Environmental concerns such as pollution and limited resources of fossil fuels have caused a

surge of interest in renewable energy in recent years. One of the major renewable energy sources
in the world is the photovoltaic system (PV) which converts solar power to electrical power.
Historically, the first PV was used in space program as a cost efficient power supply in 1960s. In
1970s, governments started investing in solar power industry. For most of 1980s and 1990s, off-
grid PV power plants were employed as an attractive cost effective power supply choice to
electrify rural or inaccessible areas. In last two decades, due to significant developments in power
electronics and solar panels, the solar energy industry has achieved a rapid growth in the world.
This growth is expected to reduce PV electricity generation costs. Finally, with the drop of PV
panel prices, the volume of PV installation has grown significantly. The world-wide installed
capacity of PV systems reached 138.9 GW by end of 2013 compared to the installed capacity of
1.4 GW in 2000 [1].
By the end of 2013, the global outlook revealed that Germany was the world's largest overall
producer of photovoltaic power with a total capacity of 35.7 GW while China had the fastest
growth rate of 11.8 GW per year. In a short term outlook, it is expected by 2018, the worldwide
capacity of PV power will reach almost 400 GW which implies a doubling of the capacity of year
2013 [2].
In 2009, the introduction of the Feed-In-Tariff (FIT) program has made Ontario a Canadian
provincial leader in solar energy projects. In October 2010, the largest solar farm in the world was
installed in Sarnia, Ontario with 80 MW which can supply more than 12,000 homes. The total
installed PV power of Canada reached 1.2 GW by installing 444 MW in 2013 [3]. The Ontario
Power Authority (OPA) has rolled out the Feed-in Tariff (FIT) for the PV power fed to the grid,
according to which the FIT price for the roof-type systems are higher than ground-mounted type
PV systems for different range of power [3].
PV systems are classified as roof-top and ground-mounted systems with different capacities from
few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts. In roof-type photovoltaic system, solar panels are
installed on rooftops of residential, commercial or institutional buildings whereas ground-
mounted type photovoltaic systems are installed on the ground. Also, PV 2 systems can be
installed either as a grid-connected system or stand-alone system (off-grid system). In case the
system is grid-connected, when the power generation of PV system is more than the consumption
by the load, the excess power can be fed to the grid [4].
Based on the power capacity, PV systems can be classified to utility-scale, medium-scale and
small-scale. Utility scale PV sizes are between 1MW to 10 MW and connected to medium-
voltage distribution feeder (e.g., 27.6 kV feeders) through one or more interconnection
transformers. Medium-scale PV systems are defined to have a power range between 10kW to
1000kW, and installed on small and large buildings. A medium-size PV system is connected to
medium or low voltage distribution feeders based on their capacity. Small-scale PV system is
considered to be of capacity range up to 10kW. A small-scale PV is connected to low voltage
feeder (120/208 V), either through three phase or single phase supply. In North America, many
small-scale PV units are lumped and connected to a common PCC through a transformer [5].
The main advantages of PV plants can be summarised as follows:
Distributed generation when needed
No emission of polluting materials
Saving of fossil fuels
Reliability of plants since they do not have moving parts
Reduced operating and maintenance costs[6].
PV solar systems covert sunlight into electricity using PV arrays. As PV panels produce DC
power, an inverter is used to convert the DC power to AC power. Depending on the system
configuration, a PV system can operate in either stand-alone or grid-connected mode [7].
In comparison with stand-alone PV system, the grid-connected PV system is more reliable and
efficient [8].
The PV array is composed of connecting series and parallel strings. Each PV cell has specific
characteristics depending on the type and designing criteria. PV models depend mainly on
Shockley diode equation. PV can be modelled as a photon-generated current source in parallel
with diode in series with a resistor. The mathematical equation of PV cells are given in[9].
The current and voltage of the output terminal can be written as [10,11].
Two important factors, irradiance and temperature, affect the cell performance. Whereas voltage
is influenced by the temperature. Whereas current is influenced by the irradiance. Solar cells
provide best performance under low temperatures and high irradiance. The v-I characteristics are
given in[12].
PV modules generate DC current and voltage. However, to feed the electricity to the grid.AC
current and voltage are needed. Inverters are the used to convert DC power to AC power. Two
types of inverters, voltage source inverters (VSI) and current source inverters (CSI), are used in
PV applications [13].
The three-phase VSI is more commonly employed inverter for the grid-connected PV system for
conversion of DC power to AC power [14].
Three-phase VSI is composed of IGBT switches and a capacitor at the DC side. There are several
topologies of three-phase VSI such as two-level and multi-level which influence the performance
of the inverter [15].
For this study, a two-level VSI is employed. The valves in each leg of VSI are switched by pulse
width modulation (PWM) technique. The most common PWM modulation techniques are
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), space vector modulation (SVM), and random PWM[16].
Among the various PWM techniques, SPWM is a basic and most commonly used technique. It
generates the switching signals for the converter by comparing a sinusoidal signal representing
the phase voltage with the carrier signal [17].
Using the VSI for converting DC power of solar system to AC power causes harmonics due to
switching frequency. Typically, VSI switching frequency is chosen between 2 kHz and 15 kHz.
This high harmonic can disturb other equipment and affect the voltages and currents [18].
Hence, in order to improve the power quality, the VSI is connected to the PCC through a filter. It
should be noted that the type of filter influences the control parameters in control plant. The filter
parameters are determined as a trade-off between the harmonics injection and operation range of
the controller. Most common filters for grid connected application of the VSI are LC and LCL
filters. LC filter is a second order filter whereas LCL filter is a third order filter. In comparison
with LC filter, LCL filter has better performance in removing the harmonics[19].
To avoid resonance between the inductor and capacitor, a proper resistance should be added in
series with capacitor. Based on this, the resistor can be chosen as one third of the admittance of
the capacitor at resonance frequency[20].
This provide the recent developments and trends pertaining to Grid-Connected Photovoltaic
Systems (GCPVS). In countries with high penetration of Distributed Generation (DG) resources,
GCPVS cause inadvertent stress on the electrical grid. The technical challenges associated with
the growing number of GCPVS is presented. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), Solar
Tracking (ST) and the use of transformerless inverters can all lead to high efficiency gains of
Photovoltaic (PV) systems while ensuring minimal interference with the grid. By using Inverters,
ancillary services such as voltage, reactive power control, frequency regulation and fault ride
through capabilities for mitigating the challenges caused by the growing adoption of GCPVS[21].

MPPT tracking Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) or sometimes just power point tracking
(PPT) is a technique used commonly with wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to
maximize power extraction under all conditions. Maximal Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
algorithms are generally sufficient for tracking the optimum power point of a solar or photo
voltaic (PV) system. But when ramps occur in the PV systems, then only MPPT controllers are
not sufficient and we need an improved controller to perform the task of ramp minimization.

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the most popular
techniques are:

1. Perturb and observe (hill climbing method)

2. Incremental Conductance method
3. Fractional short circuit current
4. Fractional open circuit voltage
5. Neural networks
6. Fuzzy logic [22].

A maximum Power Point Tracking algorithm is necessary to increase the efficiency of the solar
panel. There are different techniques for MPPT such as Perturb and Observe (hill climbing
method), Incremental conductance, Fractional Short Circuit Current, Fractional Open Circuit
Voltage, Fuzzy Control, Neural Network Control etc. Among all the methods Perturb and observe
(P&O) and Incremental conductance are most commonly used because of their simple
implementation, lesser time to track the MPP and several other economic reasons. Under abruptly
changing weather conditions (irradiance level) as MPP changes continuously, P&O takes it as a
change in MPP due to perturbation rather than that of irradiance and sometimes ends up in
calculating wrong MPP [23].

The purpose of MPPT is to adjust the solar operating voltage close to MPP under changing
environmental conditions. In order to continuously gather the maximum power from the PV array,
they have to operate at their MPPT despite of the inhomogeneous change in environmental
conditions [24].
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm is important to guarantee maximum power
extraction from PV arrays. Various types of MPPT algorithms have been recently applied to
control of MPP of PV modules. Hill climbing (HC), perturb and observe (PO), and incremental
conductance (IC) are the most attractive algorithms. MPPT techniques with simple structures and
fast dynamic performances are demanded. IC among other MPPT methods has the benefits of fast
dynamic performance [25].

Solar charge controller using Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) have been analysed and compared, which is needed in all solar powered
systems that utilize batteries. Its role is to regulate the power going from the solar panel to the
batteries. Most of the modern charge controllers include PWM and MPPT. MPPT controller and
Boost Converter is utilized for each solar panel or channel in this in series and parallel connection
architecture, which results in cost increase. A single MPPT controller for two solar panels in any
series or parallel connection architecture is presented [26].

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controllers play an important role in photovoltaic
systems. They maximize the output power of a PV array for a given set of conditions. An
overview of the different MPPT techniques is presented. Each technique is evaluated on its ability
to detect multiple maxima, convergence speed, ease of implementation, efficiency over a wide
output power range, and cost of implementation [27].

The produced power from Photovoltaic system is varied and its efficiency is severely affected by
many factors such as irradiance and ambient temperature. To obtain a competent system with
maximum benefits, the tracking of the maximum power point became mandatory. This paper
presents an efficient design of maximum power point tracking “MPPT” for PV system control
using three advanced techniques; PSO, Perturb- and-observe (P&O) and Incremental
Conductance (I_C). The PV system based MPPT has been modelled and simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK. The results are studied, analysed and compared to the three proposed
algorithms. PSO proved higher tracking power, lower power loss, high tracking speed, less time
and minor oscillation than the other two techniques [28].

The four maximum power tracking techniques: Perturb and Observe (P&O), Incremental
Conductance (InC), fuzzy logic based tracking technique and a, less known, method using only
the photovoltaic current measurement. The drawback of the three studied methods; P&O, InC and
one sensor algorithm, is that at steady state the operating point oscillate around the maximum
power point, giving rise to the waste of the output panel’s available energy. Simulation results
show that the proposed fuzzy logic controller (FLC) can provides faster and stable tracking
maximum power as compared to the other studied methods [29].
This research deals with the optimization of maximum power point tracking when a photovoltaic
panel is modelled as two diodes. The adopted control is implemented using a sliding mode control
(SMC) and the optimization is implemented using an improved Pattern Search Method. Thus, the
problem of maximum power point tracking is reduced to an optimization problem whose solution
is implemented by Pattern Search Techniques, inheriting their convergence properties. Simulation
examples show the effectiveness of the proposed technique in practice, being able to deal with
different radiations. In addition, improved pattern search method (IPSM) is compared with other
techniques such as perturb & observe and Particle Swarm optimization, after which IPSM
presents lower energy losses in comparison with the other two algorithms, with the advantage of
ensuring the location of the optimal power point in all cases [30].

Solar panels have a nonlinear voltage-current characteristic, with a distinct maximum power point
(MPP), which depends on the environmental factors, such as temperature and irradiation. In order
to continuously harvest maximum power from the solar panels, they have to operate at their MPP
despite the inevitable changes in the environment. This is why the controllers of all solar power
electronic converters employ some method for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) [31].

This describes PV impact analysis very high photovoltaic (PV) penetration levels upto 300%
The analysis identifies negative impacts that may occur for future high PV penetration scenarios. .
PV step change analysis determines the potential impacts of sudden changes in PV output on
circuit criteria violations. Methods of mitigating the discovered negative impacts were presented.
The goal of the study is to predict the effects of increasing levels of PV generation as it reaches
very high penetration levels. The loss and return of generation with and without regulation is
simulated to capture short-term problems such as voltage fluctuations[32].

High-Penetration PV Integration helps in researching the distribution system level impacts of

high-penetration photovoltaic (PV) integration, determining mitigation methods to reduce or
eliminate those impacts, and seeking to demonstrate these mitigation methods on actual high-
penetration PV distribution circuits. PV inverters are capable of operating at off-unity power
factor to mitigate PV impacts[33].

To study the effects of PV system when connected to the grid. Effects of variation of power
factor of loads, variation of PV penetration, introducing of harmonics into the system by PV
inverter and anti-islanding effect of the PV system are studied. Further, the Performance Ratio of
a typical grid connected system in India was calculated in order to compare the performance of
the PV system with other systems throughout the world[34].

Models and methods to determine network tariffs for the allocation of costs regarding the use of
transmission network have been adapted for the integration of distributed generators in
distribution system. This provides a solution to the problems like cost allocation, considering
 fixed costs, power flow costs, congestion costs and losses costs in distribution system with large
penetration of distributed energy resources[35].
A distributed static synchronous compensator named STATCOM, which is an apparatus installed
at a consumer end under pole-mounted transformer to regulate the voltage by injecting reactive
power. STATCOM mainly compensates voltage fluctuations due to surplus power injected by
PVs during daytime and voltage drops due to simultaneous charging of EVs at nighttime. This
has proposed a coordinated control algorithm of STATCOMs, which is applicable to actual
distribution lines[36].
The Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) -- a new technology based on power electronics
-- offers an opportunity to enhance controllability, stability, and power transfer capability of AC
transmission systems. Pioneers in FACTS and leading world experts in power electronics
applications Narain G. Hingorani and LaszloGyugyi have teamed together to bring you the
definitive book on FACTS technology. Hingorani and Gyugyi present a practical approach to
FACTS that will enable electrical engineers working in the power industry to understand the
principles underlying this advanced system. UNDERSTANDING FACTS will also enhance
expertise in equipment specifications and engineering design, offering an informed view of the
future of power electronics in AC transmission systems.[37].

STATCOM used for reactive power compensation is modelled ,simulated and obtained the
characteristics in [38].

This presents potential transient over-voltage issues associated with PV solar generators, as
identified in interconnection studies. The also provides the analysis of bus voltage response due to
PV solar interconnection. Some of the factors affecting bus voltage profile such as PV solar generator
model, size, inverter control parameters, electrical distance from the point of interconnection to the
main system, and interconnection voltage level of the PV solar generator have been investigated[39].

This finds photovoltaic (PV) hosting capacity of power distribution network considering a number
of PV injection nodes, reactive power support from PVs, and control of load tap changers (LTCs). In
the developed method, several minute by minute simulations are run based on randomly chosen PV
injection nodes, daily PV output profiles, and daily load profiles from a pool of high-resolution
realistic data set. The simulation setup is built using Open DSS and MATLAB. The performance of
the proposed method is investigated in the IEEE 123-node distribution feeder for multiple scenarios.
The case studies are performed particularly for one, two, five, and ten PV injection nodes looking at
the maximum voltage deviations. Case studies show that the PV hosting capacity of the 123-node
feeder greatly differs with the number of PV injection nodes. We have observed that distributed PVs
increase hosting capacity of the feeders compared to large PVs at few nodes. We have also observed
that the PV hosting capacity increases with reactive power support and with the control of LTCs.[40].
A rapid reduction of PV price has significantly increased the competition of PV generated electricity,
which has now reached grid parity in many markets. The impact on power system of integrating PV
generation, especially as it is related to grid reliability and stability. A typical PV solar generation
plant is composed of multiple individual generators connected to the electrical network via power
electronics rather than synchronous machine[41].

PV solar farms remain absolutely unutilized during the night and are only partially utilized during the
day. This chapter presents the concepts of a novel use of a PV solar farm inverter as a PV-
STATCOM, which can potentially lead to complete utilization of the PV farm inverter asset both
during night and day. Two sets of novel PVSTATCOM technologies are presented: one based on the
unused capacity of the solar inverter, and the other based on ―used‖ capacity of the solar inverter.
These new applications of PV solar farms can help to improve the performance of power systems. In
addition, they can potentially bring new sources of revenue for PV solar farms by providing these
benefits, in addition to those earned from the sale of real power[42].

The distribution system plays an important role in electric power system to provide a reliable supply
to the end customers. Therefore, power quality issues in the distribution system reflect on other parts
of power systems including loads. Most of distribution systems are based on radial structure, and
therefore, the loss of any single component in the supply path disconnects the power supply to the end
users [43].

To fulfill increasing green energy demand, installation of Photovoltaic solar farms are rapidly
growing in various manners. PV solar farms feed active power during day time and become inactive
in the night time. The increasing penetration level of Distributed Generations causes a rise in voltage
at Point of Common Coupling (PCC) due to reverse power flow. To regulate voltage at PCC, utilities
need to install voltage regulating devices like FACTs. The Voltage Source Converter is the heart of
PV farm, including FACTs devices which is capable for reactive power compensation when there is
no generation of PV farm. In this paper the utilization of PV solar farm for Grid voltage regulation at
night time is proposed. An analysis and control in MATLAB/Simulink based environment is
presented for different power flow conditions.[44]

To regulate the dc-link voltage, a modified voltage controller using feedback linearization scheme
with feedforward PV current signal is presented. The real and reactive powers are controlled by
using dq components of the grid current. For utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) systems, the control
objectives, such as maximum power point tracking, synchronization with grid, current control,
and harmonic reduction in output current, are realized in single stage for high efficiency and
simple power converter topology.[45]
Due to varying sunlight availability and weather conditions (e.g. passage of clouds) the power of
solar systems may fluctuate rapidly. This may impact the steady-state and dynamic behavior of
the distribution system. PV integration impacts include voltage profile changes such as steady
state overvoltage, temporary overvoltage (TOV), unbalanced voltage, power quality issues such
 as harmonics, frequent operation of conventional voltage regulators such as load tap changers and
capacitor banks, changes in feeder power factor, etc. [46].
On the other hand, connecting large solar systems to the grid causes power flow in the reverse
direction resulting in over voltages at PCC which potentially limits any future DG installations
[47]
There are different PV modules in the markets. When a PV system is sized PV modules are
considered.to select the PV modules with best performance should also be considered. This deals
with the normalization of the modules. For modelling and studying the modules under non-
standard conditions it is necessary to known the series and shunt resistances[48].

The mathematical modeling of PV module with the effective comparison of two popular MPPT
Techniques. from the study that, Incremental Conductance MPPT algorithm is better one as it has
less Voltage ripple. Though P&O MPPT is much easier and easy to implement but IC MPPT
algorithm gives better result. To simulate PV array models, simplified two-diode model and Ideal
Single Diode Model (ISDM) are simple and easy to simulate. In ISDM PV Model there is no need
for any numerical solver as current is function of only the Voltage term. Therefore the simulation
time for ISDM Model with MPPT algorithm is less as compared to Improved two Diode Model.
Thus it is concluded that Incremental Conductance MPPT algorithm with Ideal Single Diode PV
model is fast and gives desired output with less ripple voltage[49].
The effectiveness of the proposed a control strategy for and important transients of a singlestage,
three-phase, PV system that is connected to a distribution network. The proposed control strategy
adopts an inner current-control loop and an outer DC-link voltage control loop. The current-
control mechanism renders the PV system protected against faults, enables the control of the DC-
link voltage and the control/maximization of the PV system poweroutput. The paper also proposes
a feed-forward compensation strategy for the DC-link voltage control loop to mitigate the impact
of the nonlinearity of the PV array, to permitthe design and optimization of the DC-link voltage
controller for a wide range of operating condition[50].
Recent trends in the power generation and distribution system shows that penetration level of DG
into the Grid has increased considerably. This shows the effect of wind and solar penetration is
different in nature. To minimize the fluctuations and intermittent problems power electronic
devices are viable options. Further, energy storage and use of dump load and MPPT could be used
for reducing the power fluctuations in PV systems. The up-gradation in balance of systems by
incorporating the new materials and storage elements could reduce the problems associated with
grid integration[51].
A model of a grid connected PV system was presented for transient analysis. This simulation grid
model enabled extensive analysis of the control and dynamic performance of a PV system and its
interaction behavior with the power system as power control dynamics, harmonics, anti-islanding,
performance and response to grid faults[52].
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veral approaches, models, and methods to determine

network tariffs for the allocation of the costs regarding the use
of transmission networks have been adapted for the integration
of DG in distribution networks. However, new methodologies
are required for the adequate allocation of the network usage
costs regarding the use of DR. This paper presents a hybrid
methodology using the Bialek’s tracing method in order to
know the network usage of each resource, the use of a variant
of the MW-mile method for the determination of the
allocation costs, and obtaining the variable costs for each
branch of the system through the LMP obtained for each bus.
Furthermore, this work considers different tariffs models to
DG, DR and storage resources. The proposed methodology
effectively solves the problem of cost allocation, considering
fixed costs, power flow costs, congestion costs and losses
costs in a distribution system with large penetration of
distributed energy resources
veral approaches, models, and methods to determine
network tariffs for the allocation of the costs regarding the use
of transmission networks have been adapted for the integration
of DG in distribution networks. However, new methodologies
are required for the adequate allocation of the network usage
costs regarding the use of DR. This paper presents a hybrid
methodology using the Bialek’s tracing method in order to
know the network usage of each resource, the use of a variant
of the MW-mile method for the determination of the
allocation costs, and obtaining the variable costs for each
branch of the system through the LMP obtained for each bus.
Furthermore, this work considers different tariffs models to
DG, DR and storage resources. The proposed methodology
effectively solves the problem of cost allocation, considering
fixed costs, power flow costs, congestion costs and losses
costs in a distribution system with large penetration of
distributed energy resour