KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

DHULIKHEL, KAVRE

A proposal on

Mineral Exploration Using Remote Sensing

Submitted By:

Bhishma Dhungana (020634-16)

Suyog Gautam (020636-16)

Sarthak Regmi (020645-16)

Roshan Saud (020646-16)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................i

1.1.1 List of Figure:.....................................................................................................iii

1. INRODUCTION................................................................................................................1

1.2 BACKGROUND:........................................................................................................1

1.3 Problem Statement.......................................................................................................3

1.4 objective......................................................................................................................3

1.5 Scope...........................................................................................................................3

2 Study Area..........................................................................................................................4

3 methodolgy.........................................................................................................................6

3.1 Theoreitical and conceptual framework......................................................................6

3.1.1 Principle Component Analysis:............................................................................6

3.1.2 Band Ratio:...........................................................................................................6

3.1.3 False Color Composite:........................................................................................7

3.2 preprocessing...............................................................................................................7

3.2.1 Radiometric Correction:.......................................................................................7

3.2.2 Atmospheric Correction:......................................................................................8

3.2.3 Image Classification:............................................................................................8

3.3 Data Required:.............................................................................................................9

3.3.1 LANDSAT 8 ETM+ Satellite Sensor (15m)........................................................9

3.3.2 Elevation Data:...................................................................................................11

3.3.3 Geological Data:.................................................................................................11

3.3.4 Existing mineral Map:........................................................................................11

3.3.5 Lineaments Map:................................................................................................11

3.4 Software to be used:..................................................................................................11

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4 project management.........................................................................................................12

4.1 work flow char...........................................................................................................12

4.2 project Schedule........................................................................................................12

4.3 Logical framework analysis.......................................................................................13

5 budget...............................................................................................................................14

6 Expected Outcome...........................................................................................................14

7 Conclusion........................................................................................................................14

8 References........................................................................................................................14

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1.1.1 List of Figure:

Figure 1: Existing iron ore sites.......................................................................................................8

Figure 2: Earth Explorer Map of Study Area..................................................................................9

Figure 3: OIL Bands with wavelength and resolution...................................................................14

Figure 4: TIRS Band with wavelength and resolution..................................................................14

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1. INRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND:

In the recent years remote sensing has been used extensively in many applications areas such
as geological mapping, agriculture mapping, hydrogeological investigation and prospecting
for mineral deposits the increasing living standard of the underdeveloped countries entails the
search for more resources to meet the demands of minerals. In recent decades, Mineral
exploration by more scientific and modern methods are used instead of traditional methods.
As a modern technology supporting in different fields, remote sensing may have significant
role in mineral exploration works, effectively reducing the initial project cost and identifying
the possible mineral ores in relatively less time. Therefore, new exploration techniques must
be utilized to discover previously unknown reserves. Remote Sensing can map and analyze
rocks over hundreds of square miles in a single imagery. This geological mapping may
indicate particular areas of interest that can then be investigated in detail on the ground.
Improved geological understanding leads to looking for new resources in previously
overlooked areas.

Mineral resources play an important role in the development of a country. All countries want
to be self-sufficient with respect to mineral resources as the mineral based industries play a
vital role in country's economic development. Nepal is fortunate to have a good number of
mineral deposits required for industrial development. At present only few mineral based
industries are developed but there is big future ahead. Altogether economic potential for 63
mineral commodities have been found in Nepal (DMG, 2004; 2011). But the reserves of the
explored economic minerals are limited and they are not replenishable once mined. This fact
requires sticking to proper and full utilization of the available natural resources and scientific
attempt should be made towards the finding of new deposits of mineral wealth. This is
possible only with clear understanding of geological control of mineralization, their regional
distribution pattern and local condition of their occurrences.

The geological processes that are responsible for concentration of these diffused elements/
scattered minerals into economic deposits are magmatic concentration, sublimation, contact
metasomatism, hydrothermal processes, sedimentation, evaporation, residual and mechanical
concentration, surficial oxidation and supergene enrichment and metamorphism.

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Investigations have shown that regional distribution of mineral deposits are controlled by the
geological evolution of the region, local and regional tectonics, magmatic activities etc. that
have taken place at definite periods in the earth's history. Accordingly, regions of stabilized
cratons and mobile orogenic belts have different pattern of mineral distribution. We are at the
very earlier stage to explore the metallogenic epochs and provinces for mineral resources in
the country. Some metallogeny provinces have been recognized within Nepal as uranium,
copper-lead-zinc, tin-tungsten molybdenum, nickel-cobalt, gold iron- copper sulphides,
magnesite-talc, limestone-dolomite, precious-semiprecious stones, gypsum-salt, petroleum-
natural gas etc. (ESCAP, 1993). These provinces appear to coincide more or less with the
geological/ litho-tectonic zone of the Nepal Himalaya.

Localization of mineral deposits is controlled by local geological condition of particular area.

It is the stratigraphy of host rocks, lithology, and geological structures like folding, faulting
and igneous intrusions which determine the mineralization of the region. Rock successions
formed under deep marine basins; continental margins are the sites for deposition of
sedimentary ores. Permeable beds/bedding planes and fractures/joints offer ways for
movement of underground fluids and thereby, they control localization of oil, gas, water and
many metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits. They are also the favourable sites for
replacement and contact metasomatic deposits. Impervious covers like shale, help to localize
many mineral deposits beneath it and also constitute cap rocks for oil and natural gas pools.
Impervious base rock likewise serves as barriers for descending fluids and help to form
mineral deposits like formation of supergene sulphides and oxidized ore deposits on
impervious strata. Reactive rocks like limestone, dolomite, chlorite schist, tremolite-actinolite
schist are suitable sites for ore deposition. Various types of rock openings like foliation,
lineation, shear zones and joints determine the immediate sites for epigenetic ore deposits.
There is consistent association of some ores with certain types of igneous intrusions like
titaniferous magnetite in Gabbro-anorthosite, corundum in nepheline syenite, tin, tungsten
and uranium in granite and granitic pegmatites. According to Emmons (Kreiter, 1968), the
ore deposits tend to be concentrated in the roof pendants of the batholith, in the upper parts of
the stocks and in the surrounded invaded rocks, pointing to a specific control of ore
localization.

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1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Nepal is country with huge potential for mineral resources. Nepal is using traditional methods
such as field visit and sample collection for detection of deposits of mineral ores. This
method is an expensive and more difficult approach, due to which research and exploration of
these potential natural resources is quite difficult and complicated for under developing
country like Nepal. With the exploration of mineral resources and establishment of minerals-
based industry, our country could be benefited economically and can give push in the
economic growth of country.

So, using the remote sensing imagery the distribution of these minerals can be analyzed and
potential area of mineral ores can be detected. This project could be model for mapping
mineral sited based on satellite imagery techniques which is effective and efficient in terms
cost, time and performance.

1.4 OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of our project iss

“To explore iron deposits in Central Nepal using remote sensing.”

The sub objective of this study is:

i. To prepare Lineament map of the project site.

ii. To explore potential ores for rare metals like gold (if any).
iii. To prepare mineral deposits map.

1.5 SCOPE

The scope for our project is listed below:

i. The detection of iron ores in potential sites of Nepal

ii. Exploration of unidentified potential mineral (Iron) deposits sites.
iii. Finding cost effective alternative method for manual traditional method for ore
detection.

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2 STUDY AREA

Figure 1: Existing iron ore sites

Above shown sites has high iron contents, as per paper released by government of Nepal and
research papers accepted by Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University. Firstly,

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we will analyze these areas for iron content and this will be our one of the methods for
verification of our work procedure.

Figure 2: Earth Explorer Map of Study Area.

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Area under these two images will be our study area for potential iron ore. Mostly it covers
terai and hilly region of central Nepal. Tentatively Ten to Twelve district of central region of
Nepal falls under the study area and will be our focus of Study/Research.

3 METHODOLGY
3.1 THEOREITICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Initially, Landsat 8 images of central Nepal is to be downloaded from USGS earth-explorer

website. Secondly, preprocessing of the images will be done for the Geometric and
Radiometric correction. Then integration of following methods will be done for further image
processing and analyzing:

3.1.1 Principle Component Analysis:

One of the methods used to reduce the correlation between multivariate data and increase the
distinction is the main component analysis (PCA) method. The purpose of this method is to
compress data and eliminate redundant data in order to save time and money. By using the
PCA method, we can replace many independent and correlated variables with a limited
number of new variables, which are called principal components and are not interconnected.
Finally, the components are used instead of the original data.

3.1.2 Band Ratio:

In general, all materials are composed of atoms and molecules with a specific composition
Therefore various materials, depending on the structure, absorb or emit electromagnetic
radiation at special wavelengths. So that the wavelength curve and radiant energy for each
object are unique and this is a clear feature of remote sensing science. The result of dividing
the values of the brightness of the pixels in a spectral band into another band is called the
band ratio. And as a result, new lighting levels or, in other words, a new image are created.
Band ratios method is used to detect complications that are not visible in the image of single
bands. The results of applying band ratios method are gray-scale images that alone are not a
valid criterion for determining the target areas in the study area. It only identifies the area’s
most likely to have the desired minerals or, in general, the objects to be searched for. Using

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false color combinations (RGB images) can be produced that make the interpretation and
conclusions based on them more reliable and more practical. some commonly used band ratio
for iron ore are

i. 3/5, 4/1 and 5/7 as RGB, respectively (enhances reddish colour for iron ore).
ii. B4/B2—the iron oxide ratio allows the contrast between FeO and non-FeO materials;
iii. B6/B5—the ferrous mineral ratio is used to enhance iron-bearing minerals;

3.1.3 False Color Composite:

The importance of displaying the color combination of images in remote sensing can be
considered due to their effectiveness in visual interpretation of various effects. One of the
effective methods for identifying and separating various geological units is the False Color
Combination (FCC) method. The false color combination is a combination of three different
bands combined in Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) colors. If the combined bands of red, green,
and blue wavelengths are the visible spectrum of electromagnetic spectrum, the resulting
image will be a true color combination. If a different combination of red, green and blue
bands or other bands of the electromagnetic spectrum is used, a false color image will be
obtained that is not similar to the surface of the earth and its colors.

3.2 PREPROCESSING

Preprocessing of satellite images prior to image classification and change detection is

essential. Preprocessing commonly comprises a series of sequential operations, including
atmospheric correction or normalization, image registration, geometric correction, and
masking (e.g., for clouds, water, irrelevant features). It involves:

i. Radiometric correction
ii. Atmospheric correction

3.2.1 Radiometric Correction:

Radiometric correction is done to reduce or correct errors in the digital numbers of images.
The process improves the interpretability and quality of remote sensed data. Radiometric
calibration and correction are particularly important when comparing data sets over a
multiple time period. The energy that sensors onboard aircrafts or satellites record can differ
from the actual energy emitted or reflected from a surface on the ground. This is due to the
sun's azimuth and elevation and atmospheric conditions that can influence the observed

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energy. Therefore, in order to obtain the real ground irradiance or reflectance, radiometric
errors must be corrected.

The radiance detected by the sensor includes the reflected radiation from the Earth's surface
as well as radiation that is scattered in the atmosphere. This scattering (Rayleigh scattering) is
more pronounced at shorter wavelengths.

3.2.2 Atmospheric Correction:

Atmospheric correction is particularly important in those cases where information is going to

be extracted primarily based on the spectral properties of the data, and/or adjacent or
overlapping scenes acquired under differing conditions are going to be used in conjunction
with each other, such as change detection or land cover mapping over a large area using
multiple Landsat images. Dark object subtraction is one of the most common techniques for
ameliorating atmospheric effects.

3.2.3 Image Classification:

Image classification is the process of assigning all land cover pixels in an image into classes.
This can be considered as the grouping of similar features, separation of dissimilar one,
assigning class level to pixels.

In general, these are three main image classification techniques in remote sensing:

1. Unsupervised image classification

2. Supervised image classification
3. Object-based image analysis

3.2.3.1 Unsupervised Image Classification:

In unsupervised classification, it first groups pixels into “clusters” based on their properties.
In order to create “clusters”, analysts use image clustering algorithms such as K-means and
ISODATA. For the most part, they can use this list of free remote sensing software to create
land cover maps.

3.2.3.2 Supervised Image Classififcation:

In supervised classification, you select representative samples for each land cover class. The
software then uses these “training sites” and applies them to the entire image.

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Supervised classification uses the spectral signature defined in the training set. For example,
it determines each class on what it resembles most in the training set. The common
supervised classification algorithms are maximum likelihood and minimum-distance
classification.

3.2.3.3 Object Based Image analysis:

Supervised and unsupervised classification is pixel-based. In other words, it creates square

pixels and each pixel has a class. But object-based image classification groups pixels into
representative shapes and sizes. This process is multi-resolution segmentation or segment
mean shift

3.3 DATA REQUIRED:

3.3.1 LANDSAT 8 ETM+ Satellite Sensor (15m)

LANDSAT 8 satellite sensor is part of the Landsat Data Continuity Mission, was successfully
launched on February 11, 2013 from Space Launch Complex-3, Vandenberg Air Force Base
in California and will join LANDSAT 7 satellite in orbit. LANDSAT 8 satellite has two main
sensors: The Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS).

Product type: Level 1T (terrain corrected)

Output format: GeoTIFF

Pixel size: 15 meters/30 meters/100 meters (panchromatic/multispectral/thermal)

Map projection: UTM (Polar Stereographic for Antarctica)

Datum: WGS 84

Orientation: North-up (map)

Resampling: Cubic convolution

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3.3.1.1 Operational Land Imager (OLI):

OLI collects data from nine spectral bands. Seven of the nine bands are consistent with the
Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensors found on
earlier Landsat satellites, providing for compatibility with the historical Landsat data, while
also improving measurement capabilities. Two new spectral bands, a deep blue coastal /
aerosol band and a shortwave-infrared cirrus band, will be collected, allowing scientists to
measure water quality and improve detection of high, thin clouds.

Figure 3:
OIL Bands with wavelength and resolution

3.3.1.2 Thermal Infrared Sensor:

TIRS is late addition to landsat8 with a resolution of 100m. Data for two long wavelength
infrared bands will be collected with TIRS.

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 Figure 4: TIRS Band with wavelength and resolution

3.3.2 Elevation Data:

These same maps will be used for study area toponymical references. Elevation data will be
collected from DEM of Nepal.

3.3.3 Geological Data:

These data will be used to identify the type of rock, geological structure, formation of stones,
land surface and will be collected from Department of mines and Geology.

3.3.4 Existing mineral Map:

Map of existing mineral sites will be collected from department of Mines and Geology. This
data will be used for one of the methods for result verification.

3.3.5 Lineaments Map:

A lineament is a linear feature in a landscape which is an expression of an underlying

geological structure such as a fault. Typically, a lineament will appear as a fault-aligned
valley, a series of fault or fold-aligned hills, a straight coastline or indeed a combination of
these features. Basically, lineaments correspond to ridges and valleys.

Lineaments map will be prepared from DEM of Study area,

3.4 SOFTWARE TO BE USED:

i. Environmental for Visualizing Image (ENVI)

ii. Arc Geographic Information System (ArcGIS)
iii. Microsoft Excel
iv. Microsoft Word

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4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
4.1 WORK FLOW CHAR

Landsat Image (Landsat 8)

Radiometric Correction

Band Rationing/False Color Composit/PCA

Layer stacking

Iron ore detection

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Processed Landsat 8 image Geological Data evaluation
with iron ore mapping
(Weightage=W2)
(Weightage=W1)

Elevation Data evaluation Lineament Map prepration

(Weightage=W3) (Weightage=W4)

Most suitable site for mineral

deposition selected from
suitability analysis considering
above factors

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4.2 PROJECT SCHEDULE

S.N.
Weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Works
1 Literature review

2 Proposal Preparation

3 Image acquisition

4 Image clipping and

Pre-processing

5 Image correction and

Processing

6 Image Analysis

7 Lineament map
preparation

8 Geological Map
evaluation

9 Elevation Map
Evaluation

10 Suitability analysis

11 Validation

12 Final Report
preparation

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 4.3 LOGICAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS

Sub-
Objective Objective Action Output How? Who? When? Risk Remedy
“To Final Using Roshan 1st
explore proposal MS word Week
Preparation Suyog
iron for our
of proposal
deposits in project
Central
Nepal
using Defense
remote Preparation presentat Using MS Bhishma 1st
of proposal ion
sensing.” PowerPoi Sarthak week
defense nt
presentation

Preparation Tempora From Bhishma 2nd and Amount Downloa

of mineral Acquisition l Image USGS 3rd of cloud ding the
Suyog
map form of Images of our Website week coverage images
image project we can with less
processing area download cloud
techniques temporal cover
imageries
Calibrate Using Roshan 4thand Radiometr Pre-
d image ENVIand Sarthak 5th ic and processi
Image
clipping and of Arc GIS week geometric ng step
project error will be
Pre-
area could not repeated
processing
be reduce until the
as per our required
requireme accuracy
nt is
achieved
Unclassi Using Suyog 6th and
th
fied ENVI
Image Bhishma 7
potential software week
processing
mineral
using
map
suitable
band ratio /
PCA
Classify Unsupervi Roshan 6th and Some Focusing
the map sed 7th minor on high
Image Sarthak
after classificati area with probable
classificatio week
processi on based slight area
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 n ng into in pixel pixel
high to value value
low change
mineral might get
possibilit ignored
y area
Prepare of DEM of Lineame Using Bhishma 8thand Done by Try to be
lineament study area nt map DEM of 9th manual as
Suyog
map processing showing study area week digitizatio precise
for ridge and Arc Sarthak n as
lineament and GIS Roshan therefore possible
map valley software accuracy while
might digitizin
reduce g
due to
human
error
Analysis of Geologic ArcGIS Sarthak 10th and
Collection rock type al map Analysis th
of Bhishma 11
and week
geological formation
data
Suitability Final Giving Bhishma 12th Validating Verificat
analysis Mineral different week ion using
Suyog
Final considering map weightage existing
Sarthak
Mineral all possible with to mineral
map factors most different Roshan map and
preparation calculated probable factors for mining
above iron ore suitability sites
site analysis
using Arc
GIS.

Final report Final By All 14thand

Submission report publishing group 15th
research member week
book and
presenting

5 BUDGET
S.N Particulars Estimated Cost(Rs.)

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 1. Stationery 500
2 Data Collection 1000
3. Black book printing 1000
4. Field Visit 3000
5. Miscellaneous 1000
Total 6500

6 EXPECTED OUTCOME
We have expected the following outcome from our project.

• Map representing the iron ore deposits using image processing technique.
• Geological map of proposed study area.
• Lineament map of proposed study area.
• Overall most suitable sites for iron ore deposits considering other secondary map
prepared.
• Identification of gold deposits in the area(if any).

7 CONCLUSION
Exploration of minerals resources and their research in our country has not been conducted
sufficient amount. Their potential for economic development of under developing country
like Nepal is still unexplored. The importance of minerals, for establishment mineral based
industries and utilization of local mineral resources, could save a lot of national budget. So, in
our project we are using Remote Sensing Imagery in order to analyze the potential mineral
sites mainly focused on Iron ores (Most used metal worldwide). Remote Sensing is the
effective tool for monitoring, mapping and analyzing in a cost-effective manner.

Using the images from Landsat-8 ETM+ 2020, we can calculate the area covered by minerals
and can analyze the potential sites for mineral resources.

8 REFERENCES

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(n.d.). Retrieved from USGS: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/

(PAULESI), P. A. (2018). Gold Potential Mapping using Remote Sensing and GIS at the
Prestea Concession of Golden Star Bogoso/Prestea Ltd, Ghana. 7.

Aboelkhair, H. (2014). Mapping of Structurally Controlled Uranium Mineralization in

Kadabora, 15.

Amer, R. (2011). Remote sensing detection of gold related alteration zones in Um Rus. 14.

Ciampalini, A. (2012). Remote sensing techniques using Landsat ETM+ applied, 20.

Ghazali, S. (2015). Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’. 5.

Government, N. (n.d.). Retrieved from Department of Mines and Geology:

https://www.dmgnepal.gov.np/

Manuel, R. (2017). Remote Sensing for Mineral Exploration in, 1-30.

Paudyal, K. (2014). OCCURRENCES OF MINERAL RESOURCES IN

BANDIPURGONDRANG, 12.

Saadat, S. (2009). Primary analysis for enhancing the iron oxide and alteration. 11.

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