Fluid mechanics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (February 2009)

Continuum mechanics

[show]Laws
[show]Solid mechanics
[show]Fluid mechanics

[show]Rheology

[show]Scientists
v · d · e

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids, gases, and
plasmas.) Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and
fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, which can further be divided
into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid kinetics, the study of fluids in motion. It is a
branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information
that it is made out of atoms, that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than
from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of
research with many unsolved or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically
complex. Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A
modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to
solving fluid mechanics problems. Also taking advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid
flow is particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid
flow.
Contents
[hide]

 1 Brief history
 2 Relationship to continuum mechanics
 3 Assumptions
o 3.1 The continuum hypothesis
 4 Navier–Stokes equations
o 4.1 General form of the equation
 5 Newtonian versus non-Newtonian fluids
o 5.1 Equations for a Newtonian fluid
 6 See also
 7 Notes
 8 References
 9 External links

[edit] Brief history

Main article: History of fluid mechanics

The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes
investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known now as the
Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da Vinci
(observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli (barometer), Isaac Newton (viscosity) and
Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics), and was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the introduction of
mathematical fluid dynamics in Hydrodynamica (1738). Inviscid flow was further analyzed by
various mathematicians (Leonhard Euler, d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson) and viscous
flow was explored by a multitude of engineers including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich
Ludwig Hagen. Further mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and
George Gabriel Stokes in the Navier–Stokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated
(Ludwig Prandtl), while various scientists (Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor) advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.

[edit] Relationship to continuum mechanics

Fluid mechanics is a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the following table.

Continuum Solid mechanics Elasticity

mechanics The study of the physics of Describes materials that return to their rest shape after an
The study of the continuous materials with a applied stress.
physics of continuous defined rest shape. Plasticity Rheology
materials Describes materials that The study of materials with
 permanently deform after a
sufficient applied stress. both solid and fluid
characteristics.
Fluid mechanics Non-Newtonian fluids
The study of the physics of
continuous materials which take Newtonian fluids
the shape of their container.

In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support shear stress; that is why a fluid
at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.

[edit] Assumptions
Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions
about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be
satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true. For example, consider an incompressible fluid in
three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means that for any fixed closed surface
(such as a sphere) the rate of mass passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as
rate of mass passing the other way. (Alternatively, the mass inside remains constant, as does the
mass outside). This can be turned into an integral equation over the surface.

Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:

 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of momentum
 The continuum hypothesis, detailed below.

Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible – that is,
the density of the fluid does not change. Liquids can often be modelled as incompressible fluids,
whereas gases cannot.

Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is
inviscid). Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained
in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous
fluid, if the boundary is not porous, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results
also in a zero velocity for the fluid at the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a
porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero
velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity field between the free fluid and the fluid in
the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and Joseph condition).

[edit] The continuum hypothesis

Main article: Continuum mechanics

Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. The continuum
assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is, properties such as density,
pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at "infinitely" small points,
defining a REV (Reference Element of Volume), at the geometric order of the distance between
two adjacent molecules of fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to
another, and are averaged values in the REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete
molecules is ignored.

The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets are
approximated by point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and therefore results in
approximate solutions. Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to results
which are not of desired accuracy. That said, under the right circumstances, the continuum
hypothesis produces extremely accurate results.

Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of desired
accuracy are solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not to use conventional
fluid dynamics or statistical mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated for the problem. The
Knudsen number is defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a certain
representative physical length scale. This length scale could be, for example, the radius of a body
in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is how many times its own diameter a particle will
travel on average before hitting another particle). Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above
unity are best evaluated using statistical mechanics for reliable solutions.
42
National Sports Institute of Malaysia
Synchronized swimming is one of the aesthetic sports which must be
appealing to the human eye while
sitting and watching from the gallery. To be able to perform at a high level, years of
sport specific training is required of these athletes to develop the physical and technical
aspects for mastery of the
various skilful and complex movements in water to bring about an aesthetic
appearance above water. However,
because it is difficult, if not
impossible to see the synchronized
swimmers manoeuvring underwater from above water, an understanding of how
underwater movements influence above water aesthetics is a difficult coaching and
learning task.
For many coaches, performance and technical analysis is a tool to see how far their
athletes/swimmers skills have progressed. There has been continuous
effort to study movements using
high-speed cameras, which could then be used to analyze the technical skills of the
players. But, it is difficult to analyze
the technical skills in synchronized
swimming compared to other type of sports
activities due to non-availability of
underwater cameras in most of the
competition venues. Spectators, judges, coaches and the athlete are therefore unaware
of the underwater movements, which are critical factors in enabling the swimmer to
perform the required
technical skills aesthetically and to best of their ability. However, through
observation methods using underwater
camera setups such as Peeper-Scope and using skill analysis software, a view of
the whole performance in frontal and
sagittal perspectives in execution of the under water techniques can be obtained.
Movement descriptions and diagnosis on technical aspects of the individuals’
performance can then be conveyed to the coaches and athletes to improve their
understanding of the performance. In
addition, performance oriented training can be formulated.
There have been studies on the
synchronized swimmers scull and
eggbeater propulsion movements in
water (1-3). However, no studies, written
documents or models were found on how to execute the technique of thrust for
synchronized swimming.
The thrust technique is one of the
artistic elements of synchronized
swimming in which the legs are
quickly raised high as possible above the
water maintaining a vertical posture while reaching the peak height. Gaining
the peak height depends upon the
propulsion techniques executed by the synchronized swimmer in the water. The
dynamics of synchronized swimming
causes fluctuating flow conditions because of the continuous directional changes of
the hand and lower limb movements.
Although most skilled synchronized
swimmers establish propulsions with
organized propulsive movements of the hands and feet done to keep the body in a
stable condition which causes waves of vortices which could destabilize body
position) at the beginning of the stroke, subsequent hand and limb directional
changes leads to a sequence of
interchanging lift, drag and vortex
propulsive movements. These changes are often difficult for
synchronized swimmers to accomplish without losing balance and direction of
propulsion. The underwater videoing of the movements of synchronized swimmers
enables them and the coaches to better understand the movements required for
propulsion and to make fine corrections in the execution of the technique to the
desired level.
The purpose of this paper is to present a sequential expression of
technical movements that would
provide guidance to the national
synchronized swimmers of Malaysia which would indirectly help them to memorize
(using Ideomotor training) and practice the skills to achieve perfection and a high
level of aesthetic appreciation.
Materials and Methods:
Ten Malaysian Women’s National
Synchronized swimmers, as a part of
their training in preparation for various
international competitions, were
periodically evaluated for their endurance and performance in the technical skill
elements of synchronized swimming. It was found that the synchronized
swimmers had various technical faults ISN Bulletin Volume 1, No. 2, 2008 43
with the thrust in particular identified as a technical skill, which decreased their
performance ability.
Hence, the thrust technique of an exemplar performance by the coach was videotaped with
an underwater camera (Peeper-Scope) to record the pattern of movements underwater. The
camera was set approximately perpendicular and video was recorded for the frontal and
sagittal planes of execution of the skill. The video footage of both the frontal and sagittal
repetitions was synchronized in the dual manual display screen using siliconCOACH Pro
software 6.1.5.
The technical errors committed by the National swimmers during the thrust
skill prompted the coach and
technical support service personnel to derive a model of correct execution. The
most common errors in performing the thrust and the underwater movement
pattern for the exemplar performance of the model thrust technique are described.
Major errors in execution of
technique:
It is quite appealing to the
judges and spectators to see the
synchronized swimmer emerging out of
water like a missile while performing a
thrust technique. But the aesthetic
appreciation score is achieved when the swimmer has a perfect vertical inverted
standing posture with toes pointed when reaching the peak height in the thrust
(Figure 1) rather than a tilted projection (Figure 2) which reduces their scoring
ability.
Above water
Under water
Figure 1
Good thrust
Figure 2
Poor thrust44 National Sports Institute of Malaysia
Figure 1 represents a perfect
vertical position of legs when the legs have reached the peak height above water.
To elevate the body, an impulse in the
upward direction to counteract the
gravitational impulse is required. This
impulse is provided by buoyancy and the impulse generated by the front press. The
less body below the water, the less the buoyancy force and the greater the
impulse that must be applied by the
swimmer by executing the front press to reach the peak height and maintain
vertical status. The hands are also
extended and propelled vertically down for a shoulder press to further gain
vertical height.
In Figure 2, the legs are away from the vertical position while reaching the peak
height and also the hands are
extended forward indicating an
attempt to straighten the legs through
an action-reaction torque.
Different sized and shaped objects have different trends and tendency of
sinking which depend on their relative
density and position of the centre of
gravity relative to the centre of buoyancy. Hence the angle in which these objects
are
immersed determines vertical or
non-vertical, circular or spiral sinking movements of the objects due to the buoyancy acting
plus the fluid flow past the sinking object causing lift and drag forces. In Figure 3, the
swimmer sliding the hands forward in a diagonal motion (indicated by the arrow) with palms
facing as shown diagonally to the bottom of the pool will tend to move the head and arms
backward as well as generating upward propulsion through lift.
Propelling the hands in a forward
diagonal movement, palms kept opened and forward during the shoulder press
means that the hands apply the force
diagonally tilting the body also
diagonally. The buoyancy force acting on the immersed body part which is not
vertically in line with the centre of
gravity also exerts a turning effect
(a torque) forcing the body to lean
further. Since the arms are well ahead of the head line and extended forward the
water (sliding) resistance from the
bottom of the pool also pushes the arms
diagonally forward giving way to body having a slanted posture. This results in a
display of the leg in a diagonal status as shown in figure 2.
Good thrust technique execution:
The most desired technique should display the greatest height, be vertical and stable
when fully extended upward, and be performed with the least effort, in order to achieve
high scores for “aesthetic
appreciation” by competition judges.
The underwater movements of an
exemplar thrust technique are described from a frontal and sagittal point of view
since the perfection and aesthetic
appreciation score of movements above water depends on execution of
movements underwater.
Figure 3
Figure 4ISN Bulletin Volume 1, No. 2, 2008 45
Sequence of Good Thrust Technique
The swimmer must begin the thrust with the toes about 20 cm below the
water surface. The approach angle to the
surface of water in the beginning phase may be close to 70 degrees (20 degrees of leg
tilt from the perpendicular to the water surface). The hip angle is approximately 60
degrees. The legs must remain close to vertical, so that the force developed
during thrust will propel swimmer upwards rather than propelling the legs forward
and upwards if the angle of tilt is much greater than 20 degrees.
The centre of mass (COM) must be centered directly under centre of
buoyancy (COB) which prevents external
torque that causes body to rotate in the water. If the COM is higher or away from
the COB, the swimmer needs to do
additional sculling to maintain stability in the water, which further reduces the
upward effort in the thrust. The required propelling movement of the forearms and
hands is a downward, outward and
rearward sweep of the hands.
When the malleloi touches the
surface, the body is tucked further and the hip angle is reduced to less than 35
degree to enable to body to rotate faster
in the water and to encounter lesser
water resistance. Raising the trunk at the
beginning of the movement will also
increase the ability to raise the legs high. By Newton’s third law, the action of
legs going up has a reaction of lowering the trunk. If the trunk starts in a high
position, the legs can end in higher
position.
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 746 National Sports Institute of Malaysia
The propelling phase of the hands ends with the hands almost at thigh level and not
below the gluteals. The palms are then rotated inwards (partially facing each other)
and swept inwards and in line with the upper body.
The palms sweep in line with (or parallel to) the body and begin to open to face the
bottom of the pool. The elbows are kept at an angle of 90 degrees in the start of
the movement.
As the hips begin to emerge the palms now face the bottom of the pool, but are
angled so that an inward and then outward sweep will propel the body
upwards. The elbow joints are kept close to the body and are at an angle below 90
degrees to aid in vertically applying force with palms. As the palms complete the
sweeping movement applying force to push the body up, the press movement is
beginning to facilitate opening of the body and extension of the legs.
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10ISN Bulletin Volume 1, No. 2, 2008 47
As the initial press is carried out which aids in opening up of the body, the palms still
face the bottom of the pool. The wrists begin an outward rotation to provide an
additional sweeping motion and additional lift. The elbow angle is
reduced.
The wrist turn is completed with the fingers now pointing slightly backwards. The
elbow angle is close to 60 degrees with palms parallel to the bottom of the pool.
The triceps are stretched and ready to go for an explosive contraction to press to an
inverted hand stand position.
The palms start to apply force downwards in line with the body as in a handstand, to
maintain body balance and to get the peak height in the thrust with the inverted
shoulder press movement. The pushing motion makes use of the muscles of the
shoulder, elbow and wrist to maximize the thrust and utilize the
momentum generated by the opening of the hip angle.
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 1348 National Sports Institute of Malaysia
During the shoulder press down the elbows open up laterally and the wrists begin
to turn out internally. The hands
remain in line with the vertical trunk.
The shoulder press is completed with wrists turning out internally and the fingers
pointing at each other. The final movement of extending the wrists enables the
swimmer to get added summation of force to elevate the body. It is to be noted that
the thrust should be in line with body (hip, shoulder, elbow, wrist, ear, etc.) in line to
maintain vertical posture and
stability.
As the joints are at full extension,
the swimmers can no longer push
downwards to gain the thrust. A circular
propelling sweep of the hands should
continue in order to reduce the speed of body sinking. When the leading edge of
the hand (little finger or thumb) is higher
than the trailing edge lift in an upward
direction can be generated.
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16ISN Bulletin Volume 1, No. 2, 2008 49
Conclusion:
Under water movements are
difficult to analyze and to correct unless
the coach and the athlete can
visualize the technique. The use of
underwater video to describe the
movement and the explanation of the movement in terms of simple
biomechanics principles is advocated to enable the coach and the athlete to
maximizing performance. The analysis presented provides guidelines in order to maximize
the propelling motion for the thrust while describing the body position and actions required
so that the thrust is vertical. These guidelines should enable the synchronized swimmers to
optimize and memorize the performance technique; to enable them to achieve the peak
height and aesthetic qualities
required to excel in competitions.
Acknowledgements:
The comments and advice of Nick Flyger in the final stages of manuscript
technical review are gratefully
acknowledged.
References
1. Erin Gillings (1996) “Better technique
for the continuous spin scull
in synchronized swimming.”
www.sportsci.org/news/biomech/
video/video.html (Internet Source)
2. Ross Sanders, (2003) “Strength,
Flex-ibility and Timing in the
Eggbeater Kick.” www.intute.ac.uk/
socialsciences/cgi-bin/browse.
(Internet Source).
3. Kyra Berg. (2004) “How the
application of fluid physics can be use
to increase synchronized swimmers’
height out of the water while
performing eggbeater kick.
www.synchro.ca/e/coaching/
documents/Egg beater_research_
paper. Science One Programme.
(Internet Source).
Synchronized swimming is a hybrid form of swimming, dance and gymnastics, consisting of
swimmers (either solos, duets, trios, or teams) performing a synchronized routine of elaborate
moves in the water, accompanied by music. Synchronized swimming demands advanced water
skills, and requires great strength, endurance, flexibility, grace, artistry and precise timing, as
well as exceptional breath control when upside down underwater.

http://www.east-buc.k12.ia.us/02_03/ce/km/P1.htm

Archimedes’ Principle

Have you ever seen someone do a

cannonball off a diving board? After
they execute the stunt, you notice that
they return to the surface and the waves
surround them. Buoyancy,
displacement, and gravity can explain
why these events occur. Archimede, a
famous physicist, put all three
principles together in order to explain
this phenomena, naming it
Archimedes’ Principle. This page
illustrates how Archimedes’ Principle affects swimming.

Archimedes’ Principle: a body in water is buoyed up by a

force equal to the weight of the water displaced.
Buoyancy: water exerts an upward force against an object
equal to the weight of the water that would be pushed aside by
the object.
Displacement:water pushed aside by the object.
 Gravity: force of attration by which terrestrial bodies fall
toward the center of the earth.

Gravity is always affecting you, but for the explaniation of

Archimedes' Principle we will cut it down. As soon as you finish
your approch on the diving board, gravity pulls you down into
the water.
Buoyancy is the force that pushes you back up to the surface,
and the force that keeps you from falling all the way to the
bottom of the pool. Your body is pushing down on the water and
causes water to be displaced, or moved aside. The force that
pushes up on you is equal to the weight of the water displaced.

Newton's Laws of Motion

One...two...three. Sir Isaac Newton developed
three laws, which all can be used to describe
swimming. Even though the laws were proposed
in the 1600's, they can still be used today to
explain most types of movement in water and on
land. This page explains how Newton's Three
Laws of Motion are related to and effect swimming.

Newton's First Law of Motion: An object in motion stays in

motion until acted upon by an outside force. An object at rest
stays at rest until acted upon by an outside force.
Newton's first Law explains why it takes extra force to get
moving or to stop moving through two different forces.
Static force, body at rest wants to stay at rest, must be
overcome before you can start fluid movement. You will notice
this when you push off the wall or bottom of the pool. The drag
you feel when movement starts is the static force that you
overcome.
Dynamic force, body in motion wants to stay in motion is the
reason that swimming becomes fluid once you start moving.
Once dynamic force is experienced you would keep moving
forever, but drag pulls you to a slowing stop.

Newton's Second Law of Motion: change of motion depends

on the magnitude of the force and the mass of the object.
(F=ma, Force=mass X acceleration)

Newton's Second Law of Motion explains why some people can

swim faster than others. For example, if two people have the
same mass and pushed off a wall and did not take any strokes,
the person who used the most force pushing off the wall goes
farther. Acceleration in this case was greater for the person who
produced the greater force because the masses were equal to
each other. Take the same two people and have them race to the
other side of the pool The person who wins the race would have
to create more force the whole time in order to maintain the
lead. Greater force produced by a person with smaller mass will
have the largest acceleration. Things to associate with Newton's
Second Law:
If force is increased, then acceleration increases when
mass is constant
If mass is increased, then force increases when
 acceleration is constant
If mass is increased, then acceleration decreases when
force is constant
(all the above work the opposite way too!)
Newton's Third Law of Motion: for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
Newton is describing exactly how movement occurs when
discussing the Third Law of Motion. For example, when you
pull the water down your side using the breast stroke, the water
moves down toward your feet while you are propelled forward.
Action in this case would be you moving your arm in the water,
and the equal reaction is the water pushing back on you.
Opposite reaction is the reason that forward movement occurs.