Islamic architecture

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The interior side view of the main dome of Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey built in the
Ottoman style

The Court of the Lions, a Moorish masterpiece, at the Alhambra palace (Granada, Spain)
Courtyard of Mustansiriya Medical College (in Iraq) is an example of Abbasid Islamic
architecture

Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It
encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present
day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian
and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[1][2] Further east,
it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia.
Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of
surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The
principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb,
the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is
derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic
architecture.[3][4]

Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites.
Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing
Syrian Civil War.[5]
Contents
 1Influences
 2Characteristics
o 2.1Assimilation of earlier traditions
o 2.2Paradise garden
o 2.3Courtyard (Sehan)
o 2.4Hypostyle hall
o 2.5Vaulting
 2.5.1Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults
 2.5.2Iberian Peninsula
 2.5.3Iran (Persia)
 2.5.4Domes
o 2.6Muqarnas
o 2.7Ornaments
o 2.8Architectural forms
o 2.9Specific architectural elements
o 2.10Qibla
 3Towns and cities
o 3.1Urban and nomadic life according to Ibn Khaldun
o 3.2Experiments with the hellenistic ideal city
o 3.3Transformation of conquered towns
o 3.4Urban morphology of the Medina
o 3.5Frontier fortresses and towns
 3.5.1Misr, Ribat
 3.5.2Qaṣr
 4Early history
 5Regional styles
o 5.1Persian
o 5.2Ottoman
o 5.3Turkistani (Timurid)
o 5.4Moroccan
o 5.5Yemenite
o 5.6Russian
o 5.7Indian
o 5.8Chinese
o 5.9Indonesian-Malaysian
o 5.10Sahelian
o 5.11Somali
o 5.12Interpretation
 6In modern times
o 6.1Urban design and Islam
o 6.2Debates on status as a style of architecture
 7Connections & deeper meanings
o 7.1Difficulty forming connections
 o 7.2Religious and societal connections
 7.2.1Status and hierarchy
o 7.3Structural intentions
 8Contemporary Muslim architects
 9See also
 10Gallery
 11Notes
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

Influences[edit]
The most recent building that can be known as a true example modern of Islamic architecture
is Imam Sadiq University, this building was the winner of Aga Khan fundation as well. This
building designed by Nader Ardalan who was Iranian architect teaching at Harvard
ْ ‫قُـبَّـة ٱلـص‬, romanized: Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah) in
University.[6] The Dome of the Rock (Arabic: ‫َّـخـ َرة‬
Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture. It is
patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre[7] and Byzantine Christian artists
were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background.[1][8] The great
epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style.[9] The Dome of the Rock
featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative
arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra,
and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and
were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury.

The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the
Muslims acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria
and Persia where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines. In Moorish
architecture, the curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore,
alternating colours were added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a
large scale in their major work, the Great Mosque of Córdoba.[10]

The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I),[11] built on the site
of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, still bore great
resemblance to 6th and 7th century Christian basilicas. Certain modifications were
implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit
with the Islamic style of prayer.

The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258[12]) witnessed the movement of the capital from
Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced
politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was
built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the
Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid
architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the
"despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped
living quarters.[13]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in
the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman
workmanship brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble Roman form.[14][15] It is
one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in
670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century).[16] The
Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard
surrounded by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas.
The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle
architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret
was constructed.

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans
captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a
museum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g.
domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the
Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major
structural feature of Islamic architecture. The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in
691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the existing Church of
the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby. Domes remain in
use, being a significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century.
The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture have remained a distinguishing feature
of mosques into the 21st century.[17][18] Influenced by Byzantine and Persian architecture,[19][20]
the pointed arch as an architectonic principle was first clearly established in Islamic
architecture; as an architectonic principle, the pointed arch was entirely alien to the pre-
Islamic world.[21]

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been the mathematical themes of
ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal
geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant
features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven
with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[22]

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem



Inside the Prophet's Mosque, Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia

Inside the Jame Mosque of Yazd, Iran

Shah Mosque, Isfahan

The Mosque of Rome, Italy



East London Mosque, England

A view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan

(Persian style)

A view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, which was commissioned by the
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 CE (Mughal architecture)

Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad is one of the largest and oldest mosques in India (Indo-
Islamic architecture)


 Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia

The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present
form from the 9th century, in Kairouan, Tunisia

The Great Mosque of Djenné in the west African country of Mali

Characteristics[edit]
Assimilation of earlier traditions[edit]

Interior of the Palace of Ardashir of pre-Islamic Persia. The use of squinches to position the
dome on top of a square structure is considered the most significant Sasanian contribution to
the Islamic architecture[23]

From the eighth to the eleventh century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two
different ancient traditions:

1. Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine

Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects,
masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were
trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and
decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient
Roman architecture.
2. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic
and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions,
which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.[24]

The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is
exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the
Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural
traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research
on the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas.
Specifically, the following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light
of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history:

1. The existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture;

2. the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles;
3. questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation.[25]

Compared to earlier research, the assimilation and transformation of pre-existing architectural

traditions is investigated under the aspect of mutual intra- and intercultural exchange of ideas,
technologies and styles as well as artists, architects, and materials. In the area of art and
architecture, the Rise of Islam is seen as a continuous transformation process leading from
late Antiquity to the Islamic period. Early research into the area regarded early Islamic
architecture merely as a break with the past, from which apparently rose a distorted and less
expressive form of art,[26] or a degenerate imitation of the post-classical architectural forms.[27]
Modern concepts tend to regard the transition between the cultures rather as a selective
process of informed appropriation and transformation. The Umayyads played a crucial role in
this process of transforming and thereby enriching the existing architectural traditions, or, in
a more general sense, of the visual culture of the nascent Islamic society.[28]

Paradise garden[edit]

Afif-Abad Garden, Shiraz

Main article: Paradise garden

Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and
are often compared to the garden of Paradise. The comparison originates from the
Achaemenid Empire. In his dialogue "Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story
of the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows
the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis".[29] The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the
Charbagh, comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the
garden into four sections of equal size:

One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that
intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar
bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape,
itself a symbol of political territory.[30]

A charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations at
Pasargadae. The gardens of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram Garden
(Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad Garden
(Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all in Iran,
form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[31] Large Paradise gardens are also found at the Taj
Mahal (Agra), and at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India; the Shalimar Gardens (Lahore,
Pakistan) or at the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain.[24]

Courtyard (Sehan)[edit]

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, with a large courtyard (sehan) surrounded by arcades,
Kairouan, Tunisia.

The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan (Arabic: ‫)صحن‬, is found in secular and religious
structures.

1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled
garden. It is used for: the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and
natural light; for cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the
structure, during summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women
of the house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in
public.
2. A sehan—courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The
courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and
rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally
positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz. A
mosque courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a 'patio' for rest or gathering.

Hypostyle hall[edit]

A Hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at
right angle to the main hall, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of
Achaemenid period Persian assembly halls ("apadana"). This type of building originated
from the Roman-style basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like
Trajan's Forum in Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora.
In Islamic architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of
the earliest hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating back to the 8th
century.[24]

Vaulting[edit]

In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: Whilst Umayyad
architecture continues Syrian traditions of the 6th and 7th century, Eastern Islamic
architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms.
Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults[edit]

Qusair 'Amra

In their vaulting structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and
Persian architectural traditions. Diaphragm arches with lintelled ceilings made of wood or
stone beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were known in the Levant since the classical
and Nabatean period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The architectural
form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced
from Iranian architecture, as similar vaulting was not known in Bilad al-Sham before the
arrival of the Umayyads. However, this form was well known in Iran from early Parthian
times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of Aššur. The earliest known example for
barrel vaults resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from Qasr
Harane in Syria. During the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut
limestone slabs, without using supporting falsework, which were connected by gypsum
mortar. Later-period vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from
gypsum, which served as a temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs,
which were left in the structure afterwards, do not carry any load. The ribs were cast in
advance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs today. Similar
structures are known from Sasanian architecture, for example from the palace of Firuzabad.
Umayyad-period vaults of this type were found in Amman Citadel and in Qasr Amra.[32]

Iberian Peninsula[edit]

The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba is generally

considered to be derived from Roman aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros.
Columns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork, which are in
turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling.

Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba

 

Arcades of the Aljafería of Zaragoza

In later-period additions to the Mosque of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was
changed: Horseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades, which is now
supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes, additional supporting
structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas. The architects solved this problem by
the construction of intersecting three- or five-pass arches. The three domes spanning the
vaults above the mihrab wall are constructed as ribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the
center of the dome, the ribs intersect one another off-center, forming an eight-pointed star in
the center which is superseded by a pendentive dome.[33]

The ribbed vaults of the mosque-cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque
buildings in the Islamic West of al-Andaluz and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the
Mezquita de Bab al Mardum (today: Mosque of Cristo de la Luz) in Toledo was constructed
with a similar, eight-ribbed dome. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the
Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the
Maghreb: The central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the
Almoravids built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with
filigree stucco work.[33]

Iran (Persia)[edit]

Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the Abbasids
to the Qajar dynasty, and its excellent state of conservation, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan
provides an overview over the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated
vaulting structures.[33]:66–88

The system of squinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room
so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known in
Sasanian architecture.[34] The spherical triangles of the squinches were split up into further
subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures
forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.

The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed
spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its
beginnings in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used in a sequence of
important buildings up to the period of Safavid architecture. Its main characteristics are:[33]:66–88

1. Four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed

star;
2. the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure;
3. a central dome or roof lantern on top of the ribbed vault.
While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of Seljuk architecture, the
ribs were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in
the dome of the Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv, until they finally disappeared completely
behind the double shell of a stucco dome, as seen in the dome of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan.[33]:66–88

Dome of the Fire temple of Harpak in Abyaneh

Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan

Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv

Upper dome of Ālī Qāpū, Isfahan

 

Adina Mosque, West Bengal, India

Domes[edit]

Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes, the Ottoman Architecture developed a
specific form of monumental, representative building: Wide central domes with huge
diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the
domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been
constructed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.

When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine
Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The
brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia
were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring.[35] In
the early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into
the shell, similar to Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building.
[36]
In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion
at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell: Shell and
ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane
Mosque, the Eski Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the
Pantokrator Monastery (today: Zeyrek Mosque), the central medallion of the apex and the
ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: The ribs are more pronounced and
connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire
construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin,
the proper shell of the dome.[37]

Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system
of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the
Süleymaniye Mosque (four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes, 1550–
1557), the Rüstem Pasha Mosque (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–1563),
and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–
1574/5). In the history of architecture, the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent.
All elements of the building subordinate to its great dome.[38][39][40]
 

Schematic drawing of a pendentive dome

Central domes of the Hagia Sophia

Dome of the Kalenderhane Mosque

 Selimiye Mosque

Muqarnas[edit]

Main article: Muqarnas

The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb
around the middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision
of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures, also known
as "honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood
or stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West,
muqarnas are also used to adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, whilst in
the East is more limited to the interior face of a vault.
 

Design of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı Scroll

 Muqarnas in the necropolis of Shah-i-Zinda, Samarqand

Muqarnas in the Alhambra

The muqarna of a mosque in Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Ornaments[edit]

Main articles: Islamic interlace patterns, Islamic geometric patterns, and Arabesque

As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including
mathematically complicated, elaborate geometric and interlace patterns, floral motifs like the
arabesque, and elaborate calligraphic inscriptions, which serve to decorate a building, specify
the intention of the building by the selection of the textual program of the inscriptions. For
example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations
from the Quran (e.g., Quran 19:33–35) which reference the miracle of Jesus and his human
nature.

The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated
pattern that extends beyond the visible material world.[41] To many in the Islamic world, they
symbolize the concept of infinite proves of existence of one eternal God. The repetitiveness,
simplicity contrasted with complexity and percision suggests that our complex universe is
only one of the many manifestations of the infinitely obvious and present Allah, the one God.
Furthermore, the Islamic artist conveys a definite spirituality without the iconography of
Christian art. Non-figural ornaments are used in mosques and buildings around the Muslim
world, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art
instead of using pictures of humans and animals (which some Muslims believe is forbidden
(Haram) in Islam).

Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for the
Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the
most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the
Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital role
in the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic
alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic
calligraphy. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to
use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

Geometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef Madrasa, Maroc

Calligraphic inscription on the dome of the Mevlana mausoleum


 Dome of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan with calligraphic inscription

Bengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in Tangail, Bangladesh

Architectural forms[edit]

Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world.
Notable Islamic architectural types include the early Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques,
and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great
deal of mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.

Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the
Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed
courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and
Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of
worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of
prayer halls, necessitating the use of numerous columns and supports.[42] One of the most
notable hypostyle mosques is the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain, as the building is supported by
over 850 columns.[43] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can
enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and
Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the
opportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out of
popularity.[42]

The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century and have a large dome
centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are
often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the
mosque, where prayer is not performed.[44] This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine
religious architecture with its use of large central domes.[42]

The interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain

  A sample of modern Islamic architecture - The mosque of international conferences
center - Isfahan

Specific architectural elements[edit]

Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along Ayyubid Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main
modern traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was
constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide
greater security and control than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an Aga Khan
Foundation/CyArk research partnership.

Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were
inherited from the first mosque buildings (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi).

 Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the
Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur,
meaning "light"). The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is
considered as the oldest surviving minaret in the world.[45] It has the shape of a square
massive tower of three superimposed sections.[45]
 A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward
Mecca
 Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca.
 Domes and Cupolas. In South East Asia (Indonesia and Malaysia), these are very
recent additions.
 Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, a
vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian term
for a portal projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with
calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[46][47]
 Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.
 Balconies are a common feature of Islamic domestic architecture due to the warm
climates in most countries.[48] Balconies also became an architectural element of some
mosques, such as the Turkish royal boxes hünkâr mahfili, or "that in the Bara Gunbad
complex at Delhi (1494)".[48]

Qibla[edit]

The Qiblah (Arabic: ‫ )قِـبْـلَـة‬is the direction in which Mecca is from any given location, and
within Islamic architecture it is a major component of both the features and the orientation of
the building itself.[49] Ancient Islamic cities and the Mihrab in mosques were meant to be built
facing in this direction, yet when actually observing the layout of such areas they do not all
point to the same place.[49] This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic
scientists in the past who determined where Mecca was from their individual locations.
Scholars note that these differences come about for a multitude of reasons, such as some
misunderstanding the meaning of Qibla itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the
past do not line up with the coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction
was more an astronomical calculation, rather than a mathematical one. Early mosques were
constructed according to either the calculations of what direction Qibla was approximately, or
with the Mihrab facing south, as that was the direction that the Prophet Muhammad was
facing when he prayed in Medina, which is a city directly north of Mecca[49]

Towns and cities[edit]

Urban and nomadic life according to Ibn Khaldun[edit]

During its history, the society of the pre-modern Islamic world was dominated by two
important social contexts, nomadic life and Urbanism. The historian and politician Ibn
Khaldun thoroughly discusses both concepts in his book Muqaddimah. According to him, the
way of life and culture of the rural bedouin nomads and the townspeople are opposed in a
central social conflict. Ibn Khaldun explains the rise and fall of civilizations by his concept of
Asabiyyah ("bond of cohesion", or "family loyalty"), as exemplified by the rule of the
caliphs. Bedouins, being the nomadic inhabitants of the steppe and the desert, are
interconnected by strong bonds of asabiyyah and firm religious beliefs. These bonds tend to
slacken in urban communities over some generations. In parallel, by losing their asabiyyah,
the townspeople also lose the power to defend themselves, and fall victims to more
aggressive tribes which may destroy the city and set up a new ruling dynasty, which over
time is subject to the same weakening of power again.[50]

Experiments with the hellenistic ideal city[edit]

The antique concept of the architecture of a Greek polis or Roman civitas is based on a
structure of main and smaller roads running through the entire city, and dividing it into
quarters. The streets are oriented towards public buildings like a palace, temple, or a public
square. Two main roads, (cardo and decumanus) cross each other at right angles in the center
of the city. A few cities were founded during the early Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, the
outlines of which were based on the Ancient Roman concept of the ideal city. An example of
a city planned according to Hellenistic concepts was excavated at Anjar in Lebanon.[51]

Transformation of conquered towns[edit]

More often than founding new cities, the new Islamic rulers took over existing towns, and
transformed them according to the needs of the new Islamic society. This process of
transformation proved to be decisive for the development of the traditional Islamic city, or
Medina.[52] The principle of arranging buildings is known as "horizontal spread". Residencies
and public buildings as well as private housing tend to be laid out separately, and are not
directly related to each other architectonically. Archaeological excavations at the city of
Jerash, the Gerasa of Antiquity, have revealed how the Umayyads have transformed the city
plan.[53]
Urban morphology of the Medina[edit]

The architecture of the "oriental"-Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts
which differ from those of European cities. In both cultures, a distinction is made between the
areas used by the rulers and their government and administration, public places of everyday
common life, and the areas of private life. Whilst the structures and concepts of European
towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom – or town
privileges – from political or religious authorities during the Middle Ages, an Islamic town or
city is fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life
throughout time.[54]

The fundamental principle of the Islamic society is the ummah, or ummat al-Islamiyah
(Arabic: ‫)األمة اإلسالمية‬, the community of Muslims of whom each individual is equally
submitted to Allah under the common law of sharia, which also subjected the respective ruler,
at least nominally. In Abbasid times, some cities like the Round city of Baghdad were
constructed from scratch, set up to a plan which focused on the caliph's residence, located in
the very centre of the city, with main roads leading radially from the city gates to the central
palace, dividing individual tribal sections with no interconnection, and separated from each
other by radial walls. However, these efforts were of short duration only, and the original
plan soon disappeared and gave way to succeeding buildings and architectural structures.

In a medina, palaces and residences as well as public places like mosque-madrasa-hospital

complexes and private living spaces rather coexist alongside each other. The buildings tend to
be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding "outside" either by walls
or by the hierarchical ordering of the streets, or both. Streets tend to lead from public main
roads to cul-de-sac byroads and onwards into more private plots, and then end there. There
are no, or very few, internal connections between different quarters of the city. In order to
move from one quarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again.[54]

Within a city quarter, byroads lead towards individual building complexes or clusters of
houses. The individual house is frequently also oriented towards an inner atrium, and
enclosed by walls, which mostly are unadorned, unlike European outward-oriented,
representative facades. Thus, the spatial structure of a medina essentially reflects the ancient
nomadic tradition of living in a family group or tribe, held together by asabiyya, strictly
separated from the "outside". In general, the morphology of an Islamic medina is granting –
or denying – access according to the basic concept of hierarchical degrees of privacy. The
inhabitants move from public space to the living quarters of their tribe, and onwards to their
family home. Within a family house, there are again to be found common and separate
spaces, the latter, and most private, usually reserved for women and children. In the end, only
the family heads have free and unlimited access to all rooms and areas of ther private home,
as opposed to the more European concept of interconnecting different spaces for free and
easy access. The hierarchy of privacy thus guides and structurizes the entire social life in a
medina, from the caliph down to his most humble subject, from the town to the house.[55]
 

Medina quarter of Fez, Morocco

Figure-ground diagram of Algiers

Figure-ground diagram of a European town (1819)

Frontier fortresses and towns[edit]

Mosque in Qasr al-Hallabat

Entrance courtyard of Qasr al-Hallabat

Misr, Ribat[edit]

َ ‫أَ ْمـ‬, amṣār),

In the frontier area of the Arabic expansion, military forts (Misr, Pl. Arabic: ‫صـار‬
or Ribāṭ (Arabic: ‫ربَـاط‬,
ِ fortress) were founded. The structure and function of a misr is similar
to an ancient Roman Colonia.[56] Like a frontier colony, the fortress served as a base for
further conquests. Arabian military forts of this type were frequently built in the vicinity of an
older town from Antiquity or from Byzantine times. They frequently were of square format.[57]

Rather than maintaining their original purpose to serve as a military base, many amṣār
developed into urbane and administrative centers. In particular, this happened in the case of
the Iraqi cities of Kufa and Basra, which became known as "al-miṣrān" ("the [two] forts"),
but also with Fustat and Kairouan in North Africa.

Qaṣr[edit]

Qaṣr (Arabic: ‫صْ ـر‬،‫ق‬َ '; Pl. Arabic: ‫قصور‬, quṣūr) means palace, castle or (frontier) fort.
Fortresses from Late Antiquity often continued to be in use, whilst their function changed
during time. Some quṣūr were already used as Castra during Roman times, and were part of
the fortifications of the North African Limes. Already during the Ancient Roman times,
castra did not only serve as fortifications, but also as markets and meeting points for the
tribes living beyond the border.

Smaller quṣūr are found in modern Jordan, and include Qasr Al-Hallabat (located 50 km
(31 mi) east of Amman), Qasr Bushir (15 km (9.3 mi) north of Lajjun), the castle of Daganiya
(45 km (28 mi) north of Ma'an) and Odruh (22 km (14 mi) east of Wadi Musa). After the
Limes Arabicus was abandoned by the Roman Empire, many of the castra continued to be in
use.[58] This continuity was subject to archaeological investigations in the fort of Qasr al-
Hallabat, which at different times served as a Roman castrum, Christian cenobitic monastery,
and finally as an Umayyad Qasr.[59] Qasr Al-Kharanah is one of the earliest known Desert
castles, its architectural form clearly demonstrates the influence of Sasanian architecture.

According to a hypothesis developed by Jean Sauvaget, the umayyad quṣūr played a role in
the systematic agricultural colonisation of the uninhabited frontier areas, and, as such,
continue the colonisation strategy of earlier Christian monks and the Ghassanids.[60] The
Umayyads, however, increasingly oriented their political strategy towards a model of Client
politics, of mutual interdependence and support.[61] After the Umayyad conquest, the quṣūr
lost their original function and were either abandoned or continued to serve as local market
places and meeting points until the tenth century.[58] Another type of Islamic fortress is the
Qalat.
Early history[edit]
See also: Mosque §  History

Moorish ceiling in Alhambra

Section of the Umayyad-era Mshatta Facade, now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, from a
palace near Amman

Bab al-Futuh gate built by the Fatimid vazir Badr al-Jamali

There are few buildings dating from the era of Prophet Muhammad, but one example is the
Jawatha Mosque in Saudi Arabia. The Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) was the first state to
use Islamic Architecture.[citation needed]

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) combined elements of Byzantine architecture and

Sassanid architecture, but Umayyad architecture introduced new combinations of these
western and eastern styles.[62] The horseshoe arch appears for the first time in Umayyad
architecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in al-Andalus.[63] Umayyad architecture
is distinguished by the extent and variety of decoration, including mosaics, wall painting,
sculpture and carved reliefs with Islamic motifs.[64] The Umayyads introduced a transept that
divided the prayer room along its shorter axis.[65] They also added the mihrab to mosque
design.[65] The mosque in Medina built by al-Walid I had the first mihrab, a niche on the qibla
wall, which seems to have represented the place where the Prophet stood when leading
prayer. This almost immediately became a standard feature of all mosques.[65]

The Abbasid architecture of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1513) was strongly influenced by
Sassanid architecture, and later by Central Asian styles. The Abbasid mosques all followed
the courtyard plan. The earliest was the mosque that al-Mansur built in Baghdad. since
destroyed. The Great Mosque of Samarra built by al-Mutawakkil was 256 by 139 metres (840
by 456 ft). A flat wooden roof was supported by columns. The mosque was decorated with
marble panels and glass mosaics.[66] The prayer hall of the Abu Dulaf mosque at Samarra had
arcades on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the qibla wall. Both of the
Samarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq.[66] A mosque at Balkh in
what is now Afghanistan was about 20 by 20 metres (66 by 66 ft) square, with three rows of
three square bays, supporting nine vaulted domes.[67]

Construction of the Great Mosque at Córdoba (now a cathedral known as the Mezquita)
beginning in 785 CE marks the beginning of Moorish architecture in the Iberian peninsula
and North Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish
architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent
palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and
gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque
design work, with walls covered in glazed tile. Their other, smaller, survivals such as the Bab
Mardum in Toledo, or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. Moorish architecture has its roots
deeply established in the Arab tradition of architecture and design established during the era
of the first Caliphate of the Umayyads in the Levant circa 660AD with its capital Damascus
having very well preserved examples of fine Arab Islamic design and geometrics, including
the carmen, which is the typical Damascene house, opening on the inside with a fountain as
the house's centre piece.

Fatimid architecture in Egypt followed Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, but
also developed those of their own. In Cairo, their first congregational mosque was al-Azhar
mosque ("the splendid") founded along with the city (969–973), which, together with its
adjacent institution of higher learning (al-Azhar University), became the spiritual center for
Ismaili Shia. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996–1013), an important example of Fatimid
architecture and architectural decoration, played a critical role in Fatimid ceremonial and
procession, which emphasized the religious and political role of the Fatimid caliph. Besides
elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the Aqmar Mosque
(1125)[68] and the Al-Hakim Mosque, as well as the monumental gates for Cairo's city walls
commissioned by the powerful Fatimid emir and vizier Badr al-Jamali (r. 1073–1094).[69]

The reign of the Mamluks (1250–1517 AD) in Egypt marked a breathtaking flowering of
Islamic art which is most visible in old Cairo. Religious zeal made them generous patrons of
architecture and art. Trade and agriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, their
capital, became one of the wealthiest cities in the Near East and the center of artistic and
intellectual activity. This made Cairo, in the words of Ibn Khaldun, "the center of the
universe and the garden of the world", with majestic domes, courtyards, and soaring minarets
spread across the city.

Regional styles[edit]
Persian[edit]

See also: Persian architecture

Tarikhaneh Temple, a pre-Islamic monument built in Sassanid Persia which was later turned
into a mosque, showing elements of Iranian architecture before the spread of Islam

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century availed the Muslims with the vast wealth of
architectural innovation developed over the centuries, from the great roads, aqueducts and
arches of the Roman Empire, to the Byzantine basilicas and Persian arches, and the Sassanian
and Byzantine mosaics. The Islamic architects first utilized these native architects to build
mosques, and eventually developed their own adaptations. Islamic architecture thus is
directly related to Persian and Byzantine architecture.

In Persia and Central Asia, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for
power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were
built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni (Afghanistan), and the construction of the Great Mosque
of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated.
Funerary architecture was also cultivated.

Under the Seljuqs the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appears for the first time.
Lodging places called khans, or caravanserai, for travellers and their animals, or
caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble
masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort.[70] Seljuq architecture synthesized
various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult.
Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of
mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a
Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the tomb of the Samanids
in the city of Bukhara (circa 943).[71]

Shah Mosque in Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan, Iran

The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled
the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for
Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the
construction of the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in
height and 25 m in diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome ever
erected.[72] The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.[73] The
tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran,
despite many later depredations.

Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee under the Timurids, in
particular with the monuments of Samarkand, marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic
tiles and muqarnas vaulting within.

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty,
when Shah Abbas, in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan
Square as the centerpiece of his new capital.[74] The distinct feature of Persian domes, which
separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal
empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes, as they
would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue-
colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these
domes appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen from miles away by travelers
following the Silk road through Persia. This very distinct style of architecture was inherited
to them from the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it
was perfected during the Safavids when they invented the haft- rangi, or seven- colour style
of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer
patterns, sweeter to the eye.[75] The colours that the Persians favoured were golden, white and
turquoise patterns on a dark- blue background.[76] The extensive inscription bands of
calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and
executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal library and Master
calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,[77] while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction
projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would
become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled
dome, with 14 m spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonal dome
chamber.[78]

The Bibi-Heybat Mosque in Baku, Azerbaijan

Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades and
arches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia, such art was also used as was a
technique throughout the region.[79]

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century also helped Islamic architecture to flourish
in Azerbaijan.[80][81] The country became home of Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron
architecture schools. An example of the first direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architecture
is the mausoleum of Yusuf, built in 1162.[citation needed]
The Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones instead of the bricks in the
construction. At the same characteristics of this trend were the asymmetry and stone carving,
which includes famous landmarks like Palace of the Shirvanshahs

Ottoman[edit]

Main article: Ottoman architecture

Sultan Ahmed Mosque, built in 1616, Istanbul, Turkey

The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid works like Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuk and
Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous
of Ottoman architects was (and remains) Mimar Sinan, who lived for approximately one
hundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most
important are Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. Apprentices
of Sinan later built the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul.

The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained influence from
Byzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs. Turkish architects implemented their own style
of cupola domes.[79] For almost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia
Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque,
the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.

The Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly
weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer
spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted
of simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through a
dynamic architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semidomes and columns. The mosque
was transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into
a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenly
transcendence.

Turkistani (Timurid)[edit]
The Registan is the ensemble of three madrasas, in Samarkand, modern day Uzbekistan

Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. Spectacular and stately
edifices erected by Timur and his successors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminate
the influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated Mughal
school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in
present-day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand.
The style is largely derived from Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of
all major Timurid structures, notably the Shah-i-Zinda in Samarkand and the mosque of
Gowhar Shad in Mashhad. Double domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides are
perfused with brilliant colors.

Moroccan[edit]

Main article: Moroccan architecture

El Hedim Square in Meknes, Morocco with the "Bab Mansour Gate" in the Old city of
Meknes

Moroccan architecture dates from 110 BCE with the Berber's massive pisé (mud brick)
buildings. The architecture has been influenced by Islamization during the Idrisid dynasty,
Moorish exiles from Spain, and also by France who occupied Morocco in 1912. Morocco is
in Northwest Africa bordering the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The country's diverse
geography and the land's long history marked by successive waves of settlers and military
encroachments are all reflected in Morocco's architecture. Moroccan Islamic architecture is
also present outside the country. For example, Sheikha Salama Mosque in the UAE city of Al
Ain has two minarets which partly look Moroccan.[82]

Yemenite[edit]
Gate of the Yemen) in the Old City of Sana'a, Yemen

Yemenite architecture Is the architecture that characterizes houses built on several floors,
some of the floors used as a line A storage room with removable stairs. The houses are made
of mud bricks mixed with Gypsum.

Russian[edit]

Main article: Tatar mosque

Kazan Family Center in Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russia

Russian -Islamic architecture is a feature of the architecture of the Tatars, formed under the
influence of a sedentary and nomadic way of life in ancient times, developing in the epochs
of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the Russian Empire. The
architecture was formed in the modern form for many centuries and depended on the culture,
aesthetics and religion of the population, therefore combines a unique combination of
Eastern, Russian, Bulgarian, Golden Horde architecture, European styles dominating in
Russia at one time or another, especially this Is clearly reflected in the Tatar mosques.

Indian[edit]

Main articles: Indo-Islamic architecture and Mughal architecture

See also: Indian architecture, Pakistani architecture, and Bangladeshi architecture

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569-70 CE

The most known Indo-Islamic style is Mughal architecture. Its most prominent examples are
the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotal Tomb of Humayun, but is best
known for the Taj Mahal, completed in 1648 by emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal who died while giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal is completely
symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus, which is placed off center in the crypt
room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror
mosque in black marble to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the
main structure. A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the Shalimar
Gardens in Lahore, where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also located. Bibi Ka Maqbara in
Aurangabad which was commissioned by sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in memory of
his wife. The Red Fort in Delhi and Agra Fort are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the
abandoned city of Fatehpur Sikri, 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, was built for Akbar in the
late 16th century.[83] While the Deccan sultanates in the Southern regions of the Indian
subcontinent developed the Indo-Islamic Deccani architectural styles like Charminar and Gol
Gumbaz.[84]

Within the Indian subcontinent, the Bengali region developed a distinct regional style under
the independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and
North India,[85] which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs,
corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the
relative absence of minarets.[86] Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with
multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were constructed throughout the region.[86] The
grand mosque of Bengal was the 14th century Adina Mosque, the largest mosque in the
Indian subcontinent. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed
barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the
subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on the imperial Sasanian style of Persia.[87] The
Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial style influenced
by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals
also copied the Bengali do-chala roof tradition for mausoleums in North India.[88]

Qutub Minar built at the start of the Delhi Sultanate, a massive statement of conquest.

The Taj Mahal, the most famous building of Mughal architecture.

 

Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest
pre-modern dome.[89]

Adina Mosque, the largest mosque of Bengali Muslim architecture.

Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad, India.

The Asfi mosque, located near the Bara Imambara in Lucknow, India.

Chinese[edit]

Main article: Chinese mosques

Hui people who have also migrated to the south such as this Darunaman Mosque, located in
Chiang Rai province, Thailand shows a mixture between Chinese and Islamic architecture

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, China

The first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty in
Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, does
not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it
follows traditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western China
were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were
more likely to look like pagodas.[90]

As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style;
some Chinese mosques resemble temples. In western China, mosques resemble those of the
Arab World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest
China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and
western styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered
through archways with miniature domes and minarets.[91]

Indonesian-Malaysian[edit]

Main article: Indonesian Islamic architecture

Minaret is not an original architecture of Indonesian mosque, instead the Menara Kudus
Mosque employs a Hindu-Buddhist temple-like structure for a drum used to call prayer[92]

Southeast Asia was slow to adopt Middle Eastern architectural styles. Islam entered
Indonesia in the 15th-century via Java island, during which period the dominant religion in
Southeast Asia included a variety of pagan groups. Introduction of Islam was peaceful.
Existing architectural features in Indonesia such as the candi bentar gate, paduraksa
(normally marks entrance to the most sacred precincts), and the sacred pyramidal roof was
used for Islamic architecture. For centuries, Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets,
both considered a Middle Eastern origin. Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered
pyramidal roofs and no minaret. Prayer are called by striking a prayer's drum known as
beduk. The minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque is a great example of Indonesian
architecture. Indonesian mosque architecture also features strong influence from the Middle
Eastern architecture styles.[93]

The architecture of Javanese Indonesian mosques had a strong influence on the design of
other mosques in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines.

Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Indonesian-Malaysian mosques are

developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret.

The Grand Mosque of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, features multi-layered

roof typical of Indonesian mosque architecture.


 Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, Indonesia, with Mughal and Dutch Colonial influences.

Masjid Agung Palembang, Indonesia, with Chinese influence.

Kampung Kling Mosque, Malaysia, with a cross between Sumatran, Chinese, Hindu,
and the Malacca Malay influences.

Masjid Kampung Laut, Malaysia, which is a typical traditional Malay mosque

architecture in Malaysia.

Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are 88-floor towers constructed
largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble
motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia's Muslim religion.[94]
Sahelian[edit]

Main article: Sudano-Sahelian

In West Africa, Muslim merchants played a vital role in the Western Sahel region since the
Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's
section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section
which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), one centered on Friday
prayer.[95] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet
long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase;
with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[96] Sahelian architecture
initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in
Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of
Djenné.

Somali[edit]

Main article: Somali architecture

Almnara Tower Somalia

The 13th century Fakr ad-Din Mosque in Mogadishu

The spread of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic
architectural influences from Arabia and Persia, which stimulated a shift from drystone and
other related materials in construction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use
of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as mosques
were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again
throughout the following centuries.[97] Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the
Horn of Africa region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entire continent.
One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinct from other mosques in Africa
were minarets.
For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609) and Fakr ad-Din
(1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa to have minarets.[98] Fakr ad-Din, which
dates back to the Mogadishan Golden Age, was built with marble and coral stone and
included a compact rectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also used in
the decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century Al
Gami University consisted of a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturally
unique in the Islamic world.

Shrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancient Somali burial
customs. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the Pillar tomb
style while the North predominantly built structures consisting of domes and square plans.

Interpretation[edit]

The Sebilj is a pseudo-Ottoman style wooden fountain in the centre of Baščaršija square in
Sarajevo, Bosnia

Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept of God or
Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest infinity.
Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in decorative art as God's work is considered to
be matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for the same
reason. Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing
quotations from the Qur'an. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil"
because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from
the outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as large domes,
towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power.

In modern times[edit]

Faisal Mosque at Islamabad, Pakistan designed by Vedat Dalokay.

Museum of Islamic Art at Doha, Qatar designed by I. M. Pei.

In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone
through some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental
aspects that were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts -
the Miḥrāb (Arabic: ‫) ِمـحْ ـ َراب‬, the minarets, four-iwan plan, and the pishtaq. A difference to
note is the appearance of mosques without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all
had them, but these new dome-less mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and
are created by those not of the Islamic faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still
pervades the style of creation itself, and provides a 'conceptual framework',[99] for the making
of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of Islam. It has also been influenced by
the now meeting of many different cultures, such as European styles meeting Islamic styles,
leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of other architectural and cultural styles.
[100]

Urban design and Islam[edit]

Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a
new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality
and aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles.[101] Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that
showcases the values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is
falling out of practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such
as the Marrakesh Menara Airport, the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance,
Masjid Permata Qolbu, the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the Mazar-e-Quaid. All
of these buildings show the influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things
like minimalism which are rising to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use
the aspects of both modern styles and the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-
inspired modernism[101] with the classical cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept
though brings up the controversy of the identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional
Islamic community, within a space that doesn't follow the way they knew it.[102]

Debates on status as a style of architecture[edit]

There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as
the religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style,[99]
while on the other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the
style of old Islamic Architecture is what is causing the style to lose it status. There are
scholars that also believe that the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style
were not necessarily found within the architecture, but were rather environmental markers,
such as the sounds of prayer, the city around it, the events that occurred there.[103] The example
given is that we know that a building is a mosque based on what happens there, rather than
any visual cues.[103] Specific features that are notably related to Islamic Architecture - the
Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate[103] - are seen in multiple locations and do not always serve
the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in nature is seen to be demonstrated more
culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture is also sometimes referred to as a
'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the physical traits of the style, rather it
is something that is experienced.[104]

Connections & deeper meanings[edit]

Islamic architecture displays intricate patterns, colors, and details embodying the Islamic
culture. Such widespread religious displays typically have deeper meanings and connections.
Islamic architecture is unique in this case because interior designs often lack or have
unknown religious connections. This is caused by the Muslim ideology Shirk, stating that an
attempt to depict any earthly beings as holy is sinful. Shirk is unlike Western cultural ideals,
often consisting of a large amount of religious symbolism in earthly beings. Due to this,
symbolism in Islamic architecture is not as easily accessible compared to that of Western
religious architecture.

Difficulty forming connections[edit]

Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies. Many scholars that study
historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is
caused by multiple elements, one being that there is little historic literary works that express
an Islamic architect's motives with their structures.[105][106] Due to the massively spanning
Islamic religion, there is a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little
consistency between them. Lastly, since it is against Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings,
any depictions of earthly beings lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to
make it difficult for historians to form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic
places of worship.[106]

Religious and societal connections[edit]

Islamic architecture is unique compared to other vast religions that encompass much of the
West. Unlike Christianity, Islam does not sensationalize living beings because they view it as
a conflict with the Qur'an. Anything created by Allah is under his order and thus should not
be idolized.[105] This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces
them with an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns.[105]

There are several aspects of Islamic architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic
religious meaning, but there are connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in
mosques is calligraphy. Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections
through artistic design.[105] Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference
holy excerpts from both the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad's teachings. These references are
one of the few religious connections architects include within their work.[105][106]

Status and hierarchy[edit]

Islamic architecture varies vastly across the scope of the world. Specifically, some mosques
have different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious
and social hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant
portions of the layout closest to the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more
significant religious areas are revealed.[106] Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic
architects are tasked to design specifically for the presence of royalty. Designated locations
had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an individual's position in society. This
emphasis could be made through being within view to all attendees, placed in the focal point
of artistry, and a maqsurah. [107]

Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition

by a higher being aware of a delegation of power. This hierarchy does exist but not with any
sort of religious message as Hillenbrand points out, “in neither case is this hierarchy
employed for especially portentous ends.” [105] Hierarchy exist in the church in different forms,
but is meant for purely functional purposes.[105]

Structural intentions[edit]

Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often can take form as functional purposes. For
example, mosques are built around the ideal that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing
aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics’ fluidity guide the person into proper worship.[105]

A key feature of the mosque is the Mihrab, a universal part of any Islamic place of worship.
[107]
The Mihrab is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable over head often
consisting of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the
architecture of the mosque serves to deliver is the Qibla.[105] The Qibla is necessary for proper
Islamic worship, and is revealed through architectural means.[108]

Contemporary Muslim architects[edit]

 Fazlur Khan
 Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil
 Vedat Dalokay
 Kamran Afshar Naderi
 T.Abdul Hussain Thariani
 Fahraddin Miralay
 Muzharul Islam
 Mubashra Ilyas
 Nabih Youssef
 Bashirul Haq
 Zaha Hadid
 Nayyar Ali Dada
 Habib Fida Ali
 Hassan Fathy
 Mimar Sinan

See also[edit]
 Ablaq
 Archnet, database of Islamic architecture
 Aurangabad, Maharashtra — City of Gates
 Bibi Ka Maqbara
 Caravanserai
  Desert castles
 Gozo Farmhouse
 Kasbah
 Kulliyye
 Moroccan riad
 Sebil
 Turbah
 Well House

Gallery[edit]

Chowmahalla Palace in Hyderabad

Intricate pattern on the Window of Syedna Hatim Rauza

Notes[edit]
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
 Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan (1996) [1896]. Sir Banister Fletcher's a
History of Architecture (20th ed.). Architectural Press. ISBN 978-0-7506-2267-7.
 Yahya Abdullahi; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric
patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2): 243–251.
doi:10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002.
 Abdullahi Y.; Embi M. R. B (2015). "Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On
Islamic Architecture". International Journal of Architectural Research: Archnet-Ijar.
9: 31. doi:10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.558.

External links[edit]
 Architecture of IRAN during Islamic times
 ARCHITECTURE OF ISLAM by Takeo Kamiya (Half in English and half in
Japanese)
 ARCHNET Open access, online resource on architecture and art of Muslim societies,
globally and throughout history to our times
 Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive (creative commons-
licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an Aga Khan Foundation/CyArk
research partnership
 Islamic Arts and Architecture website
 Tehranimages. Contemporary photos taken in some of the oldest districts of Tehran.
 10,000+ Architectural collections worldwide Islamic Art And Architecture designs
worldwide.

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 v
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Islamic architecture
  Ablaq
 Chahartaq
 Chhajja
 Hasht-Bihisht
 Hypostyle
 Iwan
 Jharokha
 Kucheh
Al-Haram mosque in Mecca
 Liwan
 Mashrabiya
 Moroccan riad
Structural
 Qadad
 Riwaq
 Sahn
 Semi-dome
 Shabestan
 Squinch
 Tadelakt
 Vaulting
 Voussoir
 Windcatcher

 Discharging arch
 Four-centred
arch
 Horseshoe arch
Arches
 Multifoil arch
 Ogee arch
 Pointed arch

Roofs  Dome (Arabic

dome / Onion
dome / Persian
dome / South
Asian dome)
 Guldasta
 Tajug
  Bedug
 Dikka
 Gonbad
 Hussainiya
 Imamzadeh
 Kiswah
 Loudspeakers
Religious
 Maqsurah
objects
 Mihrab
 Minaret
 Minbar
 Müezzin mahfili
 Qibla
 Zarih

Decorations  Alfiz
 Arabesque
 Banna'i
 Girih
 Girih tiles
 Islamic
calligraphy
 Islamic
geometric
patterns
 Islamic interlace
patterns
 Jali
 Mocárabe
 Mosque lamp
 Muqarnas
 Nagash painting
 Qashani
 Shabaka
 Socarrat
 Yeseria
 Zellige
  Andaruni
 Harem
Rooms  Qa’a
 Zenana

 Bagh
 Charbagh
 Islamic garden
 Mughal gardens
Gardens  Ottoman gardens
 Paradise garden
 Persian gardens
 Reflecting pool

 Chhatri
 Eidgah
 Howz
 Shading
Outdoor
Umbrellas
objects
 Mechouar
 Sebil
 Shadirvan

Religious  Dargah
 Gongbei
 Jama Masjid
 Jama'at Khana
 Khanqah
 Külliye
 Madrasa
 Maqam
 Maqbara
 Mazar
 Mosque
 Musalla
 Qubba
 Rauza
  Surau
 Tekyeh
 Türbe
 Zawiya

 Baradari
 Bazaar
 Caravanserai
 Dar al-Shifa
 Ghorfa
 Kasbah
Civilian
 Mahal
 Medina quarter
 Souq
 Turkish bath
 Well house

 Albarrana tower
 Alcazaba
 Alcázar
 Amsar
 Bab
Military
 Kasbah
 Ksar
 Qalat
 Ribat

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Islamic art
  Ayyubid
 Azerbaijani
 Chinese
 Indo-Islamic
 Indonesian
 Moorish
 Moroccan
 Mughal
Regional styles  Ottoman
 Pakistani
 Persian
 Somali
 Sudano-Sahelian
 Tatar
 Timurid
 Umayyad

 Ablaq
 Banna'i
 Iwan
 Jali
 Mashrabiya
 Mihrab
Elements
 Minaret
 Mocárabe
 Muqarnas
 Yeseria
 See also Decoration

 Persian (Early, Qajar, Safavid)

Regional styles  Turkish (Ottoman)

Carpets  Gul
 Kilim
o Motifs
 Persian
 Turkish
  Prayer

 Azulejo
 Fritware
 Hispano-Moresque
 İznik
Pottery
 Lustreware
 Persian
 Chinese influence

 Batik
 Damask
 Ikat
Textiles  Embroidery
 Soumak
 Suzani

 Khatam
Woodwork  Minbar

 Brass
 Damascus steel
 Glass
 Hardstone carving
Other media
 Ivory carving
 Stained glass
o Shabaka

 Arabic
 Mughal
Miniatures  Ottoman
 Persian

Calligraphy  Arabic
 Diwani
 Kufic
 Muhaqqaq
  Naskh
 Nastaʿlīq
 Persian
 Sini
 Taʿlīq
 Thuluth
 Tughra

 Muraqqa
 Hilya
Other arts
 Ottoman illumination

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 v
 t
 e

History of architecture

show

 v
 t
 e

Mathematics and art

Renaissance  Paolo Uccello

 Piero della Francesca
 Albrecht Dürer
 Leonardo da Vinci
o Vitruvian Man
 Parmigianino
 o Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror

 William Blake
o The Ancient of Days
o Newton
 Jean Metzinger
o Danseuse au café
o L'Oiseau bleu
 Man Ray
 René Magritte
o La condition humaine
 Salvador Dalí
19th–20th Century
o Crucifixion
o The Swallow's Tail
 Giorgio de Chirico
 M. C. Escher
o Circle Limit III
o Print Gallery
o Relativity
o Reptiles
o Waterfall

Contemporary  Max Bill

 Martin and Erik Demaine
 Scott Draves
 Jan Dibbets
 John Ernest
 Helaman Ferguson
 Peter Forakis
 Bathsheba Grossman
 George W. Hart
 Desmond Paul Henry
 John A. Hiigli
 Anthony Hill
 Charles Jencks
o Garden of Cosmic Speculation
 Robert Longhurst
  István Orosz
 Hinke Osinga
 Hamid Naderi Yeganeh
o A Bird in Flight
o Boat
 Tony Robbin
 Oliver Sin
 Hiroshi Sugimoto
 Daina Taimina
 Roman Verostko

 Polykleitos
o Canon
Ancient  Vitruvius
o De architectura

 Luca Pacioli
o De divina proportione
 Piero della Francesca
o De prospectiva pingendi
 Leon Battista Alberti
o De pictura
o De re aedificatoria
Renaissance
 Sebastiano Serlio
o Regole generali d'architettura
 Andrea Palladio
o I quattro libri dell'architettura
 Albrecht Dürer
o Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion

 Frederik Macody Lund

o "Ad Quadratum"
 Jay Hambidge
Romantic o "The Greek Vase"
 Samuel Colman
o "Nature's Harmonic Unity"
  Owen Jones
o The Grammar of Ornament
 Ernest Hanbury Hankin
o The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art
 G. H. Hardy
o A Mathematician's Apology
Modern  George David Birkhoff
o Aesthetic Measure
 Douglas Hofstadter
o Gödel, Escher, Bach
 Nikos Salingaros
o The 'Life' of a Carpet

 GND: 4362670-1
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