm
There are 6 machine made bends on the tube, so pipe gain is as follows: 6 x 22mm = 132mm. this will need
to be deducted once the measurements have been added together:

𝟓𝟖𝟖 + 𝟑𝟕𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟑𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟕𝟎 + 𝟓𝟖𝟖 = 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟔𝒎𝒎
Now deduct the pipe gain:
𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟔 – 𝟏𝟑𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟒𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝒎
So, to complete the installation in a single piece, without joints, we would need 2.714m of 15mm tube.
In-situ working
When working in customer’s properties, at some point the need to work on an existing installation will occur.
This can be challenging, especially in older properties where we might encounter pipework of a different size
or material. Over the years, there have been many different materials used for plumbing, such as copper,
lead, stainless steel and plastic and many of these have sizes and jointing techniques that are uncommon to
us. Problems occur when connections must be made to old pipework of imperial size that differ from the
metric sizes now in use. Fortunately, for many of these pipe sizes, converters to metric sizes exist. In-situ
work includes:
• Cutting in isolation valves, tees and branches to existing pipework

• Capping or plugging off existing pipework
• Removing and replacing old bath, WC pans, washbasin and sink taps,
• Replacing cold water cisterns
• Work on existing central heating systems and pipework.
7.2 Identify how to select pipework materials and fittings from

instructions including plans and drawings
Select pipework materials and fittings from instructions
On some occasions, the materials and fittings we use on an installation will be dictated by the component or
equipment installation instructions. Gas boilers, for example, specify that copper should be used to connect
to the boiler and that plastic pipe should not be connected to within 1m – 1.5m of the boiler itself. It is
important that we follow these instructions otherwise the manufacturer’s guarantee may be invalidated.
Select pipework materials and fittings from specifications, drawings and plans
Often, materials and fittings for a contract are selected by either the designing engineer or even sometimes
the customer. In these cases, a specification would tell us materials to be used, their sizes and often, which
make of fitting to use.
Working drawings give an insight into the layout of the building. From these, the routes of the pipework can
be planned and a materials list taken. On large contracts, the designer may well have produced a full working

drawing showing pipework routes and fitting types.
Installing pipework
Installing pipework falls into 2 distinct categories:
1. First fix – This is when all of the main runs of pipework are installed – the hot and cold water, central
heating, gas and main soil and vent stacks – before any internal floors/ceilings are laid. At this stage,
it’s important to follow the rules regarding drilling and notching of joists mentioned earlier in the
unit. Also at this stage, any pipework that is to be concealed behind plasterboard walls are fixed into
place. Installed pipework should be capped to prevent debris from entering the fixed pipework. Pipes
in walls should be clearly marked and plastic pipework covered with a metallic tape to ensure that it
can be found by cable and pipe sensing equipment. A soundness test should be performed at first fix
stage to ensure that there are no leaks prior to floor and ceilings being installed.
2. Second fix – after the internal work – plastering, doors, skirting boards and architraves – then the
second fix can begin. Second fix is where all appliances, boilers, radiators, bathroom and kitchen
equipment etc are installed. Any exposed pipework must be clipped in line with the specifications
mentioned earlier in the unit. Manufacturer’s installation instructions regarding pipework, fittings
and materials must be followed. It should be remembered that a good second fix can only take place
if the first fix was correct, since the second fix continues the pipework that has previously been
installed at first fix stage.
First/second fix in occupied properties

First fixing and second fixing in occupied properties takes on an even greater importance because of the
customers property and possessions. All exposed pipework should be agreed beforehand and this should be
neatly installed and clipped to specification. The position of the radiators and boiler should be discussed and
agreed upon before installation takes place. Any floorboards removed should be replaced as soon as possible.
Disruption to the customer should be kept to an absolute minimum at all times. Connections to existing
pipework should be left until all other work has been completed to keep the disruption to water, gas and
electrical services to a minimum.
BS8000-0:2014: Workmanship on construction sites. Introduction and general principles should be

followed.
Joint pipework to specifications

Using the jointing techniques that you will learn as you work through this unit takes time to perfect. Knowing
which joint can be used and where, often comes with experience of working within the plumbing industry.
There are, however, certain points that you should be aware of if mistakes are to be prevented. These can
be seen as a series of do’s and don’ts:

Do’s Don’ts
When soldering capillary fittings in properties,
ensure that the risk of fire is kept to a minimum. Don’t take risks when soldering fittings. Consult
Always carry a powder fire extinguisher when the company risk assessment.
soldering takes place.
Remember to protect the customer’s wall paper
Don’t put the flame of a blow torch directly on to a
and decorations when soldering fittings. Use either
decorated wall. You will ruin the paper. Be aware
a heat proof mat or cooling gel around the area to
of combustible items at all times.
be soldered.
Always check soldered fittings to ensure that the Don’t leave making soldered joints until last. Solder
solder has flowed all around the joint. them as you work.
Always tighten compression fittings as you are Don’t leave tightening compression fittings until
working. the last minute.
Don’t use type A compression fittings below
Ensure that the correct type of compression fitting
ground. They are likely to fail on soft copper
is being used.
installations.
Ensure that all push-fit joints are correctly made on Don’t forget to use pipe inserts when making
both copper and plastic pressure pipe. plastic push fit pressure pipe joints.
When installing soil and waste pipes, ensure you
Don’t make solvent weld joints in confined spaces.
follow the manufacturer’s instructions with regard
Make sure the area is well ventilated at all times.
to expansion gaps.
Ensure that correct clipping distances is taking Don’t leave pipes unclipped. They will sag and
place across all pipe work types and sizes. eventually fail.
Ensure that you follow good health and safety
Don’t put yourself at risk with regard to health and
practices at all times. If you are in doubt, ask your
safety. If you are in doubt, ask your supervisor.
supervisor.

Advert

Learning Outcome 9
Know the inspection and soundness
testing requirements of domestic
plumbing and heating pipework

There are two Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 9:
AC9.1. Identify the requirements of, and carry out a visual inspection of pipework to confirm that it
is ready to be filled with water.
AC9.2. State how to carry out a soundness test on domestic plumbing and heating pipework
AC9.1 Identify the requirements of, and carry out a visual inspection
of pipework to confirm that it is ready to be filled with water
Filling any system with water is the time when we see if the system is watertight. Pressure testing confirms
the water tightness ready for the next stage of bringing the system into operation. Before these operations
can take place, a visual inspection of the system should be made to confirm that the installation is correct
and meets the required standards:
• Check that all open ends have been capped and/or all valves have been isolated.
• Check all visible joints to ensure that they have been properly made. Check that capillary joints have
been wiped clean of any excess flux as this can cause corrosion in later life.
• Check that enough pipe clips have been installed and that the pipework is secure.
• Check that tap connectors and radiator valves are tight and that any radiator air release valves are
turned off.
• Ensure that any automatic air valves are open.
AC9.2 State how to carry out a soundness test on domestic plumbing

and heating pipework
The type of testing procedure will depend on the pipe work material used. Hot and cold water systems testing
is detailed in BSEN806 pts 2 and 4, central heating systems testing is detailed in BSEN14336:2004 Heating
systems in buildings — Installation and commissioning of water based heating systems. Above ground
sanitation systems should be tested in accordance with Document H of the Building Regulations.
The recommendations of BSEN806 Pts 2 and 4

For many years the recommendations of BS6700 and the Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 19991
stated that a hot/cold water system should be tested at 1.5 times the maximum operating pressure of the
system. However, since the introduction of BSEN806, the test pressures for hot and cold water systems has
been updated and is no longer as straightforward as it once was.
1
Schedule 2 of the Water Supply (water fittings) Regulations 1999 currently recommends 1.5 times normal operating
pressure. It has NOT been updated to reflect the Recommendations in BSEN806 pt 4

Calculating the test pressure

BSEN806 pt 1 gives a definition of the Maximum Design Pressure or MDP of a system. It states that the MDP
is:
‘the maximum hydrostatic pressure at which the potable water installation is designed to work.’
BSEN806 pt 2, clause 3.4.2 states that:

‘To ensure adequate strength, all components of the system shall be designed to meet the test
pressure requirements of the local and national laws and regulations. The test pressure shall be at
least 1.5 times the allowable Maximum Operating Pressure.’
So, the maximum design pressure as stated in BSEN806 pt 1 is:
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 1.5 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑀𝐷𝑃)

BSEN806 pt 4, which covers the installation and commissioning of hot and cold water systems, identifies in
clauses 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 that the test pressure shall be:
𝑀𝐷𝑃 𝑥 1.1
Or:
𝑀𝑂𝑃 𝑥 1.65
How does this work in practice?

If a system is designed to operate at a Maximum Operating Pressure of 2 bar pressure, then?
2 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑀𝑂𝑃 ) 𝑥 1.5 = 3𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑀𝐷𝑃)

3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑀𝐷𝑃) 𝑥 1.1 = 3.3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
Or
2 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑀𝑂𝑃) 𝑥 1.65 = 3.3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)

This results in a test pressure that is slightly higher than that required by the Water Supply (water fittings)
Regulations 1999 in Schedule 2, Paragraph 5 (1.5 x MOP).
The testing procedures

BSEN806 Part 4 states that there are 3 systems for testing pipework and these testing procedures are
determined by the material from which the pipework is made. The testing procedures are classed as:
a) Test A
b) Test B
c) Test C
The table below illustrates which pipe material is associated with each of the tests:

Table taken from BSEN806 Part 4 page 20
Type of material Hydrostatic test procedure
Linear elastic materials (i. e. metals)
Elastic materials (PVC-U, PVC-C, etc.) and multi-layer materials

Test procedure A
Visco-elastic materials (i. e. PP, PE, PEX, PA, PB, etc.) with DN/OD <
63mm
Visco-elastic materials with DN/OD > 63mm (i.e. PP, PE, PEX, PA, PB,
Test procedure B or C
etc.)
Combined system with DN/OD < 63mm (metals and plastics) Test procedure A
Combined systems with DN/OD > 63mm (metals and plastics) Test procedure B or C
Test A requirements page 21, BSEN806 pt 4

The system should be filled with water and all air vented
to atmosphere. All outlet valves and vents should be
sealed once the air is removed. Apply the test pressure
calculated (equal to 1.1 times MDP) for a period of 10
minutes. The test pressure must stay constant for 10
minutes. If there is any pressure loss, the system must
be maintained at the test pressure until all leaks have
been found. The test is shown in graph form right.
Test B requirements page 21, BSEN806 pt 4

The system should be filled with water and all air vented
to atmosphere. All outlet valves and vents should be
sealed once the air is removed. Apply the test pressure
calculated (equal to 1.1 times MDP) for a period of 30
minutes. Inspect the system to identify any leaks.
Reduce the pressure by bleeding water from the system

until the pressure reads 0.5 times the test pressure.
The pressure must remain constant for a period of 30

minutes after pressure reduction. Check the system
visually for leaks. If, after the pressure has been reduced
there is a further pressure drop, there is a leak on the
system. The test pressure must be maintained while the leak is identified. Again, the test is shown in graph
form.

Test C requirements page 22, BSEN806 pt 4

The system should be filled
with water and all air vented
to atmosphere. All outlet
valves and vents should be
sealed once the air is
removed. Apply the test
pressure calculated (equal to
1.1 times MDP) for a period of
30 minutes. Inspect the
system to identify any leaks.
Note the pressure after a

period of 30 mins and recheck
for leaks.
Note the pressure after a

further 30 mins. If the
pressure drop is less than 0,06
MPa or 0.6 bar, the system can be considered to be sound. Continue the test without further pumping.
Continue the test for a further 120 minutes (2 hours). If the pressure drops more than 0.02 MPa or 0.2 bar in
this time, then this would indicate that the system has a leak. Maintain the pressure and identify the leak.

BPEC2.pdf 2 29/04/2019 10:58
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BPEC Level 2 Diploma in Plumbing Foundation 1

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

D/602/2682 - Understand and carry out site preparation, and

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

There are four Assessment Criteria in Learning Outcome 1:

screwdriver is available in many sizes and it is

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Star head Screwdrivers

with the handles being made from a variety of

The claw is used in conjunction with the handle

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Care should be taken when using these tools as

Grips and Pliers

These are a type of pliers used by electricians

They are also known as Linemen’s Pliers.

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Long nose Pliers

Made in a variety of sizes, these are a very

Water Pump Pliers

It is recommended to have at least two pairs in

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Open ended Spanner

Again, open spanners are very useful when

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Stilson type wrenches

time and so are a useful addition to a plumber’s

For prolonged use, these tools require regular

maintenance to keep the pipe rollers free from

dirt and swarf.

Wheel Pipe Cutters

Like the pipe slice, the cutting wheels are

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Plastic Pipe Cutters

Many different types are available including

General-purpose Hand Saw

insulation board, plastic pipe and many more

When using a hacksaw, always ensure that the

Junior Hack Saw

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

Floor board Saw

Scissor Pipe Bending Machine

Tripod Pipe Bending Machine

Pipe Bending Tools

main difference with this type of bending

Internal Pipe Bending Spring

scissor bending machine, the internal bending

Always anneal the tube first before bending to

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

External Pipe Bending Spring

Soldering and brazing torch

Blowtorch with separate governor and hose

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Ratchet Stocks and Dies

pipes. The dies are interchangeable for

110V Rotary drills

This kind of drill has a standard chuck and key.

Author: BPEC Ltd. Editor: BPEC Ltd. Design: BPEC Ltd

There are many different types of circular saw