CHAPTER 3.

1 – MINERALS
GLY 256
MINERALS
Mineralogy is the branch of geology that studies the composition, structure, appearance, stability,
occurrence, and associations of minerals. To identify and classify the many kinds of rocks that
compose Earth and understand how they are formed, we must know how minerals are formed. A
mineral as a naturally occurring, solid crystalline substance, usually inorganic, with a specific
chemical composition.
Minerals are homogeneous: they cannot be divided mechanically into smaller components.

NATURALLY OCCURING
To qualify as a mineral, a substance must be found in nature - The diamonds mined in South Africa,
for example, are minerals.
The synthetic versions produced in industrial laboratories are NOT minerals,
• Nor are the thousands of laboratory products invented by Chemists

SOLID CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCE

Minerals are solid substances — they are neither liquids nor gases. The tiny particles of matter, or
atoms that compose the mineral are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional array:
• Solid materials that have no such orderly arrangement are referred to as glassy or amorphous
(without form) and are not conventionally called minerals.
Windowpane glass is amorphous, as are some natural glasses formed during volcanic eruptions.

USUALLY INORGANIC
Minerals are inorganic substances and so exclude the organic materials that make up plant and animal
bodies. Organic matter is composed of organic carbon, the form of carbon found in all organisms,
living or dead. Decaying vegetation in a wetland may be geologically transformed into coal, which is
also made of organic carbon, but although it is found in naturally occurring deposits, coal is not
considered a mineral. Many minerals, however, are secreted by organisms, e.g., calcite which forms
the shells of oysters and many other marine organisms, contains inorganic carbon. These shells
accumulate on the seafloor, where they may be geologically transformed into limestone. The calcite
of these shells fits the definition of a mineral because it is inorganic and crystalline.
Calcite
o Many minerals are secreted by organisms
o The mineral calcite contains inorganic carbon
o Calcite is found in the shells of many marine organisms, such
as these foraminifera.

WITH A SPECIFIC CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The key to understanding the composition of Earth materials lies in knowing how the chemical
elements are organized into minerals. What makes each mineral unique is its chemical composition
and the arrangement of its atoms in an internal structure. A mineral’s chemical composition either is
fixed or varies within defined limits. The mineral quartz, for example, has a fixed ratio of two atoms
of oxygen to one atom of silicon. This ratio never varies, even though quartz is found in many
different kinds of rocks. Similarly, the chemical elements that make up the mineral olivine—iron,
magnesium, oxygen, and silicon—always have a fixed ratio. Although the numbers of iron and
magnesium atoms may vary, the sum of those two atoms in relation to the number of silicon atoms
always forms a fixed ratio.

THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Each chemical element consists of a different kind of atom
 All atoms of any given element are identical,
 Chemical compounds are formed by various combinations of atoms of different elements in
definite proportions
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the physical and chemical properties of that
element. Atoms are the small units of matter that combine in chemical reactions, and are themselves
divisible into even smaller units.

STRUCTURE OF THE CARBON

The six electrons, each with a charge of 1, are represented as a
negatively charged cloud surrounding the nucleus, which contains six
protons, each with a charge of 1, and six neutrons, each with no
charge.

The size of the nucleus is greatly exaggerated in these drawings; it is

much too small to show at a true scale.

THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

o Atomic number
o Atomic mass
o Isotopes
o Chemical reactions
• Ionic bonds
• Covalent bonds
• Metallic bonds
o Electron sharing
o Electron transfer

BUILDING A MINERAL
THE CRYSTALLIZATION OF MINERAL
Crystals of amethyst and quartz growing on top of epidote crystals (green).
The planar surfaces are crystal faces and reflect the mineral’s internal atomic
structure

HOW DO MINERALS FORM

o Magma – Crystals
o Parent rock – Grains
o Solution – Precipitate
o Giant crystals are sometimes found in caves, where they have room to
grow.
oThese selenite crystals are a gem quality form of gypsum (calcium
sulphate).

Halite crystals precipitating within a modern hyper saline lagoon on San Salvador
Island in the Bahamas. Note the cubic shape of the crystals.
Polymorphs - diamond and graphite (the material used as the “lead” in pencils) exemplify the
dramatic effects that temperature and pressure can have on mineral formation.
 These two minerals are polymorphs, minerals with alternative structures formed
from the same chemical element or compound
 They are both formed from carbon, but have different crystal structures and very
different appearances
 Diamond forms and remains stable at the very high pressures and temperatures
found in Earth’s mantle
 High pressures force the atoms in diamond into a closely packed structure
Polymorphs - diamond has a higher density (mass per unit volume, usually expressed in grams per
cubic centimetre, g/cm3) than graphite, which is less closely packed.
o Diamond has a density of 3.5 g/cm3, while that of graphite is only
2.1 g/cm3
Graphite forms and is stable at moderate pressures and temperatures, such as those in Earth’s crust.
Low temperatures can also produce close packing of atoms.

POLYMORPHS

CLASSES OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

All minerals on Earth have been grouped into seven classes according to their chemical composition.
Some minerals, such as copper, occur naturally as un-ionized pure elements; these minerals are
classified as native elements.
Most other minerals are classified by their anions:
o Olivine, for example, is classified as a silicate by its silicate anion, SiO44-
o Halite (sodium chloride, NaCl) is classified as a halide by its chloride anion, Cl-
So is its close relative, sylvite (potassium chloride, KCl)
FIVE MOST COMMON CLASSES OF ROCK-FORMING
MINERALS
o Silicates - the most abundant class of minerals in Earth’s crust, are composed of oxygen (O) and
silicon (Si) - the two most abundant elements in the crust - mostly in combination with cations of
other elements.
o Carbonates - minerals composed of carbon and oxygen - in the form of the carbonate anion (CO32-)
in combination with calcium and magnesium, e.g., Calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) is one such
mineral.

COMMON CLASSES OF ROCK-FORMING MINERLAS

o Oxides - compounds of the oxygen anion (O2) and metallic cations; an example is the mineral
hematite (iron oxide, Fe2O3).
o Sulfides - compounds of the sulphide anion (S2) and metallic cations; an example is the mineral
pyrite (iron sulphide, FeS2).
o Sulfates - compounds of the sulphate anion (SO42-) and metallic cations; an example is the mineral
anhydrite (calcium sulphate, CaSO4).

OTHER CLASSES OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

The other three chemical classes of rock forming minerals are less common
 Native elements
 Hydroxides
 Halides

SILICATE TETRAHEDRAL STRUCTURES

SILICATES

The silicate ion is the basic building block of silicate minerals

CARBONATE
Carbonate minerals, such as calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3), have a layered structure
(a) Top view of the carbonate ion, composed of a C-ion surrounded by three O-ions in a triangle
(b) View of the alternating layers of calcium and carbonate ions in calcite
(c) Calcite

OXIDES

SULPHIDES

MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS

Hardness is a measure of the ease with which the surface of a mineral can be
scratched. Just as diamond, the hardest mineral known, scratches glass, a
quartz crystal, which is harder than feldspar, scratches a feldspar crystal.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

o Geologists carry field kits for rough chemical analyses of minerals that would helping their
identification. One such test is the origin of the phrase “the acid test.” It consists of dropping diluted
hydrochloric acid (HCl) on a mineral to see if it fizzes. Fizzing indicates that carbon dioxide (CO2) is
escaping, which means that the mineral is likely to be calcite, a carbonate.
o Hardness
o Colour
o Cleavage
o Magnetism
o Streak
o Density - specific gravity
o Fracture
o Crystal habit

THE ACID TEST

One easy but effective way to identify certain minerals is to drop diluted
hydrochloric acid (HCl) on the substance of interest. If it fizzes, indicating
the escape of carbon dioxide, the mineral is likely to be calcite.

HARDNESS OF MINERALS
Covalent bonds are generally stronger than ionic bonds. The hardness of any mineral depends on the
strength of its chemical bonds: the stronger the bonds, the harder the mineral. Within the silicate class
of minerals, hardness varies with crystal structure, from 1 in talc, a sheet silicate, to 8 in topaz, a
silicate with isolated tetrahedral. Most silicates fall in the 5 to 7 range on the Mohs scale. Only sheet
silicates are relatively soft, with hardness’s between 1 and 3. Hardness is related to other factors that
also affect bond strength:
o Size: The smaller the atoms or ions, the smaller the distance between them and the greater the
electrostatic attraction—and thus the stronger the bond.
o Charge: The larger the charge of ions, the greater the attraction between them, and thus the stronger
the bond.
o Packing: The closer the packing of atoms or ions, the smaller the distance between them, and thus
the stronger the bond.

CLEAVAGE
Cleavage is the tendency of a crystal to split along planar surfaces. The term cleavage is also used to
describe the geo-metric pattern produced by such breakage. Cleavage varies inversely with bond
strength: strong bonds produce poor cleavage, while weak bonds produce good cleavage. Because of
their strength, covalent bonds generally produce poor or no cleavage. Ionic bonds are relatively weak,
so they produce good cleavage. Muscovite, a mica sheet silicate, splits along smooth, lustrous, flat,
parallel surfaces, forming transparent sheets less than a millimetre thick. The excellent cleavage of
micas results from the relative weakness of the bonds between its layers of cations sandwiched within
sheets of silicate tetrahedral.

CLEAVAGE
Cleavage is classified according to two primary sets of characteristics:
• The number of planes and pattern of cleavage, and
• The quality of surfaces and ease of cleaving
Muscovite has only one plane of cleavage, whereas calcite and dolomite crystals have three
cleavage planes that give them a rhomboidal shape.

QUALITY OF SURFACES AND EASE OF CLEAVING

A mineral’s cleavage is assessed as perfect, excellent, good, fair, poor, or none according to the
quality of surfaces produced and the ease of cleaving. Muscovite can be cleaved easily, and it
produces extremely smooth surfaces; its cleavage is perfect.
Single-chain and double-chain silicates (the pyroxenes and amphiboles, respectively) show good
cleavage.

CLEAVAGE
Many minerals are so strongly bonded that they lack even fair cleavage. Quartz, a framework silicate,
is so strongly bonded in all directions that it breaks only along irregular surfaces. Garnet, a silicate
with isolated tetrahedral, is also bonded strongly in all directions and so shows no cleavage. This
absence of a tendency to cleave is found in most framework and isolated tetrahedral silicates

FRACTURE
Fracture is the tendency of a crystal to break along irregular surfaces other than cleavage planes. All
minerals show fracture, either across cleavage planes or in such minerals as quartz with no cleavage in
any direction. Fracture is related to how bond strengths are distributed in directions that cut across
cleavage planes. Fractures may be conchoidal, showing smooth, curved surfaces like those of a thick
piece of broken glass. Another common fracture surface with an appearance like split wood is
described as fibrous or splintery. The shapes and appearances of fracture surfaces depend on the
particular structure and composition of the mineral.

LUSTER
The way the surface of a mineral reflects light gives it a characteristic luster. Ionically bonded crystals
tend to have a glassy, or vitreous, luster, but covalently bonded materials are more variable.

Many have an adamantine luster, like that of diamond. Pure metals, such as gold, and many sulphides,
such as galena (lead sulphide, PbS) have a metallic luster. A pearly luster results from multiple
reflections of light from planes beneath the surfaces of translucent minerals, such as the mother-of-
pearl inner surfaces of many clamshells, which are made of the mineral aragonite. Luster, although an
important criterion for field classification, depends heavily on the visual perception of reflected light.

COLOUR
The colour of a mineral is imparted by light, either transmitted through or reflected by crystals or
irregular masses of the mineral. The colour of a mineral may be distinctive, but it is not the most
reliable clue to its identity. Some minerals always show the same colour; others may have a range of
colours. Many minerals show a characteristic colour only on freshly broken surfaces or only on
weathered surfaces. Some - precious opals, for example - show a stunning display of colours on
reflecting surfaces. Others change colour slightly with a change in the angle of the light shining on
their surfaces. Many ionically bonded crystals are colourless.

o Sapphire (left) and ruby (centre) are formed of the same common mineral,
corundum (aluminium oxide).
o Small amounts of impurities produce the intense colours that we value.
o Ruby, for example, is red because of small amounts of chromium, the same
element that gives emerald (right) its green colour.

STREAK
Streak refers to the colour of the fine deposit of mineral powder left on an abrasive
surface, such as a tile of unglazed porcelain, when a mineral is scraped across it. A
streak plate is a good identification tool because the uniformly small grains of the
mineral that are present in the powder are revealed on the plate. Hematite may look
black, red, or brown, but it always leaves a trail of reddish brown powder on a streak
plate.

CRYSTAL HABIT
 A mineral’s crystal habit is the shape in which individual crystals or aggregates of
crystals grow. Some minerals have such a distinctive crystal habit that they are easily
recognisable. An example is quartz, with its six-sided column topped by a pyramid-
like set of faces. Crystal habits are often named after common geometric shapes, such
as blades, plates, and needles.
o Asbestos is a generic name for a group of silicate minerals with a more or less
fibrous habit that allows the crystals to become embedded in the lungs if they are
inhaled.

Minerals are homogeneous (Cannot be divided mechanically into smaller component).

Sedimentary rock - Shane
Calcite = aragonite = different structures but same chemistry. Foraminifera = the animals in which calcite
occupies.
Irrespective of the colour, it will all have the same composition and it will have a fixed ratio.
What is the difference between the bonding between diamond and graphite?
Diamond - high temp and 40km deep
Graphite - lower temp
Depending on the APF, the composition and how hard the mineral is.
• Silicates, the most abundant class of minerals in earth’s crust - composed of oxygen and silicon.
• Carbonates, composed of carbon and oxygen.
• Oxides, compound of the oxygen anion (O2) and metallic cations. Eg: Fe2O3
• Sulphides, compounds of the sulphide anion and metallic cations.
• Sulphates, compounds of the sulphate anion and metallic cations.