Fluid Wikibook

Fluid Fields
A Wikibook
PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Thu, 13 Jan 2011 10:06:16 UTC
Contents
Articles
NavierStokes equations Incompressible flow Compressible flow Isochoric process Compressibility factor Solenoidal vector field Conservative vector field Laplacian vector field Stokes' law Projection method (fluid dynamics) Mach number Viscosity Rheology 1 12 14 18 20 24 25 28 29 32 34 38 56
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 66 68
Article Licenses
License 69
NavierStokes equations
In physics the NavierStokes equations, named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes, describe the motion of fluid substances. These equations arise from applying Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the fluid stress is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity), plus a pressure term. The equations are useful because they describe the physics of many things of academic and economic interest. They may be used to model the weather, ocean currents, water flow in a pipe and air flow around a wing. The NavierStokes equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and cars, the study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of pollution, and many other things. Coupled with Maxwell's equations they can be used to model and study magnetohydrodynamics. The NavierStokes equations are also of great interest in a purely mathematical sense. Somewhat surprisingly, given their wide range of practical uses, mathematicians have not yet proven that in three dimensions solutions always exist (existence), or that if they do exist, then they do not contain any singularity (smoothness). These are called the NavierStokes existence and smoothness problems. The Clay Mathematics Institute has called this one of the seven most important open problems in mathematics and has offered a US$1,000,000 prize for a solution or a counter-example.[1] The NavierStokes equations dictate not position but rather velocity. A solution of the NavierStokes equations is called a velocity field or flow field, which is a description of the velocity of the fluid at a given point in space and time. Once the velocity field is solved for, other quantities of interest (such as flow rate or drag force) may be found. This is different from what one normally sees in classical mechanics, where solutions are typically trajectories of position of a particle or deflection of a continuum. Studying velocity instead of position makes more sense for a fluid; however for visualization purposes one can compute various trajectories.
Properties
Nonlinearity
The NavierStokes equations are nonlinear partial differential equations in almost every real situation. In some cases, such as one-dimensional flow and Stokes flow (or creeping flow), the equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems difficult or impossible to solve and is the main contributor to the turbulence that the equations model. The nonlinearity is due to convective acceleration, which is an acceleration associated with the change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent or not, will involve nonlinearity. An example of convective but laminar (nonturbulent) flow would be the passage of a viscous fluid (for example, oil) through a small converging nozzle. Such flows, whether exactly solvable or not, can often be thoroughly studied and understood.
Turbulence
Turbulence is the time dependent chaotic behavior seen in many fluid flows. It is generally believed that it is due to the inertia of the fluid as a whole: the culmination of time dependent and convective acceleration; hence flows where inertial effects are small tend to be laminar (the Reynolds number quantifies how much the flow is affected by inertia). It is believed, though not known with certainty, that the NavierStokes equations describe turbulence properly. The numerical solution of the NavierStokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation (see Direct numerical simulation). Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS), supplemented with turbulence models (such as the k- model), are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) applications when modeling turbulent flows. Another technique for solving numerically the NavierStokes equation is the Large eddy simulation (LES). This approach is computationally more expensive than the RANS method (in time and computer memory), but produces better results since the larger turbulent scales are explicitly resolved.
Applicability
Together with supplemental equations (for example, conservation of mass) and well formulated boundary conditions, the NavierStokes equations seem to model fluid motion accurately; even turbulent flows seem (on average) to agree with real world observations. The NavierStokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a continuum not moving at relativistic velocities. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real fluids made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous fluids modeled by the NavierStokes equations. Depending on the Knudsen number of the problem, statistical mechanics or possibly even molecular dynamics may be a more appropriate approach. Another limitation is very simply the complicated nature of the equations. Time tested formulations exist for common fluid families, but the application of the NavierStokes equations to less common families tends to result in very complicated formulations which are an area of current research. For this reason, these equations are usually written for Newtonian fluids. Studying such fluids is "simple" because the viscosity model ends up being linear; truly general models for the flow of other kinds of fluids (such as blood) do not, as of 2011, exist.
Derivation and description

The derivation of the NavierStokes equations begins with an application of Newton's second law: conservation of momentum (often alongside mass and energy conservation) being written for an arbitrary portion of the fluid. In an inertial frame of reference, the general form of the equations of fluid motion is:[2]
where
is the flow velocity,
is the fluid density, p is the pressure,
is the (deviatoric) stress tensor, and
represents body forces (per unit volume) acting on the fluid and
is the del operator. This is a statement of the
conservation of momentum in a fluid and it is an application of Newton's second law to a continuum; in fact this equation is applicable to any non-relativistic continuum and is known as the Cauchy momentum equation. This equation is often written using the substantive derivative Dv/Dt, making it more apparent that this is a statement of Newton's second law:
NavierStokes equations The left side of the equation describes acceleration, and may be composed of time dependent or convective effects (also the effects of non-inertial coordinates if present). The right side of the equation is in effect a summation of body forces (such as gravity) and divergence of stress (pressure and shear stress).
Convective acceleration
A very significant feature of the NavierStokes equations is the presence of convective acceleration: the effect of time independent acceleration of a fluid with respect to space. While individual fluid particles are indeed experiencing time dependent acceleration, the convective acceleration of the flow field is a spatial effect, one example being fluid speeding up in a nozzle. Convective acceleration is represented by the nonlinear quantity:
An example of convection. Though the flow may be steady (time independent), the fluid decelerates as it moves down the diverging duct (assuming incompressible flow), hence there is an acceleration happening over position.
which may be interpreted either as vector interpreted as the covariant derivative. Interpretation as (v)v The convection term is often written as
[3]
or as
with
the tensor derivative of the velocity is
Both interpretations give the same result, independent of the coordinate system provided
where the advection operator one in terms of the tensor derivative Interpretation as v(v) Here
is used. Usually this representation is preferred because it is simpler than the

[3]
is the tensor derivative of the velocity vector, equal in Cartesian coordinates to the component by
component gradient. The convection term may, by a vector calculus identity, be expressed without a tensor derivative:[4] [5]
The form has use in irrotational flow, where the curl of the velocity (called vorticity)
is equal to zero.
Regardless of what kind of fluid is being dealt with, convective acceleration is a nonlinear effect. Convective acceleration is present in most flows (exceptions include one-dimensional incompressible flow), but its dynamic effect is disregarded in creeping flow (also called Stokes flow) .
Stresses
The effect of stress in the fluid is represented by the and terms; these are gradients of surface forces, analogous to stresses in a solid. is called the pressure gradient and arises from the isotropic part of the stress tensor. This part is given by normal stresses that turn up in almost all situations, dynamic or not. The anisotropic part of the stress tensor gives rise to , which conventionally describes viscous forces; for incompressible flow, this is only a shear effect. Thus, is the deviatoric stress tensor, and the stress tensor is equal to:[6]
where is the 33 identity matrix. Interestingly, only the gradient of pressure matters, not the pressure itself. The effect of the pressure gradient is that fluid flows from high pressure to low pressure. The stress terms p and are yet unknown, so the general form of the equations of motion is not usable to solve problems. Besides the equations of motionNewton's second lawa force model is needed relating the stresses to the fluid motion.[7] For this reason, assumptions on the specific behavior of a fluid are made (based on natural observations) and applied in order to specify the stresses in terms of the other flow variables, such as velocity and density. The NavierStokes equations result from the following assumptions on the deviatoric stress tensor :[8]
the deviatoric stress vanishes for a fluid at rest, and by Galilean invariance also does not depend directly on the flow velocity itself, but only on spatial derivatives of the flow velocity in the NavierStokes equations, the deviatoric stress is expressed as the product of the tensor gradient of the flow velocity with a viscosity tensor , i.e. : the fluid is assumed to be isotropic, as valid for gases and simple liquids, and consequently is an isotropic tensor; furthermore, since the deviatoric stress tensor is symmetric, it turns out that it can be expressed in terms of two scalar dynamic viscosities and : where is the rate-of-strain tensor and is the rate of expansion of the flow the deviatoric stress tensor has zero trace, so for a three-dimensional flow 2+3=0 As a result, in the NavierStokes equations the deviatoric stress tensor has the following form:[8]
with the quantity between brackets the non-isotropic part of the rate-of-strain tensor The dynamic viscosity does not need to be constant in general it depends on conditions like temperature and pressure, and in turbulence modelling the concept of eddy viscosity is used to approximate the average deviatoric stress. The pressure p is modelled by use of an equation of state.[9] For the special case of an incompressible flow, the pressure constrains the flow in such a way that the volume of fluid elements is constant: isochoric flow resulting in a [10] solenoidal velocity field with
Other forces
The vector field represents body forces. Typically these consist of only gravity forces, but may include other types(such as electromagnetic forces). In a non-inertial coordinate system, other "forces" such as that associated with rotating coordinates may be inserted. Often, these forces may be represented as the gradient of some scalar quantity. Gravity in the z direction, for example, is the gradient of . Since pressure shows up only as a gradient, this implies that solving a problem without any such body force can be mended to include the body force by modifying pressure.
Other equations
The NavierStokes equations are strictly a statement of the conservation of momentum. In order to fully describe fluid flow, more information is needed (how much depends on the assumptions made), this may include boundary data (no-slip, capillary surface, etc.), the conservation of mass, the conservation of energy, and/or an equation of state. Regardless of the flow assumptions, a statement of the conservation of mass is generally necessary. This is achieved through the mass continuity equation, given in its most general form as:
or, using the substantive derivative:
Incompressible flow of Newtonian fluids

A simplification of the resulting flow equations is obtained when considering an incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid. The assumption of incompressibility rules out the possibility of sound or shock waves to occur; so this simplification is invalid if these phenomena are important. The incompressible flow assumption typically holds well even when dealing with a "compressible" fluid such as air at room temperature at low Mach numbers (even when flowing up to about Mach 0.3). Taking the incompressible flow assumption into account and assuming constant viscosity, the NavierStokes equations will read, in vector form:[11]
Here f represents "other" body forces (forces per unit volume), such as gravity or centrifugal force. The shear stress term becomes the useful quantity ( is the vector Laplacian) when the fluid is assumed incompressible, homogeneous and Newtonian, where is the (constant) dynamic viscosity.[12] It's well worth observing the meaning of each term (compare to the Cauchy momentum equation):
Note that only the convective terms are nonlinear for incompressible Newtonian flow. The convective acceleration is an acceleration caused by a (possibly steady) change in velocity over position, for example the speeding up of fluid entering a converging nozzle. Though individual fluid particles are being accelerated and thus are under unsteady motion, the flow field (a velocity distribution) will not necessarily be time dependent. Another important observation is that the viscosity is represented by the vector Laplacian of the velocity field (interpreted here as the difference between the velocity at a point and the mean velocity in a small volume around). This implies that Newtonian viscosity is diffusion of momentum, this works in much the same way as the diffusion of heat seen in the heat equation (which also involves the Laplacian). If temperature effects are also neglected, the only "other" equation (apart from initial/boundary conditions) needed is the mass continuity equation. Under the incompressible assumption, density is a constant and it follows that the equation will simplify to:
This is more specifically a statement of the conservation of volume (see divergence).
NavierStokes equations These equations are commonly used in 3 coordinates systems: Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical. While the Cartesian equations seem to follow directly from the vector equation above, the vector form of the NavierStokes equation involves some tensor calculus which means that writing it in other coordinate systems is not as simple as doing so for scalar equations (such as the heat equation).
Cartesian coordinates
Writing the vector equation explicitly,
Note that gravity has been accounted for as a body force, and the values of of gravity with respect to the chosen set of coordinates. The continuity equation reads:
will depend on the orientation
When the flow is at steady-state,
does not change with respect to time. The continuity equation is reduced to:
When the flow is incompressible, is reduced to:
is constant and does not change with respect to space. The continuity equation
The velocity components (the dependent variables to be solved for) are typically named u, v, w. This system of four equations comprises the most commonly used and studied form. Though comparatively more compact than other representations, this is still a nonlinear system of partial differential equations for which solutions are difficult to obtain.
Cylindrical coordinates
A change of variables on the Cartesian equations will yield[11] the following momentum equations for r, , and z:
The gravity components will generally not be constants, however for most applications either the coordinates are chosen so that the gravity components are constant or else it is assumed that gravity is counteracted by a pressure field (for example, flow in horizontal pipe is treated normally without gravity and without a vertical pressure gradient). The continuity equation is:
This cylindrical representation of the incompressible NavierStokes equations is the second most commonly seen (the first being Cartesian above). Cylindrical coordinates are chosen to take advantage of symmetry, so that a velocity component can disappear. A very common case is axisymmetric flow with the assumption of no tangential velocity ( ), and the remaining quantities are independent of :
Spherical coordinates
In spherical coordinates, the r, colatitude
[13]
, and
momentum equations are[11] (note the convention used:
is
):
Mass continuity will read:
These equations could be (slightly) compacted by, for example, factoring
from the viscous terms. However,
doing so would undesirably alter the structure of the Laplacian and other quantities.
Stream function formulation

Taking the curl of the NavierStokes equation results in the elimination of pressure. This is especially easy to see if 2D Cartesian flow is assumed ( and no dependence of anything on z), where the equations reduce to:
Differentiating the first with respect to y, the second with respect to x and subtracting the resulting equations will eliminate pressure and any conservative force. Defining the stream function through
results in mass continuity being unconditionally satisfied (given the stream function is continuous), and then incompressible Newtonian 2D momentum and mass conservation degrade into one equation:
where
is the (2D) biharmonic operator and
is the kinematic viscosity,
. We can also express this
compactly using the Jacobian determinant:
This single equation together with appropriate boundary conditions describes 2D fluid flow, taking only kinematic viscosity as a parameter. Note that the equation for creeping flow results when the left side is assumed zero. In axisymmetric flow another stream function formulation, called the Stokes stream function, can be used to describe the velocity components of an incompressible flow with one scalar function.
Compressible flow of Newtonian fluids

There are some phenomena that are closely linked with fluid compressibility. One of the obvious examples is sound. Description of such phenomena requires more general presentation of the NavierStokes equation that takes into account fluid compressibility. If viscosity is assumed a constant, one additional term appears, as shown here:[14] [15]
where
is the volume viscosity coefficient, also known as second viscosity coefficient or bulk viscosity. This
additional term disappears for an incompressible fluid, when the divergence of the flow equals zero.
Application to specific problems

The NavierStokes equations, even when written explicitly for specific fluids, are rather generic in nature and their proper application to specific problems can be very diverse. This is partly because there is an enormous variety of problems that may be modeled, ranging from as simple as the distribution of static pressure to as complicated as multiphase flow driven by surface tension. Generally, application to specific problems begins with some flow assumptions and initial/boundary condition formulation, this may be followed by scale analysis to further simplify the problem. For example, after assuming steady, parallel, one dimensional, nonconvective pressure driven flow between parallel plates, the resulting scaled (dimensionless) boundary value problem is:
Visualization of a) parallel flow and b) radial flow.
The boundary condition is the no slip condition. This problem is easily solved for the flow field:
From this point onward more quantities of interest can be easily obtained, such as viscous drag force or net flow rate. Difficulties may arise when the problem becomes slightly more complicated. A seemingly modest twist on the parallel flow above would be the radial flow between parallel plates; this involves convection and thus nonlinearity. The velocity field may be represented by a function that must satisfy:
NavierStokes equations This ordinary differential equation is what is obtained when the NavierStokes equations are written and the flow assumptions applied (additionally, the pressure gradient is solved for). The nonlinear term makes this a very difficult problem to solve analytically (a lengthy implicit solution may be found which involves elliptic integrals and roots of cubic polynomials). Issues with the actual existence of solutions arise for R > 1.41 (approximately. This is not the square root of two), the parameter R being the Reynolds number with appropriately chosen scales. This is an example of flow assumptions losing their applicability, and an example of the difficulty in "high" Reynolds number flows.
10
Exact solutions of the NavierStokes equations

Some exact solutions to the NavierStokes equations exist. Examples of degenerate cases with the non-linear terms in the NavierStokes equations equal to zero are Poiseuille flow, Couette flow and the oscillatory Stokes boundary layer. But also more interesting examples, solutions to the full non-linear equations, exist; for example the TaylorGreen vortex.[16] [17] [18] Note that the existence of these exact solutions does not imply they are stable: turbulence may develop at higher Reynolds numbers.
Wyld diagrams
Wyld diagrams are bookkeeping graphs that correspond to the NavierStokes equations via a perturbation expansion of the fundamental continuum mechanics. Similar to the Feynman diagrams in quantum field theory, these diagrams are an extension of Keldysh's technique for nonequilibrium processes in fluid dynamics. In other words, these diagrams assign graphs to the (often) turbulent phenomena in turbulent fluids by allowing correlated and interacting fluid particles to obey stochastic processes associated to pseudo-random functions in probability distributions.[19]
See also
Boltzmann equation ChurchillBernstein equation Coand effect Computational fluid dynamics FokkerPlanck equation Large eddy simulation Mach number NavierStokes existence and smoothness one of the Millennium Prize Problems as stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute Multiphase flow Reynolds transport theorem Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations Adhmar Jean Claude Barr de Saint-Venant Vlasov equation
11
Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Millennium Prize Problems (http:/ / www. claymath. org/ millennium/ ), Clay Mathematics Institute, , retrieved 2009-04-11 Batchelor (1967) pp. 137 & 142. Emanuel, G. (2001), Analytical fluid dynamics (second ed.), CRC Press, ISBN0849391148 pp. 67. See Batchelor (1967), 3.5, p. 160. Eric W. Weisstein, Convective Derivative (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ ConvectiveDerivative. html), MathWorld, , retrieved 2008-05-20 [6] Batchelor (1967) p. 142. [7] Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, ISBN0-201-02116-1, Vol. 1, 94 and 121. [8] Batchelor (1967) pp. 142148. [9] Batchelor (1967) p. 165. [10] Batchelor (1967) p. 75. [11] See Acheson (1990). [12] Batchelor (1967) pp. 21 & 147. [13] Eric W. Weisstein (2005-10-26), Spherical Coordinates (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ SphericalCoordinates. html), MathWorld, , retrieved 2008-01-22 [14] Landau & Lifshitz (1987) pp. 4445. [15] Batchelor (1967) pp. 147 & 154. [16] Wang, C.Y. (1991), "Exact solutions of the steady-state NavierStokes equations", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 23: 159177, doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.23.010191.001111 [17] Landau & Lifshitz (1987) pp. 7588. [18] Ethier, C.R.; Steinman, D.A. (1994), "Exact fully 3D NavierStokes solutions for benchmarking", International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 19 (5): 369375, doi:10.1002/fld.1650190502 [19] McComb, W.D. (2008), Renormalization methods: A guide for beginners, Oxford University Press, ISBN0199236526 pp. 121128.
References
Acheson, D. J. (1990), Elementary Fluid Dynamics, Oxford Applied Mathematics and Computing Science Series, Oxford University Press, ISBN0198596790 Batchelor, G.K. (1967), An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521663962 Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1987), Fluid mechanics, Course of Theoretical Physics, 6 (2nd revised ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN0 08 033932 8, OCLC15017127 Rhyming, Inge L. (1991), Dynamique des fluides, Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne Polyanin, A.D.; Kutepov, A.M.; Vyazmin, A.V.; Kazenin, D.A. (2002), Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat Transfer in Chemical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, London, ISBN0-415-27237-8 Currie, I. G. (1974), Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, McGraw-Hill, ISBN0070150001
External links
Simplified derivation of the NavierStokes equations (http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/Flow2.htm) http://www.claymath.org/millennium/Navier-Stokes_Equations/navierstokes.pdf Millennium Prize problem description. CFD online software list (http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Codes) A compilation of codes, including NavierStokes solvers.
Incompressible flow
12
Incompressible flow
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, an incompressible flow is solid or fluid flow in which the divergence of velocity is zero. This is more precisely termed isochoric flow. It is an idealization used to simplify analysis. In reality, all materials are compressible to some extent. Note that isochoric refers to flow, not the material property. This means that under certain circumstances, a compressible material can undergo (nearly) incompressible flow. However, by making the 'incompressible' assumption, one can greatly simplify the equations governing the flow of the material. The equation describing an incompressible (isochoric) flow, , where is the velocity of the material.
The continuity equation states that,
This can be expressed via the material derivative as
Since
, we see that a flow is incompressible if and only if,
that is, the mass density is constant following the material element.
Relation to compressibility factor

In some fields, a measure of the incompressibility of a flow is the change in density as a result of the pressure variations. This is best expressed in terms of the compressibility factor
If the compressibility factor is acceptably small, the flow is considered to be incompressible.
Relation to solenoidal field

An incompressible flow is described by a velocity field which is solenoidal. But a solenoidal field, besides having a zero divergence, also has the additional connotation of having non-zero curl (i.e., rotational component). Otherwise, if an incompressible flow also has a curl of zero, so that it is also irrotational, then the velocity field is actually Laplacian.
Difference between incompressible flow and material

As defined earlier, an incompressible (isochoric) flow is the one in which . This is equivalent to saying that
i.e. the material derivative of the density is zero. Thus if we follow a material element, its mass density will remain constant. Note that the material derivative consists of two terms. The first term describes how the density of the
Incompressible flow material element changes with time. This term is also known as the unsteady term. The second term,
13 describes the
changes in the density as the material element moves from one point to another. This is the convection or the advection term. For a flow to be incompressible the sum of these terms should be zero. On the other hand, a homogeneous, incompressible material is defined as one which has constant density throughout. For such a material, . This implies that, and independently. From the continuity equation it follows that
Thus homogeneous materials always undergo flow that is incompressible, but the converse is not true. It is common to find references where the author mentions incompressible flow and assumes that density is constant. Even though this is technically incorrect, it is an accepted practice. One of the advantages of using the incompressible material assumption over the incompressible flow assumption is in the momentum equation where the kinematic viscosity ( ) can be assumed to be constant. The subtlety above is frequently a source of confusion. Therefore many people prefer to refer explicitly to incompressible materials or isochoric flow when being descriptive about the mechanics.
Related flow constraints

In fluid dynamics, a flow is considered to be incompressible if the divergence of the velocity is zero. However, related formulations can sometimes be used, depending on the flow system to be modelled. Some versions are described below: 1. Incompressible flow: . This can assume either constant density (strict incompressible) or varying density flow. The varying density set accepts solutions involving small perturbations in density, pressure and/or temperature fields, and can allow for pressure stratification in the domain. 2. Anelastic flow: . Principally used in the field of atmospheric sciences, the anelastic constraint extend incompressible flow validity to stratified density and/or temperature as well as pressure. This allow the thermodynamic variables to relax to an 'atmospheric' base state seen in the lower atmosphere when used in the field of meteorology, for example. This condition can also be used for various astrophysical systems.[1] 3. Low Mach-number flow / Pseudo-incompressibility: . The low Mach-number constraint can be derived from the compressible Euler equations using scale analysis of non-dimensional quantities. The restraint, like the previous in this section, allows for the removal of acoustic waves, but also allows for large perturbations in density and/or temperature. The assumption is that the flow remains within a Mach number limit (normally less than 0.3) for any solution using such a constraint to be valid. Again, in accordance with all incompressible flows the pressure deviation must be small in comparison to the pressure base state.[2] These methods make differing assumptions about the flow, but all take into account the general form of the constraint for general flow dependent functions and .
Incompressible flow
14
Numerical approximations of incompressible flow

The stringent nature of the incompressible flow equations means that specific mathematical techniques have been devised to solve them. Some of these methods include: 1. The projection method (both approximate and exact) 2. Artificial compressibility technique (approximate) 3. Compressibility pre-conditioning
References
[1] Durran, D.R. (1989). "Improving the Anelastic Approximation" (http:/ / ams. allenpress. com/ archive/ 1520-0469/ 46/ 11/ pdf/ i1520-0469-46-11-1453. pdf). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 46 (11): 14531461. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1989)046<1453:ITAA>2.0.CO;2. . [2] Almgren, A.S.; Bell, J.B.; Rendleman, C.A.; Zingale, M. (2006). "Low Mach Number Modeling of Type Ia Supernovae. I. Hydrodynamics" (http:/ / seesar. lbl. gov/ ccse/ Publications/ car/ LowMachSNIa. pdf). Astrophysical Journal 637: 922936. doi:10.1086/498426. .
See also
Compressible flow Navier-Stokes equations
Compressible flow
Compressible fluid mechanics is a combination of the fields of traditional fluid mechanics and thermodynamics. It is related to the more general study of compressibility. In fluid dynamics, a flow is considered to be a compressible flow if the density of the fluid changes with respect to pressure. This is often the case where the Mach number (the ratio of the flow speed to the local speed of sound) of the flow exceeds 0.3.
Definition
Compressible flow theory is distinguished from incompressible flow theory in that the density can no longer be considered a constant. As such, where incompressible flow theory is governed mainly by the conservation of mass and conservation of momentum equations, compressible flows require that the conservation of energy equation also to be considered. Compressible flow appears in many natural and many technological processes. Compressible flow deals with more than air, including steam, natural gas, nitrogen and helium, etc. For instance, the flow of natural gas in a pipe system, a common method of heating in the u.s., should be considered a compressible flow. The above flows that were mentioned are called internal flows. Compressible flow also includes flow around bodies such as the wings of an airplane, and is considered an external flow. These processes include situations not expected to have a compressible flow, such as manufacturing process such as the die casting, injection molding. The die casting process is a process in which liquid metal, mostly aluminum, is injected into a mold to obtain a near final shape. The air is displaced by the liquid metal in a very rapid manner, in a matter of milliseconds, therefore the compressibility has to be taken into account. Maintaining assumption of a calorically perfect gas, these equations can be solved simultaneously to obtain temperature, pressure, and density profiles that vary with local Mach number.<1> When the Mach number of the flow is high enough so that the effects of compressibility can no longer be neglected as the flow will even out density differences. Below Mach 0.3 fluid flows experience less than a 5% change in density.
Compressible flow
15
Subsonic Compressible Flows

Compressible Flow Correction Factors
Due to the complexities of compressible flow theory, many times it is easier to first calculate the incompressible flow characteristics, and then employ a correction factor to obtain the actual flow properties. Several correction factors exist towards this end with varying degrees of complexity and accuracy. PrandtlGlauert transformation The Prandtl-Glauert transformation is found by linearizing the potential equations associated with compressible, inviscid flow. The PrandtlGlauert transformation or PrandtlGlauert rule (also PrandtlGlauertAckeret rule) is an approximation function which allows comparison of aerodynamical processes occurring at different Mach numbers. It was discovered that the linearized pressures in such a flow were equal to those found from incompressible flow theory multiplied by a correction factor. The Prandtl-Glauert correction factor will always underestimate the magnitude of the pressure within the fluid. This correction factor is given below. [1] :
where cp is the compressible pressure coefficient cp0 is the incompressible pressure coefficient M is the Mach number. This correction factor works well for all Mach numbers M<0.7 and M>1.3. It should be noted that since this correction factor is derived from linearized equations, the pressures calculated is always less in magnitude than the actual pressures within the fluid. Karman-Tsien Correction Factor The Karman-Tsien transformation is a nonlinear correction factor to find the pressure coefficient of a compressible, inviscid flow. It is an empirically derived correction factor that tends to slightly overestimate the magnitude of the fluid's pressure. In order to employ this correction factor, the incompressible, inviscid fluid pressure must be known from previous investigation.[2]
where cp is the compressible pressure coefficient cp0 is the incompressible pressure coefficient M is the Mach number. This correction factor is valid for M<0.8.
Compressible flow
16
Supersonic Flows
A flow where the local Mach number reaches or exceeds 1 can contain shock waves. A shock is an abrupt change in the properties of a flow; the typical thickness of a shock scales with the molecular mean free path in the fluid (typically a few micrometers).
Shock Waves
Shocks form because information about conditions downstream of a point of sonic or supersonic flow cannot propagate back upstream past the sonic point. A shock can occur in at least two different mechanisms. The first is when a large difference (above a small minimum value) between the two sides of a membrane, and when the membrane bursts (see the discussion about the shock tube). Of course, the shock travels from the high pressure to the low pressure side. The second is when many sound waves ``run into each other and accumulate (some refer to it as ``coalescing) into a large difference, which is the shock wave. In fact, the sound wave can be viewed as an extremely weak shock. In the speed of sound analysis, it was assumed the medium is continuous, without any abrupt changes. This assumption is no longer valid in the case of a shock.[1]
Transonic Flows
The is the behaviour of a fluid changes radically as it starts to move above the speed of sound (in that fluid), ie. when the Mach number is greater than 1. For example, in subsonic flow, a stream tube in an accelerating flow contracts, but in a supersonicflow a stream tube in an accelerating flow expands. To interpret this in another way, consider steady flow in a tube that has a sudden expansion: the tube's cross section suddenly widens, so the cross-sectional area increases, see Whitcomb area rule.
Applications
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much theory shared between them. Aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to all gases. Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. Typical properties calculated for a flow field include velocity, pressure, density and temperature as a function of position and time.
Nozzles
In subsonic flow, the fluid speed drops after the expansion (as expected). In supersonic flow, the fluid speed increases. This sounds like a contradiction, but it isn't: the mass flux is conserved but because supersonic flow allows the density to change, the volume flux is not constant. This effect is utilized in De Laval nozzles.Nozzles can be described as convergent (narrowing down from a wide diameter to a smaller diameter in the direction of the flow) or divergent (expanding from a smaller diameter to a larger one). A de Laval nozzle has a convergent section followed by a divergent section and is often called a convergent-divergent nozzle ("con-di nozzle"). Increasing the nozzle pressure ratio further will not increase the throat Mach number beyond unity. Downstream (i.e. external to the nozzle) the flow is free to expand to supersonic velocities. Note that the Mach 1 can be a very high speed for a hot gas; since the speed of sound varies as the square root of absolute temperature. Thus the speed reached at a nozzle throat can be far higher than the speed of sound at sea level. This fact is used extensively in rocketry where hypersonic flows are required, and where propellant mixtures are deliberately chosen to further increase the sonic speed.
Compressible flow
17
Shock Tubes
In addition to measurements of rates of chemical kinetics shock tubes have been used to measure dissociation energies and molecular relaxation rates they have been used in aerodynamic tests. The fluid flow in the driven gas can be used much as a wind tunnel, allowing higher temperatures and pressures therein replicating conditions in the turbine sections of jet engines. However, test times are limited to a few milliseconds, either by the arrival of the contact surface or the reflected shock wave. They have been further developed into shock tunnels, with an added nozzle and dump tank. The resultant high temperature hypersonic flow can be used to simulate atmospheric re-entry of spacecraft or hypersonic craft, again with limited testing times.
See also
Gas dynamics Transonic flow Supersonic flow Hypersonic flow Fanno flow Rayleigh flow Isothermal flow Mach number Aerodynamics Nozzles
References
[1] Erich Truckenbrodt: Fluidmechanik Band 2, 4. Auflage, Springer Verlag, 1996, p. 178-179 [2] The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1 , p.237
Shapiro, Ascher H. (1953). The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1. Ronald Press. ISBN978-0-471-06691-0. Anderson, John D. (2004). Modern Compressible Flow. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0071241361. Liepmann, H. W.; Roshko A. (2002). Elements of Gasdynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN0486419630. von Mises, Richard (2004). Mathematical Theory of Compressible Fluid Flow. Dover Publications. ISBN0486439410. Meyer, Richard E. (2007). Introduction to Mathematical Fluid Dynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-45887-3. Saad, Michael A. (1985). Compressible Fluid Flow. Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-163486-0. Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. (1995). Compressible Fluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications. Prentice Hall. ISBN 013308552X. Schreier, S. (1982). Compressible Flow. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN0-471-05691-X. Lakshminarayana, B. (1995). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN978-0-471-85546-0.
Compressible flow
18
External links
NASA Beginner's Guide to Compressible Aerodynamics (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/ bgc.html) Purdue University Compressible Flow Calculators (https://engineering.purdue.edu/~wassgren/applet/java/ comp_calculator/Index.html) (http://www.potto.org/gasDynamics/node40.php)
Isochoric process
An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains constant. In nontechnical terms, an isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed non-deformable container: The thermodynamic process is the addition or removal of heat; the isolation of the contents of the container establishes the closed system; and the inability of the container to deform imposes the constant-volume condition.
Formalism
An isochoric thermodynamic process is characterized by constant volume, i.e. pressure-volume work, since such work is defined by , where P is pressure. The sign convention is such that positive work is performed by the system on the environment. For a reversible process, the first law of thermodynamics gives the change in the system's internal energy: . The process does no
Replacing work with a change in volume gives
Since the process is isochoric,
, the previous equation now gives
Using the definition of specific heat capacity at constant volume, , Integrating both sides yields
Where
is the specific heat capacity at constant volume,
is initial temperature and
is final temperature. We
conclude with:
Isochoric process
19
On a pressure volume diagram, an isochoric process appears as a straight vertical line. Its thermodynamic conjugate, an isobaric process would appear as a straight horizontal line.
Ideal gas
If an ideal gas is used in an isochoric process, and the quantity of gas stays constant, then the increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature and pressure. Take for example a gas heated in a rigid container: the pressure and temperature of the gas will increase, but the volume will remain the same.
Isochoric Process in the Pressure volume diagram. In this diagram, pressure increases, but volume remains constant.
Ideal Otto cycle

The ideal Otto cycle is an example of an isochoric process when it is assumed that the burning of the gasoline-air mixture in an internal combustion engine car is instantaneous. There is an increase in the temperature and the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder while the volume remains the same.
Etymology
The noun isochor and the adjective isochoric are derived from the Greek words (isos) meaning "equal", and (chora) meaning "space."
References External links

http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/webnotes/Therm1/revers/isocho.htm
Compressibility factor
20
The compressibility factor (Z), also known as the compression factor, is a useful thermodynamic property for modifying the ideal gas law to account for the real gas behaviour.[1] In general, deviations from ideal behavior become more significant the closer a gas is to a phase change, the lower the temperature or the larger the pressure. Compressibility factor values are usually obtained by calculation from equations of state (EOS), such as the virial equation which take compound specific empirical constants as input. Alternatively, the compressibility factor for specific gases can be read from generalized compressibility charts[1] that plot Z as a function of pressure at constant temperature.
Definition and physical significance

The compressibility factor is defined as:
where,
is the pressure,
is the molar volume of the gas,
is the temperature, and
is the gas constant.
For an ideal gas the compressibility factor is
per definition. In many real world applications requirements for
accuracy demand that deviations from ideal gas behaviour, i.e. real gas behaviour, is taken into account. The value of generally increases with pressure and decreases with temperature. At high pressures molecules are colliding more often. This allows repulsive forces between molecules to have a noticeable effect, making the volume of the real gas ( ) greater than the volume of an ideal gas ( ) which causes to increase above one.[2] When pressures are lower, the molecules are more free to move. In this case attractive forces dominate, making The closer the gas is to its critical point or its boiling point, the more deviates from the ideal case. .
Generalized compressibility factor graphs for pure gases

The unique relationship between the compressibility factor and the reduced temperature, Tr, and the reduced pressure, Pr, was first recognized by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873 and is known as the two-parameter principle of corresponding states. The principle of corresponding states expresses the generalization that the properties of a gas which are dependent on intermolecular forces are related to the critical properties of the gas in a universal way. That provides a most important basis for developing correlations of molecular properties.
Generalized compressibility factor diagram.
As for the compressibility of gases, the principle of corresponding states indicates that any pure gas at the same reduced temperature, Tr, and reduced pressure, Pr, should have the same compressibility factor. The reduced temperature and pressure are defined as:
21
and Tc and Pc are known as the critical temperature and critical pressure of a gas. They are characteristics of each specific gas with Tc being the temperature above which it is not possible to liquify a given gas and Pc is the minimum pressure required to liquify a given gas at its critical temperature. Together they define the critical point of a fluid above which distinct liquid and gas phases of a given fluid do not exist. The pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) data for real gases varies from one pure gas to another. However, when the compressibility factors of various single-component gases are graphed versus pressure along with temperature isotherms many of the graphs exhibit similar isotherm shapes. In order to obtain a generalized graph that can be used for many different gases, the reduced pressure and temperature, Pr and Tr, are used to normalize the compressibility factor data. Figure 2 is an example of a generalized compressibility factor graph derived from hundreds of experimental P-V-T data points of 10 pure gases, namely methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, n-butane, i-pentane, n-hexane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and steam. There are more detailed generalized compressibility factor graphs based on as many as 25 or more different pure gases, such as the Nelson-Obert graphs. Such graphs are said to have an accuracy within 1-2 percent for Z values greater than 0.6 and within 4-6 percent for Z values of 0.3-0.6. The generalized compressibility factor graphs may be considerably in error for strongly polar gases which are gases for which the centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide. In such cases the estimate for Z may be in error by as much as 15-20 percent. The quantum gases hydrogen, helium, and neon do not conform to the corresponding-states behavior and the reduced pressure and temperature for those three gases should be redefined in the following manner to improve the accuracy of predicting their compressibility factors when using the generalized graphs: and
Theoretical models
The virial equation is especially useful to describe the causes of non-ideality at a molecular level (very few gases are mono-atomic) as it is derived directly from statistical mechanics:
Where the coefficients in the numerator are known as virial coefficients and are functions of temperature. The virial coefficients account for interactions between successively larger groups of molecules. For example, B accounts for interactions between pairs, C for interactions between three gas molecules, and so on. Because interactions between large numbers of molecules are rare, the virial equation is usually truncated after the third term.[3] The Real gas article features more theoretical methods to compute compressibility factors
Experimental values
It is extremely difficult to generalize at what pressures or temperatures the deviation from the ideal gas becomes important. As a rule of thumb, the ideal gas law is reasonably accurate up to a pressure of about 2 atm, and even higher for small non-associating molecules. For example methyl chloride, a highly polar molecule and therefore with significant intermolecular forces, the experimental value for the compressibility factor is Z=0.9152 at a pressure of 10 atm and temperature of 100 C[4] . For air (small non-polar molecules) at approximately the same conditions, the compressibility factor is only Z=1.0025 (see table below for 10 bars, 400 K).
22
Compressibility of air
Normal air comprises in crude numbers 80 percent nitrogen N2 and 20 percent oxygen O2. Both molecules are small and non-polar (and therefore non-associating). We can therefore expect that the behaviour of air within broad temperature and pressure ranges can be approximated as an ideal gas with reasonable accuracy. Experimental values for the compressibility factor confirm this.
Z for air as function of pressure 1-500 bar
75-200 K isotherms
250-1000 K isotherms
Compressibility factor for air (experimental values)

Pressure, bar (absolute) Temp, K 1 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400 500
75 0.0052 0.0260 0.0519 0.1036 0.2063 0.3082 0.4094 0.5099 0.7581 1.0125 80 0.0250 0.0499 0.0995 0.1981 0.2958 0.3927 0.4887 0.7258 0.9588 1.1931 1.4139
90 0.9764 0.0236 0.0453 0.0940 0.1866 0.2781 0.3686 0.4681 0.6779 0.8929 1.1098 1.3110 1.7161 2.1105 100 0.9797 0.8872 0.0453 0.0900 0.1782 0.2635 0.3498 0.4337 0.6386 0.8377 1.0395 1.2227 1.5937 1.9536 120 0.9880 0.9373 0.8860 0.6730 0.1778 0.2557 0.3371 0.4132 0.5964 0.7720 0.9530 1.1076 1.5091 1.7366 140 0.9927 0.9614 0.9205 0.8297 0.5856 0.3313 0.3737 0.4340 0.5909 0.7699 0.9114 1.0393 1.3202 1.5903 160 0.9951 0.9748 0.9489 0.8954 0.7803 0.6603 0.5696 0.5489 0.6340 0.7564 0.8840 1.0105 1.2585 1.4970 180 0.9967 0.9832 0.9660 0.9314 0.8625 0.7977 0.7432 0.7084 0.7180 0.7986 0.9000 1.0068 1.2232 1.4361 200 0.9978 0.9886 0.9767 0.9539 0.9100 0.8701 0.8374 0.8142 0.8061 0.8549 0.9311 1.0185 1.2054 1.3944 250 0.9992 0.9957 0.9911 0.9822 0.9671 0.9549 0.9463 0.9411 0.9450 0.9713 1.0152 1.0702 1.1990 1.3392 300 0.9999 0.9987 0.9974 0.9950 0.9917 0.9901 0.9903 0.9930 1.0074 1.0326 1.0669 1.1089 1.2073 1.3163 350 1.0000 1.0002 1.0004 1.0014 1.0038 1.0075 1.0121 1.0183 1.0377 1.0635 1.0947 1.1303 1.2116 1.3015 400 1.0002 1.0012 1.0025 1.0046 1.0100 1.0159 1.0229 1.0312 1.0533 1.0795 1.1087 1.1411 1.2117 1.2890 450 1.0003 1.0016 1.0034 1.0063 1.0133 1.0210 1.0287 1.0374 1.0614 1.0913 1.1183 1.1463 1.2090 1.2778 500 1.0003 1.0020 1.0034 1.0074 1.0151 1.0234 1.0323 1.0410 1.0650 1.0913 1.1183 1.1463 1.2051 1.2667 600 1.0004 1.0022 1.0039 1.0081 1.0164 1.0253 1.0340 1.0434 1.0678 1.0920 1.1172 1.1427 1.1947 1.2475 800 1.0004 1.0020 1.0038 1.0077 1.0157 1.0240 1.0321 1.0408 1.0621 1.0844 1.1061 1.1283 1.1720 1.2150 1000 1.0004 1.0018 1.0037 1.0068 1.0142 1.0215 1.0290 1.0365 1.0556 1.0744 1.0948 1.1131 1.1515 1.1889
Compressibility factor Source: Perry's chemical engineers' handbook (6ed ed.). MCGraw-Hill. 1984. ISBN0-07-049479-7. (table 3-162). Z-value are calculated from values of pressure, volume (or density), and temperature in Vassernan, Kazavchinskii, and Rabinovich, "Thermophysical Properties of Air and Air Components;' Moscow, Nauka, 1966, and NBS-NSF Trans. TT 70-50095, 1971: and Vassernan and Rabinovich, "Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Air and Its Component, "Moscow, 1968, and NBS-NSF Trans. 69-55092, 1970.
23
Compressibility of ammonia gas

Ammonia is small but highly polar molecule with significant interactions. Values can be obtained from Perry 4th ed (awaits future library visit)
See also
Real gas Theorem of corresponding states Principle of corresponding states Van der Waals equation
References
[1] Properties of Natural Gases (http:/ / iptibm1. ipt. ntnu. no/ ~jsg/ undervisning/ naturgass/ parlaktuna/ Chap3. pdf). Includes a chart of compressibility factors versus reduced pressure and reduced temperature (on last page of the PDF document) [2] McQuarrie, Donald A. and Simon, John D. (1999). Molecular Thermodynamics. University Science Books. ISBN1-891389-05-X. page 55 [3] Smith, J.M. et al. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics (Seventh Edition ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN0-07-310445-0. page73 [4] Perry's chemical engineers' handbook (6ed ed.). MCGraw-Hill. 1984. ISBN0-07-049479-7. page 3-268
External links
Compressibility factor (gases) (http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Compressibility_factor_(gases)) A Citizendium article. Real Gases (http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/realgas.html) includes a discussion of compressibility factors. Compressibility factor calculator (http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/welcome-to-enggcyclopedia/ thermodynamics/compressibility-factors-for-gases)
Solenoidal vector field
24
Solenoidal vector field

In vector calculus a solenoidal vector field (also known as an incompressible vector field) is a vector field v with divergence zero:
The fundamental theorem of vector calculus states that any vector field can be expressed as the sum of an irrotational and a solenoidal field. The condition of zero divergence is satisfied whenever a vector field v has only a vector potential component, because the definition of the vector potential A as:
automatically results in the identity (as can be shown, for example, using Cartesian coordinates):
The converse also holds: for any solenoidal v there exists a vector potential A such that speaking, this holds only subject to certain technical conditions on v, see Helmholtz decomposition.)
(Strictly
The divergence theorem, gives the equivalent integral definition of a solenoidal field; namely that for any closed surface , the net total flux through the surface must be zero: , where is the outward normal to each surface element.
Etymology
Solenoidal has its origin in the Greek word for solenoid, which is (slnoeids) and meaning pipe-shaped. This contains (sln) or pipe. In the present context of solenoidal it means constrained like in a pipe, so with a fixed volume.
Examples
the magnetic field B is solenoidal (see Maxwell's equations); the velocity field of an incompressible fluid flow is solenoidal; the vorticity field is solenoidal the electric field D in regions where e = 0; the current density, J, if .
References
Aris, Rutherford (1989), Vectors, tensors, and the basic equations of fluid mechanics, Dover, ISBN0486661105
Conservative vector field
25

In vector calculus a conservative vector field is a vector field which is the gradient of a function, known in this context as a scalar potential. Conservative vector fields have the property that the line integral from one point to another is independent of the choice of path connecting the two points: it is path independent. Conversely, path independence is equivalent to the vector field being conservative. Conservative vector fields are also irrotational, meaning that (in three-dimensions) they have vanishing curl. In fact, an irrotational vector field is necessarily conservative provided that a certain condition on the geometry of the domain holds: it must be simply connected. An irrotational vector field which is also solenoidal is called a Laplacian vector field because it is the gradient of a solution of Laplace's equation.
Definition
A vector field the gradient of solenoidal field. is said to be conservative if there exists a scalar field . When the above equation holds, such that : Here denotes is called a scalar potential for . The fundamental theorem
of vector calculus states that any vector field can be expressed as the sum of a conservative vector field and a
Path independence
A key property of a conservative vector field is that its integral along a path depends only on the endpoints of that path, not the particular route taken. Suppose that is a region of three-dimensional space, and that is a rectifiable path in with start point and end point . If is a conservative vector field then
This holds as a consequence of the Chain Rule and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. An equivalent formulation of this is to say that
for every closed loop in S. The converse is also true: if the circulation of v around every closed loop in an open set S is zero, then v is a conservative vector field.
26
Irrotational vector fields

A vector field is said to be irrotational if its curl is zero. That is, if
The above field v(x,y,z)=(y/(x2+y2),+x/(x2+y2),0) includes a vortex at its center, so it is non-irrotational; it is neither conservative, nor does it have path independence. However, any simply connected subset that excludes the vortex line (0,0,z) will have zero curl, v=0. Such vortex-free regions are examples of irrotational vector fields.
For this reason, such vector fields are sometimes referred to as curl-free vector fields. It is an identity of vector calculus that for any scalar field :
Therefore every conservative vector field is also an irrotational vector field. Provided that is a simply-connected region, the converse of this is true: every irrotational vector field is also a is not simply-connected. Let be the usual 3-dimensional space, except with conservative vector field. The above statement is not true if the -axis removed; that is . Now define a vector field by
Then
exists and has zero curl at every point in -plane is equal to
; that is
is irrotational. However the circulation of
around
the unit circle in the
. Therefore
does not have the path independence property
discussed above, and is not conservative. In a simply-connected region an irrotational vector field has the path independence property. This can be seen by noting that in such a region an irrotational vector field is conservative, and conservative vector fields have the path independence property. The result can also be proved directly by using Stokes' theorem. In a connected region any vector field which has the path independence property must also be irrotational.
Conservative vector field More abstractly, a conservative vector field is an exact 1-form. That is, it is a 1-form equal to the exterior derivative of some 0-form (scalar field) . An irrotational vector field is a closed 1-form. Since d2 = 0, any exact form is closed, so any conservative vector field is irrotational. The domain is simply connected if and only if its first homology group is 0, which is equivalent to its first cohomology group being 0. The first de Rham cohomology group is 0 if and only if all closed 1-forms are exact.
27
Irrotational flows
The flow velocity of a fluid is a vector field, and the vorticity .[1] of the flow can be defined by
A common alternative notation for vorticity is If is irrotational, with

[2]
, then the flow is said to be an irrotational flow. The vorticity of an
irrotational flow is zero.
Kelvin's circulation theorem states that a fluid that is irrotational in an inviscid flow will remain irrotational. This result can be derived from the vorticity transport equation, obtained by taking the curl of the Navier-stokes equations. For a two-dimensional flow the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation of fluid elements. Note that the vorticity does not imply anything about the global behaviour of a fluid. It is possible for a fluid traveling in a straight line to have vorticity, and it is possible for a fluid which moves in a circle to be irrotational.
Conservative forces
If the vector field associated to a force is conservative then the force is said to be a conservative force. The most prominent example of a conservative force is the force of gravity. According to Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force, , acting on a mass , due to a mass which is a distance away, obeys the equation
where
is the Gravitational Constant and
is a unit vector pointing from
towards
. The force of gravity is
conservative because
, where
is the Gravitational potential energy. For conservative forces, path independence can be interpreted to mean that the work done in going from a point to a point is independent of the path chosen, and that the work W done in going around a closed loop is zero:
The total energy of a particle moving under the influence of conservative forces is conserved, in the sense that a loss of potential energy is converted to an equal quantity of kinetic energy or vice versa.
28
See also
Beltrami vector field Complex lamellar vector field Helmholtz decomposition Solenoidal vector field Longitudinal and transverse vector fields
References
George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 6th edition, Elsevier Academic Press (2005) D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics, Oxford University Press (2005)
Notes
[1] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 7.11, Pitman Publishing Limited, London. ISBN 0 273 01120 0 [2] Liepmann, H.W.; Roshko, A. (1993) [1957], Elements of gasdynamics, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN0486419630, pp. 194196.
Laplacian vector field

In vector calculus, a Laplacian vector field is a vector field which is both irrotational and incompressible. If the field is denoted as v, then it is described by the following differential equations:
A Laplacian vector field in the plane satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations: it is holomorphic. Since the curl of v is zero, it follows that v can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential (see irrotational field) : . Then, since the divergence of v is also zero, it follows from equation (1) that
which is equivalent to . Therefore, the potential of a Laplacian field satisfies Laplace's equation.
Stokes' law
29
Stokes' law
In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression, now known as Stokes' law, for the frictional force also called drag force exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers (e.g., very small particles) in a continuous viscous fluid. Stokes' law is derived by solving the Stokes flow limit for small Reynolds numbers of the generally unsolvable NavierStokes equations:[1]
Creeping flow past a sphere: streamlines, drag force Fd and force by gravity Fg.
where: Fd is the frictional force acting on the interface between the fluid and the particle (in N), is the fluid's viscosity (in [kg m-1 s-1]), R is the radius of the spherical object (in m), and v is the particle's velocity (in m/s). If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight due to gravity, then a terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is reached when this frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly balance the gravitational force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity) is given by:[2]
where: vs is the particles' settling velocity (m/s) (vertically downwards if p>f, upwards if p<f), g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2), p is the mass density of the particles (kg/m3), and f is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m3).
Note that for molecules Stokes' law is used to define their Stokes radius. The CGS unit of kinematic viscosity was named "stokes" after his work.
Stokes' law
30
Applications
Stokes's law is the basis of the falling-sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerine or golden syrup as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. It includes many different oils, and polymer liquids such as solutions. The importance of Stokes' law is illustrated by the fact that it played a critical role in the research leading to at least 3 Nobel Prizes.[3] Stokes' law is important to understanding the swimming of microorganisms and sperm; also, the sedimentation, under the force of gravity, of small particles and organisms, in water.[4] In air, the same theory can be used to explain why small water droplets (or ice crystals) can remain suspended in air (as clouds) until they grow to a critical size and start falling as rain (or snow and hail). Similar use of the equation can be made in the settlement of fine particles in water or other fluids.
Stokes flow around a sphere

Steady Stokes flow
In Stokes flow, at very low Reynolds number, the convective acceleration terms in the NavierStokes equations are neglected. Then the flow equations become, for an incompressible steady flow:[5]
where: p is the fluid pressure (in Pa), u is the flow velocity (in m/s), and is the vorticity (in s-1), defined as By using some vector calculus identities, these equations can be shown to result in Laplace's equations for the pressure and each of the components of the vorticity vector:[5] and Additional forces like those by gravity and buoyancy have not been taken into account, but can easily be added since the above equations are linear, so linear superposition of solutions and associated forces can be applied.
Flow around a sphere

For the case of a sphere in a uniform far field flow, it is advantageous to use a cylindrical coordinate system (r,,z). The zaxis is through the centre of the sphere and aligned with the mean flow direction, while r is the radius as measured perpendicular to the zaxis. The origin is at the sphere centre. Because the flow is axisymmetric around the zaxis, it is independent of the azimuth . In this cylindrical coordinate system, the incompressible flow can be described with a Stokes stream function , depending on r and z:[6] [7]
Stokes' law with v and w the flow velocity components in the r and z direction, respectively. The azimuthal velocity component in the direction is equal to zero, in this axisymmetric case. The volume flux, through a tube bounded by a surface of some constant value , is equal to 2 and is constant.[6] For this case of an axisymmetric flow, the only non-zero of the vorticity vector is the azimuthal component [8] [9]
31
The Laplace operator, applied to the vorticity , becomes in this cylindrical coordinate system with axisymmetry:[9]
From the previous two equations, and with the appropriate boundary conditions, for a far-field uniform-flow velocity V in the zdirection and a sphere of radius R, the solution is found to be[10]
The viscous force per unit area , exerted by the flow on the surface on the sphere, is in the zdirection everywhere. More strikingly, it has also the same value everywhere on the sphere:[1]
with ez the unit vector in the zdirection. For other shapes than spherical, is not constant along the body surface. Integration of the viscous force per unit area over the sphere surface gives the frictional force Fd according to Stokes' law.
Terminal velocity and settling time

At terminal velocity or settling velocity the frictional force Fd on the sphere is balanced by the excess force Fg due to the difference of the weight of the sphere and its buoyancy, both caused by gravity:[2]
with p and f the mass density of the sphere and the fluid, respectively, and g the gravitational acceleration. Demanding force balance: Fd=Fg and solving for the velocity V gives the terminal velocity Vs. If terminal velocity is reached relatively quickly, an average settling time can be calculated by dividing the height the particle will fall by its terminal velocity.
Notes
[1] Batchelor (1967), p. 233. [2] Lamb (1994), 337, p. 599. [3] Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale, p.49. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6. [4] Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6. [5] Batchelor (1967), section 4.9, p. 229. [6] Batchelor (1967), section 2.2, p. 78. [7] Lamb (1994), 94, p. 126. [8] Batchelor (1967), section 4.9, p. 230 [9] Batchelor (1967), appendix 2, p. 602. [10] Lamb (1994), 337, p. 598.
Stokes' law
32
References
Batchelor, G.K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521663962. Lamb, H. (1994). Hydrodynamics (6th edition ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN9780521458689. Originally published in 1879, the 6th extended edition appeared first in 1932.
Projection method (fluid dynamics)

The projection method is an effective means of numerically solving time-dependent incompressible fluid-flow problems. It was originally introduced by Alexandre Chorin in 1967 and independently by Roger Temam[1] as an efficient means of solving the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations. The key advantage of the projection method is that the computations of the velocity and the pressure fields are decoupled.
The algorithm
The algorithm of projection method is based on the Helmholtz decomposition (sometimes called Helmholtz-Hodge decomposition) of any vector field into a solenoidal part and an irrotational part. Typically, the algorithm consists of two stages. In the first stage, an intermediate velocity that does not satisfy the incompressibility constraint is computed at each time step. In the second, the pressure is used to project the intermediate velocity onto a space of divergence-free velocity field to get the next update of velocity and pressure.
HelmholtzHodge decomposition
The theoretical background of projection type method is the decomposition theorem of Ladyzhenskaya sometimes referred to as HelmholtzHodge Decomposition or simply as Hodge decomposition. It states that the vector field defined on a simply connected domain can be uniquely decomposed into a divergence-free (solenoidal) part and an irrotational part .[2] Thus,
since
for some scalar function,
. Taking the divergence of equation yields
This is a Poisson equation for the scalar function solved for the scalar function
. If the vector field
is known, the above equation can be
and the divergence part of
can be extracted using the relation
This is the essence of solenoidal projection method for solving incompressible NavierStokes equations.
Chorin's projection method

The incompressible Navier-Stokes equation (differential form of momentum equation) may be written as
In Chorin's original version of the projection method [3] , the intermediate velocity, the momentum equation ignoring the pressure gradient term:
, is explicitly computed using
where
is the velocity at
th
time level. In the next (projection) step, we have
Projection method (fluid dynamics)
33
Re-writing the above equation for the velocity at
level, we have
Computing the right-hand side of the above equation requires a knowledge of the pressure, This is obtained by taking the divergence and requiring that divergence-free(continuity) condition, thereby deriving the following Poisson equation for
, at , , which
level. is the
It is instructive to note that, the equation written in the following way
is the standard Hodge decomposition if boundary condition for . For the explicit method, the boundary condition for
on the domain boundary,
is on , is
in equation (1) is natural. If
prescribed, then the space of divergence-free vector field will be orthogonal to the space of irrotational vector fields, and from equation (2) one has
The explicit treatment of the boundary condition may be circumvented by using a staggered grid and requiring that vanish at the pressure nodes that are adjacent to the boundaries. A distinguishing feature of Chorin's projection method is that the velocity field is forced to satisfy a discrete continuity constraint at the end of each time step.
General method
Typically the projection method operates as a two-stage fractional step scheme, a method which uses multiple calculation steps for each numerical time-step. In many projection algorithms, the steps are split as follows: 1. First the system is progressed in time to a mid-time-step position, solving the above transport equations for mass and momentum using a suitable advection method. This is denoted the predictor step. 2. At this point an initial projection may be implemented such that the mid-time-step velocity field is enforced as divergence free. 3. The corrector part of the algorithm is then progressed. These use the time-centred estimates of the velocity, density, etc. to form final time-step state. 4. A final projection is then applied to enforce the divergence restraint on the velocity field. The system has now been fully updated to the new time.
References
[1] Temam, R. (1968), "Une mthode d'approximation des solutions des quations Navier-Stokes,", Bull. Soc. Math. France 98: 115152 [2] Chorin, A. J.; J. E. Marsden (2000). A Mathematical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (3rd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN0387979182. [3] Chorin, A. J. (1968), "Numerical Solution of the Navier-Stokes Equations", Math. Comp. 22: 745762
Mach number
34
Mach number
Mach number ( or ) (generally pronounced /mk/, sometimes /mx/ or /mk/) is the speed of an object moving through air, or any other fluid substance, divided by the speed of sound as it is in that substance for its particular physical conditions, including those of temperature and pressure. It is commonly used to represent the speed of an object when it is travelling close to or above the speed of sound.
An F/A-18 Hornet at transonic speed and displaying the PrandtlGlauert singularity just before reaching the speed of sound
where is the Mach number is the relative velocity of the source to the medium and is the speed of sound in the medium The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, a designation proposed by aeronautical engineer Jakob Ackeret. Because the Mach number is often viewed as a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit; the second Mach number is "Mach 2" instead of "2 Mach" (or Machs). This is somewhat reminiscent of the early modern ocean sounding unit "mark" (a synonym for fathom), which was also unit-first, and may have influenced the use of the term Mach. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Mach's number, never "Mach 1."[1] In French, the Mach number is sometimes called the "nombre de Sarrau" ("Sarrau number") after mile Sarrau, researching on explosions in the 1870s and 1880s.[2]
Overview
The Mach number is commonly used both with objects traveling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles, diffusers or wind tunnels. As it is defined as a ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. At Standard Sea Level conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius), the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s[3] (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 661.5 knots, or 1116 ft/s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is mostly dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition and largely independent of pressure. In the stratosphere, where the temperatures are constant, it does not vary with altitude even though the air pressure changes significantly with altitude. Since the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases, the actual speed of an object traveling at Mach 1 will depend on the fluid temperature around it. Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar way at
Mach number the same Mach number. So, an aircraft traveling at Mach 1 at 20C or 68F will experience shock waves in much the same manner as when it is traveling at Mach 1 at 11,000 m (36,000 ft) at -50C or -58F, even though it is traveling at only 86% of its speed at higher temperature like 20C or 68F.
35
High-speed flow around objects

Flight can be roughly classified in six categories:
Regime Mach Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic High-hypersonic <0.75 0.751.2 1.0 1.25.0 5.010.0 >10.0
For comparison: the required speed for low Earth orbit is approximately 7.5 km/s = Mach 25.4 in air at high altitudes. The speed of light in a vacuum corresponds to a Mach number of approximately 881,000 (relative to air at sea level). At transonic speeds, the flow field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M>1 flow appear around the object. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to subsonic only in a normal shock; this typically happens before the trailing edge. (Fig.1a) As the speed increases, the zone of M>1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges. As M=1 is reached and passed, the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak oblique shock: the flow decelerates over the shock, but remains supersonic. A normal shock is created ahead of the object, and the only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the object's leading edge. (Fig.1b)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. Mach number in transonic airflow around an airfoil; M<1 (a) and M>1 (b). When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This abrupt pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called Mach cone). It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as a fast moving aircraft travels overhead. A person inside the aircraft will not hear this. The higher the speed, the more narrow the cone; at just over M=1 it is hardly a cone at all, but closer to a slightly concave plane. At fully supersonic speed, the shock wave starts to take its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic, or (in case of a blunt object), only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the object's nose and the shock wave it creates ahead of itself. (In the case of a sharp object, there is no air between the nose and the shock wave: the shock wave starts from the nose.) As the Mach number increases, so does the strength of the shock wave and the Mach cone becomes increasingly narrow. As the fluid flow crosses the shock wave, its speed is reduced and temperature, pressure, and density increase. The stronger the shock, the greater the changes. At high enough Mach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin. Such flows are called hypersonic. It is clear that any object traveling at hypersonic speeds will likewise be exposed to the same extreme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shock wave, and hence choice of heat-resistant materials becomes important.
Mach number
36
High-speed flow in a channel

As a flow in a channel crosses M=1 becomes supersonic, one significant change takes place. The conservation of mass flow rate leads one to expect that contracting the flow channel would increase the flow speed (i.e. making the channel narrower results in faster air flow) and at subsonic speeds this holds true. However, once the flow becomes supersonic, the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed: expanding the channel actually increases the speed. The obvious result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic, one needs a convergent-divergent nozzle, where the converging section accelerates the flow to M=1, sonic speeds, and the diverging section continues the acceleration. Such nozzles are called de Laval nozzles and in extreme cases they are able to reach incredible, hypersonic speeds (Mach 13 at 20C). An aircraft Machmeter or electronic flight information system (EFIS) can display Mach number derived from stagnation pressure (pitot tube) and static pressure.
Calculating Mach Number

Assuming air to be an ideal gas, the formula to compute Mach number in a subsonic compressible flow is derived from Bernoulli's equation for M<1:[4]
where: is Mach number is impact pressure and is static pressure is the ratio of specific heat of a gas at a constant pressure to heat at a constant volume (1.4 for air). The formula to compute Mach number in a supersonic compressible flow is derived from the Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot equation:
or for air, a simplfied formula:
where: is now impact pressure measured behind a normal shock. The Mach number at which an aircraft is flying at can be calculated by
where: is Mach number is velocity of the moving aircraft and is the speed of sound at the given altitude Note that the dynamic pressure can be found as:
Mach number
37
See also
Critical Mach number Machmeter Ramjet Scramjet Speed of sound True airspeed
Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Bodie, Warren M., The Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Widewing Publications ISBN 0-9629359-0-5 Blackmore, John T. (1972). Ernst Mach: his live, work, and influence. University of California Press. p.112. ISBN9780520018495. Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Table 1, Pitman Publishing London, ISBN 0 273 01120 0 Olson, Wayne M. (2002). "AFFTC-TIH-99-02, Aircraft Performance Flight Testing." (PDF). Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, CA, United States Air Force.
External links
Gas Dynamics Toolbox (http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~alexeenk/GDT/index.html) Calculate Mach number and normal shock wave parameters for mixtures of perfect and imperfect gases. NASA's page on Mach Number (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/mach.html) Interactive calculator for Mach number. NewByte standard atmosphere calculator and speed converter (http://www.newbyte.co.il/calc.html)
Viscosity
38
Viscosity
Viscosity
Clear liquid above has lower viscosity than the substance below SI symbol: SI unit: , Pas= kg/(sm)
Derivations from other quantities: = Gt
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).[1] Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity felsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. The study of flowing matter is known as rheology, which includes viscosity and related concepts.
Viscosity
39
Etymology
The word "viscosity" derives from the Latin word "viscum alba" for mistletoe. A viscous glue called birdlime was made from mistletoe berries and used for lime-twigs to catch birds.[2]
Properties and behavior

Overview
In general, in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the shear stress between the layers that ultimately opposes any applied force. The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained by considering two plates closely spaced at a distance y, and separated by a homogeneous substance. Assuming that the plates are very large, with a large area A, such that edge effects may be ignored, and that the Laminar shear of fluid between two plates. Friction between the fluid and the moving lower plate is fixed, let a force F be boundaries causes the fluid to shear. The force required for this action is a measure of the fluid's viscosity. This type of flow is known as a Couette flow. applied to the upper plate. If this force causes the substance between the plates to undergo shear flow at velocity u (as opposed to just shearing elastically until the shear stress in the substance balances the applied force), the substance is called a fluid. The applied force is proportional to the area and velocity of the plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. Combining these three relations results in the equation:
Viscosity
40
Laminar shear, the non-constant gradient, is a result of the geometry the fluid is flowing through (e.g. a pipe).
, where is the proportionality factor called viscosity. This equation can be expressed in terms of shear stress . Thus as expressed in differential form by Isaac
Newton for straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress between layers is proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the layers:
Hence, through this method, the relation between the shear stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained. Note that the rate of shear deformation is which can be also written as a shear velocity, .
James Clerk Maxwell called viscosity fugitive elasticity because of the analogy that elastic deformation opposes shear stress in solids, while in viscous fluids, shear stress is opposed by rate of deformation.
Viscosity
41
Types of viscosity
Viscosity, the slope of each line, varies among materials
Newton's law of viscosity, given above, is a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law, Ohm's law). It is not a fundamental law of nature but an approximation that holds in some materials and fails in others. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a more complicated relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient than simple linearity. Thus there exist a number of forms of viscosity: Newtonian: fluids, such as water and most gases which have a constant viscosity. Shear thickening: viscosity increases with the rate of shear. Shear thinning: viscosity decreases with the rate of shear. Thixotropic: materials which become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed. Rheopectic: materials which become more viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed. A Bingham plastic is a material that behaves as a solid at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stresses. A magnetorheological fluid is a type of "smart fluid" which, when subjected to a magnetic field, greatly increases its apparent viscosity, to the point of becoming a viscoelastic solid.
Viscosity
42
Viscosity coefficients
Viscosity coefficients can be defined in two ways: Dynamic viscosity, also absolute viscosity, the more usual one (typical units Pas, Poise, cP); Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density (typical units m2/s, Stokes, cSt). Viscosity is a tensorial quantity that can be decomposed in different ways into two independent components. The most usual decomposition yields the following viscosity coefficients: Shear viscosity, the most important one, often referred to as simply viscosity, describing the reaction to applied shear stress; simply put, it is the ratio between the pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in velocity of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is what is referred to as a velocity gradient). Volume viscosity (also called bulk viscosity or second viscosity) becomes important only for such effects where fluid compressibility is essential. Examples would include shock waves and sound propagation. It appears in the Stokes' law (sound attenuation) that describes propagation of sound in Newtonian liquid. Alternatively, Extensional viscosity, a linear combination of shear and bulk viscosity, describes the reaction to elongation, widely used for characterizing polymers. For example, at room temperature, water has a dynamic shear viscosity of about 1.0103Pas and motor oil of about 250103Pas.[3]
Viscosity measurement
Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. A rheometer is used for those fluids which cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 C. For some fluids, viscosity is a constant over a wide range of shear rates (Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a constant viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate. One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer. In paint industries, viscosity is commonly measured with a Zahn cup, in which the efflux time is determined and given to customers. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic viscosities (centistokes, cSt) through the conversion equations. Also used in paint, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers. A Ford viscosity cup measures the rate of flow of a liquid. This, under ideal conditions, is proportional to the kinematic viscosity. Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. These models such as the Dynatrol use vibration rather than rotation to measure viscosity. Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rheometers that apply extensional stress. Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rheometer. Apparent viscosity is a calculation derived from tests performed on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required.
Viscosity
43
Units
Dynamic viscosity
The usual symbol for dynamic viscosity used by mechanical and chemical engineers as well as fluid dynamicists is the Greek letter mu ().[4] [5] [6] The symbol is also used by chemists, physicists, and the IUPAC.[7] The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-second (Pas), (equivalent to Ns/m2, or kg/(ms)). If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pas is placed between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one second. The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise[8] (P), named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). Water at 20 C has a viscosity of 1.0020 cP or 0.001002 kg/(ms). 1 P = 1 gcm1s1. 1 Pas = 1 kgm1s1 = 10 P. The relation to the SI unit is 1 P = 0.1 Pas, 1 cP = 1 mPas = 0.001 Pas.
Kinematic viscosity
In many situations, we are concerned with the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force (i.e. the Reynolds number, ) , the latter characterized by the fluid density . This ratio is characterized by the kinematic viscosity (Greek letter nu, ), defined as follows:
The SI unit of is m2/s. The SI unit of is kg/m3. The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is sometimes expressed in terms of centistokes (cSt or ctsk). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form. 1 St = 1 cm2s1 = 104 m2s1. 1 cSt = 1 mm2s1 = 106m2s1. Water at 20 C has a kinematic viscosity of about 1 cSt. The kinematic viscosity is sometimes referred to as diffusivity of momentum, because it has the same unit as and is comparable to diffusivity of heat and diffusivity of mass. It is therefore used in dimensionless numbers which compare the ratio of the diffusivities.
Fluidity
The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity, usually symbolized by =1/ or F=1/, depending on the convention used, measured in reciprocal poise (cmsg1), sometimes called the rhe. Fluidity is seldom used in engineering practice. The concept of fluidity can be used to determine the viscosity of an ideal solution. For two components the fluidity when a and b are mixed is and ,
which is only slightly simpler than the equivalent equation in terms of viscosity:
Viscosity where a and b is the mole fraction of component a and b respectively, and a and b are the components pure viscosities.
44
Non-standard units
The Reyn is a British unit of dynamic viscosity. Viscosity index is a measure for the change of kinematic viscosity with temperature. It is used to characterise lubricating oil in the automotive industry. At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the Saybolt viscometer, and expressing kinematic viscosity in units of Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS).[9] Other abbreviations such as SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal) or SUV (Saybolt Universal Viscosity) are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistoke can be converted from SUS according to the arithmetic and the reference table provided in ASTM D 2161.[10]
Molecular origins
The viscosity of a system is determined by how molecules constituting the system interact. There are no simple but correct expressions for the viscosity of a fluid. The simplest exact expressions are the GreenKubo relations for the linear shear viscosity or the Transient Time Correlation Function expressions derived by Evans and Morriss in 1985. Although these expressions are each exact in order to calculate the viscosity of a dense fluid, using these relations requires the use of molecular dynamics computer simulations.
Gases
Viscosity in gases arises principally from the molecular diffusion that transports momentum between layers of flow. The kinetic theory of gases allows accurate prediction of the behavior of gaseous viscosity. Within the regime where the theory is applicable: Viscosity is independent of pressure and Viscosity increases as temperature increases.[12]
[11] James Clerk Maxwell published a famous paper in 1866 using the (2.31011) times that of water. [13] kinetic theory of gases to study gaseous viscosity. To understand why the viscosity is independent of pressure consider two adjacent boundary layers (A and B) moving with respect to each other. The internal friction (the viscosity) of the gas is determined by the probability a particle of layer A enters layer B with a corresponding transfer of momentum. Maxwell's calculations showed him that the viscosity coefficient is proportional to both the density, the mean free path and the mean velocity of the atoms. On the other hand, the mean free path is inversely proportional to the density. So an increase of pressure doesn't result in any change of the viscosity. Pitch has a viscosity approximately 230 billion
Viscosity Relation to mean free path of diffusing particles In relation to diffusion, the kinematic viscosity provides a better understanding of the behavior of mass transport of a dilute species. Viscosity is related to shear stress and the rate of shear in a fluid, which illustrates its dependence on the mean free path, , of the diffusing particles. From fluid mechanics, for a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress, , on a unit area moving parallel to itself, is found to be proportional to the rate of change of velocity with distance perpendicular to the unit area:
45
for a unit area parallel to the x-z plane, moving along the x axis. We will derive this formula and show how is related to . Interpreting shear stress as the time rate of change of momentum, p, per unit area A (rate of momentum flux) of an arbitrary control surface gives
where
is the average velocity along x of fluid molecules hitting the unit area, with respect to the unit area.
Further manipulation will show[14]
, assuming that molecules hitting the unit area come from all distances between 0 and (equally distributed), and that their average velocities change linearly with distance (always true for small enough ). From this follows:
where is the rate of fluid mass hitting the surface, is the density of the fluid, is the average molecular speed ( is the dynamic viscosity. Effect of temperature on the viscosity of a gas Sutherland's formula can be used to derive the dynamic viscosity of an ideal gas as a function of the temperature:[15] ),
This in turn is equal to where in Sutherland's formula: = dynamic viscosity in (Pas) at input temperature T, 0 = reference viscosity in (Pas) at reference temperature T0, T = input temperature in kelvins, T0 = reference temperature in kelvins, C = Sutherland's constant for the gaseous material in question. which is a constant.
Viscosity Valid for temperatures between 0 < T < 555 K with an error due to pressure less than 10% below 3.45 MPa. Sutherland's constant and reference temperature for some gases
Gas air nitrogen oxygen carbon dioxide C [K] 120 111 127 240 T0 [K] 0 [Pas] 291.15 18.27 300.55 17.81 292.25 20.18 293.15 14.8 288.15 17.2 293.85 8.76 293.15 9.82 293.65 12.54 [16] 273 19 [17]
46
carbon monoxide 118 hydrogen ammonia sulfur dioxide helium 72 370 416 79.4
See also [18]. Viscosity of a dilute gas The Chapman-Enskog equation[19] may be used to estimate viscosity for a dilute gas. This equation is based on a semi-theoretical assumption by Chapman and Enskog. The equation requires three empirically determined parameters: the collision diameter (), the maximum energy of attraction divided by the Boltzmann constant (/) and the collision integral ((T*)).
with T* = T/ reduced temperature (dimensionless), 0 = viscosity for dilute gas (Pa.s), M = molecular mass (g/mol), T = temperature (K), = the collision diameter (), / = the maximum energy of attraction divided by the Boltzmann constant (K), = the collision integral.
Viscosity
47
Liquids
In liquids, the additional forces between molecules become important. This leads to an additional contribution to the shear stress though the exact mechanics of this are still controversial. Thus, in liquids: Viscosity is independent of pressure (except at very high pressure); and Viscosity tends to fall as temperature increases (for example, water viscosity goes from 1.79 cP to 0.28 cP in the temperature range from 0C to 100C); see temperature dependence of liquid viscosity for more details. The dynamic viscosities of liquids are typically several orders of magnitude higher than dynamic viscosities of gases. Viscosity of blends of liquids The viscosity of the blend of two or more liquids can be estimated using the Refutas equation[20] . The calculation is carried out in three steps. The first step is to calculate the Viscosity Blending Number (VBN) (also called the Viscosity Blending Index) of each component of the blend: (1) where v is the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt). It is important that the kinematic viscosity of each component of the blend be obtained at the same temperature. The next step is to calculate the VBN of the blend, using this equation: (2) where xX is the mass fraction of each component of the blend. Once the viscosity blending number of a blend has been calculated using equation (2), the final step is to determine the kinematic viscosity of the blend by solving equation (1) for v: (3) where VBNBlend is the viscosity blending number of the blend.
Video showing three liquids with different Viscosities
Viscosity
48
Viscosity of selected substances

The viscosity of air and water are by far the two most important materials for aviation aerodynamics and shipping fluid dynamics. Temperature plays the main role in determining viscosity.
Viscosity of air
The viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. At 15.0 C, the viscosity of air is 1.78105 kg/(ms), 17.8 Pa.s or 1.78105 Pa.s.. One can get the viscosity of air as a function of temperature from the Gas Viscosity Calculator [21]
Pressure dependence of the dynamic viscosity of dry air at the temperatures of 300, 400 and 500 K
Viscosity of water
The dynamic viscosity of water is 8.90 104 Pas or 8.90 103 dyns/cm2 or 0.890 cP at about 25 C. Water has a viscosity of 0.0091 poise at 25 C, or 1 centipoise at 20 C. As a function of temperature T (K): (Pas) = A 10B/(TC) where A=2.414 105 Pas ; B = 247.8 K ; and C = 140 K. Viscosity of liquid water at different temperatures up to the normal boiling point is listed below.
Dynamic Viscosity of Water
Viscosity
49
Temperature [C] 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Viscosity [mPas] 1.308 1.002 0.7978 0.6531 0.5471 0.4668 0.4044 0.3550 0.3150 0.2822
Viscosity of various materials

Some dynamic viscosities of Newtonian fluids are listed below:
Example of the viscosity of milk and water. Liquids with higher viscosities will not make such a splash when poured at the same velocity.
Viscosity
50
Honey being drizzled.
Peanut butter is a semi-solid and can therefore hold peaks.
Viscosity of selected gases at 100 kPa, [Pas]

Gas air hydrogen helium argon xenon carbon dioxide methane ethane 21.2 at 0 C (273 K) at 27 C (300 K)[22] 17.4 8.4 18.6 9.0 20.0 22.9 23.2 15.0 11.2 9.5
Viscosity
51
Fluid honey molasses molten glass chocolate syrup
Viscosity [Pas] 210 510 101,000 1025 [23]
Viscosity [cP] 2,00010,000 5,00010,000 10,0001,000,000 10,00025,000 45,000130,000 50,000100,000 c. 250,000 250,000
molten chocolate* 45130 ketchup* peanut butter* shortening* 50100 c. 250 c. 250
|+Viscosity of fluids with variable compositions
Viscosity of liquids at 25 C
Liquid (): acetone [24] [24] [25] Viscosity [Pas] 3.06104 6.04104 (34)103 0.985 1.3806 1.074103 1.61102 69 (at 20 C) 2.022 1.526103 5.44104 [12] 0.065 [12] 0.319 1.863103 1.58104 1.945103 .081 2.3e8 [27] 5e11 2.42102 8.94104 Viscosity [cP=mPa.s] 0.306 0.604 34 985 1380.6 1.074 16.1 1490 2022 1.526 0.544 65 319 1.863 0.158 1.945 81 2.3e11 5e14 24.2 0.894
benzene
blood (37 C) castor oil [24]
corn syrup ethanol
[24]
[24]
ethylene glycol glycerol [26]
HFO-380 mercury [24] [24]
methanol
Motor oil SAE 10 (20 C) Motor oil SAE 40 (20 C) nitrobenzene [24]
liquid nitrogen @ 77K propanol olive oil pitch quarkgluon plasma sulfuric acid water [24] [24]
Viscosity
52
* These materials are highly non-Newtonian.
Viscosity of solids
On the basis that all solids such as granite[28] flow to a small extent in response to small shear stress, some researchers[29] have contended that substances known as amorphous solids, such as glass and many polymers, may be considered to have viscosity. This has led some to the view that solids are simply "liquids" with a very high viscosity, typically greater than 1012 Pas. This position is often adopted by supporters of the widely held misconception that glass flow can be observed in old buildings. This distortion is more likely the result of the glass making process rather than the viscosity of glass.[30] However, others argue that solids are, in general, elastic for small stresses while fluids are not.[31] Even if solids flow at higher stresses, they are characterized by their low-stress behavior. This distinction is muddled if measurements are continued over long time periods, such as the Pitch drop experiment. Viscosity may be an appropriate characteristic for solids in a plastic regime. The situation becomes somewhat confused as the term viscosity is sometimes used for solid materials, for example Maxwell materials, to describe the relationship between stress and the rate of change of strain, rather than rate of shear. These distinctions may be largely resolved by considering the constitutive equations of the material in question, which take into account both its viscous and elastic behaviors. Materials for which both their viscosity and their elasticity are important in a particular range of deformation and deformation rate are called viscoelastic. In geology, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three times greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called rheids.
Viscosity of amorphous materials

Viscous flow in amorphous materials (e.g. in glasses and melts)[33] [34] [35] is a thermally activated process:
Common glass viscosity curves.
[32]
where Q is activation energy, T is temperature, R is the molar gas constant and A is approximately a constant. The viscous flow in amorphous materials is characterized by a deviation from the Arrhenius-type behavior: Q changes from a high value QH at low temperatures (in the glassy state) to a low value QL at high temperatures (in the liquid state). Depending on this change, amorphous materials are classified as either strong when: QH QL < QL or fragile when: QH QL QL.
Viscosity The fragility of amorphous materials is numerically characterized by the Doremus fragility ratio:
53
and strong material have RD < 2 whereas fragile materials have RD 2. The viscosity of amorphous materials is quite exactly described by a two-exponential equation:
with constants A1, A2, B, C and D related to thermodynamic parameters of joining bonds of an amorphous material. Not very far from the glass transition temperature, Tg, this equation can be approximated by a Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation. If the temperature is significantly lower than the glass transition temperature, T<Tg, then the two-exponential equation simplifies to an Arrhenius type equation:
with: where Hd is the enthalpy of formation of broken bonds (termed configuron [36] s) and Hm is the enthalpy of their motion. When the temperature is less than the glass transition temperature, T<Tg, the activation energy of viscosity is high because the amorphous materials are in the glassy state and most of their joining bonds are intact. If the temperature is highly above the glass transition temperature, T>Tg, the two-exponential equation also simplifies to an Arrhenius type equation:
with:
When the temperature is higher than the glass transition temperature, T>Tg, the activation energy of viscosity is low because amorphous materials are melt and have most of their joining bonds broken which facilitates flow.
Eddy viscosity
In the study of turbulence in fluids, a common practical strategy for calculation is to ignore the small-scale vortices (or eddies) in the motion and to calculate a large-scale motion with an eddy viscosity that characterizes the transport and dissipation of energy in the smaller-scale flow (see large eddy simulation). Values of eddy viscosity used in modeling ocean circulation may be from 5x104 to 106 Pas depending upon the resolution of the numerical grid.
The linear viscous stress tensor

Viscous forces in a fluid are a function of the rate at which the fluid velocity is changing over distance. The velocity at any point r is specified by the velocity field v(r). The velocity at a small distance dr from point r may be written as a Taylor series:
where dv/dr is shorthand for the dyadic product of the del operator and the velocity:
This is just the Jacobian of the velocity field.
Viscosity Viscous forces are the result of relative motion between elements of the fluid, and so are expressible as a function of the velocity field. In other words, the forces at r are a function of v(r) and all derivatives of v(r) at that point. In the case of linear viscosity, the viscous force will be a function of the Jacobian tensor alone. For almost all practical situations, the linear approximation is sufficient. If we represent x, y, and z by indices 1, 2, and 3 respectively, the i,j component of the Jacobian may be written as ivj where i is shorthand for /xi. Note that when the first and higher derivative terms are zero, the velocity of all fluid elements is parallel, and there are no viscous forces. Any matrix may be written as the sum of an antisymmetric matrix and a symmetric matrix, and this decomposition is independent of coordinate system, and so has physical significance. The velocity field may be approximated as:
54
where Einstein notation is now being used in which repeated indices in a product are implicitly summed. The second term from the right is the asymmetric part of the first derivative term, and it represents a rigid rotation of the fluid about r with angular velocity where:
For such a rigid rotation, there is no change in the relative positions of the fluid elements, and so there is no viscous force associated with this term. The remaining symmetric term is responsible for the viscous forces in the fluid. Assuming the fluid is isotropic (i.e. its properties are the same in all directions), then the most general way that the symmetric term (the rate-of-strain tensor) can be broken down in a coordinate-independent (and therefore physically real) way is as the sum of a constant tensor (the rate-of-expansion tensor) and a traceless symmetric tensor (the rate-of-shear tensor):
where ij is the unit tensor. The most general linear relationship between the stress tensor and the rate-of-strain tensor is then a linear combination of these two tensors:[37]
where is the coefficient of bulk viscosity (or "second viscosity") and is the coefficient of (shear) viscosity. The forces in the fluid are due to the velocities of the individual molecules. The velocity of a molecule may be thought of as the sum of the fluid velocity and the thermal velocity. The viscous stress tensor described above gives the force due to the fluid velocity only. The force on an area element in the fluid due to the thermal velocities of the molecules is just the hydrostatic pressure. This pressure term (pij) must be added to the viscous stress tensor to obtain the total stress tensor for the fluid.
The infinitesimal force dFi on an infinitesimal area dAi is then given by the usual relationship:
Viscosity
55
References
[1] Symon, Keith (1971). Mechanics (Third ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-201-07392-7. [2] "The Online Etymology Dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=viscous). Etymonline.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [3] Raymond A. Serway (1996). Physics for Scientists & Engineers (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN0-03-005932-1. [4] Victor Lyle Streeter, E. Benjamin Wylie, Keith W. Bedford Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1998 ISBN 0070625379 [5] J. P. Holman Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 2002 ISBN 0071226214 [6] Frank P. Incropera, David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley, 2007 ISBN 0471457280 [7] IUPAC Gold Book, Definition of (dynamic) viscosity (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ D01877. html) [8] "IUPAC definition of the Poise" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ goldbook/ P04705. pdf#search="poise iupac"). . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [9] ASTM D 2161, Page one,(2005) [10] "Quantities and Units of Viscosity" (http:/ / www. uniteasy. com/ en/ unitguide/ Viscosity. htm). Uniteasy.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [11] Edgeworth,, R.; Dalton, B.J.; Parnell, T.. "The pitch drop experiment" (http:/ / www. physics. uq. edu. au/ physics_museum/ pitchdrop. shtml). University of Queensland. . Retrieved 2009-03-31.. A copy of: European Journal of Physics (1984) pp. 198200. [12] Glenn Elert. "The Physics Hypertextbook-Viscosity" (http:/ / physics. info/ viscosity/ ). Physics.info. . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [13] Maxwell, J. C. (1866). "On the viscosity or internal friction of air and other gases". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 156: 249268. doi:10.1098/rstl.1866.0013. [14] Salmon, R.L. (1998). Lectures on geophysical fluid dynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN0195108086., pp. 2326. [15] Alexander J. Smits, Jean-Paul Dussauge Turbulent shear layers in supersonic flow (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oRx6U4T8zcIC& pg=PA46), Birkhuser, 2006, ISBN 0387261400 p. 46 [16] data constants for sutherland's formula (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ physics/ 0410237. pdf) [17] Viscosity of liquids and gases (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ viscosity. html) [18] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ EPA-AIR/ 2005/ July/ Day-13/ a11534d. htm [19] J.O. Hirshfelder, C.F. Curtis and R.B. Bird (1964). Molecular theory of gases and liquids (First ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-40065-3. [20] Robert E. Maples (2000). Petroleum Refinery Process Economics (2nd ed.). Pennwell Books. ISBN0-87814-779-9. [21] http:/ / www. lmnoeng. com/ Flow/ GasViscosity. htm [22] "Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 83rd edition, CRC Press, 2002. [23] "Chocolate Processing" (http:/ / www. brookfieldengineering. com/ education/ applications/ laboratory-chocolate-processing. asp). Brookfield Engineering website. . Retrieved 2007-12-03. [24] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd edition, 19921993 [25] Glenn Elert. "Viscosity. The Physics Hypertextbook. by Glenn Elert" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ physics/ matter/ viscosity/ ). Hypertextbook.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [26] viscosity table at hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ Tables/ viscosity. html), contains glycerin(=glycerol) viscosity [27] Thomas Schfer (October 2009). "Nearly perfect fluidity". Physics 2: 88. doi:10.1103/Physics.2.88. [28] Kumagai, Naoichi; Sadao Sasajima, Hidebumi Ito (15 February 1978). "Long-term Creep of Rocks: Results with Large Specimens Obtained in about 20 Years and Those with Small Specimens in about 3 Years" (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?hl=en& sl=ja& u=http:/ / ci. nii. ac. jp/ naid/ 110002299397/ & sa=X& oi=translate& resnum=4& ct=result& prev=/ search?q=Ito+ Hidebumi& hl=en). Journal of the Society of Materials Science (Japan) (Japan Energy Society) 27 (293): 157161. . Retrieved 2008-06-16. [29] Elert, Glenn. "Viscosity" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ physics/ matter/ viscosity/ ). The Physics Hypertextbook. . [30] "Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids", by Robert C. Plumb, (Worcester Polytech. Inst., Worcester, MA, 01609, USA), J. Chem. Educ. (1989), 66 (12), 9946 [31] Gibbs, Philip. "Is Glass a Liquid or a Solid?" (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ General/ Glass/ glass. html). . Retrieved 2007-07-31. [32] Alexander Fluegel. "Viscosity calculation of glasses" (http:/ / www. glassproperties. com/ viscosity/ ). Glassproperties.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-14. [33] R.H.Doremus (2002). "Viscosity of silica". J. Appl. Phys. 92 (12): 76197629. doi:10.1063/1.1515132. [34] M.I. Ojovan and W.E. Lee (2004). "Viscosity of network liquids within Doremus approach". J. Appl. Phys. 95 (7): 38033810. doi:10.1063/1.1647260. [35] M.I. Ojovan, K.P. Travis and R.J. Hand (2000). "Thermodynamic parameters of bonds in glassy materials from viscosity-temperature relationships". J. Phys.: Condensed matter 19 (41): 415107. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/19/41/415107. [36] http:/ / www. wikidoc. org/ index. php/ Configuron [37] L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz (translated from Russian by J.B. Sykes and W.H. Reid) (1997). Fluid Mechanics (2nd ed.). Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-2767-0.
ASTM D 2161, Standard Practice for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol Viscosity
Viscosity
56
Additional reading
Massey, B. S. (1983). Mechanics of Fluids (Fifth ed.). Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK). ISBN0-442-30552-4.
External links
Fluid properties (http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/) High accuracy calculation of viscosity and other physical properties of frequent used pure liquids and gases. Fluid Characteristics Chart (http://www.engineersedge.com/fluid_flow/fluid_data.htm) A table of viscosities and vapor pressures for various fluids Gas Dynamics Toolbox (http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~alexeenk/GDT/index.html) Calculate coefficient of viscosity for mixtures of gases Glass Viscosity Measurement (http://glassproperties.com/viscosity/ViscosityMeasurement.htm) Viscosity measurement, viscosity units and fixpoints, glass viscosity calculation Kinematic Viscosity (http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/k/i/kinematic viscosity/source.html) conversion between kinematic and dynamic viscosity. Physical Characteristics of Water (http://www.thermexcel.com/english/tables/eau_atm.htm) A table of water viscosity as a function of temperature VogelTammannFulcher Equation Parameters (http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0953-8984/12/46/305) Calculation of temperature-dependent dynamic viscosities for some common components (http://ddbonline. ddbst.de/VogelCalculation/VogelCalculationCGI.exe)
Rheology
Rheology (pronounced /rildi/) is the study of the flow of matter: primarily in the liquid state, but also as 'soft solids' or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force.[1] It applies to substances which have a complex molecular structure, such as muds, sludges, suspensions, polymers and other glass formers (e.g. silicates), as well as many foods and additives, bodily fluids (e.g. blood) and other biological materials. The flow of these substances cannot be characterized by a single value of viscosity (at a fixed temperature). While the viscosity of liquids normally varies with temperature, it is variations with other factors which are studied in rheology. For example, ketchup can have its viscosity reduced by shaking (or other forms of mechanical agitation) but water cannot. Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of viscosity, the study of variable viscosity liquids is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics.[1] The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner.[2] The term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius (often misattributed to Heraclitus), panta rei, "everything flows"[3] Plato in his dialogue Cratylus recounts on Heraclitus' saying that "all things move and nothing remains still"[4] ; he also compares the etymology of the name of the Greek goddess Rhea () to the Greek name for flow (). He notes the etymological relationship of the names of "streams"[5] given to Cronus (Chronos - time) and Rhea ( flow or space) and he argues that this relationship is not accidental.[6] Compare also words ending in -rhea, such as gonorrhea, galactorrhoea, steatorrhea, diarrhea or diarrhea and similar words. The experimental characterization of a material's rheological behavior is known as rheometry, although the term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry, particularly by experimentalists. Theoretical aspects of rheology are the relation of the flow/deformation behavior of material and its internal structure (e.g., the orientation and elongation of polymer molecules), and the flow/deformation behavior of materials that cannot be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity.
Rheology
57
Scope
In practice, rheology is principally concerned with extending the "classical" disciplines of elasticity and (Newtonian) fluid mechanics to materials whose mechanical behavior cannot be described with the classical theories. It is also concerned with establishing predictions for mechanical behavior (on the continuum mechanical scale) based on the micro- or nanostructure of the material, e.g. the molecular size and architecture of polymers in solution or the particle size distribution in a solid suspension. Materials flow when subjected to a stress, that is a force per area. There are different sorts of stress (e.g. shear, torsional, etc.) and materials can respond in various ways. Thus much of theoretical rheology is concerned with the forces associated and external applied loads and stresses, and the resulting internal strains.[1]
Continuum mechanics The study of the physics of continuous materials Solid mechanics The study of the physics of continuous materials with a defined rest shape. Elasticity Describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied stress. Plasticity Describes materials that permanently deform after a sufficient applied stress. Non-Newtonian fluids Newtonian fluids Rheology The study of materials with both solid and fluid characteristics.
Fluid mechanics The study of the physics of continuous materials which take the shape of their container.
Rheology unites the seemingly unrelated fields of plasticity and non-Newtonian fluids by recognizing that both these types of materials are unable to support a shear stress in static equilibrium. In this sense, a plastic solid is a fluid. Granular rheology refers to the continuum mechanical description of granular materials. One of the tasks of rheology is to empirically establish the relationships between deformations and stresses, respectively their derivatives by adequate measurements. These experimental techniques are known as rheometry and are concerned with the determination with well-defined rheological material functions. Such relationships are then amenable to mathematical treatment by the established methods of continuum mechanics. The characterisation of flow or deformation originating from a simple shear stress field is called shear rheometry (or shear rheology). The study of extensional flows is called extensional rheology. Shear flows are much easier to study and thus much more experimental data are available for shear flows than for extensional flows.
Rheologist
A rheologist is an interdisciplinary scientist who studies the flow of complex liquids or the deformation of soft solids. It is not taken as a primary degree subject, and there is no general qualification. He or she will usually have a primary qualification in one of several fields: mathematics, the physical sciences (e.g. chemistry, physics, biology), engineering (e.g. mechanical, chemical or civil engineering), medicine, or certain technologies, notably materials or food. Typically, a small amount of rheology may be studied when obtaining a degree, but the professional will extend this knowledge during postgraduate research or by attending short courses and by joining one of the professional associations (see below).
Viscoelasticity
The classical theory of elasticity deals with the mechanical properties of elastic solids, for which, according to Hooke's Law, stress is always directly proportional to strain in small deformations but independent of the rate of strain. The classical theory of hydrodynamics deals with the properties of viscous liquids, for which, according to Newton's Law, the stress is always directly proportional to the rate of strain, but independent of the strain itself. These principles are, of course, applicable only for ideal materials under ideal conditions, although the behavior of many solids approaches Hooke's law for infinitesimal strains, and that of many liquids approaches Newton's law for
Rheology infinitesimal rates of strain. Two types of deviations from linearity may be considered here. 1) When finite strains are applied to solid bodies, the stress-strain relationships are often much more complicated (i.e. Non-Hookean). Similarly, in steady flow with finite strain rates, many fluids exhibit marked deviations from Newton's law of stress-strain proportionality. 2) Even if both strain and rate of strain are infinitesimal, a system may exhibit both liquid-like and solid-like characteristics. A good example of this is when a body which is not quite an elastic solid (i.e. an inelastic solid) does not maintain a constant deformation under constant stress, but rather continues to deform with time or "creeps". When such a body is constrained at constant deformation, the stress required to hold it gradually diminishesor "relaxes" with time. Similarly, a body which is not quite liquid (i.e. some elements of elasticity) may, while flowing under constant stress, store some of the energy input instead of dissipating it all as heat and random thermal motion of its molecular constituents. In addition, it may never recover all of its deformation upon removal of the initial applied stress. When such bodies are subjected to a sinusoidally oscillating stress, the strain is neither exactly in phase with the stress (as it would be for a perfectly elastic solid) nor 90 degrees out of phase (as it would be for a perfectly viscous liquid) but rather exhibits a strain value which lies somewhere in between the two extreme cases. I.E. Some of the energy is stored and recovered in each cycle, and some is dissipated as heat. These are viscoelastic materials. Thus, liquids are generally associated with viscous behavior (a thick oil is a viscous liquid) and solids with elastic behavior (an elastic string is an elastic solid). A more general point of view is to consider the material behavior at short times (relative to the duration of the experiment/application of interest) and at long times. Fluid and solid character are relevant at long times We consider the application of a constant stress (a so-called creep experiment): if the material, after some deformation, eventually resists further deformation, it is considered a solid if, by contrast, the material flows indefinitely, it is considered a fluid By contrast, elastic and viscous (or intermediate, viscoelastic) behavior is relevant at short times (transient behavior) We again consider the application of a constant stress: if the material deformation strain increases linearly with increasing applied stress, then the material is purely elastic if the material deformation rate increases linearly with increasing applied stress, then the material is purely viscous if neither the deformation strain, nor its derivative with time (rate) follows the applied stress, then the material is viscoelastic Plasticity is equivalent to the existence of a yield stress A material that behaves as a solid under low applied stresses may start to flow above a certain level of stress, called the yield stress of the material. The term plastic solid is often used when this plasticity threshold is rather high, while yield stress fluid is used when the threshold stress is rather low. However, there is no fundamental difference between the two concepts.
58
Applications
Rheology has applications in materials science engineering, geophysics, physiology, human biology and pharmaceutics. Materials science is utilized in the production of many industrially important substances such as concrete, paint and chocolate have complex flow characteristics. In addition, plasticity theory has been similarly important for the design of metal forming processes. The science of rheology and the characeterization of viscoelastic properties in the production and use of polymeric materials has been critical for the production of many products for use in both the industrial and military sectors. Study of flow properties of liquids is important for
Rheology pharmacists working in the manufacture of several dosage forms, such as simple liquids, ointments, creams, pastes etc. The flow behavior of liquids under applied stress is of great relevance in the field of pharmacy. Flow properties are used as important quality control tools to maintain the superiority of the product and reduce batch to batch variations.
59
Polymers
The viscoelastic properties of polymers are determined by the effects of the many variables, including temperature, pressure, and time. Other important variables include chemical composition, molecular weight and weight distribution, degree of branching branching and crystallinity, types of functionality, component concentration, dilution with solvents or plasticizers, and mixture with other materials to form composite systems. With guidance by molecular theory, the dependence of viscoelastic properties on these variables can be simplified by introducing additional concepts such as the free volume, the monomeric friction coefficient, and the spacing between entanglement loci, to provide a qualitative understanding and in many cases a quantitative prediction of how to achieve desired physical and chemical properties and ultimate microstructure.
Structure evidenced in a typical linear (non-branched) polymer found in a fossil fuel like petroleum.
Viscoelastic behavior reflects the combined viscous and elastic responses, under mechanical stress, of materials which are intermediate between liquids and solids in character. Fundamentally, the viscoelasticity can be related to the motions of flexible polymer molecules and their entanglements and network junctionsthe molecular basis of viscoelasticity. Thus, rearrangements on a local scale (kinks) are relatively rapid, while on a long-range scale (convolutions) very slow. In addition, a new assortment of configurations is obtained under stress. The response to the local aspects of the new distribution is rapid, while the response to the long-range aspects is slow. Thus there is very wide and continuous range of timescales covering the response of such a system to externally applied stress. From measurements of the viscoelastic properties of polymers, information can be obtained about the nature and the rates of change of the configurational rearrangements, and the nature of the (macro)molecular interactions over a range of time scales. Examples may be given to illustrate the potential applications of these principles to practical problems in the processing and use of rubbers, plastics, and fibers. Polymers constitute the basic materials of the rubber and plastic industries and are of vital importance to the textile, petroleum, automobile, paper, and pharmaceutical industries. Their viscoelastic properties determine the mechanical performance of the final products of these industries, and also the success of processing methods at intermediate stages of production. In viscoelastic materials, such as most polymers and plastics, the presence of liquid-like behavior depends on the properties of and so varies with rate of applied load, i.e., how quickly a force is applied. The silicone toy 'Silly Putty' behaves quite differently depending on the time rate of applying a force. Pull on it slowly and it exhibits continuous flow, similar to that evidenced in a highly viscous liquid. Alternatively, when hit hard and directly, it shatters like a silicate glass. In addition, conventional rubber undergoes a glass transition, (often called a rubber-glass transition). E.G. The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was caused by rubber O-rings that were being used well below their glass transition temperature on an unusually cold Florida morning, and thus could not flex adequately to form proper seals
Rheology between sections of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters.
60
Biopolymers
A major but defining difference between polymers and biopolymers can be found in their structures. Polymers, including biopolymers, are made of repetitive units called monomers. While polymers are often randomly constructed with massive entanglement, biopolymers often have a well defined structure. In the case of proteins, the exact chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the primary structure. Many proteins spontaneously fold into characteristic compact shapeswhich determine their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures. Structural biology is the study of the structural properties of the biopolymers, much of which can be determined by their viscoelastic response to a wide range of loading conditions.
Linear structure of cellulose -- the most common component of all organic plant life on Earth. * Note the evidence of hydrogen bonding which increases the viscosity at any temperature and pressure. This is an effect similar to that of polymer crosslinking, but less pronounced.
Rheology
61
Sol-gel
Sol-gel science (aka chemical solution deposition) is a wet-chemical technique widely used in the fields of materials science, glass production and ceramic engineering. Such methods are used primarily for the fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide) starting from a chemical solution which acts as the precursor for an integrated network (or gel) of either discrete nanoparticles or network polymers. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides and metal chlorides, which undergo various forms of hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions in order to form a viscoelastic network (or solid). One of the largest application areas is thin films and coatings, which can be produced on a piece of substrate by spin coating or dip coating. Other methods include spraying, electrophoresis, inkjet printing or roll coating. Optical coatings, protective and decorative coatings, and electro-optic components can be applied to glass, metal and other types of substrates with these methods. With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a proper range, Polymerization process of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and water to both optical quality glass fiber and refractory form amorphous hydrated silica particles (Si-OH) can be monitored ceramic fiber can be drawn which are used for fiber rheologically by a number of different methods. optic sensors and thermal insulation, respectively. The mechanisms of hydrolysis and condensation, and the rheological factors that bias the structure toward linear or branched structures are the most critical issues of sol-gel science and technology.
Geophysics
Geophysics includes the flow of molten lava and debris flows (fluid mudslides). Also included in this disciplinary branch are solid Earth materials which only exhibit flow over extended time scales. Those that display viscous behavior are known as rheids. E.G. Granite can do a plastic flow with a vanishingly small yield stress, (i.e. a viscous flow). Long term creep experiments (~ 10 years) indicate that the viscosity of granite under ambient conditions is on the order of 1020 poises. [7]
Rheology
62
Deep foundations are used for structures or heavy loads when shallow foundations cannot provide sufficient adequate capacity. They may also be used to transfer building loads past weak or compressible soil layers. While shallow foundations rely solely on the bearing capacity of the soil beneath them, deep foundations can rely on end bearing resistance, frictional resistance along their length, or both in developing the required capacity. Geotechnical engineers use specialized tools, such as the cone penetration test, to estimate the amount of skin and end bearing resistance available in the subsurface. In addiiton, pile driving is often used to check for stability in varying soil types such as clay, sand, gravels, fractured shale, etc. Geotechnical engineering (or 'soil engineering') often utilizes soil logs or bore logs to show what may be evidenced while driving piles through given stratum and soil lenses. Wave equations must often be employed when using vibratory or mechanical impact hammers. The harmonics set Piledriving for a bridge in Napa, California. up by vibratory or impact hammers drastically change the ability of given soils to create wall friction on a given pile type, as well as the elastic alteration or resistance to penetration in a normal state. Dynamic testing of soils may involve the attachment of transducers to pilings while they are being driven. In addition, theoretical bearing calculations using a nuclear densometer may be carried out in the field. In the end, a fairly simple linear equation may suffice to give a good approximation of the bearing capacity of the soil. One example of such an equation is given as follows: ( Wt. of pile hammer )( Drop Height ) / ( 0.85 )( Pile set ) = End Bearing Value
Rheology
63
Physiology
Physiology includes the study of many bodily fluids that have complex structure and composition, and thus exhibit a wide range of viscoelastic flow characteristics. In particular there is a specialist study of blood flow called hemorheology. This is the study of flow properties of blood and its elements (plasma and formed elements, including red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets). Blood viscosity is determined by plasma viscosity, hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell, which constitute 99.9% of the cellular elements) and mechanical behavior of red blood cells. Therefore, red blood cell mechanics is the major determinant of flow properties of blood. [8]
Food rheology
Heme
Food rheology is important in the manufacture and processing of food products. Food rheology is the study of the rheological properties of food, that is, the consistency and flow of food under tightly specified conditions. The consistency, degree of fluidity, and other mechanical properties are important in understanding how long food can be stored, how stable it will remain, and in determining food texture. The acceptability of food products to the consumer is often determined by food texture, such as how spreadable and creamy a food product is. Food rheology is important in quality control during food manufacture and processing. Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to an aqueous mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such as taste. They provide body, increase stability, and improve suspension of added ingredients. Thickening agents are often used as food additives and in cosmetics and personal hygiene products. Some thickening agents are gelling agents, forming a gel. The agents are materials used to thicken and stabilize liquid solutions, emulsions, and suspensions. They dissolve in the liquid phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive internal structure. Food thickeners frequently are based on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins. [9]
Concrete Rheology
Concrete's and mortar's workability is related to the rheological properties of the fresh cement paste. The mechanical properties of hardened concrete are better if less water is used in the preparation of concrete paste, however reducing the water-to-cement ratio may decrease the ease of mixing and application. To avoid these undesired effects, superplasticizers are typically added to decrease the apparent yield stress and the viscosity of the fresh paste. Their addition highly improves concrete and mortar properties.
Measurement
Rheometers are instruments used to characterize the rheological properties of materials, typically fluids and melts. These instruments impose a specific stress field or deformation to the fluid, and monitor the resultant deformation or stress. Instruments can be run in steady flow or oscillatory flow, in both shear and extension.
Deborah number
When the rheological behavior of a material includes a transition from elastic to viscous as the time scale increases (or, more generally, a transition from a more resistant to a less resistant behavior), one may define the relevant time scale as a relaxation time of the material. Correspondingly, the ratio of the relaxation time of a material to the timescale of a deformation is called Deborah number. Small Deborah numbers correspond to situations where the
Rheology material has time to relax (and behaves in a viscous manner), while high Deborah numbers correspond to situations where the material behaves rather elastically.[10] Note that the Deborah number is relevant for materials that flow on long time scales (like a Maxwell fluid) but not for the reverse kind of materials (like the Voigt or Kelvin model) that are viscous on short time scales but solid on the long term.
64
Reynolds number
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (vs) to viscous forces (/L) and consequently it quantifies the relative importance of these two types of effect for given flow conditions. Under low Reynolds numbers viscous effects dominate and the flow is laminar, whereas at high Reynolds numbers inertia predominates and the flow may be turbulent. However, since rheology is concerned with fluids which do not have a fixed viscosity, but one which can vary with flow and time, calculation of the Reynolds number can be complicated. It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. When two geometrically similar flow patterns, in perhaps different fluids with possibly different flow rates, have the same values for the relevant dimensionless numbers, they are said to be dynamically similar. Typically it is given as follows:
where: vs - mean fluid velocity, [m s1] L - characteristic length, [m] - (absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity, [N s m2] or [Pa s] - kinematic fluid viscosity: = / , [m s1] - fluid density, [kg m3].
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] W. R. Schowalter (1978) Mechanics of Non-Newtonian Fluids Pergamon ISBN 0-08-021778-8 J. F. Steffe (1996) Rheological Methods in Food Process Engineering 2nd ed ISBN 0-9632036-1-4 page 1 Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The presocratic philosophers. ISBN978-0415050791. Plato, Cratylus [402a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0172:text=Crat. :section=402a)] By the term "streams", Plato implies physical quantities that change with respect to time Plato, Cratylus 402b (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0172:text=Crat. :section=402b) Kumagai, N., Sasajima, S., Ito, H., Long-term Creep of Rocks, J. Soc. Mat. Sci. (Japan), Vol. 27, p. 157 (1978) Online (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?hl=en& sl=ja& u=http:/ / ci. nii. ac. jp/ naid/ 110002299397/ & sa=X& oi=translate& resnum=4& ct=result& prev=/ search?q=Ito+ Hidebumi& hl=en) [8] Baskurt OK, Meiselman HJ (2003). "Blood rheology and hemodynamics". Seminars in Thrombosis and Haemostasis 29 (5): 435450. doi:10.1055/s-2003-44551. PMID14631543. [9] B.M. McKenna, and J.G. Lyng (2003). Texture in food > Introduction to food rheology and its measurement (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wM1asp1LL8EC& pg=PA130& dq=Food+ Rheology& q=Food Rheology). books.google.com. ISBN9781855736733. . Retrieved 2009-09-18. [10] M. Reiner (1964) Physics Today volume 17 no 1 page 62 The Deborah Number
Rheology
65
Further reading
The Origins of Rheology: A short historical excursion (http://www.ae.su.oz.au/rheology/ Origin_of_Rheology.pdf) by Deepak Doraiswamy, University of Sidney
External links
Journals covering rheology Applied Rheology (http://www.appliedrheology.org/) Biorheology (http://www.iospress.nl/loadtop/load.php?isbn=0006355x) Journal of Rheology (http://www.rheology.org/sor/publications/j_rheology/default.htm) Journal of the Society of Rheology, JAPAN (http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/rheology) Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03770257) Korea-Australia Rheology Journal (http://www.rheology.or.kr/karj/) Rheologica Acta (http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00397/) Rheology Bulletin (http://www.rheology.org/SoR/publications/rheology_b/default.htm)
Organizations concerned with the study of rheology The Romanian Society of Rheology (http://reologie.ro) The Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology.org) The Society of Rheology, JAPAN (http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/srj/) The European Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology-esr.org) The British Society of Rheology (http://www.bsr.org.uk) Deutsche Rheologische Gesellschaft (http://www.drg.bam.de) Groupe Franais de Rhologie (http://www.univ-lemans.fr/sciences/wgfr/) Belgian Group of Rheology (http://cit.kuleuven.be/ltrk/bgr/bgr.html) Swiss Group of Rheology (http://www.ar.ethz.ch/FR/) Nederlandse Reologische Vereniging (http://www.mate.tue.nl/nrv/index.html) Societ Italiana di Reologia (http://www.sir-reologia.com) Nordic Rheology Society (http://www.sik.se/nrs/) Australian Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology.org.au)
Rheology Conferences Malvern Rheology Workshop (http://reologie.ro/2009/07/29/rheology-workshop/) Conferences on Rheology & Soft Matter Materials (http://www.ar.ethz.ch/conf.html) Summer School of Rheology 2010 (http://reologie.ro/2009/12/24/school-of-rheology/) VII Annual European Conference on Rheology (AERC 2011) (http://www.rheology-esr.org/AERC/2011/)
Article Sources and Contributors
66

NavierStokes equations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407295941 Contributors: 212.42.69.xxx, A. di M., Acx01b, Aeolus, After a shave, Akitchin, Alexey Stomakhin, Alison, AmirGat, Ancheta Wis, Andrei Polyanin, AndreiDukhin, Anterior1, Ap, Architec, Ashwin, Awickert, AxelBoldt, Bellhalla, Ben pcc, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Benjamin.friedrich, Bfish85, Bondrake, Brandy Frisky, Brews ohare, Brian Tvedt, Bryan Derksen, Bunnyhop11, C S, CBoeckle, CRGreathouse, Cfp, Chadernook, Charles Matthews, CharlesC, Cleared as filed, Complexica, Constructive editor, Conversion script, Cquan, Crowsnest, CyrilleDunant, D6, Dagit, Darodrigues, David.Monniaux, Ddcampayo, Dezidor, Dhollm, DiceDiceBaby, Dicklyon, Discospinster, Dlandau, Dmitri Gorskin, Dreamyshade, Dual Freq, Dvavasour, Egbertus, Egil, Egosumliber, EndingPop, Eptalon, Euyyn, EverettColdwell, Firien, FrancisGM, Gaius Cornelius, Gerbano, Giftlite, Gpayette, Graham87, GregRM, GregorB, Gulmammad, Gunnar Larsson, H00kwurm, Halberdo, Hankwang, Hard Raspy Sci, Headbomb, Hick ninja, Hofingerandi, Huffers, Hughes23, HydrogenSu, IanOfNorwich, Icairns, Igny, Ikonen, Imgeorgelin, Infinitud3, Ironicon, Isnow, Isucheme, J04n, JB82, JJ Harrison, Jaganath, Jdpipe, Jhalcrow, Jormungand, Jorunn, Josce, Jtwdog, Just Another Dan, Karada, Kaszeta, Kenyon, Ketsuekigata, Kupirijo, Kyrtikos, Ladypine, Lee Daniel Crocker, Lgoodfriend, Linuxlad, Lkinkade, LouScheffer, MER-C, MFNickster, Mach2.02, Madoka, Martinkalling, MathKnight, MattieTK, Mbell, Michael Hardy, Mikalisk, Mike40033, Mirwin, Moink, Mpatel, Muu-karhu, NC17, Naaman, Natwhilk, Nephron, Ocaasi, Odie5533, Olaf, Oleg Alexandrov, Onlinereal, OverlordQ, Paul August, Pedrose, Perturbationist, Philipwhiuk, Phys, Primarscources, Proofreader77, Psychotic Spoon, Pt, QuantumEleven, Qubert, Qutezuce, RaYmOnD, Rama, Rbonvall, Re34646, Reedy, RhysU, Rich Farmbrough, Riose, Robinh, Rror, Rtdrury, Salih, Samohyl Jan, SebastianHelm, Sheliak, Shorespirit, SimonP, Sinius, Sintaku, Slea, SunCreator, Suslindisambiguator, Suspekt, Sverdrup, Swpb, Tac2z, Tamtamar, Tarquin, Taweetham, The Anome, Theon, Thunderboltz, Timwi, Tjschuck, Tkasmai, Tobias Hoevekamp, Tommy2010, Torxit, Tosha, Truthnlove, Tt261, Ttownfeen, UkPaolo, Unyoyega, User A1, Vasi, Vit-b, Vonkje, Worlder, Worou, WriterHound, XJamRastafire, Yashkochar, Zaleski, Zylorian, 430 anonymous edits Incompressible flow Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392605415 Contributors: Arthena, AugPi, BenFrantzDale, Bluap, COGDEN, Charles Matthews, Crowsnest, Davehi1, Dudecon, Fropuff, J-Wiki, John, Linas, MFNickster, MarSch, Mashford, Mogaman, Moink, Mythealias, Oleg Alexandrov, Peter Harriman, Salih, Suspekt, Tobyeharris, , 37 anonymous edits Compressible flow Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405838765 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, Angela, Astrobradley, Bea7, Bjordan555, Charles Matthews, Craig.r.bradshaw, Dolphin51, EMBaero, Gaius Cornelius, Genick, Iron Engineer, Jaganath, JimmyRodriguezNJITWILL, Mythealias, Nigelj, Nneonneo, Pne, Retaggio, Rex the first, Robinh, Salih, Sina2, Vhozard, Yashkochar, 26 anonymous edits Isochoric process Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405054952 Contributors: A.Z., ALittleSlow, ArneBab, AugPi, CDN99, DanielNuyu, David Legrand, Dhollm, Duk, Freddyd945, Gene Nygaard, Glenn, Ixfd64, JaGa, Karol Langner, Kbrose, Kerotan, Knuckles, Lara bran, Mahlerite, Mejor Los Indios, Nachoj, Nightkhaos, Ortho, PV=nRT, Peterlin, Plober, Pyther, Shoessss, Skyezx, StuRat, Voltaire169, Wikijens, Ydw, 37 anonymous edits Compressibility factor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399016749 Contributors: 14 June, Aushulz, Deklund, Derryfraser, Dhollm, Ecorahul, Fraserlawson, Gmkung, Ilnyckyj, Jdpipe, JimVC3, Mbeychok, Mion, Mjpotter, Mythealias, Power.corrupts, Pushkar.gaikwad, RexxS, Rikki1989, Sachith v, Su-no-G, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tim R, Turbojet, WilfriedC, 18 anonymous edits Solenoidal vector field Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=400649672 Contributors: Abar, AeroSpace, AugPi, Brews ohare, CBM, Catslash, Charles Matthews, Complexica, Crowsnest, Fredrik, Gareth McCaughan, Hellisp, Hpesoj00, JJ Harrison, KasugaHuang, MarSch, Michael Hardy, Oleg Alexandrov, Owlbuster, Plober, RDBury, Silverfish, Smack, The Anome, 13 anonymous edits Conservative vector field Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401196355 Contributors: Acyso, Allen McC., AugPi, Billlion, Brews ohare, CBM, Charles Matthews, Commentor, Complexica, Crowsnest, Dolphin51, Encephalon, Ferengi, Geometry guy, Hao2lian, Hephaestos, Hess88, Infovarius, Kar.ma, Keenan Pepper, Kotjze, MFNickster, MarSch, Mauxb, NOrbeck, Nistra, Oleg Alexandrov, PV=nRT, Paga19141, Patrick, Rabbanis, Siddhant, Silverfish, Spoon!, Sverdrup, Sawomir Biay, Terry Bollinger, That Guy, From That Show!, Trammel, Zvika, 27 anonymous edits Laplacian vector field Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=328503607 Contributors: AugPi, Boggie, CBM, Charles Matthews, MFNickster, MarSch, Oleg Alexandrov, RDBury, Silverfish, 3 anonymous edits Stokes' law Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406253243 Contributors: Access Denied, Adiel lo, Awickert, Ben pcc, Biglovinb, Charles Matthews, Crowsnest, Cwmonroe, Donfbreed, Dougalc, Giftlite, Gogo Dodo, Jeodesic, JohnCD, JohnOwens, Kevmitch, Leszek Jaczuk, Looxix, Mbgopackgo160, Michael Hardy, Mindtrik, Mintleaf, Nickpowerz, Peterlewis, Rahnle, Retaggio, Robinh, Robthecar, Salih, Siddhant, Stan J Klimas, Steg55, Suffusion of Yellow, Syrthiss, Tagishsimon, The wub, Uvainio, Vishahu, Vossman, WaitingWang, Willgold, WingkeeLEE, Wolfkeeper, Xaven, Yevgeny Kats, 95 anonymous edits Projection method (fluid dynamics) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386344047 Contributors: Jitse Niesen, Koavf, Mdd, Michael Hardy, Salih, T-1000, Tobyeharris, Yeokaiwei, 6 anonymous edits Mach number Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406730029 Contributors: Abdull, Abqwildcat, Abyab, Acroterion, Adamrush, Ahoerstemeier, Airboyd, Alexbrewer, Andre Engels, Anonymous Dissident, Arpingstone, Asambhav.x, Austin Hair, AxelBoldt, Axemanstan, B4hand, BQZip01, BW95, BadWolf42, Barnaby dawson, Bart133, Bdesham, BenFrantzDale, Bennylin, BesigedB, BilCat, Binksternet, Birddog165, Bjh21, Boothy443, Bryanholmberg, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carbuncle, Catgut, Charles Matthews, Chovain, Chrislk02, Chuck Carroll, Contratrombone64, Contrawiki, Conversion script, Crowsnest, Cutler, Danish Ali Khan, Davewho2, Dhaluza, DirkvdM, Dolphin51, Donkrodgers, DouglasHeld, Dougweller, EMBaero, Ellywa, Eranb, Ericg, Erik9, Fabometric, FocalPoint, Fredrik, Frencheigh, Fresheneesz, Freso, Garik, Garrisonroo, Giftlite, GregorB, Gugganij, Gups, Hede2000, Helwer7, HexaChord, Icairns, J.delanoy, Jaganath, Jason237, Jaydec, Jdpipe, Jimmy Slade, Jimp, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jusdafax, Jyril, Karada, Keta, Kwamikagami, Latics, LiamE, MS86, Magister Mathematicae, Malone23kid, Marc Venot, Marek69, Marsian, Matt Crypto, Mayooranathan, Mbeychok, Merovingian, MimirZero, MisterSheik, Mostafaardeshiri, Mpeisenbr, Mulad, Mythealias, Norandav, Nuno Tavares, Ocknock, Officially Mr X, Palapala, Patrick, Peterlin, Pibwl, Planetscared, Prkl75, Profoss, Ps ttf, Pureme, Qmark42, R'n'B, Ragged sail, Rchandra, ReallyNiceGuy, RenniePet, RexNL, Roadrunner, Roscoe x, ScriptedGhost, SeanMack, Shadowjams, Shawn81, SlaveToTheWage, Smyth, Soap, Someone42, Spiffy sperry, Synook, Tangotango, Tdadamemd, The Epopt, The1exile, TheRaytracer, Theon, Thunderbird2, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tobias Hoevekamp, Topjetpilot1, Treesmill, Twinsday, Whitehatnetizen, Wilsonkd, Wimt, WojPob, Wolfkeeper, Wraithdart, XJamRastafire, Xyb, Zanimum, 266 anonymous edits Viscosity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407098141 Contributors: A. B., A. di M., ARUNKUMAR P.R, Abarry, Acroterion, Addshore, Adi4094, AdjustShift, Afluegel, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev, Alexmorriz, Alexxauw, Allmightyduck, Amhantar, AndreiDukhin, Angr, Animum, Anonymous scientist, Another Stickler, Anyeverybody, Arch dude, ArglebargleIV, Arisa, Arteitle, Awickert, Axl, Ayeroxor, BUF4Life, Bando26, Bantab, Bart l, Be at peace, Belg4mit, BenFrantzDale, Benbest, Bensaccount, Bento00, Berland, Betterusername, Beyonce9481, Bibliomaniac15, Bidabadi, Bkell, Black Science Nerd, Blanchardb, Blaze Labs Research, Boardhead, Bradd012, Brockert, BrokenSegue, Brumski, Bykgardner, CRGreathouse, CWii, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canada-kawaii, Caomhin, Cardamon, Catharticflux, CatherineMunro, Caue.cm.rego, CbakeEag, Cburnett, Cenarium, Cfp, Cfwalther, Charizardmorris, Charles Matthews, Chessegrater101, Chromana, Chronarion, Chuckiesdad, Clemwang, Click23, Coasterlover1994, Cometstyles, Common Man, Complexica, Conrad.Irwin, Content reg11, CoolMike, CorbinSimpson, Cosmic Latte, Courcelles, Cperabo, Cpl Syx, Cremepuff222, Crowsnest, Curps, Cutler, DBrane, DD2K, Da monster under your bed, DaBears34, Dan Gluck, Dancter, Darker Dreams, David Schaich, Ddcampayo, Deglr6328, Delirium, Deor, Der Falke, DerHexer, Dersen, Dhollm, Diceman, Diogenes, Directorstratton, Dmitry sychov, Dmp360, Dolphin51, Donttossgimli69, Droll, Drthomasj, Dtom, Duk, Dusti, ESkog, Edgar181, Edward, Element16, Elipongo, Ellomate, Ellywa, Epbr123, Erik9, Eternalblisss, Eyas, Eyu100, F l a n k e r, FF2010, Ferengi, Finemann, Fjvsantos, Flopster2, Flyguy649, Frecklefoot, Gab.Turunen, Gaff, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gazjo, Gene Nygaard, Geni, GeoGreg, Geocachernemesis, Geraldo62, Giftlite, Gilbitross, Gilliam, Goatasaur, GreekAlexander, GregorB, Gryllida, Guanaco, Gulmammad, Gurch, H Padleckas, Hairy Dude, Hamiddelavari, Headbomb, Henningklevjer, Heron, HiDrNick, Hike395, Hmmwhatsthisdo, Homestarmy, Icairns, Ilyamartch, InShaneee, Indefatigable, Innv, Insanity Incarnate, Intelati, J.delanoy, JDspeeder1, JYolkowski, Jaganath, Jalo, Jdpipe, Jimduck, Jimmykim0817, Jj137, Jmchuff, Jmrog, Joao, Joelholdsworth, John, JohnOwens, Johndburger, JonathanBentz, Jopxton, KJS77, Kaiserkarl13, Karlhahn, Kasiah2000, Katalaveno, KathrynLybarger, Kedarg6500, Keenan Pepper, Kooky, Kri, Kristen Eriksen, Kwamikagami, Lantonov, Lcaretto, Leithp, LittleOldMe, Logger9, Lombar2, Looxix, Lozeldafan, Lseixas, Lupin, LvD, MER-C, MFago, MONGO, MPF, MPerel, MaNeMeBasat, Mah159, Makemi, Malcolm Farmer, Marcus pipo, Marie Poise, MarkSutton, Marshallsumter, Materialscientist, Matt B., Mausy5043, Mbeychok, Metal Militia, Mhking, MiNombreDeGuerra, Michael Hardy, Michi zh, Middayexpress, Mikael Hggstrm, Mike Rosoft, Mikiemike, Mindcry, Mr. Billion, MrAnderson7, MrBell, Mramsey68, Mschel, Mudgineer, Muu-karhu, Mythealias, N6, NHRHS2010, Nakon, NameIsRon, Natalie Erin, Nathan Howard89, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nicknsmatthews, Nicolae Coman, Nirmos, Occultations, Ojcit, Ojovan, Oleg Alexandrov, Olof, Onionmon, Oreo Priest, Otets, Oxymoron83, PAR, Panicdog, Pengo, PeterSymonds, Peterlin, Pgk, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Philwkpd, Phys, PierreAbbat, Pill, Pjcon, Pooven, Psb777, Pugglewuggle, Purplebumble, Qazqay, QuintS, Quintote, Qxz, R'n'B, RB972, RG2, Raeky, Rcnh, Redmarkviolinist, Rees11, Retaggio, Rettetast, Rhys jw, Rich Farmbrough, Richard D. LeCour, Richardlw, Rjwilmsi, RobertMfromLI, Robin S, Robinh, Rogerb67, Ronhjones, Roux, Rrburke, Rslippert, Rune.welsh, Ryandillon, SDY, SMHARIBABU, Saibo, Salih, Saltboy, Savant13, Schmloof, Sciencerox101, Seidenstud, Seraphim, Seresin, Shadowhillway, Siddhant, Skidude9950, Slashme, Slightsmile, Smalljim, Smartse, Snigbrook, Sonett72, Songjie509, Soundoftoday, Stan J Klimas, Stay cool, Stipple, Strait, Styath, Suffusion of Yellow, Suruena, Swayamprakash7, Tabletop, Tarotcards, Tarret, Tenebrous, TheParanoidOne, TheWizardOfHam, Thingg, ThinkEnemies, Thriller228, Thunderbird2, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tim Starling, Tkircher, Tobias Hoevekamp, Toddcannon6, Tony Liao, Trapolator, Traxs7, Trojancowboy, TumbleMountain47, Unitman00, Utcursch, VegaDark, Venny85, Versus22, Vincent de Ruijter, Vinsfan368, WarthogDemon, Wayne Slam, Wdanwatts, WikHead, Wikimabi, Wikiwide, Wikixoox, Wikrob, WilfriedC, WingZero, Wmahan, Wolfkeeper, World8115, XJamRastafire, Xenonice, Xmnemonic, YK Times, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yearsigns, Ygramul, Yuckfoo, Yyy, Zaidpjd, Ze miguel, Zillenjunge, ^demon, , 1037 anonymous edits

Rheology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407340805 Contributors: 195.93.33.xxx, Alex Bakharev, AndreiDukhin, AnnaFrance, Barticus88, Bcartolo, BiT, BillC, Cfp, Charles Matthews, Chemical Engineer, Colloid07, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, CorbinSimpson, Cutler, Cypgay, Danh, Daveh4h, Dhollm, DonQ1906, Fadesga, Fmorriso9, GCW50, GeoGreg, Giftlite, Glennwells, Gobonobo, Graham87, Greensburger, Heron, Hike395, Hydroli, Igodard, Isnow, Ivan tambuk, Jarlaxl, Jos Gnudista, Kaytles, Kosebamse, Kwamikagami, Light current, LilHelpa, Logger9, Looxix, Marie Poise, Mark Christensen, Martarius, Mattisse, MaxPower, Mejor Los Indios, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, Nihiltres, Odysses, Pcg19, PhilKnight, RHSydnor, Retaggio, Rmhermen, Robinh, Rogermw, Rokmonkey, Roque345, Rune.welsh, Sivar, Solsikche, Spiegelberg88, Stay cool, Suicidalhamster, Superiorsarcaser, Taeedxy, Talkstosocks, Telente, Tiddly Tom, Tobias Hoevekamp, Um123abc, Uncle Milty, Vsmith, Wdanwatts, Woohookitty, Xis, Zencowboy27, 89 anonymous edits
67
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
68
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:ConvectiveAcceleration.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ConvectiveAcceleration.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Ben pcc Image:NSConvection.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NSConvection.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Ben pcc, Joelholdsworth File:Isochore Zustandsnderung.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isochore_Zustandsnderung.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Pikarl at de.wikipedia Image:Diagramma generalizzato fattore di compressibilit.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diagramma_generalizzato_fattore_di_compressibilit.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Aushulz Image:Compressibility Factor of Air 75-200 K.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Power.corrupts Image:Compressibility Factor of Air 250 - 1000 K.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_250_-_1000_K.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Power.corrupts Image:Irrotationalfield.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Irrotationalfield.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:AllenMcC. Image:Stokes sphere.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stokes_sphere.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Kraaiennest Image:FA-18 Hornet breaking sound barrier (7 July 1999).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FA-18_Hornet_breaking_sound_barrier_(7_July_1999).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alison, Apalsola, Arnomane, Denniss, Didactohedron, Diego pmc, Dual Freq, Duesentrieb, Duffman, Hailey C. Shannon, Makthorpe, Paul Richter, RaySys, Raymond, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Svetovid, Werneuchen, 2 anonymous edits Image:Transsonic flow over airfoil 1.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transsonic_flow_over_airfoil_1.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Prkl75 at en.wikipedia Image:Transsonic flow over airfoil 2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transsonic_flow_over_airfoil_2.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Prkl75 at en.wikipedia Image:Viscosity.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viscosity.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Anynobody Image:Laminar shear.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laminar_shear.svg License: unknown Contributors: User:Stannered Image:Laminar shear flow.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laminar_shear_flow.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mdd, Stannered File:Viscous regimes chart.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viscous_regimes_chart.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dhollm, 2 anonymous edits Image:University of Queensland Pitch drop experiment-6-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-6-2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: John Mainstone File:Viscosity video science museum.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viscosity_video_science_museum.ogv License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: geni File:Air dry dynamic visocity on pressure temperature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air_dry_dynamic_visocity_on_pressure_temperature.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Stan J Klimas File:Dynamic Viscosity of Water.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dynamic_Viscosity_of_Water.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:WilfriedC Image:Drop 0.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drop_0.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Henningklevjer, Nagy, Rgoodermote, Roomba, 2 anonymous edits Image:Runny hunny.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Runny_hunny.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anna reg, Bdk, Cookie, EvaK, Gveret Tered, Hiart, Jonik, Mattes Image:PeanutButter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PeanutButter.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:PiccoloNamek Image:Glassviscosityexamples.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glassviscosityexamples.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Afluegel Image:Poly Pet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poly_Pet.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Logger9 Image:Cellulose strand.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cellulose_strand.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Laghi.l Image:Sol-gel silicate bonds.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sol-gel_silicate_bonds.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Squidonius Image:PileDriving.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PileDriving.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Argyriou at en.wikipedia File:Heme.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heme.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Lennert B
License
69
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

Fluid Wikibook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fluid Wikibook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fluid Wikibook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fluid Fields

Derivation and description

is the flow velocity,

is the fluid density, p is the pressure,

is the (deviatoric) stress tensor, and

is the del operator. This is a statement of the

the tensor derivative of the velocity is

is used. Usually this representation is preferred because it is simpler than the

or, using the substantive derivative:

Incompressible flow of Newtonian fluids

This is more specifically a statement of the conservation of volume (see divergence).

will depend on the orientation

When the flow is at steady-state,

When the flow is incompressible, is reduced to:

momentum equations are[11] (note the convention used:

Mass continuity will read:

These equations could be (slightly) compacted by, for example, factoring

from the viscous terms. However,

Stream function formulation

is the (2D) biharmonic operator and

is the kinematic viscosity,

. We can also express this

compactly using the Jacobian determinant:

Compressible flow of Newtonian fluids

Application to specific problems

Visualization of a) parallel flow and b) radial flow.

Exact solutions of the NavierStokes equations

The continuity equation states that,

This can be expressed via the material derivative as

, we see that a flow is incompressible if and only if,

Relation to compressibility factor

If the compressibility factor is acceptably small, the flow is considered to be incompressible.

Relation to solenoidal field

Difference between incompressible flow and material

Related flow constraints

Numerical approximations of incompressible flow

Subsonic Compressible Flows

Replacing work with a change in volume gives

Since the process is isochoric,

, the previous equation now gives

is the specific heat capacity at constant volume,

is initial temperature and

Ideal Otto cycle

References External links

Definition and physical significance

is the molar volume of the gas,

is the temperature, and

is the gas constant.

For an ideal gas the compressibility factor is

per definition. In many real world applications requirements for

Generalized compressibility factor graphs for pure gases

Generalized compressibility factor diagram.

Z for air as function of pressure 1-500 bar

Compressibility factor for air (experimental values)

Compressibility of ammonia gas

Solenoidal vector field

Solenoidal vector field

Conservative vector field

Conservative vector field

Conservative vector field