History Map of the Development of Atomic Theory the light emitted is equal to the energy of

the two orbits involved in the transition.

Greek’s Concept of Matter (460-370 BC)

- Matter is discontinuous. It is made up of

particles called atoms. The properties of the Moseley’s X ray Experiments (1913)
atoms determine the properties of matter.
- All atoms of one element have the same or
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1804) fixed number of protons.
- The number of protons of atomic number is
- Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
what identifies a given element.
They do not change during chemical
reaction. De Broglie’s Particle-Wave Concept of the Electron
- Atoms of a given element have exactly the (1924)
same properties, but atoms of different
- The electron has both particle and wave
elements have different properties.
properties.
Cathode Ray Experiments (1879-1897)
Werner Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927)
- Cathode rays are made up of negative
- It is not possible to define accurately the
particles called electrons.
position and momentum (velocity) of
- Electrons are present in all kinds of matter.
particles of atomic dimensions, e.g.
- Protons are positive particles emanating
electron.
from behind the cathode.
- The band of uncertainty that defines the
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model (1891) range of possible positions of the electron
has the characteristics of a wave.
- An atom is a positive ball of electricity with
negative electrons embedded. Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer (1927)

Albert Einstein Photon Theory of Light (1905) - Showed an electron beam impinging on a
nickel crystal exhibits properties of
- Light wave carries energy equal to h v, diffraction and refraction.
consists of quanta or corpuscles called - Confirmed De Broglie’s particle-wave
photon. concept of the electron
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiments (1908-1909) Erwin Schroedinger’s Wave Model (1928)
- The atom is mostly empty space. Its mass is - Described the wave-like motion of the
concentrated in the nucleus. (Nuclear electron with relevant wave equation
Model) - Atomic orbital is the volume or region in
- The protons and neutrons are particles space around the nucleus where the
inside the nucleus. electron is most likely to be found.
Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913) - Solutions of the wave equation describe the
atomic orbitals that are occupied by
- The atom is like a solar system. Its mass is electrons.
concentrated in the nucleus in circular
orbits. James Chadwick (1932)
- Each electron carries discrete amount of - Identified the neutron as the particle
energy and does not lose any energy as produced along with carbon when beryllium
long as it stays in its given orbit. is bombarded with alpha particles.
- Electron that has received enough energy
can jump to a higher energy orbit. Upon M. Gell-Man and G. Zweig Quark Theory (1963)
return to a lower energy orbit, energy is
- Assumed that quarks are even more
emitted in the form of light. The energy of
fundamental particles than neutrons and
protons.
 - The fundamental particles of matter are Physicists were the first to discover and
quarks and leptons. characterize these particles that are even smaller
than the atom – the electron by JJ Thomson in
1897, the proton by E. Goldstein in 1886, and the
neutron by James Chadwick in 1932.

Pre-20th Century Atomic Models Several physicists studied the nature of electrical
discharges in cathode ray tubes. The cathode ray
Let us go back in time and trace the history of the tube is also known as the Crooke’s tube. It consists
evolution of the atomic theory. It started in 400 of two metal electrodes sealed in a glass tube. The
years BC when the Greek philosophers, tube contains traces of gas under low pressure.
Democritus and Leucippus (460-380 BC) The scientists made the following observations:
suggested the existence of atoms. Matter,
according to these philosophers, is discontinuous - When the electrodes were subjected to high
and made up of tiny, indivisible particles called voltage, a colored glow was given out by the
atoms. Their idea is similar to a picture printed by a cathode or negative electrode.
dot matrix printer. It appears continuous at a glance - The rays moved in straight line towards the
but if we expand a portion of the picture, you will anode or positive electrode, until stopped by
observe a continuous area to be made up of many, an obstacle.
many dots. The early Greek’s atomic model, even - A metal object placed along the cathode ray
though very simple, was used to explain many path becomes red hot.
familiar phenomena as the result of the scattering - The cathode rays were bent as they passed
or collecting of atoms. between the charged plates or near the
poles of a magnet.
- The nature of the cathode rays is the same
The atomic theory laid dormant for more than two for all kinds of gases placed inside the tube
millennia and was only revived by John Dalton in and for different kinds of metals used as
1804. His major assumptions were: electrodes.

1. Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible and A force exists in the space between the charged
indestructible particles called atoms. plates or the poles of a magnet. This force may be
2. All atoms of a given element have the same electric (between charged plates) or magnetic
properties such as shape, size and mass. (between poles of a magnet). Such a space is
There are many different kinds of atoms as called a force field (electric or magnetic field).
there are elements.
Observations on cathode rays established the
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
following facts:
They remain unchanged during a chemical
reaction. - Cathode rays consist of negatively charged
4. Atoms combine in small whole number particles.
ratios when they form compounds. - Negatively charged particles are present in
all types of matter.
- Cathode ray particles possess kinetic
20th Century Atomic Models energy and interact with matter.
Scientists from Dalton’s time until about 1895 Joseph John Thomson called the particles of the
believed that atoms were the ultimate building cathode rays electrons. He is credited for its
blocks of matter and could not be split into still discovery. Different observations made on the
smaller particles. But new findings were to come cathode ray tube led to the complete
that disproved this idea. Dalton pictured the atoms characterization of both the electron and the proton.
as very small balls that can be packed together.

The Discovery of Electrons

 Thomson’s model is like a spherical cookie with
embedded raisins. The ball represents positive
electricity with the embedded raisins representing
negative charges. Since the atom is neutral, the
positive and negative charges are equal.
Discovery of X rays and Radioactivity
Discovery of the proton
Wilhelm Roentgen made another important
discovery in 1895. He observed certain metals Even before the electron was identified, E.
used as anodes in vacuum tubes gave off highly Goldstein observed the appearance of brilliant light
penetrating radiations. These radiations, which are (fluorescence) behind a cathode having holes. This
like light in some properties, are what we know now finding showed that rays moved towards the
as X rays. Roentgen observed that X rays pass cathode, passed through the holes, and struck the
through paper, wood, light metals like aluminium end of the tube. Rays coming from behind the
and even, human flesh. But these rays are cathode were called canal rays.
completely stopped by a thin layer of metals such
Studies made on canal rays show that there are
as platinum, gold or lead and by human bones.
different types of positive particles. The nature of
Today, X ray is widely used in medical diagnosis,
these positive particles depends on the gas left in
chemical analyses, industrial quality control, and
the tube. The lightest of these positive particles was
inspection of materials such as plastic, metals,
found in the tube containing hydrogen gas. It had a
food, painting and art objects.
charge equal in size but opposite in sign to that of
the electron. Its mass almost equalled that of a
hydrogen atom. The other positive particles had
In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered a new kind of charges in exact multiples of the charge of positive
radiation given off by uranium salts. This invisible hydrogen particles. The smallest positive particle
radiation made imprints on photographic plates. It was named proton. These experiments with
made the surrounding medium an electrical cathode and canal rays show the presence of
conductor capable of discharging electrically electrons and protons in all atoms.
charged particles. In 1902, Ernest Rutherford and
Frederick Soddy presented their theory of
radioactive disintegration. Their theory was based
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
on the observation that certain elements like
uranium and thorium spontaneously broke up and Ernest Rutherford gave a more detailed atomic
emitted powerful, invisible radiations. These model in 1911. He based his description of the
elements were described as radioactive because atom on the astounding observations, which he and
they ejected either tiny subatomic particles or high his students (H. Geiger and E. Marsden) made in
energy ionizing rays. Ionizing rays are so called the well-known gold foil experiments.
because they produce ions as they pass through
A radioactive material gives off alpha particles. An
gaseous molecules. There are three kinds of
alpha particle is positively charged (charge +2) with
ionizing radiation called alpha, beta and gamma
a mass four times that of an H atom (mass 4). The
rays. Radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous
team bombarded a very thin gold foil (about 4 x 10-5
emission of ionizing radiation by unstable nuclei.
cm thick) with very fast moving alpha particles. To
their surprise, they found that most of the alpha
particles went through the gold foil undeflected or in
J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
straight path. A few alpha particles were deflected
Based on his cathode ray studies and the works of from their straight-line path. Still fewer particles
Benjamin Franklin (existence of positive and appeared to bounce back with an angle of scatter
negative particles in the atom), Henri Becquerel almost equal to 180o.
(radioactivity of uranium), Joseph John Thomson
It took a long time for Rutherford to interpret the
proposed the Plum Pudding Model of the atom in
results of his team’s experiments. Rutherford
1897.
interpreted these results and came up with a
nuclear model of the atom. This model described
the atom as mostly empty space and its mass is atom. Bohr treated the electron as particles moving
concentrated in a central core called the nucleus. around the nucleus in fixed circular paths or orbits
The charge of the nucleus is positive. found at definite distances from the nucleus. The
orbits are assigned the number n where n is a small
whole number 1, 2, 3 … They are also referred to
Later measurements of the atom placed its consecutively as K, L, M, N, O, and P shells.
diameter at 1 to 5 x 10-8 mm. The diameter of the
Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy,
nucleus, on the other hand, is said to be only 10-12
which increases as the distance of the orbit from
cm. The nucleus is 10000 times smaller than the
the nucleus increases. As long as the electron
atom. This is about the size of a 25-centavo coin
stays in its given orbit, there is no absorption or
(nucleus) compared to that of a softball field (atom).
emission of energy. But an electron, which has
The atom is thus mainly empty space.
received extra energy (from a flame or electric arc),
can jump into a higher energy state. Once excited,
the same electron can return to any of the
The Discovery of Neutrons underlying lower energy states. The process is
The total mass of the atom cannot be fully accompanied by emission of discrete amounts of
accounted from the protons and electrons alone. energy in the form of light of definite energy or
So as early as 1920, Rutherford suggested the wavelength. Bohr’s model explained satisfactorily
existence of neutrons even before James Chadwick the appearance of the bright line spectrum of the
discovered it in 1932. The neutron was discovered hydrogen atom but not the more complex atoms.
in a nuclear reaction wherein beryllium nuclei were
bombarded with alpha particles. The neutron was
produced along with the product particle, carbon.
Unlike the electron and the proton, neutron has no
charge.

Bohr’s Solar Model of the Atom

Bohr’s atom is a further refinement of Rutherford’s
Nuclear Model.
Why do certain elements give off light of
characteristic colors when heat is applied?
Analysis of light given off by the vapors of elements
Cathode Ray Tube
can be done more precisely with an instrument
called the spectroscope. A glass prism separates
the light given off into its component wavelength.
The spectrum produced instead of being
continuous like the rainbow, consists of a series of
sharp bright lines with characteristic colors and
wavelength on a dark background. We call this the
atomic spectrum of the element. The number, color,
and position of the lines produced is the
“fingerprint” of the element. These are all constant
for a given element.
How did Bohr explained about elements in a
spectroscope?
Individual lines in the atomic spectra of elements
suggest definite energy transformations within the
X ray photo