Communications and Knowledge Engineering

Institute of Engineering
Paschimanchal Campus
Lamachour , Pokhara

Er. Santosh Kumar Baral

Er. Suraj Basant Tulachan
 1.Brief History of Communication
 2. Introduction to Digital Communication
System
 3.References
 Telegrapy and Telephony
◦ Alessandro Volta invented Electric Battry in 1799
◦ Samuel Morse developed Morse Code , Variable
Length codes, in 1837
◦ Washington-Baltimore first telegraph in May , 1844
◦ Emile Baudot developed fixed length telegraph
codes of length 5 in 1875
◦ First Transatlantic Cable laid in 1858 that operated
only four weeks
◦ Second Transatlantic Cable laid in July 1866
◦ Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone in
1870s., patented his invention in 1876 and
established Bell Telephone Company in 1877
 Carbon Microphone and Induction coil developed in
20th century which contributed advances in the
quality and range of land lines
 Lee De Forest invented Triode in 1906 introducting
signal amplificatoin in telephone communication
systems to allow transmission of signal to greater
distances
 Transatlantic cable laid in 1953 established link for
telephone service between US and Europe
 Strowger in 1897 developed first automatic switch
which was electromechanical step by step switch,
used for several decades
 Invention of Transistor jointly by John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain and William Shockley, in 1947, digital
electronic switching was feasible.
 After several Years of development at Bell
Laboratories, a digital switch was placed in service in
Illinois in June 1960
 Wireless Communications
◦ Possible from works of Oerested, Faraday, Gauss,
Maxwell and Hertz
◦ Oerested, in 1820 demonstrated that electric current
produces a magnetic field
◦ Michael Faraday, in August 29, 1831 demonstrated that
an induced current is produced by moving a magnet in
vicinity of a conductor.( changing magnetic field
produces electric field)
◦ James C. Maxwell in 1864 predicted the existence of
electromagnetic radiation and experimentally proved by
Hertz in 1887
◦ Coherer ( a sensative device to detect radio signal)
invented by Oliver Lodge to demonstrate wireless
communication over a distance of 150 yards at Oxford
◦ Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, demonstrated wireless
transmission of radio signals at nearly 2KM distance and
is credited with the development of wireless telegraphy
 Marconi patented his work in 1897 and established
Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company in Dec-12, 1901.
 Marconi received a radio signal at Signal Hill in
Newfoundland which was transmitted from Cornwall,
England at a distance of about 1700 miles.
 Fleming in 1904 invented vaccum tube and De Forest in
1906 invented vacum triode amplifier
 Invention of Triode made AM radio broadcast possible in
early 20th century (1920 : KDKA, Pittsburgh radio station)
 Armstrong in 1933, invented built and demonstrated
Frequency Modulation FM
 Edwin Armstrong , during World War I, invented
Superheterodyne FM receiver.
 Only after World War II, FM broadcast gained popularity
 V. K. Zworykin , in 1292, built first television system.
 Commercial television Broadcasting began in London :
BBC: in 1936
 Five Years later in 1941, FCC(Federal Communications
Commission ) authorized television broadcasting in US
 Development of Low power, low weight and High Speed
Electronic Circuits used in Satellites Wideband Radio
Systems and Optical Fiber Communications
 Invention of transistor in 1947 by WalterBrattain, John Bardeen and
William Shockley
 Invention of Integrated Circuits in 1958 by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
 Invention of Laser by Townes and Schawlow in 1958
 Satellite: Telstar I was launched in 1962 was used to relay TV signals
between Europe and US
 Commercial Satellite communication began in 1965 with the launching
of Early Bird Satellite
 Optical Fiber Communication
 Wireline communication systems being replaced by OFC for high
Bandwidth for voice, dat and video
 Cellular Wireless Communication developed
 High Speed Communication Wireless Networks evolved
 Evolution of Personal Communication Systems for voice video and Data
 Further Reference:
 McMahon , A century of Electrical Engineering in America
 Dyder and Fink, Engineers and Electronics(IEEE press 1984)
 History of Engineering and Science in Bell System Communication
Sciences(1925-1980) (AT&T Bell Laboratories, 1984)
Elements of Basic Electrical Communication System
 Analog Communication System
◦ Message signal is continuously time varying waveform ie.
analog signals produced by analog sources
◦ Can be transmitted directly via carrier modulation and sent
over communication channel and demodulated accordingly
at the receiver
 Digital Communication System
◦ Analog sources output converted to digital
◦ Digital modulation technique used to transmit
◦ Advantages:
 Signal fidelity is better controlled by digital modulation than
analog
 Regeneration or reproduction is over for long distance signal to
eliminate noise effects at each regeneration point
 With digital processing, redundancy may be removed prior to
modulation saving channel bandwidth
 Digital Communication System often cheaper to implement due
to advancement in IC Technology
 Sending signal Discretization at Transmitter and Synthesis or
Interpolation at receiver
 Additional : redundancy removal , channel coding and decoding
 Transmitter
◦ Converts electrical signals into a suitable format for
transmission through physical channel to a liscensed
frequency range via proper modulation technique
◦ Modulation may be analog (AM, FM) or Digital (QAM, PSK,
MSK, GMSK)
◦ Carrier modulation is used to convert the information signal
to a form that matches the characteristics of the channel
◦ Through modulation, the information signal is translated in
frequency to match the allocation of the channel
◦ Choice of Modulation Depends on allocated BW,Noise and
Interference, Devices used for Amplification.
◦ Modulation enables to accommodate transmission of
multiple messagess from many users over the same
physical channel
◦ Filtering of Information Bearing Signal
◦ Amplification of the modulated signal
◦ Radiation of the signal by means of Transmitting Antenna
 Channel
 The physical medium used to send the signal from
transmitter to the receiver
 Wireless(Free Space) : Microwave, Satellite
 Guided (Optical, Coaxial): OFC, Telephone
 Transmitted signal is corrupted by noise by a numbe r of
mechanisms in the channel
 Additive Noise or Thermal Noise is generated at front end of
receiver during signal amplification
 Can be man made (automobile Ignition) or natural
atmospheric (Lightening)
 Interference from other users of the channel is another
example of additive noise that affects many wireline and
wireless communications
 Multipath propagation is another cause of signal degradation
called fading which varies with time, signal amplitude and is
called non additive signal distortion
 Both additive and non additive signal distortions are ramdom
phenomena and described statistically and are important in
the design of the communication system
 Receiver

 Recover the message signal from the received signal

 Performs carrier demodulation to extract the message
from the carrier
 Added noise in the channel is responsible for signal
distortion and thus demodulated message is somehow
distorted
 Also performs peripheral functions such as signal
filtering and Noise suppression and Interference
Rejection
Figure : Elements of a Digital Communication System
 Information source and Transducers
◦ Source output may be
 analog (audio or video signal)
 Digital (Teletype machine)
◦ Transducers convert input real signal to suitable form to a system
 Sorce Encoder
◦ Message produced by source are converted to a sequency of minimum
binary digits as far as possible with little or no redundency
◦ The process of efficiently converting the output of either analog or digital
source into a sequence of binary digits is called soucre encoding or data
compression
 Channel Encoder
◦ Introduces some controlled redundancy in the information sequence that
can be used by the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and
interference
◦ Added redundancy
 increases the reliability of received data
 Improves the fidelity of the received signal
 Aids the receiver in in decoding the desired information sequence
 Code Rate
 k=no of symbols before mapping from output of source encoder bits
 n= no of symbols after mapping into codeword=Output of channel encoder
 Digital Modulator
◦ Maps the binary information sequence into signal
waveforms
 Binary Modulation: 0->s1(t), 1-> S2(t)
 M ary Modulation :
 M=2b distinct waveforms, Si (t) with i={0,1,…M-1} one
waveform to each of the 2b possible b-bit sequence
 new b bit sequence enters modulator every b/R seconds
when the channel rate R is fixed
 The time available to transmit one of the M waveforms
corresponding to b bit sequence is b times the period for
binary modulation
◦ Serves as the interface to the communication
channel
 Communication Channel
◦ Physical medium used to send the signal from transmitter to the receiver
◦ Medium may be
 Free Space: Microwave , Satellite
 Guided : Wire, Coaxial cable , Waveguide or Optical
◦ Every communication channel introduces noise in the system due to some physical phenomenon
◦ Transmitted signal is corrupted in a random manner by variety of possible mechanisms
 Additive
 Thermal Noise: by Electronic Devices
 Man Made : Automobile Ignition noise
 Natural: Lightening Discharge
 Digital Demodulator and Channel Decoder
◦ Processes the channel- corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveforms to a sequence of
numbers that represent estimates of the transmitted data symbols (binary or M ary)
◦ Performs the reverse operation of Digital Modulator
◦ Performance of Demodulators /Decoders is measured with Probability of Error (frequency of error occurring
in decoded sequence )
◦ Probability of Error is a function of
 Code characteristics
 Types of waveform used to transmit the information over the channel
 Channel Characteristics: noise, interferences
 Demodulation-Decoding Technique used
 Source Decoder
◦ Converts the output sequences of channel decoder to original sequences
◦ Due to decoding errors and distortion in channel, the output of source decoder is only an approximation to
original source output
◦ The difference between the original signal and reconstructed signal is the distortion introduced by the digital
communication System
◦ Performs reverse operation of source coder
◦ Attempts to reconstruct the original sequences with the knowledge of the source encoding method used
 Output Transducer
◦ converts signal to original form from the electrical form
 Channel Provide medium between Transmitter and Receivers
 Guided: Wire, Optical Fiber
◦ Transoceanic: Under sea water OFC
 Unguided: Free Space : Microwave, Satellite
 Storage Media: Magnetic tape , Magnetic disks and Optical Discs
 Additive or Thermal Noise inherently in introduced in the system
via channel
 Noise and Interference may arise external to the system
◦ Signal Attenuation and Fading
◦ Amplitude and Phase distortion
◦ Multipath Distortion
 Noise Effects May be reduced
◦ Proper transmitter power
◦ Proper demodulator design
 Limitations of communication channels:
 Equipment constraints
 Other: Available Channel eg. Banwidth
 1. Wireline Channels
 Twisted Pair Cables, Coaxial cables, Feeder Cables,
Waveguides
 Telephone Networks for voice data and video
transmission
 Signals transmitted through wireline channels are
distorted by
 Amplitude and phase distortion
 Additive noise
 Prone to cross talk and interference
 Amplitude and Phase distortion are minimized with
proper design of channel equalizers in receivers
Figure: Frequency for
guided Wire Channel
 2. Fiber Optic Channels
◦ OFC provide wide bandwidth than wireline channels
 Low attenuation fiber
 Highly reliable photonics devices
 Domestic as well as Trans-atlantic., Trans-Pacific
Communication are Fiber optic
 Broadband Voice Data and Video, Fax , Internet and
Telephony.
 LED modulate Intensity of Light source with message
 Repeaters and Regenerators and Dispersion
compensators used when distance is larger
 Photodiode is the receiver whose output is an electrical
signal that varies in direct proportion to the power of
light impinging it
 Noise Sources: Photodiode and Electronic Amplifiers
 3. Wireless Electromagnetic Channels
◦ Antenna radiates the Electromagnetic waves
◦ Size and configuration of antenna depends on the frequency of
operation
◦ Antena size >0.1 Times Wavelength for efficient radiation of
electromagnetic energy
◦ Propagation:
 Sky Wave Propagation
 Ground Wave Propagation
 LOS Propagation

◦ VLF and Audio Frequency Band,(wavelength>10 Km) the earth and

ionosphere act as waveguide for EMW propagation,
 to propagate around the globe used for navigation aids, shore to ships.
 Low bandwidth, Low rate signals transmission
 Noise:
 Thunderstorm around the globe especially in tropical regions
 Interference from multiple users

 Ground Wave Propagation

 Dominant in Medium Wave Frequency Band 0.3-3 Mhz(MF)
 Used for AM Broadcasting and maritime radio broadcasting
 Travel at most 150 Km when highest transmit power is used
 Sky Wave Propagation
◦ wave is reflected from ionosphere (50-400Km from Earth)
◦ Day time D-Layer(120Km) absorbs frequencies below 2MHz but not so at night time
◦ AM radio broadcast limited to night time only
◦ HF Frequency: Signal Multipath: Signals arrive at receiver via multiple propagation
paths at different delays causing inter symbol interference and signal fading
(destructive interference)
◦ Ionospheric scatter propagation from lower ionosphere is possible cases above
30MHz-60MHz even though ionospheric propagation from upper layer ceases above
30MHz (with moderate loss)
◦ Tropospheric scattering may work in 40-300MHz with heights of 10 miles or less
◦ Noise: Atmospheric and Thermal Noise
◦ Large propagation losses for Tropospheric and Lower Ionospheric propagation

 LOS Propagation
◦ For frequencies in VHF and UHF Band
◦ Transmitter and Receiver must be in direct Line Of Sight and antenna are often
mounted on towers to achieve a broad coverage area
◦ Limited by the curvature of earth d=Square root(15*h)
◦ Example Television Tower with 300m height coverage=67Km
◦ SHF have very high losses (at 10GHz, 0.003dB/km to 0.3 dB/Km, at 100Ghz
0.1dB/Km to 6 dB/Km)
◦ LOS optical communication in EHF : infrared and optical communication in free
space example Satellite to Satellite communication
 Underwater Acoustic Channels
◦ Exploration and discovery
◦ Coupled with transmitter and receiver to the surface of and bottom of sea and then
via satellite to a data collection center
◦ EMW donot propagate well within water except at extremely low frequencies that
means large and powerful transmitters are required
◦ skin depth in water=250/Sqrt(f), f in Hz and depth in meters
◦ Characterized as a multipath channel due to signal reflections from surface and
bottom of sea.
◦ Frequency dependent attenuation is proportional to square of the frequency
◦ Sources of Noise: Shrimp, Fish and mammals near harbour
◦ However it is possible to design and implement efficient and highly reliable under
water acoustic communication systems for transmitting digital signals over large
distances
 Storage Channels
◦ Information storage and retrieval systems constitute a very significant part of data
handling activities
◦ Examples: Magnetic Tapes, Audio Tapes Video Tape, Magnetic disks, Optical Disks ,
Compact Disks, DVDs , USB Flash can be characterized as communication channels
◦ The process of storing data on a magnetic tape or optical disk is equivalent to
transmitting a signal over a telephone or radio channel
◦ The Readback process and signal processing involved equivalent to functions
processed by a receiver in telephone or radio comm. System to recover the
transmitted information
◦ Additive noise: electronic components and ACI from adjacent tracks in readback
signal of a storage system
◦ Channel coding and modulation are essential components of a well-designed storage
systems
◦ Readback: demodulated and added redundency used to correct CRC errors
Figure:
Wireless Electromagnetic
Channels
 The Additive Noise Channel Model
◦ Simplest mathematical model for a communication
channel
◦ Random Additive noise process may arise from
electronic components (Thermal Noise)and amplifiers at
receiver or interference in transmission
◦ Thermal noise is characterized statistically as a
Gaussian noise process
◦ This mathematical model is often called Additive White
Gausian Noise (AWGN) Channel
◦ Applies to Broad class of physical communication
channels because of its mathematical tractability and
thus dominant channel model
◦ Channel attenuation is easily encorporated into the
model
 Linear LTI Filter Channel Model
◦ Transmitted signal should not exceed specified BW
limitations and do not interfere with each other
◦ Such channels are characterized mathematically as
linear filter channels with additive noise
◦ The Process is Linear Time invariant impulse
response of the system
 Linear Time-Variant Filter channel
◦ Physical channels such as underwater acoustics and
ionospheric propagation with multipaths are
characterized by LTV filter channels
◦ Have time variant filter channel impulse response
◦
 LTI Filter Channel Model

Linear Time variant filter Channel Model

 1. John G Proakis , Digital Communications, Fifth Edition, Tata
MCGraw-Hill companies, Inc-2008
 2. John G Proakis and Masoud Salehi, Communication System
Engineering, Second Edition, Prentice Hall- 2002