UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Harold L. Ickes, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
W. C. Mcndenhall, Director

Professional Paper 184

PRE-GAMBRIAN ROCKS OF THE

LAKE SUPERIOR REGION
A REVIEW OF NEWLY DISCOVERED GEOLOGIC FEATURES
WITH A REVISED GEOLOGIC MAP

BY

C. K. LEITH, RICHARD J. LUND, AND ANDREW LEITH

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1935

For salo by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. ............. Price 60 cents (paper cover)
 CONTENTS
Page
Abstract. _________-____________^__.-___-_._________._--__ _--...-_.--_-__-__-_--___---________-_____._____._ 1
Introduction. ________________________:___________________________!________ _ __________.__________________.____' 1
Principal changes from the old mapping.._______________________________________________________________________ 2
Michigan and Wisconsin.________:_____-____--_--__----_----_--___-__----___-_-_-_--__-___.___.___________ 3
Minnesota. ___-__-_-__-_-____._-______________-_---___-__-----_------..------__-_____-______-__-._______._ 5
Canada.________--l_________________-__________-...-_--____-______---________,--_________________________ 7
General succession..__________________________________________________________________________________________ 7
Cretaceous, Ordovician, and Cambrian rocks_________________________________________________________________ 7
Keweenawan series.___________--__.._________-_-_--__--_-_-.___--_-_-___-___-___---___-__.________________ 7
Huronian series____-_-___-_--------__--.i--_-----_--_---------------_-_---------_-_-_-__--_-___-__________ 8
Basement complex (Keewatin and Laurentian series) _-------___-_____---_-_---___-_-__________-_______.-.. 9
Correlation. _______________ _"_____________________---_-_-l-_-_-_-_-___-_____ _______________________________ 9
Keweenawan series_____..__-__-_--_---__-----__-------_--------_----------_---_---_------_-_---_-_-__-____._.. 10
New correlation of the Upper and Middle Huronian groups..______________________________________________________ 13
Michigan and Wisconsin,_____-_-________-_-__-_-_--------_-------_-_-_---___-----___--_-.________________ 13
Minnesota..._ ____________________________-__-_-_----------_-_-----_-_-_--__-_-___________-___.__________ 15
Age of the Knife Lake series and its equivalents_--_---_--------------------------_-__-___-_-_--------_-_________. 16
Relations to the unquestioned Huronian rocks__-__------__-_---__--_-_----___-_-_-_-_-_________.__________.. 16
Relations to the Keewatin series_______________-_--------------___---_--_-_-_-___-______-_________________ 17
Three periods of granitic intrusion.___________________-----._-_-_-_-------_^_-_-__------_--_-_____._____________ 18
Minnesota_ _---_--_____-_________________--_l__--_-_-__^___________-_-___--____________________________ 18
Wisconsin and Michigan. _______-_:________-_______-_----_ __---___________________________________________ 19
North shore of Lake Superior.__________---__-___--------_-_-_-----------__-__-_-_--__-____-__._______.____ 20
East shore of Lake Superior.________----_-__--------__-_-_----_---------------------_-----_--___-________. 20
General comments..______________________________--_----_-____-__-______-_-__-___-_____________________ i _ 20
Origin of the iron-formation.__.____---_-___-_-_-------------------_-_-----------_---_-_-_-__----__-__.________ 21
Different hypotheses,.___--___________--_---_-----------_-.---------------_---_-_---___--_-_-__-__________ 21
Iron bacteria and algae__________-____--__--__---_-------------------------_-_-_-_--__--_______-_____.._.__ 23
Conclusion ________________-_.-__--__---_-__------_----------------------------------_-__-________________ 23
Oxidation of the iron-formation and concentration to ore._-_----_-_---_____-____--_-_-____.__________________._____ 23
Agency involved.__.______________--_---_-_---_--_---------------------------_-___----___---_-_____..__._ 23
Restatement of processes of ore concentration._______________________________________________________________ 24
Bibliography __ ___._________..___--_-_---------_-------------------- _-----------__-----__--_-____--_________ 26
Index _____._-_._-_--.__.___-_____-- - --- ----- ----- ___ --_-__-_..__.____.__-_._ 33

ILLUSTRATION

PLATE 1. Geologic map of the Lake Superior region and structure sections- _ In pocket.

INSERT
Page
Correlation of formations in the Lake Superior region__ 10
n
 PRE-GAMBRIAN ROCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION
A REVIEW OF NEWLY DISCOVERED GEOLOGIC FEATURES, WITH A REVISED GEOLOGIC MAP

By C. K. LEITH, RICHARD J. LUND, and ANDREW LEITH

ABSTRACT significance of the terms, which implied that the fEparchean

Detailed kno\vledge of the geology of the pre-Cambrian rocks intervals of two widely separated districts were equivalent in
of the Lake Superior region has been greatly augmented since time, has been abandoned.
the publication of Monograph 52 by the United States Geologi- The question of the origin of the iron-formations and the
cal Survey iui 1911. The authors have attempted in the pres- subsequent concentration of the iron ores is reviewed, and it
ent report to assemble as much of this new information as pos- is concluded that the theories presented in Monograph 52 are
sible, and to give the reader a birdseye view of the geology essentially correct. The iron in the iron-formations is thought
as seen in the light of all studies made there up to the pres- to be derived principally from volcanic sources and possibly
ent time. Detailed descriptions are not presented, and the to a lesser extent from,weathering; the concentration of the
emphasis is placed upon the major problems of correlation. iron ores is due to oxidation and leaching of silica by down-
A revised nuip of the region, with cross sections, accompanies ward-moving surface, water. .
the report, bringing up to date a knowledge of the areal geol- A'bibliography of literature bearing on the pre-Cambrian
ogy of the region, which otherwise could be gained only by con- geology.of the xegiori which has appeared since the manu-
sulting some 150 maps contained in almost as many separate script of, Monograph 52 \ya.s completed, in 1910, concludes the
local reports, many of which are unpublished. . . report. ,.---,.....
Principal changes from o the map accompanying Monograph INTRODUCTION
52 are summarized, the most striking of which, aside from Around Lake-Superior,-in the- States of Michigan,
changes resulting from shifts in correlations, are found in Can-
ada, northern Minnesota, and northern Wisconsin areas which Wisconsin, and. Minnesota" and the Province of On-
up to 1911 had not received the detailed study..which.has been tario, is-an area of pre-Cambrian rocks representing
given them since that time. . " , part of :the south margin of the great pre-Cambrian
The geologic succession is, in ascending order, (1) the shield of North'.America., It yields about 85 percent
Keewatin series, intruded by the Laurentian granite; (2) the of the\iron ore of; the United States and 10 percent of
Knife Lake series (which may be Lower Huronian), intruded
by the Algoman granite; (3) the Huronian series, including
its copper. Production in this region is confined to
the Lower, Middle, and Upper Huronian groups; (4) the' Ke- United States territory. ' The region has produced
weenawan series, intruded by the Killarney granite, the exact more 'than 1,500,000,000 tons of iron ore, and tax com-
age of which is doubtful; and (5) the Cambrian, Ordoyician, mission estimates for Minnesota, Michigan, and Wis-
Cretaceous, and Pleistocene rocks. The series and- groups consin show-about the same amount in reserve. Exten-
named are separated by unconformities.
sion of< known deposits (particularly in depth) and
New views in respect to correlation of the pre-Cambrian
rocks are discussed at length. The most noteworthy of these further discoveries will add. to this figure. If pro-
are (1) the correlation of the major iron-formations of the duction continues at the rate established since the
Mesabi, Gogebic, Marquette, and Menoininee ranges as of World War, exclusive of the present depression, the
Negaunee (Middle Huronian) age, and the iron-formations of peak of capacity for production will be passed in per-
the Cuyuna, Iron River, Florence, and Crystal Falls districts haps 25 years, after which there will be a falling-off
as of Upper Huronian age; (2) the recognition of "the uncer-
tainty surrounding the age of the Knife Lake series, with an due to beginning exhaustion of .the Mesabi range of
inclination to view it as pre-Lower Huronian, but pointing .out Minnesota, which has been the principal producer.
the distinct possibility of its being Lower Huronian; (3) the The region has also produced about 4,000,000 tons of
recognition and better delimitation of three, great periods of metallic copper, but the output of copper is already
granitic intrusion Laurentian, Algoman, and Killarney the waning, because of low grade, great depth, and high
Laurentian of wide distribution throughout the region, the cost. .,.-:.
Algoman confined largely to the north shore of-Lake Superior,
and the Killarney confined largely to the south shore. - Copper mining has- continued since 1844 in the
One important change from Monograph 52 is in the use of Keweenaw district of Michigan. Iron mining began
the terms " Archeau " and " Algonkian." In the present report in .the Marquette. .district of Michigan in 1848 and
they designate two rock types a lower or basement group, slowly - spread over other parts of the region. The
largely igneous, which is not divisible by the use of normal
stratigraphic methods, and an upper group between the base-
Menominee district was opened in 1872, the Crystal
ment and the Cambrian, largely sedimentary, and divisible by Falls, Florence, and Iron River districts in 1880, the
the use of normal stratigraphic methods. The chronologic Gogebic district in 1884, the Vermilion district in
1
 PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OP THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

1885, the Mesabi district in 1891, and the Cuyuna and unpublished, have been used in making up the new
Baraboo districts in 1903. general map. Individual acknowledgment would re-
The Lake Superior region has been of special inter- quire an unduly long list of names, but the authors
est to students of pre-Cambrian geology because it here express their appreciation and thanks to the
presents one of the longest and most varied pre- many who have helped to make this summary possible.
Cambrian successions that have yet been definitely No finality can be claimed for the present contribu-
worked out. Its content of valuable iron and copper tion. There are many gaps in the detailed mapping.
ores has made possible more intensive and detailed Areas have been mapped by different people, at dif-
study than has been accorded to large pre-Cambrian ferent times, on different scales, and with different in-
areas elsewhere. For over half a century the region terpretations of the geology, with the result that many
has been under continuous investigation by State and abrupt changes of classification that do not actually
Federal surveys of the United States, by Provincial exist in the field are shown by straight-line boundaries
and Dominion surveys of Canada, and by geologic on the map. Many local questions of structure, suc-
staffs attached to the mining companies. cession, and correlation are still unanswered. In a
The United States Geological Survey conducted region as extensive and complicated as this geolo-
systematic surveys in the Lake Superior region from gists will still find unsolved problems a hundred years
1880 to 1909 and published many reports and maps, from now. The purpose of this paper is to take stock
culminating in a series of seven monographs. The of present knowledge, including contradictory ob-
last of these, Monograph 52, published in 1911, sum- servations and interpretations, and try to express it
marized the geology of the region. Since that time as well as may be in a generalized map and report.
the United States Geological Survey has done less The authors have tried to avoid the temptation to
systematic work, though three reports have been pub- oversimplify or to put the available miscellaneous
lished two on the Cuyuna district of Minnesota,1 in knowledge into a straight-jacket of rigid correlation,
cooperation with the Minnesota Geological Survey, though of course some measure of generalization is
and one on the Keweenaw copper district,2 based on necessary to express the available information on the
field work done largely by the Calumet & Hecla Con- scale adopted for the new map.
solidated Copper Co. but extended and completed by
the Federal Survey. During the long interval since PRINCIPAL CHANGES FROM THE OLD MAPPING
1911 State and commercial surveys have added much Departure from the general scheme as used on the
to the knowledge of the pre-Cambrian of the region. map in Monograph 52 has been made by showing
The results of these surveys, however, are in part all acidic plutonic rocks by the same color and pat-
scattered in numerous publications, and many have tern, the specific ages being shown by letter symbol in
not been published at all. those regions only where they are conclusively known.
The United States Geological Survey has cooperated This has been done because of difficulty in differen-
in the summary of the new knowledge of the pre- tiating these granitic rocks over extensive areas
Cambrian geology of the region, as presented in the where they occur, the unknown age in these areas
accompanying map and text, by defraying the cost of being indicated by the absence of any age symbol.
base maps and certain expenses of Richard J. Lund In several places on the map there will be found
and Andrew Leith during 1931-33 and by undertaking straight-line boundaries. Some of these, indicated by
the publication of this paper. heavy black lines, represent fault contacts, but most of
The authors have drawn on their own knowledge them, indicated only by a change in color pattern,
of the region and have in addition had the cordial signify the limits of detailed surveys, beyond which
cooperation of many Lake Superior geologists and the different color pattern may indicate undjfferen-
engineers, the State geological surveys, and the Geo- tiated formations.
logical Survey of Canada. As a result of this coop- Modifications of correlation in the various iron
eration it has been possible to bring together nearly districts discussed on pages 13-15 will here be passed
all of the essential work that has been done, public over with only cursory mention, to avoid repetition.
and private, published and unpublished. Several Areas mapped as " unclassified pre-Cambrian " nat-
mining companies have given permission to use the urally have been cut down very considerably since
results of surveys made for them. Nearly 150 de- the publication of the old map by the extensive work
tailed maps made since 1911, some published and some which has been done in these outlying regions, but
1 Harder, B. C., and Johnston, A. W., Notes on the geology and iron there still remain large undifferentiated tracts.
ores of the Cuyuna district, Minn.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 660, Although the region is covered to a considerable
pp. 1-26, 1918; Preliminary report on the geology of east-central
Minnesota, including the Cuyuna iron-ore district: Minnesota Geol. extent with glacial deposits, neither the old nor the
Survey Bull. 15, 178 pp., 1918. new map shows these deposits, but the reader who
3 Butler, B. S., and Burbank, W. S., The copper deposits of Michigan :
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 144, 238 pp., 1929. may be interested in studying the relations of the
 PBINCIPAL CHANGES FROM THE OLD MAPPING

drift to the pre-Cambrian rocks will find in the works New detail in mapping of the western Gogebic iron
of Leverett 3 adequate maps and descriptions of the range is taken directly from the recent report by Al-
several drift sheets. drich.6 Aside from changes in correlation as discussed
on pages 13-14, the new mapping shows abundant
MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN fault contacts and a large area of granite of Killarney
age just northwest of Mellen, previously mapped as
South of Lake Superior the boundaries as shown
basic intrusive. In Michigan the detail of the part
on the geologic maps of Michigan (1916) and Wiscon-
of the Gogebic range between Ironwopd and Wakefield
sin (1928) published by the respective State geological
comes from the 1916 State geologic map; that of the
surveys have been followed over much of the area,
Wakefield area itself from a map furnished by Pick-
with modifications required by other published or
ands, Mather & Co.; the detail in T. 47 N., R. 44 W.,
unpublished data made available since their appear-
from a map contributed by the M. A. Hanna Co.; and
ance.
that of the area lying in T. 47 N., R. 42 W., from the
The large area in northern Wisconsin previously map of the east end of the Gogebic iron range by
indicated as " undifferentiated pre-Cambrian" has Alien and Barrett.7 The distribution of the Tyler
been eliminated. In its stead are shown either areas slate (Upper Huronian) is taken from unpublished
of acidic igneous intrusives or areas in which magnetic work of Gordon Atwater for the United States Geo-
observations suggest that the occurrence of sedimen- logical Survey during the summers of 1931 and 1932.
tary formations of Huronian age is possible. The Most of the detail in Iron County, Mich., has been
mapping in the western part of this area is taken taken from the map published by the Michigan Geo-
from two reports of the Wisconsin Geological and logical Survey.8 The principal modifications from
Natural History Survey,4 and the mapping in the that map relate to the distribution of the iron-forma-
vicinity of the Michigan-Wisconsin boundary south- tion 9 in the Iron River district, which is taken from
cast of the Gogebic range was revised from the map an unpublished composite map of that district com-
compiled by R. C. Alien.5 In this area detailed field piled by Stephen Royce; the detail in the Atkins
work, particularly by the F. I. Carpenter Syndicate, area, north of Iron River, which is taken from work
has shown several strong, well-defined magnetic belts by C. O. Swanson during the summer of 1932; and
with scattered outcrops as supporting evidence, which the changes in mapping of the Saunders area south
indicate the existence there of several linear areas of of Iron River, as well as the change in age' of the
Huronian .sedimentary rocks containing iron-forma- Paint River belt of greenstone, which are taken from
tion. These so-called " ranges ", extending across the the work of Andrew Leith.
State boundary for varying distances into Wisconsin, The present map, including the above-mentioned
named in order from northwest to southeast, are the modifications, differs from the map in Monograph 52
Marenisco, Turtle, Manitowish, Vieux Desert, and in many respects, the most important of which are (1)
Conover ranges. It is highly probable that the large the elimination of all of the undifferentiated pre-Cam-
Upper Huronian slate area of northern Michigan ex- brian area east and southeast of the Crystal Falls
tends across the State line into these various ranges, " oval " (shown now as Upper Huronian sediments) ;
this possibility being very strongly indicated, if not (2) the addition of a great amount of detail both in
actually proved, in the Conover district; but until and adjacent to the Crystal Falls " oval "; (3) changes
more confirmatory evidence shall have been uncovered in the distribution of the three important greenstone
it; is thought best to follow Alien in classifying these belts lying outside of the " oval", including (a) the
areas as being probably underlain by undifferentiated
Paint River belt, extending westward from the city
Huronian sediments. On the map, therefore, the
of Crystal Falls, (&) the Spread Eagle belt, extending
Upper Huronian slates of Michigan are shown fading
southeastward from Mastodon and Stager, and (c)
off gradually into the undifferentiated Huronian sedi-
the Pentoga belt, stretching westward and southeast-
ments of these several districts in Wisconsin.
ward from the village of Saunders, along the Wiscon-
3 Leverett, Frank, Surface geology and agricultural conditions of sin boundary.
Michigan: Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 25 (Geol. ser. 2), The mapping in Florence County, Wis., is a com-
223 pp., 1917; Moraines and shore lines of the Lake Superior Basin:
U.S. Geol. Survey ProC. Paper 154, pp. 1-72. 1930 ; Quaternary geology pilation of numerous unpublished reports in the files
of Minnesota and parts of adjacent States, with contributions by
F. W. Sardeson : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 161, 149 pp., 1932. 6 Aldrich, H. R., The geology of the Gogebic iron range of Wisconsin :
4 Hotchklss, W. 0., Bean, E. F., and Wheelwright, O. W., Mineral Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 71, pi. 1, 1929.
land land classification in northwestern Wisconsin: Wisconsin Geol. 7 Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., A revision of the sequence and
and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 44, pi. 1 and township maps for magnetic structure of the pre-Keweenawan formations of the eastern Gogebic
lines, 1915. Hotchkiss, W. 0., Bean, E. F., and Aldrich, H. R., Min- iron range: Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, flg. 2A, 1915.
eral lands of part of northern Wisconsin: Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. 8 Barrett, L. P., Pardee, F. G., and Osgood, W. (compilers), Geo-
Hist Survey Bull 46, pi. 1 and township maps for magnetic lines, 1929. logical map of Iron County, Michigan Geol. Survey, 1929.
"Alien, K. C., and Barrett, L. P., Contributions to the pre-Canibrian 9 The term " iron-formation " (hyphenated) has been adopted for use
geology of northern Michigan and Wisconsin : Michigan Geol. and Biol. in a technical lithologic sense (like "ironstone.") in this report, in
Survey Pub. IS, flg. 1, 1915. accordance with the prevalent usage in the Lake Superior region.
 PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF- .THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural.History. Sur- : in. correlation whereby the iron-formation of these
vey, as modified by recent work by Andrew Leith. districts, together with the Felch schist immediately
There is still much confusion as to the correlation of underlying it, is now thought to be of Middle Huron-
the greenstones of Florence County and those",in Iron ian age, rather than Upper Huronian as previously
County, Mich., mentioned above. . Those.in.,'the Paint mapped. The detail in the Felch Mountain trough
River belt'and the Pentoga belt are.known to under- in the vicinity of the village of Metropolitan comes
lie the Michigamme slate, but it is not-known whether from, unpublished work by N. H. Stearn and C. O.
they are Middle Huronian (Hemlock) or lower Upper Swanson. The narrow tongue of Lower Huronian
Huronian. There seems to be a slight presumption in sediments .lying in the granite just north of the Stur-
favor of the latter age, but the evidence'is so incon- geon Eiver trough is shown on the basis of field work
clusive that they .are. designated on .the map "unclassi- done on separate surveys by Hugh M. Roberts and
fied pre-Cambrian." The Mastodon-Spread "Eagle- Andrew Leith.
Lake Antoine greenstone belt is likewise"of uncertain Revision of the mapping of the Swanzy district,
age, but owing to the presence of an iron-formation of better known as the Gwinn district, in T. 45. N., R.
Middle Huronian type immediately above" it: near 25 W., is based on the work of Alien.10 . Sediments
Spread Eagle Lake the belt ' is designated- as/doubt- of both Middle and Upper Huronian age are now
fully Middle Huronian. The south belt of the Quiri- shown, only rocks of the latter age haying been in-
nesec greenstone, first mapped as Keewatiti and later dicated previously. In addition, numerous faults are
in Monograph 52 as late Upper Huronian, is now shown on the new map, together with an extension
shown as unclassified pre-Cambrian. It seems to the of the trough several miles southeastward where the
writers that the evidence is probably in. favor of plac- overburden is thicker and more continuous. Rocks
ing the series in the lower part of the Upper .Huro- of the same type and succession have been found by
nian, below the Michigamme slate and above the basal Alien " only a few miles to the east, in the vicinity
conglomerate, but the evidence is not so conclusive of Little Lake, Mich.; in Monograph 52 these quartz-
that the old classification of late Upper Huronian or ite. and slate inliers were described as of basal Upper
an alternate classification as Middle Huronian can be Huronian age. The granite in T. 46 N., R. 24 W.,
overlooked. and the small area of Middle Huronian sediments in
The quartzite exposed near Keyes Lake is now tenta- T. 46 N., R. 26 W., are taken from an unpublished
tively assigned to the Lower Huronian, and the iron- map by L. P. Barrett.
formations in contact with it (Little Commonwealth Mapping of the Marquette range is based on plate
mine and Dunkel. areas)' are classified as Middle 17 in Monograph 52, as modified in the central
Huronian (Negaunee)l The exact relations in this and .western portions by the work of Swanson 12 and
area are at present too obscure for definite conclusion, Zinn. 13 The extreme western portion, showing the ex-
ancl the possibility that the quartzite near Keyes Lake tension of the several bands of iron-formation some 6
is of Goodrich (Upper Huronian) age must be kept miles west of Lake Michigamme, is taken from the
in mind. The Breakwater quartzite (named for its Michigan State .geologic map of 1916, already cited.
occurrence near Breakwater Falls on .Pine River, The principal changes from Monograph 52 include the
Florence County) is now tentatively assigned to the mapping of iron-formation at two separate horizons
Goodrich epoch. . . ., . . within the Upper Huronian (Greenwood and Bijiki),
New detail in the Menominee ranges is taken from a together with a much more accurate limitation of the
map compile.d by the Oliver Iron Mining Co. Other distribution of the Negaunee iron-formation, Clarks-
than the modifications in correlation given on pages burg volcanics, and basic intrusives within that area.
13-14, only minor changes from the old map have In Monograph 52 the-possibility of there being iron-
been made, including the mapping of numerous faults bearing rocks at two separate horizons Avithin the
in the Vulcan iron-formation in the vicinity of the Upper Huronian was- distinctly recognized, but the
town of Iron Mountain and an extension of this work of Swanson and Zinn has definitely proved this
formation some 2 miles to the northwest from the fact. The lower iron-formation (Greenwood) lies
vicinity of the Loretto .mine. The outliers of Cam-
10 Alien, R. C., Correlation and structure of the pre-Cambrian for-
brian sandstone, which are extensively exposed mations of the Gwinn iron-bearing district of Michigan : Michigan Geol.
throughout the district, have been omitted because and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 141-152, map, 1915.
"Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., Evidence of the Middle-Upper
any attempt to show them on a map of this scale would Huronian unconformity in the quartzite hills at Little Lake, Mich.:
obscure the mapping of -the pre-Cambrian geology Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 153-159, 1915.
12 Swanson, C. O., Report on the portion of the Marquette range
beneath. . covered by the Michigan Geological Survey in 1929 (unpublished map
Modifications of the mapping of the Calumet and and mimeographed text).
Felch Mountain troughs, lying consecutively north- Humb.oldt 13 Zinn, Justin, Report on the portion of the Marquette range between
and Lake Michigamme covered by the Michigan Geological
ward from the Menominee district, consist of changes Survey in 1930 (unpublished map and mimeographed text).
 PRINCIPAL CHANGES FROM THE OLD. MAPPING

between the Goodrich quartzite and the Clarksburg An undisputed upper Keweenawan age for the
volcanics, and the upper iron-formation member Barren quartzite area'to the southwest of the (jrogebic
(Bijiki) lies within the Michigamme slate and .above iron range, favored by. Hotchkiss,17 has been ques-
the Clarksburg. Several small portions of the granite tioned by H. R. Aldrich in oral communications with
fringing the trough on the south are now shown as of the authors. Aldrich favors a Huronian age for this
post-Huronian (Killarney) age. . formation, as, it was shown d.n the old map. The new
Drilling and mining in, the Negaunee' Basin, the map shows it as doubtful upper Keweenawan.
great productive area of the Marquette district, have Geologic boundaries in the Wausau, Stevens Point,
disclosed much new and interesting information, but and Marshfield area1 are taken from Weidman's
the changes in the surface distribution are too small work,18 as modified by more recent Unpublished re-
to appear on the scale of the new map. The iron- ports'of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
formation in this basin is now known to have a strati- Survey. Changes in age classification of "these .areas
graphic thickness of more than 1,5.00 feet, which is of pre-Cambrian igneous .and sedimentary, rocks are
over twice that previously known. Also-: the great discussed on pages 11 and. 19. : ' '".- '
masses of diabase intrusive, so abundant in this basin,
are now known to consist partly of sills or laccoliths, MINNESOTA
which were intruded near the top of the iron-forma- In general, the boundaries in Minnesota are taken
tion and which flattened against the massive overly- from the new geologic map of the State (1932), but
ing Goodrich quartzite. Other considerable masses with modifications b'ased on' other detailed mapping.
are now recognized as dislocated parts of a great Changes from the old mapping in northern St. Louis
continuous sill that invaded the iron-formation and and Koochiching Counties include (1) the westward
originally extended through much of the area of the extension of large areas of Keewatin greenstones and
Negaunee Basin. Knife Lake slate for some 50 miles, previously mapped
Revision of the mapping in Baraga County, the largely as " formation not determined";' (2) the
Dead River Basin, and the Keewatin belt to the north southward'extension for a few miles of the area of
of the Dead River Basin, comprising the area north Knife Lake slate lying to the south of Vermilion
and northwest of the Marquette district, is based on Lake (previously mapped a's Giants Range granite),
an unpublished map by L. P. Barrett. It shows pre- and slight changes in the outlines of a few small
viously unknown fringes of Middle Huronian sedi- greenstone belts within this slate area; (3) the map-
ments and iron-formation along the edge of the Lau- ping of practically all the schist series bordering the
rentian granite,
O /
inliers of Middle Huronian sediments Vermilion batholith on the south (except for the
and iron-formation within the Upper Huronian slates, extreme southeastern portion) as a member of the
and one large and one very small basin of Upper and Knife Lake series instead of the Ely greenstone as
Middle Huronian sediments within the old Keewatin previously shown; and (4) the assignment of the
belt north of the Dead River Basin. Vermilion batholithic mass'of granite containing nu-
The mapping of Keweenaw Point and vicinity re- merous roof pendants of Knife Lake slate to an Algo-
mains practically unchanged, Lane's map 14 having man age, rather than Laurehtian as described before:
been followed very closely over most of the area. The Critical evidence in favor of these new interpreta-
recent work by Butler and Burbank 15 has added a tions has been set forth at length by Grout. 19 Diffi-
great quantity of information concerning the district, culty was encountered in drawing the contact between
but in general the cha.nges are too detailed and local the Knife Lake series, as mapped by the Minnesota
to show on a regional map. The sediments lying to Geological Survey between Lake of the Woods and
the southeast of the middle Keweenawan flows on Ke- Rainy Lake, and the belt of Keewatin greenstones
weenaw Point (the fEastern 16 or Jacobsville sand- shown north of the Canadian boundary on the map
stone), together with the Bayfield group of sandstones in Monograph 52 and on the new Canadian maps.
outcropping on Bay field Peninsula, in northern Wis- Decision was finally made to portray this discrepancy
consin, are shown on the new map as of upper Ke- by omitting the formation boundary line in this area,
weenawan age, the classification being Paleozoic on the allowing each color pattern to continue to the inter-
old map. This matter is discussed on page 12. national boundary. The distribution of the Soudan
"Lane, A. C., The Kcwccnaw scries of Michigan: Michigan Geol. iron-formation in the Vermilion district is taken from
and Blol. Survey Pub. 6, Geol. ser. 4, pi. S, 1911.
15 Butler, B. S., Burbank, W. S., and collaborators, The copper de- 17 Hotchkiss, W. 0., Mineral-land classification sho\\ing indications
deposits of Michigan : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 144, 1929. of iron-formation : Wisconsin Qeol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 44,
10 A dagger (t) preceding a geologic name indicates that the name pp. 43-45, 1915.
has been abandoned or rejected for use in classification in publications 18 Weidman,.!Sam'uel, Geology of north-central Wisconsin: Wisconsin
of the U. S. Geological Survey. Quotation marks, formerly used to Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 16, pis. 1 and 2, 1907.
indicate abandoned or rejected names, are now used only in the ordi- 19 Grout, .F. F., The geology and magnetite deposits of northern St.
nary sense. Louis County, Minn.: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 21, pp. 9-52, 1926.
6 PRE-CAMBRIAN BOOKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION"

the old district map, plate 6 of Monograph 52, rather portion of the long tongue of acidic intrusives (red-
than from the new State map, because of the greater rock phase of the Duluth gabbro) lying between T. 55
detail shown on the former. The age of the Knife N., R. 11 W., and T. 62 N., R. 3 W.; (2) the mapping
Lake series is discussed on pages 16^18. of the rather large area of previously described mas-
Aside from changes in correlation in the Mesabi sive acidic intrusives, essentially in T. 63 N., Rs. 1 and
and Gunflint districts, described on page 15, there 2 E., 1, 2, and 3 W., as interfingering sheets of acidic
are only minor modifications in the boundaries and basic intrusives, with basic extrusives; (3) the
shown in this area. The, detail of the Mesabi is taken elimination of-the large area of acidic intrusives just
from two large-scale maps of the range, one by Grout north of Grand Marais by mapping it as basic extru-
and Broderick 20 and the other by Gruner.21 The main sives; and (4) the platting of a long, narrow tongue
change from the old map consists of a continuation of of Duluth gabbro which continues all the way to the
the Virginia slate in a narrow strip between the Du- shores of Lake Superior, some 6 miles south of the
luth gabbro and the Biwabik iron-formation as far Canadian border, previously shown as basic extrusives.
north as the Biwabik is mapped without break These revisions are made from the new State geologic
namely, to Birch Lake. Previously the slates had been map.
mapped only about 6 miles northeast of the little town The northwestern boundary of the Virginia slate
of Mesaba. The post-Upper Huronian age of the Em- area southwestward from the Mesabi range to the
barrass granite,22 fringing on the north the extreme edge of the region mapped is now shown by a change
eastern part of the range, is now considered doubtful. in color pattern without any black formation boundary
Grout and Broderick 23 discarded this interpretation, line, differing in location from that on the recent geo-
favoring an Algoman age for the entire Giants Range logic map of Minnesota in that it bulges around two
batholith; but a recent very detailed study by areas of Algoman granite in the northern part. This
Bicharz 24 has favored the earlier explanation. The is done in order (a) to emphasize the possibility and
locations of small Cretaceous outcrops plastering the even probability that the slate area and perhaps the
Mesabi in a few place's are taken from the new Biwabik iron-formation of the Mesabi may curve
State geologic map. The detail of the Gunflint dis- around considerably to the west into the area previ-
trict, showing only minor changes from the old map- ously mapped as " formation not determined" and
ping, comes from the work of Broderick.25 (&). to correct the apparent misconception, which has
It was decided to show, in those areas where de- arisen from the old map, that this line of Algoman
tailed work has been done, the distribution of the intrusions marks the western boundary of the basin
Logan sills, which intrude the Upper Huronian in which the Middle and Upper Huronian sediments
(Rove) slate of northeastern Minnesota and adjoining were deposited.
parts of Canada. These narrow " stringers." .of slate The north range of the Cuyuna district shows con-
and basic intrusives shown on the map in northeastern siderable new detail whicl^ is taken from a map
Minnesota are taken from the recent work of Grout compiled by Pickands, Mather & Co. Disagreement
and Schwartz.26 On the regional map in Monograph that has arisen over correlation in this district is dis-
52 these were shown undifferentiated under one cussed on page 15. Mapping of the iron-formation
symbol. and magnetic lines in the south range of the Cuyuna
Recent work oh the Keweenawan extrusives arid district is taken from an unpublished map showing
intrusives from Duluth north and northeast to the magnetic areas and lines of maximum intensity com-
Canadian border has changed the mapping of the piled by Carl Zapffe, together with the old district
boundaries of these formations considerably in places. map (Monograph 52, pi. 15), which showed the dis-
The major changes may be summed up as (1) a con- tribution of magnetic lines southwestward to the Mis-
siderable lessening of the width of the southwestern sissippi River.
The distribution of the Keweenawan basic intrusives
20 Grout, F. F., and Broderick; T. M., The magnetite deposits of the
eastern Mesabi range, Minnesota: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 17, between Carlton and the Cuyuna district comes from
pi. 1, 1919. the new State map and plate 14, in Monograph 52.
21 Gruner, J. W., Contributions to the geology of the Mesabi range:
Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 19, pi. 3, 1924. The mapping of acidic intrusives of Killarney age
22 U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 43, pp. 186-188, 1903; Mon. 52, p. 178, southeast of the Cuyuna district is taken mainly from
1911.
23 Grout, F. F., and Broderick, T. M., op. cit., pp. 5, 7, 49, the old map in Monograph 52 as modified by an un-
24 Richarz, Stephen, The metamorphic iron formation of the eastern published map by C. A. Cheney, Jr. On the new Min-
Mesabi range, Minnesota, and its relation to the Embarrass granite:
Jour. Geology, vol. 38, pp. 600-618, 1930. nesota map these acidic intrusives, together with the
25 Broderick, T. M., Economic geology and stratigraphy of the Gun- metamorphosed slates between, are all grouped to-
flint iron district, Minnesota: Econ. Geology, vol. 15, pp. 422-452,
1920. gether into one area labeled " granites, .gneisses, schists,
28 Grout, F. F., and Schwartz, G. M., The geology of the Rove forma- etc., of post-Archean age." It is thought best, how-
tion and associated intrusives in northeastern Minnesota: Minnesota
Geol. Survey Bull. 24, pi. 20, 1933. ever, to follow the old scheme, inasmuch as the post-
 GENERAL SUCCESSION 7
Upper Hiironian age of these intrusives is generally Schreiber-Duck Lake area, by P. E. Hopkins: Ontario
accepted. Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. 30, pt. 4, map 30a, 1921.
' Slate Islands, Lake Superior, by A. L. Parsons: Ontario
The detail in the southwestern part of the .map, Bur. Mines Ann. Kept, vol. 27, pt. 1, 1918.
showing the distribution of the Cretaceous rocks, the Heron Bay area, by J. E. Thomson: Ontario Dept. Mines
Sioux quartzite, and several areas of undifferentiated Ann. Kept., vol. 40, pt. 2, map 40d, 1931.
pre-Cambrian rocks, is also taken from the new State Heron Bay-White Lake area, by J. E. Thomson: Ontario
geologic map. Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. 41, pt. 6, map 41j, 1932.
Lake Huron sheet: Canada Geol. Survey Pub. 1553, map
The age of the belt of sandstones extending south- 155A, 1929.
westward from Duluth between the Virginia slate Michipicoten area, by W. H. Coljins: Canada Geol. Survey
and the middle KeweenaAvan flows is indicated as Pub. 1972 (Mem. 147, pt. 1), 1925.
upper Keweenawan after the work of Thwaites 2T in Missinaibi area, by E. Thomson: Canada Geol. Survey Pub'.
Wisconsin, who found no 'unconformity between the 2050 (Mem. 147, pt. 2), 1925.
Oba area, district of Algoma, by J. E. Maynarcl: Ontario
Bay field group and the underlying Or onto group, Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. 38, pt. 6, map 38c, 1929.
which is definitely upper Keweenawan. Both of'these Mississagi Reserve and Goulais River iron ranges, by E.
groups extend from Wisconsin into this belt in Min- S. Moore: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. 34, pt. 4,
nesota. The boundaries of the formation are taken map 34d, 1925.
from the new Minnesota map and are necessarily quite Batchawana area, by E. S. Moore: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann.
Rept, vol. 35, pt. 2, map 35b, 1926.
hypothetical over much of the district, because of the Sault Ste. Marie area, by R. G. McConnell: Ontario Dept.
heavy drift cover. An account of the controversy Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 35, pt. 2, map 35a, 192C5.
regarding the age of these questionable upper Kewee-
nawan red clastic rocks is given on page 12. GENERAL SUCCESSION
CANADA The pre-Cambrian succession now known includes
Revision of the mapping in Canada is based on the about 40,000 feet of sediments, at least four major
following maps, but the correlations for some of them unconformities, three periods of extensive plutonic
have been changed along general lines indicated on intrusion, and three periods of mountain building.
pages 10-20. The record fades out below in a basement complex of
Kenora sheet, Ontario, by T. L. Tanton: Canada Geol. Sur-
igneous and sedimentary rocks and their metamorphic
vey Pub. 2270, map 266A, 1933. equivalents. Special studies of this complex have
Rainy Lake, Ontario, by A. C. Lawson: Canada Geol. Survey from time to time resulted in the separation and better
Mem. 40, map 9SA, 1913. definition of geologic units, and this breaking up is
Iron and copper deposits near Mine Centre, by A. L. Parsons : likely to go further, opening new vistas in pre-Cam-
Ontario Bur. Mines Ann. Kept, vol. 27, pt. 1, 1918.
brian history. The lowermost rocks yet known are
Sapawe Lake area, by J. B. Hawley: Ontario Dept. Mines
Ann. Kept., vol. 36, pt. 6, map 38e, 1929. like those of later times, except for metamorphism;
Geological sketch map of Steeprock Lake and Sapawe Lake there is no essential departure from uniformitarian-
areas, by .T. E. Hawley: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. ism; and there is nothing to indicate that pre-Cam-
38, pt. 6, p. 14, 1929. brian sedimentation may not have begun much earlier
Atikokan iron-bearing district: Canada Mines Branch Pub.
than is indicated by the now established record.
21.7, maps 340A, 341A, 342A, 343A, 1917.
Eastern part of Matawin iron range, Thunder Bay district, The rocks are described below, beginning with those
by T. L. Tanton: Canada Geol. Survey Pub. 2069, 1925; Sum- at the top.
mary Kept, for 1924, pt. C, 1926.
Fort William and Port Arthur sheet, by T. L. Tanton: CRETACEOUS, ORDOVICIAN, AND CAMBRIAN ROCKS
Cnnada Geol. Survey Pub. 2141, map 19SA, 1928. Soft Cretaceous shales cover the bedrock in the
Thunder Bay silver area, by T. L. Tanton : Canada Geol. Sur- southwestern part of the mapped area, and little-
vey Pub. 2282, map 276A, 1931.
Silver Mountain area, by N. L. Bowen: Ontario Bur. Mines disturbed fossiliferous Ordovician and Upper Cam-
Ann. Kept., vol. 20, pt. 1, 1911. brian sedimentary rocks mantle the southern periphery
Maps by J. E. Gill in report on Gunflint iron-bearing forma- of the region and exist in isolated patches within the
tion : Canada Geol. Survey Summary Kept, for 1924, pt. C, region. These rocks will not be described in detail,
1926. as they are not involved in the problems treated in
Animikie iron range, Thunder Bay district, Ontario, by
M. A. Hanna Co. (unpublished).
this paper.
Lead and zinc bearing veins, Dorion Township and vici- KEWEENAWAN SERIES
nity, Thunder Bay district, by T. L. Tanton: Canada Geol. Next below the Cambrian, where it is present, is
Survey Pub. 1811; Summary Kept, for 1919, pt. E, 1920. the nonfossiliferous Keweenawan series, consisting of
Townships of Dorion and McTavish, district of Thunder
Bay, by J. E. Hawley: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., an immense mass, possibly 5 miles thick, of sandstone,
vol. 38, pt. 6, map 3Sf, 1929. with intercalated shales and conglomerates, contain-
ing in its lower part large quantities of extrusive
27 Thwaites, F. T., Sandstones of the Wisconsin coast of Lake Su-
perior : Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 25, 1912. lavas and intrusive laccoliths and sills. In degree of
54470 35 2
8 PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

metamorphism its sediments are more like the Cam- The Middle Huronian includes the great iron-for-
brian than the underlying series. They have char- mation of the Lake Superior region (Biwabik, Iron-
acteristic reddish, yellowish, and purplish colors and wood, Negaunee, Vulcan), represented in the Mesabi,
exhibit various evidences that they were essentially Gogebic, Marquette, and Menominee districts and con-
continental deposits formed under semiarid condi- taining by far the greater part of the commercial ore.
tions. Although the lower part of the Keweenawan Conformably below the iron-formation are quartzite
is tilted in marked unconformity with the Cambrian, and slate (Pokegama, Palnis, Ajibik), usually less than
its upper part lies nearly if not quite parallel to the 200 feet in thickness but thicker in the Marquette dis-
Cambrian. Obviously it was deposited mainly in an trict, which represent the beginning of the period dur-
independent basin before the incursion of the Upper ing which this unique iron-formation was deposited.
Cambrian sea. Although the Keweenawan is pre- In part of Michigan a definite unconformity, though
Cambrian in the sense of preceding the Upper Cam- with only slight angular discordance, separates the
brian transgression, having structural and igneous Middle Huronian from the Upper Huronian; but in
affiliations with the pre-Cambrian, and being nonfos- Minnesota and Ontario this unconformity has not yet
siliferous, it may in part be Cambrian in the sense been proved, a fact which much complicates any state-
that its deposition probably continued into the time ment of correlation.
when Middle and Lower Cambrian sediments were The Upper and Middle Huronian groups are wide-
being laid down in approaching Cambrian seas. spread over the region, but the unquestioned Lower
On the present map considerable areas of sand- Huronian rocks are more limited in their distribution.
stone east and west of Keweenaw' Point, formerly They occur in Michigan and Wisconsin as a rising
mapped as Cambrian, are now mapped as Kewee- succession of quartzite (Mesnard, Sturgeon, Sunday),
nawan, for reasons stated on page 12. Also the area dolomite showing algal textures (Kona, Randville,
of granitic intrusives assigned to the Keweenawan has Bad Kiver), and slate (Wewe), all well assorted and
been considerably extended. of marine type. These beds lie with definite un-
conformity, but only slight angular discordance, be-
HUEONIAN SERIES neath the overlying sediments. Their correlative east
of Lake Superior is supposed to be the Bruce series
Unconformably below the Keweenawan are rocks of Canada, likewise characterized by dolomite with
that exhibit an abrupt change in metamorphic char- fragmental sediments above and below it.
acter. They are hard and crystalline, locally schistose, The term " Knife Lake series " is here adopted for
have prevailingly gray and green colors, and con- the series in the Vermilion district called " Lower-
spicuously lack the reddish colors of the KeweenaAvan. Middle Huronian " in Monograph 52; Its dominant
They include vitreous quartzite, dolomite, slate, and and characteristic member is composed of banded
iron-formation. On the whole they carry evidence siliceous slates and graywackes, previously called the
of marine deposition, though deposits of shallow " Knife Lake slate." Intercalated with it are many
water and deltas are also present. Three groups are beds of conglomerate, locally named the " Stuntz con-
recognized. glomerate " and the " Ogishke conglomerate ", a thin
The Upper Huronian group, which is also the thick- iron-formation called the "Agawa formation ", basal-
est and most extensive, consists largely of slate (Vir- tic flows and tuffs, and various intrusives. The series
ginia, Rove, Tyler (fCopps), and Michigamme has long been known to students of Lake Superior
(fHanbury) formations) and occupies the largest geology by the name of its dominant member, the
area of all the pre-Cambrian sediments of the Lake " Knife Lake slate." Because of doubt as to its cor-
Superior region. This group carries evidence indicat- relation with the Huronian, discussed on succeeding
ing deltaic deposition. Near its base it locally con- pages, it seems desirable to give it the name in com-
tains intercalated iron-formation, which contributes a mon usage, " Knife Lake ", which will identify it geo-
minor part of the iron ores of Lake Superior. graphically and lithologically. It may ultimately be
The Upper Huronian contains basic sills and flows found to be equivalent to the Lower Huronian, but
of Keweenawan age. South of the Cuyuna district discussion of the problem is much clarified by desig-
of Minnesota and in northern Wisconsin and Michi- nating the series by a local name. The Knife Lake
gan it has also been intruded, with the usual meta- sediments seem to be of continental origin. They rest
morphic results, by plutonic granites, assigned to the with a well-marked unconformity on Laurentian and
Keweenawan epoch. These granites are correlated Keewatin rocks and underlie with conspicuous angu-
with the Killarney granite of the north shore of Lake lar discordance the Middle Huronian group. They
Huron. The principal folding of the Upper Huro- are closely folded, metamorphosed, and intruded by
nian, as well as of the Middle and Lower Huronian, granites of Algoman age. Their position in the strat-
dates from this period. igraphic sequence corresponds to that of the Lower
 GENERAL SUCCESSION

Huronian of the south shore, but the contrast in lith- conditions and in igneous associations. It is handi-
ology, metamorphism, and folding has raised a question capiped also by the lack of continuity of surface out-
whether they should be classed as Lower Huronian or crops, due to the covering of glacial drift, Paleozoic
as an independent pre-Huronian series between the true sediments, and many lakes, including Lake Superior
Huronian and the basement complex. In Monograph itself. About the best that can be done in the way of
52 these rocks were interpreted as the continental correlation is to call attention to similarities of lith-
equivalent of the marine Lower Huronian and Middle ologic types, to similarities in sequence, and to simi-
Huronian sediments of Michigan and Wisconsin, their larities of relations to igneous events. To a person
difference in folding and metamorphism being as- familiar with the field, terms like " Keewatin",
cribed to the localization of Algoman granites north " Huronian ", and " Keweenawan " designate fairly de-
of Lake Superior. On the other hand, similar sedi- finite types of materials and conditions, as well as
ments on the Ontario shore of Lake Superior have general positions in the stratigraphic sequence, but
been classified by Canadian geologists as pre-Huron- in the present state of knowledge such terms can-
ian. On the present map they are called " Knife Lake not be construed as fixing precise equivalence in age.
series." The alternative interpretations of age are The several great periods of orogeny and plutonic
discussed on pages 16-18. intrusion have not affected all of the region equally.
The Timiskaming and Dore series of the Michipico- The first great period of folding and intrusion was
ten and adjacent districts in Canada, northeast of the Laurentian, which seems to have been widespread
Lake Superior, have similarities of composition and but whose effects have been so'obscured by subsequent
structure to the Knife Lake series of Minnesota and intrusions that it is conclusively known in only a few
present much the same problem of correlation with the localities. The next period, that of the Giants Range
known Huronian series to the south. or Algoman intrusion and folding, is registered only,
in the Knife Lake (and equivalent) series north and
BASEMENT COMPLEX (KEEWATIN AND LAURENTIAN northeast of the lake, without any known expression
SERIES)
to the south. The third period (post-Huronian) af-
Unconformably beneath all the unquestioned Hu- fected the Upper Huronian and Keweenawan south
ronian sediments, as well as the" Knife Lake series and and southwest of Lake Superior but left relatively
its correlatives, is a basement complex (Archean of undisturbed the Upper Huronian and Keweenawan in
previous reports of the United States Geological Sur- northern Minnesota. The Lake Superior syncline
vey), which has much the same group characteristics dates mainly from this period. Thus it is that un-
in all parts of the regions. The oldest rocks of this conformities, when traced through the region, take on
complex are a great series of basaltic flows (Keewatin) quite different structural aspects, and that ancient-
intercalated with thin slate beds and with beds of looking metamorphic rocks in one locality may be
iron-formation, which are productive only in the Ver- really younger than less metamorphosed rocks else-
milion district of Minnesota. These Keewatin rocks where. Much of the confusion in regard to correla-
are intruded by granites (Laurentian), of which sev- tion has arisen fi;om failure to comprehend these facts
eral types have been discriminated. It is possible even and particularly from failure to remember that there
that some of the granites are really post-Laurentian were three definitely proved periods of plutonic in-
in isolated parts of areas which have been assigned as trusion and orogeny rather than two.
a whole to the Laurentian. Enough facts are now known to give a student of
In the Rainy Lake district of Ontario there is ap- Lake Superior geology a clear picture of the succession
parently a larger mass of slates within or beneath the of events for each district, but any attempt to com-
Keewatin flows than in other parts of the region. press these facts into a simple classification applicable
These have been gives, the local name of " Coutchi- to the whole region would involve unproved assump-
ching." Some of the supposed Coutchiching of tions or overemphasis on facts of one or another dis-
Ontario has been found to be equivalent to the Knife trict, at the expense of distortion of perspective. The
Lake series, which is above the Keewatin, and there unconformity above the basement complex has been
is still dispute on structural grounds as to the volume regarded by the United States Geological Survey as
of slates really represented by the Coutchiching. the principal break in the pre-Cambrian and as the
CORRELATION
lividing line between Archean and Algonkian, as these
terms have been used. In Michigan and Wisconsin it
Although the main features of the correlation here is much the most conspicuous unconformity. In Min-
presented are believed to be based on conclusive evi- nesota and Ontario, however, the unconformity,
dence, it must be remembered that any correlation of though definitely proved, is overshadowed by the
pre-Cambrian areas is limited by lack of fossils and structural discordance at the top of the Knife Lake
by great variations in metamorphic and structural series. Some of the geologists approaching the region
10 PRE-CAMBRIAN" ROCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

from the north side of Lake Superior have applied the make it impossible to indicate similarities in type
name f " Eparchean interval" to this later uncon- without much circumlocution.
formity, classifying everything below, including the
Knife Lake sediments, as "Archean." This difference KEWEENAWAN SERIES
of approach, which is reflected in various classifica- Knowledge of the general sequence and structure of
tions, tends to obscure the fundamental agreement the thick series of sediments and igneous rocks in-
upon the succession in individual districts. cluded under the term " Keweenawan" shows very
As the correlation in Monograph 52 of the United little change since the publication of Monograph 52.
States Geological Survey is perhaps the most widely Normally the series consists of (1) a lower division
known, this may be used as a basis for indicating of thin conglomerates, quartzites, and arkoses on the
changes introduced into the present classification. south shore and a thicker deposit of reddish and A^7hite
The term "Upper Huronian (Animikie)" of Mono- clastic rocks with considerable dolomitic and calcare-
graph 52 is now restricted to the slates of this series ous material in the vicinity of Black and Nipigon Bays
in Minnesota and Canada and the Tyler slate on the north shore; (2) a copper-bearing middle divi-
(fCopps) of the Gogebic district. It includes as be- sion consisting dominantly of basic lava flows, but
fore the Upper Huronian slate of the Marquette and with interbedded felsite conglomerates more and more
Menominee districts. The immediately underlying common near the top, into which were intruded large
iron formations (Biwabik, Ironwood, Negaunee, Vul- masses of gabbro and related plutonic rocks and minor
can) are now called "Middle Huronian." The Bi- amounts of granite; and (3) an upper division of
wabik, Ironwood, and Vulcan were formerly called reddish clastic sandstone, including shales and con-
" Upper Huronian." This change in classification glomerates. The intrusive rocks of the second division
arises mainly from the discovery of the unconformable may be, in part at least, as late as the rocks of the
relation of the iron formations with the overlying third division.
slates in the Gogebic and Menominee districts, but it Detailed descriptions of the type, distribution, and
takes into account other considerations arising from structure of the Keweenawan rocks have been aug-
studies of recent years. (See pp. 13-15.) The next mented in only minor amount in the last 20 years,
underlying group is the unquestioned Lower Huronian with the exception - of the following important
of Michigan and Wisconsin, unchanged from the pre- contributions:
vious classification. The Knife Lake series, formerly 1. With respect to the source of the lavas, which
called "Lower-Middle Huronian", is now mapped was uncertain at the time of publication of Mono-
separately. The basement complex (Laurentian and graph 52, there now seems to be ample evidence that
Keewatin) of the United States Geological Survey re- they, were derived from extensive fissures lying near
mains the same. the present center of Lake Superior. From a detailed
The classification used in this summary is given in studjr of structural features found in the middle
the accompanying correlation table. Keweenawan rocks on the south shore of Lake Supe-
The terms "Archean." and "Algonkian" are re- rior, such as bent-pipe amygdules, fanning of the dips
tained, with slightly modified significance to indicate (interpreted as indicating flows thinning away from
types of rocks and not time. "Algonkian " is used to their source), and squeezing up of underlying mud
designate the dominantly sedimentary series, in which deposits in front of the flows, Hotchkiss 29 has built
stratigraphic methods are possible, between the Cam- up the theory that the main center of outflow lay near
brian and the basement complex. The term "Archean " the present center of the lake and was related to a
is used for the basement complex consisting dominantly deep-seated batholithic intrusion. At that time the
of igneous rocks (though, containing sediments) in land must have sloped southward where the southern
which ordinary stratigraphic methods are not appli- part of Lake Superior now jies. Cross-bedding of
cable. 28 Such a dual division for most of the Lake sands interbedded with the, flows also points toward
Superior region is a reality making desirable the use a southward slope for this old land surface. As thou-
of some such general descriptive terms: Archean arid sands of cubic miles of molten material was drawn
Algonkian rock types of one region may not be the through extensive fissures to the north, flowing south-
time equivalents of Archean and Algonkian types in a ward (or up the present dip), the roof gradually col-
distant region. There are many other regions in the lapsed the tremendous weight of these extruded ma-
world where rocks are known to be broadly of Archean terials undoubtedly having been an important factor
or Algonkian types, but where time equivalence can- in the break-down forming eventually the structural
not be proved. To eliminate the terms entirely would basin now occupied by the lake. Butler and Bur-
28 Leith, C. K., The pre-Cambrian : Geol. Soc. America Proc. for 29 Hotchkiss, W. 0.. The Lake Superior geosyncline: Geol. Soc.
1933, pp. 151-179, 1934. America Bull., vol. 34, pp. 669-678, 1923.
 Correlation o/ formations in Lake Superior reylon

South shore Northwest and east shores

oyst«m Series '
Keweenaw Point Gogebic Marquette Menominee Florence Crystal Falls i Iron River Felch Mountain ' Wausau Cuyuna ' Mesabi Vermilion Rainy Lake Matawin Thunder Bay Michipicoten Soo and Batchawana
i
t f~i_ , , , '. Cretaceous
Cretaceous conglomerate aeQd shale conglomerate
*
Post-Keweenawan rocks
Upper Cambrian sandstone Upper Cambrian sandstone Upper Cambrian sandstone Ordovician limestone, sand- \ Upper Cambrian sandstone
stone, and conglomerate Upper Cambrian sandstone Upper Cambrian sandsl
Tin f»rm f firm i f v .«*»'Ur^«*ssvx*wwnss/>*v ' W**VWV****VW**WWWW^V^V*

Killarney granite* Acidic intrusives ' Presque Isle granite Acidic intrusives Acidic intrusives Acidic intrusives Acidic intrusives Basic and acidic intrusives Acidic intrusives Embarrass granite * Acidic intrusives
Basic intrusives Basic intrusives Basic intrusives Basic intrusives Duluth gabbro Duluth gabbro Basic dikes Logan sills Diabase dikes Diabase dikes
Sandstones, shales, and Sandstones, shales, and
conglomerates conglomerates
Keweenawan Acidic flows Acidic flows Osier basic flows Basic flows Basic flows
Basic flows Basic flows Sibley elastics and lime-
Quartzite and conglomerate ' stone
Unconformity <~-~>r -..
"Upper sedimentary
.2 Upper slates Mislate
chigamme Upper slates 1 group." Conglomer-
T3 Upper slates "3 Upper slates +| Upper slates
0 0> ates and quartzites
s Bijiki iron-formation Michigamme slate (includ- g
g
Iron River iron-forma-
tion member
Iron River iron-forma-
tion member 1 Iron River iron-forma-
IB
03 Deerwood iron-forma- Virginia slate Rove slate Slates Slates
o g member ing iron-formation) § tion member
ft 03 '5 tion member
ft if
2 £ Lower slates Lower slates
P Tyler slate Lower slates o § Lower slates £ Lower slates
i i
Clsirksburg volcanics South belt of Quinuesec South belt of Quinnesec Paint River belt of green- Paint River * and Pentoga
greenstone * greenstone * stone * belts of greenstone * ?
doubtCog
rselaftiuonl Cobalt series (late Hu-
Gr senwood iron-formation ronian)
Altype
gonkian Go odrich quartzite Breakwater quartzite *
t*S*J*************t*t*******+*****
r>**s &
Prrocks
e-Cambrian Middle Basic intrusives and ex.- Acidic intrusives
Huronian trusives
Ironwood iron-formation Ne gaunee iron^f orination Vulcan iron-formation Iron-formation (Xittle Com- Negaunee iron-formation Vulcftn iron-formation Biwabik iron-formation Gunflint iron-formation Iron-formation
monwealth mine area)
Sia mo slate Basic intrusives
Palms quartzite Aji bik quartzite Ajibik quartzite Felch schist Pokegama quartzite
Greenstones (Lake Antoine Greenstones near Spread
region) * Eagle Lake * Hemlock greenstones
Unconformity ************* ***^*^*j^***j^************** K>l>*'vSs^<^-«v*<^^>V>*^>^H^V>>'X>N^^

(H
We we slate "Lower sedimentary Bruce series, including Soc
group." Quartzites, series (early Huronian)
O Bad River dolomite Ko na dolomite Randville dolomite Saunders formation (dolo- Randville dolomite Saunders formation (dolo- Randville dolomite slates, and gray-
mites and quartzites) mites and quartzites) wackes
Sunday quartzite Me snard quartzite Sturgeon quartzite Quartzite near Keyes Lake* Sturgeon quartzite Sturgeon quartzite

Algoman granite Giants Range granite Vermilion granite Algoman granite Algoman granite Algoman granite Algoman granite
Knife Lake slate .2 Slate Knife Lake slate, including Slaty iron-formation Win-
o3 most of schist series digokan(?) conglomerate
^ Agawa iron-formation mapped by Lawson as and slate. Also Tanton's
Knife Lake (may be Lower ^
03
member Coutchiching Coutchiching Dor6 conglomerate
Huronian)
o Ogishke conglomerate
Q member
Unconformity ************* M
Granite and granitoid gneiss Granite, syenite, peridotite Granites and gneisses Granites and gneisses Granites and gneisses Granite gneisses Granite Granites and gneisses
Artype
chean Laurentian granite Granites and gneisses Granitec and gneisses (?)
Palmer gneiss
Soudan iron-formation Iron-formation Iron-formation Helen iron-formation Iron-formation
Keewatin Green schists and tuffs
Greenstones and green Kitchi schist and Mona Greenstones, schists, and Greenstones and green Greenstones and green
schists schist Schists (?) porphyries Ely greenstone Coutchiching schists (?) schists Greenstones and tuffs schists
NOTE. The asterisk (*) after a geologic name indicates doubt as to its stratigrapbic position. 54470-34. (Face p. 10.)
 KEWEENAWAN- SERIES 11

bank 30 cite further evidence found in Michigan in not earlier than late middle Keweenawan, with the
support of this theory. Observations made by Tan- possibility that they may even intrude parts of the
ton 81 on the north shore of Lake Superior indicate upper Keweenawan sediments. This younger age is
that the flows in that region were derived from the suggested by Butler and Burbank,36 mainly on the
south, thus corroborating further the theory just out- basis of the intrusives which bow up the upper
lined. An additional detail has been presented by Keweenawan sediments into a dome in the vicinity of
Aldrich,32 who suggests that differential tilting, shown the Porcupine Mountains. They conclude, however,
by decrease in the present northwesterly dips from 80° that " there is no basis for determining the age of the
near the Montreal River to 30° some 30 miles to the intrusive rocks more definitely than as Keweenawan
west, may indicate that the main source of the ex- or post-Keweenawan."
trusives (and hence the location of the most extensive In the Wausau, .Stevens Point, and Marshfield area
collapse) was north or northwest of the vicinity of the of north-central Wisconsin the basic and acidic rocks
Montreal River. that intrude an older sedimentary series are now shown
Hotchkiss regards the KeweemiAvan extrusives as as of doubtful Killarney age. They were previously
the culmination of a long, slow rising of a batholithic mapped as Middle and Lower Huronian respectively,
magma, beginning in Huronian time. He suggests and the older sedimentary series was regarded as of
that the early contributions to the surface were basic doubtful Lower Huronian age. The younger sedi-
lavas associated with silica-iron solutions which may mentary series, previously mapped as of doubtful Mid-
have been the source of the Huronian iron-formation dle Huronian age, is now shown as of doubtful upper
(see p. 21) and that the Keweenawan extrusives Keweenawan age. Great difficulty arises in trying to
carried the copper. fix the age of these intrusives, because of the uncer-
2. Regarding the structure of the Keweenawan tainty in correlating. the sedimentary series strati-
rocks, considerable new detail has been added by graphically above and below them; but the fact that
Butler and Burbank 33 to the knowledge of the faults here, as in the western Gogebic district, basic intru-
and minor folds on Keweenaw Point. In addition to sives are followed by granitic intrusives of fresh as-
giving many new facts describing the nature of the pect as compared to earlier pre-Cambrian intrusives
main Keweenaw thrust fault, they present much fresh might indicate the possible age correlation shown on
information regarding the many strike and bedding the new map. The Wausau district remains, however,
faults which in earlier years had passed largely unno- a very doubtful problem insofar as its correlation with
ticed. In northern Wisconsin Aldrich s* has contrib- better-known districts in the Lake Superior region
uted many new ideas with respect to the structure of is concerned.
both the Huronian rocks and the Keweenawan lying 4. Changes in the mapping of Keweenawan extru-
north of them, in the Gogebic district. He concludes sives and intrusives in northeastern Minnesota, as out-
that torsional stresses arising from the differential tilt- lined on page 6, have been summarized by Grout and
ing described above caused the many thrust and cross Schwartz.37 Grout's intensive study of the structure
faults he lias shown on his map of that region, some and origin of the Duluth gabbro 38 is an important
of which are reproduced on the present map. contribution to the literature on that subject.
3. Work by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural The most complete description yet given of the
History Survey 3r> lias shown that a rather large mass Logan sills and related intrusives of northeastern
of granite occurring just west and northwest of Mellen Minnesota has recently been presented by Grout and
intrudes middle Keweenawan gabbro, anorthosite, and Schwartz,39 who conclude that probably the sills are
basaltic flows. If this granitic mass can be correlated of middle Keweenawan age, some of them having been
with other young pre-Cambrian granites in the Lake metamorphosed by the Duluth gabbro and hence
Superior district and there seems no reason for not earlier.
tying them all into one general period of igneous
38 Butler, B. S., and Burbank, W.. S., op. cit, p. 47.
activity the granites of Killarney age must then be 37 Grout, F. F., and Schwartz, G. M., Changes in the geologic map of
northeastern Minnesota [abstract] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 38,
00 Butler, B. S., and Bin-bank, W. S., The copper deposits of Michi- p. 115, 1927.
gan : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper .1.44, p. 26, 192V). 38 Grout, F. F., The pegmatites of the Duluth gabbro : Econ. Geology,
31 Tan ton, T. L.. Shore of Lake Superior between Port Arthur and vol. 13, pp. 185-197, 1918; The lopolith; an igneous form exemplified
Nipigon : Canada. Geol. Survey Summary Kept, for 1919, pt. E, p. 3e, by the Duluth gabbro : Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 46, pp. 516-522,
1.1)20: Fort William and Port: Arthur nnd Thunder Cape map areas, 1918; Internal structures of igneous rocks; their significance and
Thunder Bay district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 167, pp. 64, origin, with special reference to the Duluth gabbro: Jour. Geology,
SC--S7. 19.SI. vol. 26, pp. 439-458, 1918; A type of igneous differentiation : Jour.
fc-'AUIrlch, H. K'. The geology of the Gogebic iron range of Wisconsin . Geology, vol. 26, pp. 626-65S, 1918 ; Studies for students; origin of
Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist.'Survey Bull. 71, p. Ill, 1929. the igneous rocks of Minnesota : Jour. Geology, vol. 41, pp. 196-218,
M Butler,'B. S., and Burbank, W. S., op. cit, pp. 48-53. 1933.
"Aldrich, H. R., op. cit., pp. 113-134. 30 Grout, F. F., and Schwartz, G. M.. The geology of the Rove for-'
M Aldrich, H. R., op. cit., pp. 119-123; also unpublished notes, niation and associated intrusives in northeastern Minnesota : Minne-
reports, etc., on file in the office 9f the Wisconsin Survey. sota Geol. Survey Bull. 24, 1933.
12 FEE-CAMBRIAN BOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

5. Two large areas that were shown on the old map bility remains that these sediments of so-called upper
as of Paleozoic (Upper Cambrian) age are now shown Keweenawan age may represent continental deposits
as upper Keweenawan. They are the Jacobsville or in a closed basin during the time that marine sedi-
f Eastern sandstone of the southeastern part of Ke- ments of Lower and Middle Cambrian age were being
weeiiaw Point and the Bayfield group, occupying Bay- deposited in other parts of the world. Nevertheless,
field Peninsula of northern Wisconsin and extending inasmuch as these unfossiliferous red sediments can
southwestward into eastern Minnesota, where it is rec- be traced downward without major break into rocks
ognized as the red clastic series and the Hinckley sand- that are definitely of pre-Cambrian type and orogeny,
stone. This change is made on the basis of detailed and as they cannot be traced upward without marked
work by Thwaites,40 who, after his study of the sand- break into fossiliferous Upper Cambrian deposits, it
stones of the Wisconsin shore of Lake Superior, con- seems best to regard them as of upper Keweenawan
cluded that " the Bayfield group of sandstones is con- age.
formable upon the recognized Upper Keweenawan 6. With respect to the copper deposits of Keweenaw
sediments and is therefore a part of that series." Point, the recent report by Butler and Burbank and
The Jacobsville sandstone of northern Michigan, their collaborators 44 has added a wealth of material
which is classified by the Michigan Geological Survey describing the deposits, and has also presented a new
and the United States Geological Survey as Upper hypothesis for their origin.
Cambrian, is probably correlative with the Bayfield In Monograph 52 (p. 587) the following outline of
group. W. O. Hotchkiss, in a recent conversation the hypothesis of origin of the copper ores of this
with the senior author, reported the discovery of red- region was given :
dish sandstones of the Jacobsville type lying discon- On the whole the evidence is taken to point to a probable
formably beneath sandstones of definite Upper Cam- original concentration of copper by hot solutions, largely of
brian age at Grand Island and on the mainland op- juvenile contribution but more or less mixed, necessarily, with
posite, about 35 miles east of Marquette. Thwaites 41 meteoric waters, and a later working over of the deposits by
waters dominantly of meteoric source. In any case there is a
reports that these red clastic rocks underlie undoubted high degree of probability that the associated basic igneous
Upper Cambrian sandstones in deep wells as far south rocks are the source of the copper deposits. The doubt arises
as Escanaba. only as to the manner of their derivation from these wall
The red clastic series of eastern Minnesota, found rocks whether they are due to the escape of solutions of a
juvenile nature before or during the crystallization of the
in deep wells as far south as Iowa, has recently been lavas, or whether on the breaking up of the crystallized rocks
described by Stauffer,42 who ascribes a Middle Cam- by katamorphic alterations the minute portions of copper they
brian age to them on the basis of fossils found in a contained were concentrated in the deposits. * * *
well boring at Wauconia. Gordon Atwater 43 and Was the copper brought in by the extrusive rocks which are
F. T. Thwaites 43 state that the formation from which interbedded with the sediments, or was it subsequently intro-
the fossils were obtained is probably the Upper Cam- duced by intrusives? The evidence available is not conclusive.
brian Eau Claire sha.le, which here overlies the red The new theory presented in Professional Paper 144
clastic beds and which is not to be correlated with the is best summarized by quoting from the outline of the
red clastic outcrops at Hinckley. report,45 as follows:
The evidence available, then, indicates that there The deposits * * * were formed by ascending potential
is no marked break in sedimentation between the time sulphide-bearing solutions which derived their copper from an
of igneous activity of the. middle Keweenawan and igneous source, and the reaction of these solutions with the
the time when the uppermost Bayfield unfossiliferous ferric iron of the rocks resulted in the oxidation of the solu-
tions, the reduction of the ferric iron, and the precipitation of
sandstones (hence probably the Jacobsville (fEast- native copper.
ern) and Hinckley sandstones to the east and west The theory of deposition by descending waters appears
respectively) were deposited. A marked break, as untenable for several reasons. There is, in the first place, no
reported by Hotchkiss,43 separated the deposition of adequate source of the copper, for although copper is present
the Jacobsville sandstone from that of the Upper in the traps there is no evidence of its removal. It is difficult,
also, to believe that gravity circulation could have been ade-
Cambrian fossiliferous sandstones. However, as it is quate to form the deposits, for the gravity circulation of
impossible to evaluate the time represented by the solutions in the deep levels of the mines is almost nil, and
Grand Island break, the possibility and even proba- many of the deposits are on the undersides of impermeable
barriers. The deposits, moreover, were formed in beds rich
i0 Thwaites, F. T., Sandstones of the Wisconsin coast of Lake Supe- in ferric iron and poor in ferrous iron. The ferric iron was
rior : Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 25, 1912.
41 Thwaites, F. T., Well 'logs in the northern peninsula of Michigan partly removed and partly reduced to the ferrous state a
showing the Cambrian section: Michigan Acacl. Sci. Papers, vol. 19, reaction which does not seem likely to occur in the presence
pp. 413-426, 1933. of oxidized solutions.
12 Stauffier, C. R., 'Age of the red clastic series of Minnesota : Geol.
Soc. America Bull., vol. 38, pp. 469-477, 1927. See also discussion by 44 Butler, B. S., and Burbank, W. S., The copper deposits of Michi-
A. C. Lane. gan : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 144, 1929.
43 personal communication. 45 Idem, p. xii.
 NOTE
More recent work by Atwater and Clement* in northwestern Wis-
consin and northeastern Minnesota has established the presence of a
great structural and erosional unconformity between the lowest
Upper Cambrian sandstone and the uppermost Keweenawan, the
Bayfield group. Evaluation of the significance of this structural
and erosional break indicates that the uppermost Keweenawan of
the Lake Superior region should be considered pre-Cambrian, not
only in type but in reference to geologic time.
1 Atwutcr, G. I., and Clement, G. M., Relation of the pre-Cambrian and the Cambrian In
the upper Mississippi Valley (unpublished).
 CORRELATION OF THE UPPER AND MIDDLE HURONIAN GROUPS 13
In the ascensional hypothesis it is assumed that the copper The clearest evidence of unconformity has been
solutions originated in the underlying Duluth gabbro and that found in the Hemlock and Michigan mines of the
they either entered the lode-forming layers directly where
the downward extensions of these layers were in contact with Crystal Falls district, where a truncated fold in the
the magma or passed from the magma to the places of deposi- underlying Middle Huronian group is blanketed by a
tion by way of fissures. Solutions thus originating must have coarse conglomerate at the base of the upper group.
been highly heated, in the early stages gaseous, and under The presence of this conglomerate has now been dem-
great pressure, and they could therefore easily make their way onstrated by intermittent exploration along a belt
along fissures and permeable layers.
The principal facts that cause the authors to favor this
nearly 10 miles in extent.
hypothesis are that the solutions became concentrated and In the Copps district of the eastern Gogebic range
deposited ore on the under sides of barriers and that they a great conglomerate was found by Alien and Bar-
were reducing in character they carried sulphides, and they rett 40 at the base of the upper slate (Tyler slate),
deposited native copper in beds rich in ferric iron, which they called locally f" Copps slate." This conglomerate car-
partly reduced or removed.
ries abundant granite pebbles but also a few pebbles
Oxidation of the floAv tops, described in great detail, of greenstone, quartz, chert, and more rarely quartzite.
was accomplished in part by weathering of the sur- Toward the west the granite pebbles disappear and
faces between outflows but mainly within the cooling other varieties, including jasper, increase in number.
molten masses by rising gases, principally steam and In the Copps area granite was found intrusive into
carbon dioxide. the Middle Huronian, and it was supposed that this
NEW CORRELATION OP THE UPPER AND MIDDLE granite furnished the granite pebbles to the conglom-
HURONIAN GROUPS erate. Alien and Barrett therefore regarded the con-
MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN
glomerate as evidence of a great break between the
overlying slates and the Ironwood iron-formation.
On the map accompanying Monograph 52 the Mid- On this basis they presented a new correlation of the
dle Huronian, including the Negaunee iron-formation Huronian formations. 47 Subsequent work has shown
and its equivalents, was recognized only in the Mar- that granite of two ages is present in this area, much
quette and Sturgeon districts. The iron-formations in the larger part being Laurentian or pre-Huronian, and
the remaining districts of Michigan were all classed s. comparatively small part (the Presque Isle granite)
as Upper Huronian, with the Middle Huronian miss- being intrusive into the Middle Huronian Palms and
ing. On the present map the Middle Huronian has Ironwood formations and the Upper Huronian Tyler
been extended to include the iron-formation of the slate. The granite pebbles in the conglomerate mem-
Gogebic, Gwinn, Felch, Calumet, and Menominee dis-
ber of the Tyler are now regarded as having come
tricts and a part of the iron-formation in the Crystal
from the earlier granite. Although the new concept
Falls district. The Upper Huronian has been re-
of the age of the granite lessens the time significance
stricted to the upper slate formations of the various
districts, including the iron-formation contained of the break between the Tyler slate and the under-
within the slates in the Iron River, Crystal Falls, lying iron-formation in this particular locality, the
Florence, Menominee, and Marenisco districts. The unconformity does exist and has now been traced over
Upper Huronian, as so defined for these districts, a much broader area.
now corresponds with the Upper Huronian of the Recent work by Atwater has shown that when the
Marquette district, where the classification has not unconformity is followed westward from the con-
been changed. glomerate member of the Tyler slate in the Copps
The reason for this change is primarily the discov- area the slate formation is found to overlie succes-
ery of an unconformity between the slates of these sively younger beds, and the conglomerate is found to
areas and the underlying iron-formation, correspond- include pebbles of hematite, chert, and ferruginous
ing to the long-known unconformity between the Ne- chert, probably derived from the immediately under-
gaunee formation and the overlying Upper Huronian lying rocks, and to assume the general character of
group of the Marquette district. This unconformity the conglomerate included in the beds in the central
is well exhibited in the Copps area of the eastern part of the Gogebic district described by Hotchkiss
Gogebic range, from which it is traced westward in 1919 as the Pabst member. These beds constitute
through the Gogebic district with less certain indica- the basal member of the Tyler slate of this part of
tions. It is also very well shown in the Red Rock, the area, and their base bevels the underlying iron-
Hemlock, and Michigan mines of the Crystal Falls formation.
district and can be seen in diamond-drill cores along ^Allen, R. C., and garrett, L. P., A revision of the sequence and
the same horizon south of these mines, in the Crystal structure of the pre-Keweenawan formations of the eastern Gogebic
iron range of Michigan : Michigan Geol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 33-64.
Falls district. It is less certainly known in the Penn 1915.
mine of the Menominee district. «7 Idem, p. 36.
14 PEE-CAMBEIAN EOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPEEIOR EEGION

When the Copps unconformity was first found, it considerations named later, makes its presence in the
was thought that the overlying slates represented a Menominee district seem highly probable.
series later than the Tyler slate of the central and Other evidence favoring the new correlation is the
western parts of. the Gogebic district, and the term considerable degree of areal continuity of the known
f" Copps " was therefore applied to them. At that Middle Huronian (Negaunee) iron-formation in its
time the unconformity below the Tyler was not rec- extensions and repetitions south and west of the Mar-
ognized, and the Tyler slate was placed in the Middle quette district through the Gwinn, Sturgeon, Felch,
Huronian with the Ironwood iron-formation. Since Calumet, Menominee, and Crystal Falls districts. Its
then it has been rather conclusively demonstrated that continuity of lithologic type through this area has
the f Copps and the Tyler are the same. The gra- long been recognized, and the earlier geologists classi-
dation from the graniterboulder conglomerate -of the fied the iron-formation of these districts as equivalent
fCopps westward to a conglomerate lithologically to the Negaunee of the Marquette district. When the
similar to that in Hotchkiss' Pabst member is good United States Geological Survey took up its detailed
evidence for this correlation. The slate and gray- mapping in these districts, however, it was unable to
wacke, which occur in both the fCopps and the Tylei- find any break between this formation and the over-
formations, are distinctly of Upper Huronian type, lying Upper Huronian slates, which also have areal
and a group of hand specimens from either forma- continuity through all the districts; and very re-
tion can readily be distinguished from any of the luctantly it was decided, therefore, to class the iron-
slates in the Lower and Middle Huronian of this re- formation as Upper Huronian.
gion. They also conform to the type of slates and The new correlation affords a better accord in se-
graywackes present in the Upper Huronian of the quence of series in the several districts. Classifica-
other Lake Superior districts. Chert occurs in both tion of the principal iron-formations of the Gogebic,
the f Copps and Tjder slates, notably in the bed of Menominee, Crystal Falls, and adjacent districts as
the Black River north of the Eureka mine and above Upper Huronian required the assumption that the
the base of the f Copps north of the old Copps mine. Middle Huronian, as represented in the Marquette
Associated with the chert horizons are beds of car- district, was completely absent over all this area. The
bonate, much of which is siderite. Highly ferrugi- Lower Huronian is very much alike in all these dis-
nous slates and quartzites characterize the lower por- tricts and presents no problem in correlation. The
tions of both formations, and black carbonaceous triple division of the Huronian into similar lithologic
slates similar to those in the Upper Huronian- of the types is now apparent throughout the Michigan
Marquette district are also present near the base of ranges, in the Wisconsin end of the Gogebic range,
the Tyler and the f Copps formations. The term and, as described in another place, possibly in
" Tyler " is therefore applied to the entire Upper Minnesota.
Huronian of the Gogebic district. Particularly to be noted is the evidence afforded by
In the Menominee district crosscuts from the iron- the character of the iron-formations themselves. The
formation into the overlying Michigamme (fHan- iron-formations now classed as Middle Huronian,
bury) slates, as well as drill holes cutting the same equivalent to the Negaunee, are all similar in lithology
horizon, have shown the existence of a conglomerate and thickness and are extensive formations with so
separated from the iron-formation by a thin band of much areal continuity that they can be regarded with
slate conformable with the iron-formation. That this reasonable certainty as once having constituted a
conglomerate so long escaped detection is due to the blanket covering the entire region. To assign parts of
fact that nearly all the underground workings on the this formerly continuous iron-formation to the Upper
range stopped when they reached the conformable Huronian, as was previously done, implied the repeti-
hanging-wall slate. It was assumed that this slate tion of a period of unusual sedimentation. In view
was Michigamme, and that the Michigamme and Vul- of the unique features of the Lake Superior iron-for-
can formations were conformable. It now appears mations as compared with those of later geologic time,
that the omconf ormity does not occur directly at the it would bs a remarkable coincidence indeed if the
contact of the iron-formation but at a slightly higher conditions under which they were laid down had been
horizon. As yet the conglomerate has been cut in only repeated so exactly.
a few places, and much shearing along the contact The iron-formations found in the Upper Huronian
obscures the relations, with the result that the identifi- orcur as thinner and less continuous beds in the slate.
cation of the unconformity in the Menominee district They are also marked by a uniformly high phos-
is not in itself positive enough to warrant a change phorus content and in many places carry manganese.
in the classification, but the finding of the unconform- When altered, they produce high-phosphorus ores
ity at similar horizons elsewhere, together with other hav'ng general characteristics by which they can be.
 NEW CORRELATION OF THE UPPER AND MIDDLE HURONIAN GROUPS 15
easily distinguished from all the ores in the Middle The correlation of the upper slate in Minnesota with
Huronian iron-formation. An additional criterion that of Michigan is favored by its lithologic char-
is the general absence of specularite in the Upper acter, its evidence of probable delta origin, its great
Huronian. mass.and area, and its included iron-formation in the
MINNESOTA Cuyuna range, having the high phosphorus and man-
One of the most obvious facts in Lake Superior ganese content that is characteristic of the iron for-
geology is the similarity of the Biwabik iron-forma- mations in the upper slates in the Iron River, Crystal
tion of the Mesabi district of Minnesota to the Iron- Falls, and Marquette districts of Michigan. It would
wood iron-formation of the Gogebic range in Michi- be a remarkable coincidence indeed if all these char-
gan. The Biwabik dips south under Lake Superior acteristics were repeated in formations of different
at a very low angle; the Iron wood dips north under ages, lying in both areas above an iron-formation that
the same basin at a high angle. Both of them are in character, structure, and general position in the
underlain conformably by thin quartzites, and both geologic sequence, can be so definitely correlated.
are overlain by thick masses of slates of similar There is still a possibility that the Deerwood iron-
lithology. Both nearly parallel the synclinal Kewee- formation member of the Cuyuna district may prove
nawan rocks immediately overlying them. If, there- to be the equivalent of the Biwabik iron-formation of
fore, there is an unconformity between the Ironwood the Mesabi district, as suggested by the fact that in a
formation and the overlying slates (Tyler) of Michi- few places a thin quartzite very much like the Poke-
gan, there is strong reason for expecting the dis- gama quartzite at the base of the Biwabik has been
covery of a similar unconformity between the Biwabik found at the base of the Deerwood. Wolff *9 main-
formation and the overlying Virginia formation of tains that the subdivision of the. Deerwood beds cor-
Minnesota. Certain small beds of conglomerate near responds with that of the Biwabik formation. How-
the base of the Virginia slate and an apparent bevel- ever, other observers do not regard either of these bits
ing of the members of the iron-formation by the slate of evidence as conclusive. If the quartzite is truly
have been noted in the western part of the Mesabi basal to the series, one would expect, in a closely folded
range and have been construed by Wolff 48 and others district such as the Cuyuna, considerable outcrops of
as furnishing evidence of the probable existence of uncpnformably underlying formations, like those in
this unconformity; but Grout, Leith, and others do not
the Mesabi, as well as evidence of unconformity be-
regard this evidence as in itself sufficient. On the
tween the quartzite and its, basement. ' No such out-
other hand, they do not regard the absence of dis--
crop or evidence of unconformity has been found.
covered evidence of such an unconformity as proof
that it does not exist. The long delay in discovering The underlying materials, as shown by drilling, are
such evidence in Michigan through several decades of green schists of. doubtful origin,' which in lithology
study by many geologists is enough to make anyone cannot be distinguished from many schists within the
chary of asserting that such an unconformity will not Upper Huronian of the Cuyuna district. The simi-
be found in Minnesota. Some of the conglomerates larity of sequence of beds in the iron-formation with
may mark an unconformity, and the absence of the that -in the Mesabi district, emphasized by Wolff, has
upper* beds of the iron-formation in part of the so many exceptions and qualifications that it fails to
Mesabi district may be ascribed to beveling, but until be convincing. Finally, there is the general fact that
more evidence is discovered it is considered best to in its high phosphorus and manganese content the
describe this unconformity as probable but still un- iron-formation of the Cuyuna district contrasts mark-
proved. The critical zones are thickly drift-covered edly with that of the Mesabi, whereas it shows marked
throughout, mine workings do not extend into them similarity to the iron-formations known to occur in the
but are usually stopped before reaching the slate, and upper slates in Michigan.
comparatively few drill holes have crossed them. , On the new Lake Superior map, therefore, the Vir-
Such drilling as has been done in these zones, fur- ginia slate of .the Mesabi and Cuyuna districts, with
thermore, was to a large extent done 20 to 30 years the contained iron-formations, is classed as, Upper
ago, when there was no thought of a possible uncon- Huronian, and the Biwabik iron-formation, with the
formity and when thin or obscure conglomerates or immediately underlying Pokegama quartzite, is
slight discordance, of the kind that may well charac- classed as Middle Huronian, This correlation seems
terize such an unconformity, might easily have been
to the authors the logical expression of the. prepon-
overlooked.
derance of evidence. - . -..... '.-,. v
48 Wolff, J. F., Recent geologic developments on the Mesabi iron
range, Minnesota: Am. Inst. Mln. and Met. Eng. Bull. 118, p. 1786, « Wolff, J. F.,, Correlation of Mesabi and Cuyuna iron ranges:
1916 ; also personal communication. Shillings Min. Review, vol. 7, no. 45, pp. 1, 4, March,. 29, 1919,- -V -
54470 35 3
16 PRE-CAMBRIAN KOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

AGE OF THE KNIFE LAKE SERIES AND ITS the unconformities are so correlated the Knife Lake
EQUIVALENTS series is pre-Huronian. The hypothesis of pre-Huro-
RELATIONS TO THE UNQUESTIONED HURONIAN ROCKS
nian age of the Knife Lake series, however, meets sev-
eral objections. The fact that no sediments of this
The age of the rocks here called " Knife Lake " and age are found below the unquestioned Lower Huronian
similar series occurring northwest and north of Lake on the south shore is difficult to explain in view of
Superior in Minnesota and Ontario is yet in doubt. In the large exposed areas of other pre-Huronian rocks
Monograph 52 these rocks were called " Lower-Mid- (Keewatin and Laurentian) in Michigan and Wiscon-
dle Huronian ", but doubtful elements in this corre- sin. It is necessary to assume either that they were
lation were pointed out. On the present map these never deposited south of Lake Superior, or that they
rocks are mapped separately. Evidence bearing on were completely swept away by erosion prior to the
their age is summarized below. deposition of the Huronian series. It seems unlikely
The Knife Lake series of the Vermilion district and that erosion could have accomplished such a result,
its equivalents along the international boundary rest and traces of infolded synclines of the Knife Lake
unconformably upon a basement of Keewatin and series would probably have been left in this closely
Laurentian rocks, are closely folded, are intruded and folded terrane. It therefore seems highly improbable
metamorphosed by granites of Algoman age, and to- that the Knife Lake series was ever deposited south
gether with the granites are peneplaned to a remark- of Lake Superior. Whether it is Huronian or pre-
ably flat surface. On this surface rest the "Middle Huronian, it seems to be confined to the northern
and Upper Huronian and the Keweenawan, which subprovince of the region. It may represent the
have suffered but little deformation other than a slight continental deposits accumulated at the same time as
tilting to the south, toward the axis of the Lake Su- the marine Lower Huronian sediments of the south
perior syncline. . No occurrence of the Knife Lake shore, or it may be earlier.
series has been found anywhere south of the north The only place north of Lake Superior where there
margin of the late Huronian and Keweenawan rocks are sediments suggestive of the Lower Huronian is at
to the northwest of Lake Superior. These rocks are Steep Rock Lake, where there are algal limestones,
therefore .known only to rest unconformably upon the conglomerates, basic lavas, and obscure green schists,
Keewatin and Laurentian and unconformably below separated by an interval of about 2 miles from the
the Middle Huronian. Seine series of Canada Geological Survey reports,
South of Lake Superior the Knife Lake series is ab- which is included in the present mapping as a part
sent. The Upper, Middle, and known Lower Huronian of the Knife Lake series. All are agreed that the two
rocks rest unconformably upon a basement complex series were formed under different environments and
composed of Keewatin and Laurentian greenstones and are probably not of the same age, but faults obscure
granites. Together with parts of the overlying Ke- the true relations, and it is not yet possible to reach
weenawan they have been folded, intruded by late a final conclusion as to their relative ages.60 This
granites (of Killarriey age), and peneplaned prior to locality seems likely, however, to contain the key to
the deposition of the Upper Cambrian sediments. So the problem.
far as its position in the column is concerned, there- So far as the evidence available from the north and
fore, the Knife Lake series corresponds to the Lower south shores of Lake Superior is concerned,' there
Huronian. It contrasts with the unquestioned Lower seems to be little choice between the hypotheses of
Huronian of the south shore in that it is of a con- Huronian or pre-Huronian age.
tinental rather than a marine type. It contrasts also Northeast of Lake Superior, in portions of Ontario
in its close folding and intense metamorphism, which covered only partly by the accompanying map, the
is due to the fact that it is intruded by granites of Al- problem is a similar one. In these areas there are
goman age, which are absent from the unquestioned old sediments resembling the Knife Lake type, which
Lower Huronian areas of the south shore. For this are variously called " Dore ", " Pontiac ", " Timiska-
reason the unconformity above the Knife Lake series ming ", or merely " pre-Huronian " and which are here
is a striking one, more conspicuous than the one at its referred to as " Timiskaming." They rest uncon-
base. Some investigators have emphasized the un- formably on Keewatin and Laurentian rocks. They
conformity above the Knife Lake series as a primary are intruded by Algoman granites, are closely folded
basis of classification, have stated that it represents and metamorphosed, and are beveled by a great pene-
an fEparchean interval, and have been inclined to plain. This early pre-Cambrian sequence is similar
correlate it with the unconformity at the base of the to that in the Knife Lake area northwest of Lake
unquestioned Lower Huronian of the, south shore, Superior, though separated from it by considerable
which shows an equally great structural discordance,
60 Hawley, J. E., " Seine' or " Coutchiching" : Jour. Geology,
there said to represent the fEparchean interval. If vol. 38, pp. 521-547, 1930.
 AGE OF THE KNIFE LAKE SERIES AND ITS EQUIVALENTS 17
stretches of granite of unknown age or of unmapped rocks. In the absence of proved age relations it seems
territory. undesirable that terms like " Huronian" should be
In parts of the region the post-Algoman peneplain, extended to include beds representing contrasting
beveling Timiskaming sediments, is overlain by sedi- types of sedimentation. It seems equally undesirable
ments classed as Huronian. The late Huronian to call the Knife Lake series " pre-Huronian," which
consists of a thick terrestrial deposit (Cobalt series implies that it is older that the fEparchean interval.
of Canada Geological Survey reports), underlain Such grouping obscures the unconformity known to
Avithout much structural discordance by the Bruce se- exist at its base, above the true basement complex.
ries, which is the lower part of the original Huronian If it should prove to antedate the Huronian, it should
series of Logan and Murray. This series is in turn be given a name that would separate it from the
divided into two and possibly three parts by minor basement complex, and not a name as inclusive as
disconformities. The lowest group of the Bruce series " pre-Huronian," which covers the basement complex
corresponds lithologically with the Lower Huronian as well.
cf Michigan, particularly in its content of dolomite. The reader should be skeptical of emphatic asser-
Much of the Bruce series is of marine type, as con- tions, which have unfortunately become too frequent in
trasted with the terrestrial type of the Cobalt series. the literature, that the precise age of these sediments
It happens, however, that only the Cobalt series has has been proved. All that has been proved in any
been found resting on the part of the peneplain carry- district is that they are earlier than the later Huro-
ing Timiskaming sediments, and that where the Bruce nian rocks and later than the Laurentian granite. The
series intervenes between the Cobalt series and the Knife Lake series may be Lower Huronian; it may be
underlying peneplain, Timiskaming sediments have pre-Huronian (implying that it antedates the fEpar-
thus far not been identified. chean interval): or it may be intermediate in age.
The Timiskaming sediments are therefore known to
antedate the Cobalt series, but that they antedate the RELATIONS TO THE KEEWATIN SERIES

Bruce or Lower Huronian to the south is not estab- In the Rainy Lake district and its eastward exten-
lished by direct observation. A pre-Bruce correlation sions certain sediments of Knif e Lake type have been
depends on the assumption that the conspicuous un- mapped by Lawson and his successors as pre-Kee-
conformity between the Cobalt and Timiskaming watin and given a separate name, " Coutchiching ".
series is the same as that between the Bruce and its There has been much controversy about the thickness
basement complex. To put the problem in a different and extent of the Coutchiching sediments in this ter-
way, it depends on the assumption that the basement ritory. Most of the mapping following Lawson's has
complex under the Bruce contains Algoman granite, considerably reduced the area and volume of sedi-
which is later than the Timiskaming sediments, as ments called " Coutchiching ", but a late regional map
well as Lanrentian or pre-Timiskaming granite. by Tanton extends that term much farther than ever
The problem of the age of the Timiskaming series before to include great areas regarded by the present
is still further obscured by the doubt that exists as to authors and others as equivalent to the Knife Lake
the age of its possible correlative, the Sudbury series, series. Tanton makes no claim that all of his present
occurring east of the area covered by the accom- Coutchiching has been proved to antedate the Kee-
panying map and not heretofore mentioned. The watin but has used the term as a blanket designation
Sudbury series is similar in lithologic and metamor- of old sediments.
phic character to the Timiskaming series. It under- The problem is far from settled. The rocks are
lies the Bruce series with apparent unconformity in closely folded, and the structural problem of deter-
some places and with apparent conformity jn others. mining what sediments lie above greenstone flows and
Whether as a whole it lies above or below the pre- what below, or what flows belong with the Keewatin
Bruce unconformity is not yet proved. and what flows may be post-Keewatin, is a very diffi-
The Canadian geologists have almost uniformly cult one. Faulting along contacts between Keewatin
favored the pre-Huronian correlation of the Knife greenstones and sediments of the Knife Lake type has
Lake and Timiskaming sediments. In preparing the commonly obscured the relations between them. In
new map of the Lake Superior region, it has been the the Vermilion district of Minnesota, where the Knife
purpose of the authors, so far as possible, where cor- Lake series has been mapped in most detail, Keewatin
relations are doubtful, to use noncommittal terms that sediments (principally iron-formation, but including c
will not obscure general agreement as to facts. On slates and tuffs) have been recognized, but none have
the present map the rocks of the Knife Lake region been shown to be definitely pre-Keewatin. Even here,
are called " Knife Lake series," without definite as- however, because of the difficulty of the structural
signment of age. They are of a different type of problem, it is entirely possible that some of the sedi-
sedimentation from the unquestioned Lower Huronian ments may be found to be really pre-Keewatin.
18 PRE-CAMBRIAN BOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

In Manitoba, northwest of Lake Superior, many and equivalent granites (subsequently named "Al-
more or less isolated areas of pre-Cambrian rocks have goman " by Lawson), intrusive into the Knife Lake
been reported as containing much the same assemblage, slate and equivalent rocks of Minnesota and Canada;
and here also there have been differences of opinion and (3) granites intrusive into the Upper Huronian
as to the amounts of sediments to be assigned to post- south and west of the Menominee district and near
Keewatin and pre-Keewatin ages. the Cuyuna district of Minnesota, which were classed,
Bruce 51 has bracketed all the sediments of Knife doubtfully, as Keweenawan. For the last-named
Lake and Coutchiching type through the general granites the term " Killarney" is now used. The
region northwest of Lake Superior as parts of a great present map shows several changes in the mapping
delta, which he has called the "Coutchiching delta." and classification of the granites, with the general re-
This simple grouping calls attention to common fea- sult that the area of granites assigned to the Lauren-
tures of the sedimentation before, during, and after tian is decreased, while that of the granites assigned
the Keewatin flows, over a wide area and conveniently to the two later periods is increased.
covers the frequently obscure relations of sediments
and flows. It does not, however, take care of the great MINNESOTA
unconformity, representing a long time interval, plu- In the Vermilion range of Minnesota the granites
tonic intrusion, mountain building, and erosion, of Vermilion, Burntside, and Basswood Lakes, for-
known to exist at many points between the Knife merly classed as Laurentian, are now mapped as Algo-
Lake series and the Keewatin-Laurentian basement. man, meaning intrusive into the Knife Lake series,
Almost the same problem reappears in connection in accordance with the interpretation of Grout,52 of
with the Dore-Pontiac-Timiskaming sediments north- the Minnesota Geological Survey, who in recent years
east of Lake Superior. In some areas they have been has studied these granites in detail. The main evi-
regarded as in part pre-Keewatin, or at least older dence for the former classification of these granites as
than certain flows of a Keewatin type. However, Laurentian was the abundance of acidic pebbles in the
where they have been most closely studied, in the conglomerate at the base of the Knife Lake series.
Michipicoten district and the Larder Lake, Porcupine, These are dominantly of a porphyry type, obviously
and Kirkland Lake gold belt, they have been found implying derivation from the nearby .basement por-
to rest with a definite unconformity on a basement phyry intrusives in the Keewatin, but there are also
of Keewatin or Laurentian type. a few granite pebbles. Formerly it was assumed that
The Keewatin rocks are mainly surface flows. They the known Laurentian porphyries were simply phases
are known to be interbedded with sediments, and of the adjacent granite intrusives, but more intensive
there is no inherent reason why they should not have study shows that-they probably are not and that to a
been-deposited on sediments. It is quite possible that large extent the granites intruded the Knife Lake
future work will show that a part of the rocks of the sediments, producing extensive metamorphic changes.
Knife Lake type are definitely pre-Keewatin, and, In short, the evidence of metamorphism in the sedi-
if the volume of such sediments is found to be large ments at the contacts is now believed to outweigh the
enough, it may warrant general use of the term existence of a few granite pebbles in the conglomerate.
"Coutchiching" to indicate a separate pre-Keewatin The presence of granite pebbles in the conglomerate
series. As yet, however, the volume of pre-Keewatin indicates that sizable granitic intrusives of Lauren-
sediments definitely established is -very small. No tian age were .present in this area, but they cannot be
unconformity has been found between them and the identified as such.
overlying Keewatin, and there has been no proof that The only granite batholith of northern Minnesota
they are anything but interbedded sediments in the now left in the Laurentian is the Saganaga granite.
Keewatin, like those already abundantly known. For Here the evidence of unconformity with the Knife
these reasons, and especially for the reason that the Lake sediments is conclusive, for the pebbles in the
supposed pre-Keewatin sediments occupy so very small basal conglomerate have clearly come from the Saga-
an area, no attempt has been made to show them on the naga granite, and there is no evidence that the granite
present map, all being classed as Keewatin, Knife metamorphosed the sediments.
Lake, or undifferentiated Keewatin and Knife Lake.
On the map of the Mesabi district in Monograph 52
THREE PERIODS OF GRANITIC INTRUSION one small area of granite, the Embarrass granite, was
mapped as intrusive into the Middle Huronian iron-
In Monograph 52 granite intrusives of three
periods were recognized (1) the Laurentian granites, 62 Grout, F. F., The Vermilion hatholith of Minnesota: Jour. Geology,
vol. 33, pp. 467-487, 1925; The geology and magnetite deposits of
intrusive into the Keewatin; (2) the Giants Range northern St. Louis County, Minn.: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull.
21, 1926; Ages and differentiation series of the batholiths near the
81 Bruce, E. L., Coutchiching delta: Geol: Soc. America Bull., vol. 38, Minnesota-Ontario boundary: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 40, pp. 791-
pp. 771-781, 1927. . , 809, 1929.
 THKEE PEEIODS OP GEANITIC INTRUSION 19
formation at the east end of the Mesabi range. Since age are believed to exist by Hotchkiss,56 who mapped
then Grout and Broderick °3 have restudied the contact this area for the Wisconsin Geological and Natural
in this area and have concluded that the granite is of History Survey. However, much of the area of north-
the same age as the Giants Kange granite that is, ern Wisconsin is thickly drift-covered, exposures are
Algoman. This conclusion is not agreed to by few, and conclusions must be based on drill cores, on
Richarz,5* who concurs with the view presented in evidence of contact metamorphism, and on the exist-
Monograph 52, that the metamorphic effects at the ence of many magnetic belts showing a probable con-
contact indicate intrusive relations. The question of tinuation of the conditions existing in northeastern
the degree of metamorphism effected by the granite is Wisconsin to the north-central part of the State. It
somewhat obscured by the general metamorphism is quite possible that Laurentian and even Algoman
of the rocks at that end of the Mesabi district by granites are also present in this territorj^.
the overlying Duluth galbbro. A few small intrusive In north-central Wisconsin, in the vicinity of Wau-
dikes of granite cut the Middle Huronian iron-for- sau, the basement complex of granite gneisses and
mation farther west, and there are also acidic flows schists is still shown as Laurentian. Overlying
and dikes in the Keweenawan of Minnesota, so there these (probably unconformably. although no exposures
is nothing inherently improbable in the intrusive of the actual contacts have been found) is a series
nature of the Embarrass granite. However, it seems of quartzites, conglomerates, and graywackes that are
safe to assume that the mass of granite intrusive into intruded by a large series of igneous rocks ranging
the Middle Huronian of the Mesabi district is rela- from basic peridotites, gabbros, and diorites to granites
tively small, because it has not disturbed the gentle and syenites, of which the more basic are the earlier.
southward dips of the sedimentary series in the man- These rocks are shown on the present map as of doubt-
ner that might be expected from a considerable bath- ful Killarney age, with the lower sedimentary group
olithic mass. On the present map this granite is classed as undifferentiated Huronian. A fact rather
indicated as doubtfully of Killarney age. The gran- suggestive of Killarney age is that intrusives of this
ites at Little Falls and Mille Lacs, south of the age in other parts of the Lake Superior region (no-
Cuyuna range, are intrusive into the Virginia slate tably the western Gogebic district) likewise rather
and are therefore mapped as Killarney. commonly include types ranging from basic to acidic.
The Algoman granites of Minnesota are intrusive Lying unconformably on this series of igneous in-
into the Knife Lake series and lie unconformably trusives is an upper sedimentary group of conglom-
belOAV the Middle Huronian. It is not known whether erates and quartzites, which is shown on the present
the Knife Lake series is equivalent to the unquestioned map as uppermost' Keweenawan with a question mark.
Lower Huronian or whether it is pre-Huronian (see Correlation of the sedimentary rocks as well as the
pp. 16-17), and for this reason also the exact age of igneous rocks in this area is still extremely doubtful.
the Algoman granite cannot be fixed. It may be later In the Gogebic range of Michigan all the granites
than Lower Huronian, or it may be pre-Huronian. bordering the south side of the range were formerly
mapped as Laurentian, but in the eastern part of the
WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN range, in the vicinity of the Presque Isle Biver, parts
It is now known that considerable parts of the great of this granite, called the Presque Isle granite by
area in northern Wisconsin formerly classed as un- Alien and Barrett, are known to have intruded and
differentiated pre-Cambrian are underlain b}^ granite extensively metamorphosed the Middle Huronian iron-
.which is intrusive into the later Huronian sediments. formation and quartzite and to a lesser extent to have
The evidence is best developed in northeastern Wis- intruded the basal Upper Huronian slate of this area.
consin and adjacent parts of northern Michigan, in The existence of abundant granite boulders in the
the Marenisco, Turtle, Vieux Desert, and Conover dis- conglomerate at the base of the Upper Huronian in
tricts, as described by Alien and Barrett.55 The the Copps area, together with the known intrusions
granites of the Florence district were known to be of granite into the Middle Huronian of this area, led
intrusive into the Upper Huronian and were so mapped Alien and Barrett to the conclusion that the Presque
in Monograph 52. West of these districts, in north- Isle granite was intrusive into the Middle Huronian
ern Wisconsin, abundant granites of post-Huronian but not into the Upper Huronian. Further work has
developed the fact that a part of the granite of this
08 Grout, F. F., and Broderick, T. M., The magnetite deposits of the
custom Mesabi range, Minnesota: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 17, area is Laurentian, that this part furnished the pebbles
l>. 49, 1919.
01 iUcluir/,, Stephen, The tuetnmorphic iron formation of the eastern 60 Hotchkiss, W. 0., Mineral land classification, showing indications
Mesabi range, Minnesota, and its relation to the Embarras granite : of iron formation in parts of Ashland, Bayfield, Washburn, Sawyer,
Jour. Geology, vol. 88, pp. 600-618, 1930. Price. Oneida, Forest. Rusk. Barron, and Chippewa Counties : Wiscon-
"Alien, K. C., and Barrett, L. P., Contributions to the pre-Cambrian sin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 44, pp. 53-54, 1915. Hotchkiss.
geology of northern Michigan and Wisconsin : Michigan Geol. and Biol. W. 0., and Bean, E. P., Mineral lauds of part of northern AVisconsin :
Survey Pub. 18, Geol. ser. 15, pp. 65-139, 1915. Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 46, pp. 35-36, 1929.
20 PRE-CAMBRIAN BOOKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

to the conglomerate at the base of the Upper Huro- man and Laurentian granites; so presumably some, or
nian Tyler slate, and that it was a later granite that even a large part, of the area mapped by the Cana-
intruded the Middle and Upper Huronian of this area. dians as Algoman granite may be Laurentian.
Because of the lack of exposures it is not yet possible
to map the boundaries between the older and later EAST SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR
granites of this area. Mapping of the Michipicoten district by Collins and
Granite regarded as a differentiate of Keweenawan Quirke 58 shows the granite to be mainly of Algoman
anorthosite masses intrudes the Upper Huronian instead of Laurentian age, as formerly mapped. Sev-
slate and middle Keweenawan flows in the western eral small areas of granite, however, are definitely
part of the Gogebic district, near Mellen, Wis. known to be pre-sedimentary and therefore Lauren-
Along the southern margin of the Marquette dis- tian.
trict of Michigan, in the vicinity of Champion and Much of the large area between the Michipicoten
Palmer, part of the granite formerly classed as Lau- region and the Soo is underlain by granite. To the
rentian is now known to have intruded and meta- south this granite is known to underlie the Huronian
morphosed the Huronian sediments, though elsewhere series, and it therefore appears as Laurentian on our
along the south side of the Marquette district the map. Information is not yet available which makes
granite is clearly older than the Huronian sediments, it possible to draw the line between Laurentian and
as shoAvn by the pebble content of the basal conglom- Algoman granites for the main part of this area.
erate and the lack of metamorphism. Other isolated Collins,50 in his map of this portion of Ontario, classes
observations 5T south of the Marquette district show it all as Algoman, on the basis of its intrusive relation
that parts of the granite previously mapped as to sediments in the Michipicoten district and the as-
Laurentian have intrusive relations to the Huronian. sumption that it is substantially a unit mass as far
Among these may be cited granite dikes in the Felch south as the original Huronian district. On the pres-
district that change to a finer grained texture in ap- ent map the age of the granite is indicated by symbols
proaching the Huronian. only on the north and south.
The known unconformity between the lowest Huro-
GENERAL COMMENTS
nian sediments and the underlying granite and the
fact that granite only locally cuts these sediments are In review, then, granite batholiths of Laurentian age
regarded as proof that the main mass of granite is are shown both north and south of Lake Superior.
Laurentian and that the later or Killarney granite Batholiths of the next period, the Algoman, are con-
is represented only by minor amounts of intrusives. fined to a zone paralleling the Lake Superior axis on
In general the best-known granite of Killarney age in the north. The last of the granites, of Killarney age,
Michigan and Wisconsin is confined mainly to north- is not found north of the Cuyuna range, except for
eastern Wisconsin and to the nearby parts of Michi- the questionable Embarrass granite, and there is no
gan west of the Iron River district, but it is quite disturbance in the late Keweenawan and Huronian
possible that the granite may extend pretty well across rocks there to indicate its possible presence. It is con-
northern Wisconsin. Whether this is one main bath- fined on the whole to a zone paralleling the axis of the
olith with offshoots or tAvo or more batholiths is not Lake Superior syncline on the south, where its in-
yet known. trusion is doubtless to be correlated with the folding
of the Huronian and Keweenawan of that zone. As
NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR to the age of this late granite, it is known to cut the
The Algoman granites, so widely developed in north- latest of the Huronian sediments, and the folding
ern Minnesota, have their counterparts at various which it accompanied affected at least a part of the
points along the north and northeast shores of Lake Keweenawan series. Still further, small quantities of
Superior as far east as the Michipicoten district. They granite are known to be intrusive into the Keweenawan
cut sediments of the Knife Lake type. Here and there series, as near Mellen, on the western Gogebic range.
they are found well to the north in Ontario, but how It is therefore believed that the granite is of late
far they may extend in that direction is not known. Keweenawan age. If it were earlier, one would ex-
Where sediments of the Knife Lake type are not pres- pect to find more evidence of orogenic disturbance in
ent it is impossible to distinguish between the Algo- the Upper Huronian before the deposition of the
Keweenawan series south of Lake Superior.
r'7 Lamey, C. A., Granite intrusions in the Huronian formations of The evidence of three periods of granitic intrusion
northern Michigan : Jour. Geology, vol. 39, pp. 288-295, 1931. Swan-
son, C. 0., Report on the portion of the Marquette range covered by and orogeny is now generally recognized by students
the Michigan Geological Survey in 1929 (mimeographed), Michigan
Geol. Survey, 1930. Zinn, Justin, Report on the portion of the Mar- ES Collins, W. H., Quirke, T. T., and Thomson, Ellis, Michipicoten
quette range between Humholdt and Lake Michigamme covered by the iron ranges : Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 147, map 1972, 1926.
Michigan Geological Survey in 1930 (mimeographed), Michigan Geol. eo Collins, W. H., Lake Huron sheet: Canada Geol. Survey Pub.
Survey, 1031. 1553, map 155A, 1929.
 OBIGIN OP THE IKON-FORMATIONS 21
of Lake Superior geology, but there is still wide The total area of iron-formations now exposed at the
divergence of opinion as to the classification of par- rock surface is about 225 square miles. All are agreed
ticular areas of granite, especially where these are far that the iron-formations are chemical or in small part
removed from known contacts with sedimentary hori- biochemical sediments, but there is difference of
zon markers. For this reason all granites are shown opinion as to the source of the solutions.
by the same color on the map, and symbols are intro- The dominant early hypothesis of origin was that
duced only in places where the authors are reasonably the material of the iron-formations was derived from
sure of the classification. the weathering and erosion of old land surfaces and
The principal differences of opinion relate to the deposited in nearby basins or seas of shallow water.
mapping and age of the Algoman granites. As al- Exceptions were the hypotheses of Wadsworth and
ready noted, these are known to be later than the Winchell, which ascribed the iron-formations to
Knife Lake series and earlier than Middle Huronian, igneous sources. The authors of Monograph 52 had
but until it is definitely known whether Knife Lake is long accepted the prevalent hypothesis of derivation
pre-Huronian or Lower Huronian, it is impossible to of these formations by ordinary processes of weather-
say whether the Algoman is pre-Huronian or later ing, but in that monograph they abandoned it as ap-
than Lower Huronian. No Knife Lake sediments are plying to a part of the iron-formations and presented
known beneath the unquestioned Lower Huronian a evidence to show that direct and indirect contribu-
fact which means that the granites below the Lower tions from contemporaneous lavas were probably in-
Huronian might be called either "Algoman " or " Lau- strumental in the deposition of some of these forma-
rentian." Collins has called such granites on the north tions. This evidence consisted not only in the gen-
shore of Lake Huron "Algoman." In the present map- eral association of the iron-formations with lavas in
ping all such granites are called " Laurentian." This time and place, but in quantitative studies of weather-
is done for the reason that the term " Laurentian " as ing processes, which seemed to show that such proc-
defined and used by the United States Geological Sur- esses are incapable of producing iron-formations on
vey and by the International Geological Committee so large a scale. Although such processes can pro-
is confined to granites below the lowest Huronian. duce bog, lake, and similar deposits, mostly unhanded,
This risiige has been followed during the 50 years of at no place in the world are they producing the pecu-
mapping of the region by the United States Geologi- liar banded iron and silica, deposits of the Lake Su-
cal Survey. The absence of any sediments of Knife perior type. Furthermore, nowhere in the world have
La Ice type makes it impossible to prove that any of geologic columns shown iron-formations of this kind
the granites are of Algoman age. The authors think and scale except in the pre-Cambrian, and it is to be
that the present state of knowledge can be best ex- assumed that the geologic column in one place or an-
pressed by retaining the term " Laurentian " for the other is likely to reflect all varieties of conditions of
known pre-Lower Huronian granites, until the vexing sedimentation and weathering. Many similar iron-
problem of the relations of the Knife Lake series to formations in the pre-Cambrian of other parts of the
the unquestioned Lower Huronian can be solved. At world are known to be likewise associated with con-
present the authors can see little likelihood of final temporaneous basic igneous rocks.
solution of this problem. Since the publication of Monograph 52 studies of
this question have been continued by various investiga-
ORIGIN OF THE IRON-FORMATIONS tors, and the conclusions reached have shown the same
wide range between weathering and igneous contribu-
tions as the source of the iron-bearing solutions to the
The iron-formations of the Lake Superior region, original sediments.
like those in the pre-Cambrian elsewhere, represent a Gruner,00 in 1922, with reference to the Biwabik
type and scale of sedimentation not known in post- iron-formation of the Mesabi range of Minnesota,
Cambrian time. They now consist mainly of well- concluded:
oxidized banded jaspers and ferruginous cherts. Be- During Upper Huronian time there existed large land
fore oxidation they contained, in addition to jasper, areas in North America, which were covered largely with
large masses of banded siliceous iron carbonate and greanstone and basalts. It is probable that fresh extrusive
greenalite rocks. Large parts of the iron-formations rocks and volcanic tuff: and ash were deposited on parts of
the laud, as well as in the sea basins then existiug. The
have been anamorphosed into banded quartz-amphi- climate of the continent was humid and probably tropical
bole-inagnetite rocks under the influence of igneous or subtropical. Vegetation of a low form was abundant and
intrusion. The principal iron-formations reach 800 aided in the rapid decay of the rocks. Under these condi-
feet in maximum thickness. In recent years drilling tions iron, which usually is one of the most stable elements
in the Negaunee Basin of the Marquette district has 00 Gruner, J. W., The origin of sedimentary iron-formations : Econ.
shown a local maximum thickness of over 1,500 feet. Geology, vol. 17, pp. 459-460, 1922.
22 PRE-CAMBRIAN BOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

in weathering, went into solution to a large extent, but only complications in the succession of banded silica, pyrite, and
in waters with organic colloids was it stable for any length carbonate.
of time in the zone of oxidation. Silica was also dissolved The conditions here visualized have probably a close modern
on a large scale. Both iron and silica were carried to the sea counterpart in the volcanic regions of Iceland, Alaska, and
by rivers rich in organic matter. * * * A part of the Yellowstone Park, where geysers and hot springs are deposit-
silica contained in the taconite may have been contributed to ing silica at the surface and no doubt causing extensive chemi-
the sea directly by magmatic springs or hot submarine lava cal alteration in the rocks through which they ascend. It
flows. We do not believe, however, that much iron had this seems well within the realm of probability that the loci of
origin. the Michipicoten iron-formations were in early pre-Cambrian
time the scene of volcanic hot-spring activity on a grand scale.
Collins,61 in 1926, presented his conclusions about
the iron-formation of the Michipicoten district, north- Gill,62 in 1927, studied the origin of the Gunflint
east of Lake Superior. There the formation consists iron-formation of Minnesota, which is the eastward
of three members a lower siderite member, a middle extension of the Mesabi range, and concluded:
pyrite member, and an upper banded silica member. During the Animikie period continental weathering pro-
He found abundant evidence that at least the two ceeded much as it does today. A landmass of low or moderate
lower members directly replaced the associated igneous relief in a temperate or tropical climate was subjected to
deep decay. Among other substances, iron and silica were
rocks. His conclusion follows: carried to the sea by rivers, principally as colloids stabilized
The three features irregular lamination, brecciation at the by protective agents. The usual clastic sediments were de-
time of deposition, and early conversion of siderite into iron posited near the river mouths, but the sols retained their
'oxide suggest flowing water and exposure to the air rather stability long enough to be carried relatively long distances
than deposition under the seal of a large body of standing by off-shore currents to areas of shallow or moderate depth,
water. Apparently the iron-formations were formed by in which fine suspended particles were deposited rarely and
ascending heated mineralized waters at many loci in a land only during brief periods. These conditions, maintained for
.area of great volcanic activity. These loci ranged in area a much longer time than in most other periods in the earth's
from a few yards to 7 or S miles in major horizontal extent, history, resulted in the formation of an exceptionally thick
and they are to be found throughout the vertical range of the series of sediments consisting almost wholly of iron com-
volcanic complex. The heated waters were mineralized with pounds and silica.
carbon dioxide, iron, silica, and sulphur compounds at least. Volcanism occurred, particularly during the latter half of
They permeated the volcanic rocks and converted them, to a the iron-formation period. Some silica and iron may have
maximum depth of nearly 250 feet, into carbonates and sul- been contributed directly by magnetic springs or by sub-
phides. In so doing they were protected from atmospheric marine lava flows, but the total quantity supplied in this
oxidizing influences. At the surface they probably spread out way is believed to be relatively small.
in depressions and by evaporation and cooling precipitated In a study of the Gogebic range of Wisconsin
their content of silica and such carbonate as was not deposited
below ground. It is not absolutely certain that the banded
Aldrich,63 in 1929, concluded:
silica deposits were formed above ground, but the stratified There can be no doubt about its cli'emical sedimentary
arrangement of the silica and iron compounds forming them origin, but among the long list of sediments there is hardly
and their great horizontal extent as compared with their thick- a one which in any essential respects strongly resembles the
ness seem to require this postulate. In some cases these Iron wood, excepting the other iron formations of similar age.
waters may have collected in pools and even extensive ponds, The main difficulty lies with the very uncommon composi-
but the lenticular banding, brecciation, and substitution of tion. Here is a formation obviously formed as a chemical
hematite or magnetite for siderite in other cases seems to precipitate in a body of water on the surface of the earth
imply during part of the time thin and irregular flow over a and therefore one which would be the passive product of
surface intermittently exposed to- the air. In some such man- surficial environment. However, a very comprehensive study
ner hundreds of feet of banded silica were built, and in one of surficial processes has revealed no circumstances under
of several conceivable ways a laminated structure resembling which a solution of these two substances, silica and iron, may
fine sedimentary bedding was imparted to it. Eventually the be mutually segregated from the other elements of ordinary
iron-formation thus formed in a valley or other depression was rocks and in such enormous quantities. The uniform habit
covered by a flow of ellipsoidal greenstone or other lava, ter- of iron and silica in surface processes is to part company
minating the process at this place, only to have it begun that is, one is removed and the other remains insoluble and
again in some other place at the new surface. fixed.
The subordinate beds of banded silica, which in a few cases The escape from this difficulty has been seen only in the
are found within the carbonate member or at its base, and concentration of the silica and iron in an extrasurficial en-
the subordinate. alternations of banded silica and pyrite or vironment. In short, these materials were created in solu-
carbonate seen in many of the iron-formations seem on first tion by a subsurface environment a magma. This turn to
consideration to contradict this theory of origin of the iron- magmatic sources is compelled not alone by the elimination of
formations. However, in a region of active volcanisni and more immediate sources. Wherever similar formations occur
rugged topography, it is quite likely that layers of lava or rock there are ample evidences of magmatic activity if not con-
debris would become spread over the growing iron-formations temporaneously at the surface, at least imminently below
from time to time, only to be covered up by later deposits of, surface, for not long subsequent to the deposition there is
banded silica and converted into pyrite or carbonate by the 02 Gill, J. E., Origin of the Gunflint iron-bearing formation : Ecou.
mineralized waters, thereby producing minor repetitions or Geology, vol. 22, pp. 726-727, 1927.
03 Aldrich, H. R., The Geology of the Gogebic iron range of Wis-
01 Collins, W. H., Quirke. T. T.. and Thomson, Ellis, Michipicoten consin : Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 71, pp. 143-144.
iron ranges: Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 147, pp. 75-76, 1926. 1929.
 OXIDATION THE IRON'-FORMATiOtf AND CONCENTRATION TO ORE 23
surface volcanism. In the present case it is but a matter few feet of the Biwabik formation of the Mesabi dis-
of observation that on the Michigan end there was contem- trict a fact which has been interpreted as favoring
porary volcanism' throughout Upper Huronian time, as shown
by intercalated tuft's and surface flows. Furthermore, in the conclusion that bacteria played a part in its de-
Keweenawan time the whole vicinity was deeply and com- position. There is no a priori reason for believing
pletely buried by 5 miles of lava, flows. The reservoir of that bacteria may not have played a considerable part
this lava could not have been far below the surface even in in the deposition of the iron-formations. On the
Iromvood time. other hand, the direct evidence for such an agency is
The niaginatic origin of the silica and iron which makes not convincing, and from the beginning there has been
up the Iromvood is therefore believed to meet the require-
ments of the formation. It is not possible to indicate the no difficulty in explaining how iron and silica could
exact method by which this transfer of material from, the be precipitated from solution by chemical agencies.
depths to the surface was accomplished, but it is necessary The real problem is how such vast quantities of iron
to accept one or both of two possibilities. Either the silica were brought into solution, not how they were
and iron were dissolved in a solution and the solution was precipitated.
poured into this surface basin, or there were deliveries of
molten lava at the surface, and sea water or meteoric waters CONCLUSION
extracted the silica and iron salts from these hot masses. Study of the origin of the iron-formations since
In 1929 Moore and Maynarcl °* studied the solution, publication of Monograph 52 has not appreciably
transportation, and precipitation of iron and silica modified the conclusion therein reached namely, that
with reference to the origin of iron-formations gener- both weathering and igneous processes have played a
ally. In applying these conclusions to the pre-Cam- part in bringing the iron salts together and that both
brian banded iron-formations, including those of Lake chemical and organic processes have caused their pre-
Superior, they stated: cipitation. The quantitative ranges of the different
Assuming an abundance of organic matter in pre-Canibrian
processes are still conjectural. Points of view and
formations, it is possible for cold water to have extracted and emphasis are determined more or less by the particular
transported sufficient iron and silica from the great areas of area studied, and the region shows so wide a variety
igneous rocks exposed in pre-Cambrian time to build up large of conditions that differences in perspective among the
deposits of banded iron and silica. The iron would be dis- different investigators are not surprising. No one is
solved and carried as a ferric oxide hydrosol and the silicas yet qualified to make flat assertions as to origin that
as colloidal silica, the two being stabilized by organic matter
which kept them from mutually precipitating one another until will apply to all parts of the region.
thrown down by the electrolytes in the sea. The banding in The great and as yet unsolved problem is why and
the deposits, as shown by experiment, could be due to the how these materials came into solution in so great
differential rate of precipitation of the iron and silica com- concentration and on so vast a scale. Where forma-
bined with the influence of seasonal changes causing varying
tions of banded iron and silica, containing almost no
quantities of these substances to be brought into the basin of
deposition at different periods throughout the year. * * * ether sedimentary materials, have been produced with
The senior writer has for years adhered to the idea that a thickness of 600 to 1,500 feet and areas of thousands
practically all the pre-Cambrian iron-formations have been of square miles, the effective processes, whether of
formed as the result of normal processes of weathering and weathering or of igneous contribution, must have been
chemical sedimentation. B'owever, field work in recent years, on a scale without counterpart in any process observed
followed by the laboratory experiments herein described, have
led to a belief in Leith's contention that hot waters have
today.
played a more important role in the deposition of the highly The conclusion cannot be avoided that the iron-for-
siliceous formations associated with igneous rocks than was mations of the pre-Cambrian, not only of the Lake
formerly admitted. Superior region . but of the world,' were the unique
result of some special combination of conditions that
IRON BACTERIA AND ALGAE
has not since been repeated.
It is now well established that iron'bacteria deposit
iron in considerable quantities. Definite evidence has OXIDATION OF THE IRON-FORMATION AND
CONCENTRATION TO ORE
been found in spring, bog, and lake deposits.
Gruner OB reports the existence of evidence of bac- AGENCY INVOLVED
teria in the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges. However,
There is general agreement that large parts of the
Hawley °° was able to produce similar forms by purely
Lake Superior iron-formations were originally ferrous
chemical means. Algal structures exist in the lower
minerals, mainly siderite and greenalite, interbedded
04 Moore, E. S., and Maynard, J. E., Solution, transportation, and with silica and with some layers of original ferric
precipitation of Iron and silica : Econ. Geology, vol. 24, pp. 524-525, oxide. The exposed parts of the formations, amount-
1929.
08 Gruner, J. W., The. origin of sedimentary iron formations: Econ. ing to about 225 square miles, where not previously
Geology, vol. 17, pp. 417-421, 439-440, 457-458, 1922. anamorphosed into amphibole-magnetite rocks, are
00 Hawley, .T. ID., An evaluation of the evidence of life in the Archeau :
Jour. Geology, vol. 34, pp. 441-461, 1926. now,mainly oxidized to jasper, ferruginous slate, and
 PRE-CAMBRIAN BOOKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

ferruginous chert. The original ferrous portions of so great a variety of metamorphic and structural
the formations are found only in'scattered remnants, processes, none of the facts yet presented can be con-
usually far beneath the surface, in places protected strued as valid evidence against the prevalent hy-
by a variety of special conditions from surface oxida- pothesis of concentration by surface waters. In an-
tion. Over considerable areas in the Marquette and other place the senior author 68 has discussed in some
Crystal Falls districts of Michigan the mantle of detail the specific evidence offered by Gruner, and
oxides over the carbonates is thin and discontinuous. this argument will not be repeated here. In this
- The concentration of Lake Superior iron-formations summary report it seems better to restate the hy-
to iron ore has consisted of the oxidation of such of pothesis of the concentration of iron ores by waters
the original compounds as were ferrous and the leach- from the surface, to cover some features disclosed in
ing out of vast quantities of silica. In the producing developments of recent years. Indirectly this re-
districts about 6 percent of the area of the iron-for- statement will ^ meet some of the main arguments
mations, exclusive of anamorphic phases, has been advanced to favor the activity of hot solutions from
altered to ore. The general relations of the ores to igneous rocks below.
present and past erosion surfaces and to structural
basins seem to demonstrate the agency of meteoric .RESTATEMENT OF PROCESSES OF ORE CONCENTRATION
waters. Mining began at or near the present erosion sur-
This conclusion has served as a basis for all the ex- face, and for a long time little ore was known deeper
ploration and development work yet done in the Lake than 1,000 feet. In this distance many ore bodies
Superior region. It has been presented in detail in were bottomed. It was natural, therefore, that early
several of the United States Geological Survey mono- ideas of the ore concentration should relate to the
graphs on individual districts and was summarized present erosion surface. Even yet there is a good
and restated in Monograph 52. Since that time fur- deal of confused thinking on this subject. When
ther mining and exploration have added to the avail- development disclosed ore bodies extending to greater
able information, requiring some restatement of the depths, it became clear that they could hardly be
hypothesis but essentially confirming it. explained by oxidation under present conditions,
In view of the old tradition as to the insolubility of where the water table is seldom more than 100 feet
silica under ordinary weathering conditions, it is not below the surface, and more attention was paid to
surprising that some geologists have found difficulty evidence fixing the time of concentration and the con-
in accepting the conclusion that weathering agencies ditions existing at that time. Several periods of pos-
are adequate to accomplish the vast amount of leach- sible concentration are known in the different districts.
ing of silica necessary to account for the ores, and be- 1. The iron-formation of the Keewatin was exposed
cause of this difficulty Gruner Gr has offered the hy- to weathering (a) in the period preceding the deposi-
pothesis that the Lake Superior iron ores owe their tion of the Knife Lake series, (6) after the Algoman
concentration to hydrothermal solutions emanating in revolution and before the deposition of the Middle
the main from Keweenawan basic intrusives, and in Huronian of the Mesabi district and its equivalents,
the Vermilion district to earlier acidic intrusives. He (c) in the period of erosion of the Upper Huronian
finds from laboratory experiment that oxidation and and prior to the Keweenawan deposition, (d) in the
leaching of silica are greatly accelerated by moder- period following the Keweenawan and prior to the
ately high temperatures (200° to 300° C.). He points Cambrian. The only commercial ore bodies in the
out supposed shortcomings of the currently accepted Keewatin are in the Vermilion district, where the rec-
hypothesis of leaching by surficial weathering. He ord ends with the post-Algoman erosion and where
cites local relations of ores with igneous rocks, the evidences of later erosion cycles are not recorded. The
local presence of supposedly hot-water minerals in the metamorphic history here is complex, but the evidence
ore, and local structural details which seem to him to seems to indicate concentration both preceding and
favor the idea of ascending hot solutions rather than following the deposition of the Knife Lake series.
descending solutions from the surface. Whichever it was, the depth of concentration yet
This hot-water hypothesis has attracted wide atten- known below the present surface is sufficiently shallow
tion, but few geologists familiar with the field find to be accounted for by concentration from either of
the cited evidence convincing. Although many ap- these old surfaces.
parently confirmatory details may be cited, as might 2. At the end of the Negaunee epoch (Middle Hu-
be expected in a region that has been subjected to ronian) in the Marquette district and at equivalent
horizons in the Crystal Falls and Menominee districts
07 Gruner, J. W., Hydrothermal oxidation and leaching experiments :
their bearing on the origin of Lake Superior hermatite-limonite ores: the iron-formation was exposed and surficially concen-
Econ. Geology, vol. 25, pp. 697-719, 837-867, 1930; The Soudan for-
mation and a new suggestion as to the origin of the Vermilion iron 68 Leith, C. K., Secondary concentration of Lake Superior iron ores:
ores: Econ. Geology, vol. 21, pp. 629-044, 1926. Econ. Geology, vol. 26, pp. 274-288, 1931.
 OXIDATION OF THE IKON-FORMATION AND CONCENTRATION TO ORE
trated over considerable areas, as shown by the nature day, where oxidizing solutions are known to penetrate
of the overlying conglomerate, which carries boulders to far greater depths than they do in the Lake Su-
both of ore and of oxidized formation. The hard ore perior country. _ Furthermore, this period is known,
of the Marquette district was initially concentrated at from the character of the Keweenawan sediments, to
this time, though it has since undergone metamorphic have been one of a semiarid climate under which the
changes and perhaps additional concentration. This water table must have been far below the surface.
old erosion surface in most places dips steeply with Each of the earlier erosion surfaces described in
reference to the. present surface and has been followed the foregoing paragraphs was beveled by the later
to a maximum depth of nearly 3,000 feet at the Repub- ones. Each time oxidation and leaching of silica
lic mine. There seems to be no theoretical reason why created porous zones, which were utilized by waters
ore bodies on this old surface should not go indefi- from later surfaces. Such predisposition to concen-
nitely deeper. In the Crystal Falls and Menominee tration was undoubtedly an important factor in the
districts the post-Negaunee surface only locally ex- efficacy of the great concentration of post-Kewee-
posed the iron-formation, more or less slate being left nawan time.
as a capping, and in these districts no ore 'bodies can These reconstructed conditions (which were sub-
be definitely ascribed to this old surface. stantially outlined over 20 years ago G0 ) seem to be ade-
New ideas of correlation presented in this report quate to explain concentration by surficial waters to
class the iron-formation of the Gogebic and Mesabi any depths yet known. However, recent exploration
districts as of the same age as the Negaunee formation has showed that one of the Gogebic deposits extends
of the Marquette district, but as yet an unconformity down to 3,000 feet from the pre-Cambrian erosion sur-
between the iron-formation and the overlying slates face, with the end not yet in sight. This ore may
has been proved only in the Gogebic district. In the be related to the post-Negaunee erosion surface de-
Mesabi district no adequate evidence has yet been scribed under paragraph 2, above, but the evidence
found. of this unconformity is not yet conclusive. If the
3. In the Gogebic range the erosion preceding the unconformity does not exist, then the ore must be
Keweenawan deposition beveled the iron-formation related to the post-Keweenawan erosion surface. This
in the Sunday Lake area and farther east, and the calls for a review of the conditions existing in the
boulders in the basal conglomerate of tlie Kewee- post-Keweenawan erosion epoch to explain how oxi-
nawan shoAV that there was some concentration at this dizing and leaching waters from the surface could
time. This probably was a factor in the concentra- penetrate to so great a distance. This is apparently
tion of the Brotherton, Sunday Lake, and Castile ore beyond the depth of oxidation known today in any of
bodies, but not of the ore bodies in the main producing the semiarid mountainous regions of the West, where
part of the range, to the west. There the pre-Ke- the depth of oxidation is presumably a maximum.
weenawan erosion did not expose the iron-formation, However, existing information in mountainous re-
which remained blanketed with a thick mass of slate. gions is mainly confined to a few mining districts, and
In Minnesota any Keweenawan surface beds that may the ultimate possibilities have perhaps not yet been
have covered the Cuyuna, Vermilion, and Mesabi dis- disclosed. If a depth of 3,000 feet proves to be be-
tricts have been stripped away, leaving no evidence yond the reach of penetration of the surface waters
for or against surface concentration during the pre- in a mountainous semiarid period, modification of
Keweenawan erosion interval. the hypothesis here presented may become necessary.
4. By far the larger part of the Lake Superior Concentration may have begun early in the period of
iron ore, including practically all the soft ore, was Keweenawan tilting and continued during the Ke-
concentrated in the post-Keweenawan period of ero- weenawan folding, with the downward migration of
sion that preceded the deposition of the Cambrian the erosion plane, but under the influence of tempera-
sediments. There is no positive evidence that the tures higher than normal, owing to the slow cooling
parts of the iron-formations carrying most of the soft of the thick blanket of Keweenawan lavas and its
ores were ever before exposed to erosion. Basal con- associated intrusives. Ore bodies so formed, before
glomerates of the Cambrian carry abundant bou.l- the tilting" was complete, would be rotated by the fur-
ders of fully concentrated ore. The erosion surface ther tilting, thus reaching a greater vertical depth.
on which they rest records one of the most striking Geologic and physical evidences are multiplying that
examples of long-continued and deep erosion known igneous rocks of such mass cool very slowly, raising
in geologic history. During this time all the great the question whether an inheritance of heat from this
folds of the pre-C'ambrian were truncated. Restora- source may have accelerated the leaching of silica
tion of these folds shows mountainous conditions, from the ores by ordinary surface waters through a
where surface waters must have had a head compar-
08 Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., The geology of the Lake Supe-
able with that existing in mountainous regions of to- rior region: U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 52, pp. 557-560, 1911.
26 PRE-CAMBRIAiT ROCKS OP THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION"

very long period. This might help to explain the fact surface, either in pre-Goodrich time or during the
that so much of the concentration took place before long period of peneplanation that preceded the Cam-
Cambrian time and so little since. The process is the brian. But again it is possible that the waters from
same in kind before and since, but the striking differ- the surface were warmed and that the process was
ence in degree has heretofore been taken as just an- well started before the Keweenawan folding was com-
other evidence of the immense length of time repre- plete, when the deep concentration now known was
sented by the erosion interval preceding the Cambrian. much nearer the surface.
Although higher temperature will accelerate the In conclusion, the general hypothesis of concentra-
process of concentration, it still fails to account for tion of the iron ores by downward-moving waters
the hydraulics of such deep flow. Waters are ordi- from the surface, as presented in Monograph 52, still
narily ponded and stagnant at such depths. For the seems to be adequate to cover the great body of facts
exceptionally deep ore bodies the possibility has been yet known, and it is too early to say how far addi-
considered that there may have been unusually deep tional qualifications are necessary to explain .the few
and direct channels, both for inlet and outlet of exceptionally deep concentrations that have been
found. The problem has a direct practical bearing on
waters, that might have carried active artesian cir-
estimates of the future Lake Superior mines, and it
culation far below the normal water table, as in the
has been receiving close attention for years from geol-
case of a stream carried in an inverted pipe elbow.
ogists concerned in the detailed study of these mines.
Several years ago James Thompson, one of the suc-
cessful explorers of the Gogebic range and the dis- BIBLIOGRAPHY
coverer of the deep Newport ore body, worked on the
assumption that the ore body might continue east- A bibliography of literature on the pre-Cambrian
ward down the pitch to a depth of 2 miles or more, geology of the Lake Superior region since the pub-
until intersected by a cross fault known in the vicin- lication of Monograph 52, in 1911, follows.
ity of Bessemer, which would serve as the outlet.
LAKE SUPERIOR EBGION, GENERAL
It is difficult to prove or disprove such a hypothesis
on theoretical grounds, and the deep ore bodies in Leith, C. K., and Harder, E. C., Hematite ores of Brazil
question have not been developed far enough to show and a comparison with hematite ores of Lake Superior:
Eeon. Geology, vol. 6, pp. 670-686, 1911.
whether or not such outlets to the surface exist. If Leith, C. K., "Algonkian" vs. " pre-Cambrian": Econ.
an unconformity exists between the iron-formation Geology, vol. 8, pp. 507-508, 1913.
and the overlying slates, which is possible, as already Lawson, A. C., A standard scale for the pre-Cambrian rocks
indicated, this would afford a porous zone of easy of North America: XII Internat. Geol. Gong., 1913, Compt.
flow. It should be noted, also, that so far as con- Rend., pp. 349-370, 1914 (advance copy, 1913).
Leith, C. K., Relations of the plane of unconformity at
centration occurred before the Keweenawan tilting
the base of the Cambrian to terrestrial deposition in late
was complete, the ore was nearer the surface than pre-Cambrian time: XII Internat. Geol. Cong., 1913, Compt.
today a fact which would make it easier to accept Rend., pp. 335-337, 1914 (advance copy, 1913).
the idea of artesian circulation with cross faults as Leith, C. K., Pre-Cambrian correlation from a Lake Su-
outlets. perior standpoint: XII Internat. Geol. Cong., 1913, Compt.
Rend., pp. 409-421, 1914 (advance copy, 1913).
In the Marquette district soft ore has been found Geijer, Per, Lake Superior omradets prekambriska jarn-
by drilling to a depth of 3,000 feet below the surface. formationer: Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forh., vol. 35, pp. 439-
This ore lies along the extension of the Negaunee 483, 1914.
mine and contiguous ore bodies that connect directly Alien, R. C., A revision of the correlations of the Huronian
with the surface, and it seems likely that direct sur- group of Michigan and the Lake Superior region: Michigan
Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. IS, pp. 21-32, 1915.
face connection with the ore in the drill hole will even-
Alien, R. C., and Leith, C. K., Discussion of correlation [of
tually be demonstrated. The iron-formation was ex- pre-Cambrian formations of Lake Superior region] : Jour.
posed to weathering before the deposition of the Geology, vol. 23, pp. 703-729, 1915.
Goodrich quartzite, which is the bottom of the next Lane, A. C., Pre-Cambrian nomenclature: Science, vol. 42,
overlying (Upper Huronian) group. It was also pp. 869-870, 1915.
exposed in post-Keweenawan time, and there are va- Lawson, A. C., The correlation of the pre-Cambrian rocks
of the region of the Great Lakes: California Univ. Dept.
rious lines of evidence that this was the time of the Geology Bull., vol. 10, pp. 1-19, 1916.
formation of the soft ores of this district. There is Hotchkiss, W. O., The Lake Superior geosyncline: Geol.
no evidence to indicate whether or not the district was Soc. America Bull., vol. 34, pp. 669-678, 1923.
covered by surface flows of the Keweenawan, but in- Young, G. A., Proposals regarding a time scale for the pre-
trusives of supposed Keweenawan age are abundant. Cambrian : Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. 17, pp. 45-59,
1923.
As in the case of the deep ore of the Gogebic range, Royce, Stephen, Certain advances in geological information
it is not certain that this ore was beneath the range relative to the Lake Superior iron deposits: Lake Superior
of active, artesian circulation of cold waters from the Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 24, pp. 149-181, 1925.
 BIBLIOGKAPHY 27
Cooke, fl. C., " Between the Archean and the Keweenawan Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., A revision of the sequence
Is the Huronian": Boy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. and structure of the pre-Keweenawan formations of the east-
20, pp. 17-37, 1926. ern Gogebic iron range of Michigan: Michigan Geol. and Biol.
Gruner, J. W., Outline of the geology of the iron ores Survey Pub. 18, pp. 33-64, 1915; in part, Jour. Geology, vol.
and of ore production of the Lake Superior region: Internal. 23, pp. 689-703, 1915.
Bergwirtschaft, Heft 9, September 1927. Hore, R. E., Michigan copper deposits: Michigan Geol. and
Leith, C. K., Lake Superior pre-Cambrian: Geol. Soc. Biol. Survey Pub. 19, pp. 19-161, 1915.
America Bull., vol. 38, pp. 749-752, 1927. Lane, A. C., Keweenaw fault: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol.
Rieharz, Stephen, The amphibole griinerite of the Lake Su- 27, pp. 93-100, 1916.
perior region: Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 14, pp. 150-154, Geological map of Michigan, compiled by R. C. Alien, R. A.
1927. Smith, and L. P. Barrett from surveys by the Michigan Geo-
Richarz, Stephen, Griinerite rocks of the Lake Superior re- logical Survey and the United States Geological Survey,
gion and their origin: Jour. Geology, vol. 35, pp. 690-707,1927. Michigan Geol. Survey, 1916.
Richarz, Stephen, Metamorphism of the Lake Superior iron Guck, Homer, Geology of the Michigan copper district: Eng.
formations [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 39, pp. and Min. Jour., vol. 108, pp. 948-949, 1919.
164-165, 192S. Hotchkiss, W. O., Geology of the Gogebic range and its rela-
Moore, E. S., and Maynard, J. E., Solution, transportation, tion to recent mining developments: Eng. and Min. Jour., vol.
and precipitation of iron and silica: Econ. Geology, vol. 24, 108, pp. 443^52, 501-507, 537-541, 577-582, 1919.
pp. 272-303, 365-402, 506-527, 1929. Alien, R. C., Correlation of formations of Huronian group
Gruner, J. W., Hydrothermal oxidation and leaching ex- in Michigan: Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng. Bull. 135, pp. 2579-
periments; their bearing on the origin of Lake Superior 2594, 1919; Trans., vol. 63, pp. 188-212, 1920. Discussion by
hematite-limonite ores: Econ. Geology, vol. 25, pp. 697-719, W. O. Hotchkiss, E. F. Burchard, Carl Zapffe, and E. C.
S37-S67, 1930. Harder: Mining and Metallurgy, no. 157, pp. 1-6, January 1920.
Becker, Hans, Die priikambrische Gesctiichte des Lake Supe- Hotchkiss, W. O., Recent developments in the geology of the
rior-Gebietes, Nordamerika: Geol. Rundschau, Band 22, Heft Gogebic range (with discussion by A. C. Lane) : Lake Supe-
6, pp. 3S5-411, 1931. rior Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 23, pp. 47-55, 1923.
Leith, 0. K., Secondary concentration of Lake Superior iron Barrett, L. P., Huronian slate areas of northeastern Baraga
ores: Econ. Geology, vol. 26, pp. 274-288, 1931. County [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 38, p. 117,
Gruner, J. W., Additional notes on secondary concentration 1927.
of Lake Superior iron ores: Econ. Geology, vol. 27, pp. 189- Geological map of Iron County, Mich., compiled by L. P.
205,1932. Barrett, F. G. Pardee, and W. Osgood, Michigan Geol. Survey,
Hartman, R. J., and Dickey, R. M., The Liesegang phenome- 1929.
non applied to the Lake Superior iron formations: Jour. Phys. Derby, E. L., Jr., Geology of ores on the Marquette range:
Chemistry, vol. 36, pp. 1129-1135, 1932. Min. Cong. Jour., vol. 15, pp. 731-733, 1929.
Royce, Stephen, Secondary concentration of Lake Superior Butler, B. S., Burbank, W. S., and collaborators, The cop-
iron ores: Econ. Geology, vol. 28, p. 293, 1933. per deposits of Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 144,
Leith, C. K., The pre-Cambrian: Geol. Soc. America Proc. for 1929.
1933, pp. 151-179, 1934. Broderick, T. M., Review of Professional Paper 144, U.S.
MICHIGAN Geological Survey (The copper deposits of Michigan, by B. S.
Butler, W. S. Burbank, and others) : Lake Superior Min. Inst.
Lane, A. C., The Keweenaw series of Michigan: Michigan Proc., vol. 27, pp. 76-83, 1929.
Geol. Survey Pub. 6 (2 vols.), 1911. Broderick, T. M., Zoning in Michigan copper deposits and
Lane, A. C., The age of the Keweenawan series [abstract]: its significance: Econ. Geology, vol. 24, pp. 149HL62, 311-324,
Michigan Acad. Sci. Rept. 14, pp. 107-108, 1912. 1929.
Lane, A. C., New light on the Keweenawan fault [abstract]: Pardee, F. G., Recent work of the State geological surveys in
Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 24, p. 718, 1913. Huronian and Keweenawan areas A, Michigan Geological
Alien, R. C., Con-elation and structure of the pre-Cambrian Survey: Lake Superior Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 27, pp. 166-172,
formations of the Gwinn iron-bearing district of Michigan: 1929.
Jour. Geology, vol. 22, pp. 560-573, 1914; Michigan Geol. and Seaman, W. A., Geological and magnetic field work in the
Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 141-152, 1915. Keweenawan of the Michigan copper country: Lake Superior
Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., Evidence of the Middle-Upper Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 27, pp. 155-159, 1929.
Huronian unconformity in the quartzite hills at Little Lake, Hoffman, R. D., Zoning in Michigan copper deposits: Econ.
Midi.: Jour. Geology, vol. 22, pp. 574-581, 1914; Michigan Geology, vol. 25, pp. 285-286, 1930.
Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 153-159, 1915. Swanson, C. O., Report on the portion of the Marquette range
Alien, R. C., Relative to an extension of the Menominee iron covered by the Michigan Geological Survey in 1929 [mimeo-
range eastward from Waucedah to Escanaba, Mich.: Econ. graphed], Michigan Geol. Survey, 1930.
Geology, vol. 9, pp. 236-238, 1914; Michigan Geol. and Biol. Lamey, C. A., Granite intrusions in the Huronian forma-
Survey Pub. 18, pp. 161-164; 1915. tions of northern Michigan: Jour. Geology, vol. 39, pp. 288-
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ogy, vol. 23, pp. 703-729, 1915. between Humboldt and Lake Michigamme covered by the
Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., Contributions to the pre- Michigan Geological Survey in 1930 [mimeographed], Michi-
Cambrian geology of northern Michigan and Wisconsin: gan Geol. Survey, 1931.
Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. IS, pp. 13-164, 1915. Weinert, F., Martite and other iron oxides in the Marquette
Alien, R. C., A revision of the correlations of the Huronian district, Michigan: Econ. Geology, vol. 28, pp. 68-74, 1933.
group of Michigan and the Lake Superior region: Michigan Lamey, C. A., .The intrusive relations of the Republic
Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 21-32, 1915. granite: Jour. Geology, vol. 41, pp. 487-500, 1933.
28 PEE-CAMBRIAN BOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION"

Thwaites, F. T., Well logs in the northern peninsula of Nebel, M. L., The basal phases of the Duluth gabbro near
Michigan showing the Cambrian section: Michigan Acad. Sci. Gabamiclligami Lake, Minnesota, and its contact effects: Econ.
Papers, vol. 19, pp. 413-426, 1933. Geology, vol. 14, pp. 367-402, 1919.
Wolff, J. F., Correlation of Mesabi and Cuyuna iron ranges:
MINNESOTA Skillings Min. Review, vol. 7, no. 45, pp. 1, 4, March 29, 1919.
Grout, F. F., Contribution to the petrography of the Ke- Broderick, T. M., Economic geology and stratigraphy of the
weenawan: Jour. Geology, vol. 18, pp. 633-657, 1910. Gunflint iron district, Minnesota: Econ. Geology, vol. 15, pp.
Grout, F. F., Keweenawan copper deposits: Econ. Geology, 422-^152, 1920.
vol. 5, pp. 471-476, 1910. , Grout, F. F., Origin of east Mesabi magnetic ores: Pan-Am.
Zapft'e, Carl, The effects of a basic igneous intrusion on a Geologist, vol. 37, pp. 337-339, 1922.
Lake Superior iron-bearing formation: Econ. Geology, vol. 7, Gruner, J. W., Paragenesis of the martite ore bodies and
pp. 145-178, 1912. magnetites of the Mesabi range: Econ. Geology, vol. 17. pp.
Cheney, C. A., Jr., Structure of the Cuyuna iron ore district 1-14, 1922.
of Minnesota: Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 99, pp. 1113-1115, Gruner, J. W., The origin of sedimentary iron formations
1915. , . . the Biwabik formation of the Mesabi range: Econ. Geology,
Wolff, J. F., Ore bodies of the Mesabi range: Eng. and Min. vol. 17, pp. 407-460, 1922.
Jour., vol. 100, pp. 89-94, 135-139, 178-185, 219-224, 1915. Grout, F. F., Magnetite pegmatites of northern Minnesota
Broderick, T. M., The relation of the titaniferous magnetites [with discussion by W. J. Miller]: Econ. Geology, vol. 18, pp.
of northeastern Minnesota to the Duluth gabbro: Econ. Geol- 253-269, 1923.
ogy, vol. 12, pp. 663-696, 1917. ; Grout, F. F., Occurrences of ladder veins in Minnesota [with
Daly, R. A., The geology of Pigeon Point, Minnesota: Am. discussion by A. C. Lawson] : Econ. Geology, vol. 18, pp. 494-
Jour. Sci., 4th ser., voL 43, pp. 423^48, 1917. 505, 1923.
Harder, E. C., and Johnston, A. W., Notes on the geology Gruner, J. W., Algae, believed to be Archean: Jour. Geology,
and iron ores of the Cuyuna district, Minnesota: U.S. Geol. vol. 31, pp. 146-148, 1923.
Survey Bull. 660, pp. 1-26, 1917. Gruner, J. W., Contributions to the geology of the Mesabi
Harder, E. C., Manganiferous iron ores of the Cuyuna dis- range, with special reference to the magnetites of the iron-
trict, Minnesota: Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Bull. 120, pp. 1313-1344, bearing formation west of Mesaba: Minnesota Geol. Survey
1917; Trans., vol. 58, pp. 453-486, 1918. . Bull. 19, 1924.
Wolff, J. F., Recent geologic developments on the Mesabi
Schwartz, G. M., The contrast in the effect of granite and
iron range, Minnesota: Lake Superior Min. Inst. Proc., vol.
gabbro intrusions on the Ely greenstone: Jour. Geology, vol.
21, pp. 229-257, 1917; (with discussion by Carl Zapffe and
32, pp. 89-138, 1924.
Edwin J. Collins) : Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., vol. 56, pp.
142-169, 1917; Bull. 118, pp. 1763-1787, 1916; Bull. 123, pp. Allison, I. S., The Giants Range batholith of Minnesota:
376-379,1917. Jour. Geology, vol. 33, pp. 488-508, 1925.
Broderick, T. M., Some features of magnetic surveys of the Grout, F. F., A peculiar shonkinite related to granite: Am.
magnetite deposits of the Duluth gabbro: Econ. Geology, vol. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 9, pp. 472r^80, 1925.
13, pp. 35-^9, 1918. Grout, F. F., Coutchiching problem [with discussion by A. C.
. Grout, F. F., Internal structures of igneous rocks; their Lawson] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 36, pp. 351-364, 1925.
significance and origin; with special reference to the Duluth Grout, F. F., A magnetite segregation in banded syenite in
gabbro: Jour. Geology, vol. 26, pp. 439-^58, 1918; abstract, Minnesota: Econ. Geology, vol. 20, pp. 424-430, 1925.
with discussion by W. J. Miller and M. E. Wilson: Geol. Grout, F. F., The Vermilion batholith of Minnesota: Jour.
Soc. America Bull., vol. 29, pp. 100-101, 1918. Geology, vol. 33, pp. 467-487, 1925.
Grout, F. F., A type of igneous differentiation:- Jour. Geol- Gruner, J. W., Discovery of life in the Archean: Jour. Geol-
ogy, vol. 26, pp. 626-658, 1918. ogy, vol. 33, pp. 151-152, 1925.
' Grout, F. F., The pegmatites of the Duluth gabbro: Econ. Schwartz, G. M., A guidebook to Minnesota trunk highway
Geology, vol. 13, pp. 185-197, 1918. no. 1: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 20, 1925.
Grout, F. F., The lopolith; an igneous form exemplified by Zapffe, Carl, Stratigraphy and correlation of the Cuyuna
the Duluth gabbro: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 46, pp. 516- iron-ore district, Minnesota [with discussion by H. M. Roberts]:
522, 1918. Lake Superior Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 24, pp. 89-105, 1925.
Harder, E. C., and Johnston, A. W., Preliminary report on Allison, I. S., Weathered granite twice metamorphosed:
the geology of east-central Minnesota, including the Cuyuna Jour. Geology, vol. 34, pp. 281-285, 1926.
iron-or,e district: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 15, 1918. Grout, F. F., The geology and magnetite deposits of north-
Broderick, T. M., Detail stratigraphy of the Biwabik iron- ern St. Louis County, Minn.: Minnesota Geol. Survey Bull. 21,
bearing formation, east Mesabi district, Minnesota: Econ. 1926.
Geology, vol. 14, pp. 441-451, 1919. Gruner, J. W., Magnetite-martite-hematite: Econ. Geology,
Grout, F. F., and Broderick, T. M., Organic structures in vol. 21, pp. 375-393, 1926.
the Biwabik iron-bearing formation of the Huronian in Gruner, J. W., The Soudan formation and a new suggestion
Minnesota: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 48, pp. 199-205, as to the origin of the Vermilion iron ores: Econ. Geology,
1919. vol. 21, pp. 629-644, 1926.
Grout, F. F., and Broderick, T. M., The magnetite deposits of Hawley, J. E., An evaluation of the evidence of life in the
the eastern Mesabi range, Minnesota: Minnesota Geol. Sur- Archean: Jour. Geology, vol. 34, pp. 441-461, 1926.
vey Bull. 17, 1919. Zapffe, Carl, Further data on the correlation of the Cuyuna
Grout, F. F., and Soper, E. K., Clays and shales of Minne- iron-bearing member: Lake 'Superior Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 25,
sota: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 678, pp. 70-105, 1919. pp. 219-227, 1926.
Grout, F. F., The nature and origin of the Biwabik iron- Grout, F. F., and Schwartz, G. M., Changes in the geologic
bearing formation of the Mesabi range, Minnesota: Econ. Ge- map of northeastern Minnesota [abstract] : Geol. Soc. America
ology, vol. 14, pp. 452-464, 1919. Bull., vol. 38, p. 115, 1927.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 29
Grout, F. F., and Schwartz, G. M., Rove, slate area in Alien, R. C., and Barrett, L. P., Contributions to the pre-
Minnesota [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 38, p. Cambrian geology of northern Michigan and Wisconsin: Mich-
115, 1927. igan Geol. and Biol. Survey Pub. 18, pp. 13-164, 1915.
Stark, J. T., The primary structure of the Kekequabic Hotchkiss, W. O., Bean, E. F., and Wheelwright, O. W.,
granite: Jour. Geology, vol. 35, pp. 723-733, 1927. Mineral land classification showing indications of iron forma-
Stauffer, C. R., Age of the red clastic series of Minnesota tion: Wisconsin Geol. and.Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 44, 1915.
[with discussion by A. C. Lane]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., Hotchkiss, W. O., Geology of the Gogebic range and its rela-
vol. 38, pp. 469-477, 1927. tion to recent mining developments: Eng. and Min. Jour., vol.
Thiel, G. A., Geology of the Cuyuna range: Geol. Soc. Amer- 108,"pp. 443-452, 501-507, 537-541, 577-582, 1919.
ica Bull., vol. 38, pp. 783-793, 1927. Hotchkiss, W. O., Recent developments in the geology of the
Grout, F. F., Anorthosite and granite as differentiates of a Gogebic range [with discussion by A. C. Lane]: Lake Superior
diabase sill on Pigeon Point, Minnesota: Geol. Soc. America Min. Inst. Proc., vol. 23, pp. 47-55, 1923.
Bull., vol. 39, pp. 555-577, 1928. Hotchkiss, W. O., and Bean, E. F., A brief outline of the
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Minnesota: Econ. Geology, vol. 23, pp. 612-646, 1928. consin : Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 67, 1925.
Grout, F. F., Ages and differentiation series of the batholiths Geologic map of Wisconsin, revised by E. F. Bean, Wisconsin
near the Minnesota-Ontario boundary: Geol. Soc. America Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1928.
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slates of Minnesota [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol.
40, pp. 89-90, 1929. Collins, W. H., Report on the region lying north of Lake
Sanders, 0. W., A composite stock at Snowbank Lake, in Superior between the Pic and Nipigon Rivers, Ontario:
northeastern Minnesota: Jour. Geology, vol. 37, pp. 135-149, Canada Geol. Survey Rept. 1081, 1909.
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Bull., vol. 42, p. 241, 1931. Survey Summary Rept. for 1910, pp. 183-187, 1911.
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Ontario: Jour. Geology, vol. 40, pp. 270-278, 1932. Lawson, A. C., The Archean rocks of Rainy Lake: Canada
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formation and associated intrusives in northeastern Minne- Collins, W. H., A classification of the pre-Cambrian for-
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district [abstract]: Science, vol. 33, p. 464, 1911. Huron region: Jour. Geology, vol. 21, pp. 385-398, 1913,
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30 PRE-CAMBRIAN KOCKS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

southeastern Manitoba: Ontario Bur. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. Moore, E. S., Sources of carbon in the pre-Cambrian forma-
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pp. 185-213, 1915. picoten iron ranges: Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 147, 1926.
Miller, W. G., and Knight, C. W., Revision of pre-Cambrian Gill, J. E., Gunflint iron-bearing formation, Ontario:
classification in Ontario: Jour. Geology, vol. 23, pp. 585-599, Canada Geol. Survey. Summary Rept. for 1924, pt. C, pp. 28-88,
1915. 1926.
Collins, W. H., The age of the Killarney granite: Canada MacLeod, C. W., The Goudreau gold area: Canadian Inst.
Geol. Survey Museum Bull. 22, 1916. Min. and Met. Bull. 167, pp. 393-401, 1926.
Parsons, A. L., Iron deposits of Hunter Island, with notes Moore, E. S., The Keweenawan series at the eastern end
on the Gunflint Lake area: Ontario Bur. Mines Ann. Rept., of Lake Superior [abstract] : British Assoc. Adv. Sci. Rept.,
vol. 25, pt. 1, pp. 163-191, 1916. 94th meeting, p. 346, 1926; Jour. Sci. Trans., Oxford, p. 14,
Parsons, A. L., Slate Islands, Lake Superior: Ontario Bur. 1926; Pan-Am. Geologist, vol. 46, p. 320, 1926.
Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 27, pt. 1, pp. 155-167, 1918. Moore, E, S., Mississagi Reserve and Goulais River iron
Collins, W. H., The ore deposits of Goudreau and Magpie- ranges, District of Algoma: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept.,
Hawk areas in Michipicoten district, Ontario: Canada Geol. vol. 34, pt. 4, pp. 1-33, 1926.
Survey Summary Rept. for 1918, pt. E, pp. 4-30, 1919. Tanton, T. L., Eastern part of Matawin iron range, Thunder
Tanton, T. L., Shore of Lake Superior between Port Arthur Bay district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept.
and Nipigon: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for 1919, for 1924, pt. C, pp. 1-27, 1926.
pt. E, pp. 1-7, 1920. Tanton, T. L., Recognition of the Coutchiching near Steep-
Tanton, T. L., Silver Islet and vicinity, Thunder Bay dis- rock Lake, Ontario: Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. 20,
trict, Ontario: Canadian Min. Inst. Monthly Bull. 97, pp. 415-- pp. 39-49, 1926.
430, 1920. Young, G. A., Geology and economic minerals of Canada:
Canada Geol. Survey, Econ. geology ser., no. 1, 1926.
Tanton, T. L., Thunder Bay district, Ontario: Canada Geol.
Bruce, E. L., Coutchiching delta: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
Survey Summary Rept. for 1920, pt. D, pp. 1-2, 1921.
vol. 38, pp. 771-781, 1927.
Tanton, T. L., Nipigon-Schreiber district, Ontario: Canada Gill, J. E., Origin of the Gunflint iron-bearing formation:
Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for 1920, pt. D, pp. 2-7, 1921. Econ. Geology, vol. 22, pp. 687-728, 1927.
Hopkins, P. E., Schreiber-Duck Lake area: Ontario Dept. Gledhill, T. L., Michipicoten gold area, District of Algoma:
Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 30, pt. 4, pp. 1-26, 1922. Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 36, pt. 2, pp. 1-49, 1927.
Brunton, Stopford, Deroche, Hodgins, Gaudette, and Shields Gregory, J. W., and Barrett, B. H., The stratigraphic posi-
Townships, Algoma district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey tion of the Keewatin: Jour. Geology, vol. 35, pp. 141-149, 1927.
Summary Rept. for 1921, pt. D, pp. 27-33, 1922. McConnell, R. G., Sault Ste. Marie area, District of Algoma:
Tanton, T. L., An exploration north of Thunder Bay, On- Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 35, pt. 2, pp. 1-52, 1927.
tario: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for 1921, pt. D, Moore, E. S., Batchawana area, District of Algoma: Ontario
pp. 1-6, 1922. Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 35, pt. 2, pp. 53-85, 1927.
Thomson, Ellis, Goudreau gold area, Michipicoten district, Quirke, T. T., Are some intrusions replacement deposits?
Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for 1921, pt. D, [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 38, pp. 119-121, 1927.
pp. 17-26, 1922. Tanton, T. L., Stratigraphy of the northern subprovince of
MacLeod, C. W., The Goudreau gold area: Canadian Min. the Lake Superior region [with discussion by F. F. Grout,
Jour., vol. 44, pp. 295-297, 1923. T. L. Tanton, R. C. Alien, and C. K. Leith]: Geol. Soc. Amer-
Tanton, T. L., Palladium-bearing nickel deposit at She- ica Bull., vol. 38, pp. 731-748, 1927.
bandowan Lake, Thunder Bay district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Wilson, M. E., Some problems of classification in the Cana-
Survey Summary Rept. for 1922, pt. D, pp. 1-8, 1923. dian pre-Cambrian shield: Geol. Mag., vol. 64, pp. 1-7, 1927.
Bain, G. W., Alluvial fan deposits in the Upper Huronian: Collins, W. H., The Keewatin iron formations: Fennia, vol.
Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 8, pp. 54-60, 1924. 50, no. 8, 20 pp., Helsingfors, 1928.
Swanson, W. L., Geology of certain base and meridian lines Kranck, E. H., Some features of the pre-Cambrian of west-
west of Lake Nipigon: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. ern Ontario: Comm. Geol. Finland Bull. 85, pp. 43-45, 1929.
32, pt. 3, pp. 8-22, 1924. Lake Huron sheet, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Pub.
Tanton, T. L., Iron formation at Gravel Lake, Thunder Bay 1553, map 155A, 1929.
district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for Lawson, A. C., Some Huronian problems: Geol. Soc. America
1923, pt. Cl, pp. 1-5, 1924. Bull., vol. 40, pp. 361-383, 1929.
: Bruce, E. L., Gold deposits of Kenora and Rainy River dis- Moore, E. S., Keweenawan olivine diabases of the Canadian
tricts: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 34, pt. 6, pp. 1-42, shield: Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. 23, pp. 39-45,
1925. 1929.
Bruce, E. L., The Coutchiching rocks of the Bear's Pass Hawley, J. E., Geology of the Sapawe Lake area, with notes
section, Rainy Lake: Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. on some iron and gold deposits of Rainy River district:
19, pp. 43-46, 1925. Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 38, pt. 6, pp. 1-58, 1930.
Collins, W. H., North shore of Lake Huron: Canada Geol. Hawley, J. E., Lead and zinc deposits, Dorion and Mc-
Survey Mem. 143, 1925. Tavish Townships, Thunder Bay district: Ontario Dept. Mines
Cooke, H. C., Progress of structural determination in the Ann. Rept., vol. 38, pt. 6, pp. 59-85, 1930.
Archean rocks of Ontario and Quebec: Roy. Soc. Canada Hawley, J. E., " Seine" or "Coutchiching"? Jour. Geology,
Trans., 3d ser., vol. 19, pp. 1-20, 1925. vol. 38, pp. 521-547, 1930.
Grout, F. F., Coutchiching problem [with discussion by Lawson, A. C., The classification and correlation of the
A. C. Lawson]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 36, pp. 351-364, pre-Cambrian rocks: California Univ. Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull.,
1925. vol. 19, pp. 275-293, 1930.
 BEBLIOGBAPHY 31
Maynard, J. E., Oba area, District of Algoma: Ontario Thomson, J. E., Geology of the Heron Bay area, district
Dept. Mines Ann. Kept., vol. 38, pt. 6, pp. 114-125,' 1930. of Thunder Bay: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept, vol. 40,
Moore, B. S., and Cliarlewood, G. H., Two-granite batholiths pt. 2, pp. 21-39, 1931.
in the pro-Cambrian: Roy Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. Wilson, M. E., Life in the pre-Cambrian of the Canadian
24, pp. 133-136, 1930. shield: Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., 3d ser., vol. 25, pp. 119-126,
Quirke, T. T., and Collins, W. H., Eastward delimitation 1931.
of original Huronian complex: Pan-Am. Geologist, vol. 54, pp. Cram, I. H., The Rest Island granite of Minnesota and
339-344, 1930. Ontario: Jour.. Geology, vol. 40, pp. 270-278, 1932.
Weeks, L. J., Michipicoten River map area, Algoma dis- Moore, E. S., Goudreau and Michipicoten gold areas, dis-
trict, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for trict of Algoma: Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept., vol. 40, pt.
1928, pt. 0, pp. 1-11, 1930. 4, pp. 1-54, 1932.
Gill, J. E., and Hawley, J. E., " Seine " or " Coutchiching ", Matheson, A. F., Michipicoten River area, Ontario: Canada
by J. E. Hawley a discussion: Jour. Geology, vol. 39, pp. Geol. Survey Summary Rept. for 1932, pt. D, pp. 1-21, 1933.
655-669, 1931. Tanton, T. L., Kenora sheet: Canada Geol. Survey Pub.
Tanton, T. L., Fort William and Port Arthur, and Thunder 2270, map 266A, 1933.
Cape map areas, Thunder Bay district, Ontario: Canada Geol. Thomson, J. E., Geology of the Heron Bay-White Lake area:
Survey Mem. 167, 1931. Ontario Dept. Mines Ann. Rept, vol. 41, pt. 6, pp. 34-47, 1933.
 INDEX

Page
Page Iron River district, changes in geologic mapping of_ __ 3
Abstract of report 1 Ironwood iron-formation, occurrence of__ _ _______ 8
Acknowledgments for aid 2 Iron-formations, conclusions in regard to origin of________ 23
Agawa formation, occurrence of _ 8 correlation of ____ __ _____ _ _ ________ 14-15
AJiblk quartzite, occurrence of _ _ 8 hypotheses of origin of _ __________ 21-23
Aldrlch, H. II., quoted _____ _ __ ____ 22-23 oxidation of, agency involved in____ ____ ____ 23-24
Algae, effect of, on deposition of Iron ____ 23 Iron ore, processes of concentration of__ - __-_____- 24 26
Algonklan rocks, definition of _ : ___ _ 10
Archean rocks, definition of _ _ 10
Jacobsville sandstone, age of_ 12
Bacteria, iron, deposition of iron by _ 23 K
Bad River dolomite, occurrence of_ ___ 8 Keewatin series, occurrence and character of______________ 9
Baraga County, Midi., changes In geologic mapping of 5 relations of Knife Lake series to_ __________ 17-18
Bibliography-. _______-__ _____ _ 26-31 Keweenawan series, age of granitic and basic rocks intruding-- 11
Blwablk Iron-formation, occurrence of _ ___ 8 Keweenawan series, changes in mapping extrusive and intrusive
Butler, B. S., and Burbank, W. S., quoted_____________ 12-13 rocks of ____ __ 11
Keweenawan series, contributions to the study of_____________ 10-13
Keweenawan series, general features of______________________ 7-8
Calumet trough, changes In geologic mapping of _ 4 Keweenawan series, sources of lavas of__ __________ 10-11
Cambrian rocks, occurrence of_-_ 7 Keweenawan series, structure of rocks of____________________ 11
Canada, changes In geologic mapping in 7 Keweenaw Point, geologic mapping of_______________________ 5
Colllns, W. H., quoted______________ __ 22 origin of copper deposits of_______________________ 12-13
Copper, mining of_ _ ________ 1 Keyes Lake, changes in geologic mapping of area near_________ 4
Copper deposits of Keweenaw Point, origin of______ . 12 Knife Lake series, age of________________________________ 16-18
Copps formation, occurrence and character of 8 relations of, to unquestioned Huronian rocks_____________ 16-17
Copps slate, correlation of 13-14 relations of, to Keewatin series___ _________________ 17-18
Correlation of the formations, general features of_ 9-10 general features of _ _ _ _______________ 8-9
Coutchichlng sediments, correlation of 17-18 Kona dolomite, occurrence of_______________________________
occurrence of 9 Koochiching County, Minn., changes in geologic mapping of____
Cretaceous rocks, occurrence of___ 7
Crystal Falls " oval ", changes in geologic mapping of 3
Cuyuna district, changes in geologic mapping of 6 Lake Superior, granitic intrusions on east and north shores of__ 20
Laurentian series, occurrence and character ofj.__ _________ 9
Leith, C. K., Van Hise, C. R., and, quoted__________________ 12
Dead River Basin, changes in geologic mapping of.
Dor<3 series of Canada, general features of______ M
Marquette range, changes in geologic mapping of_____________ 4-5
Marshfleld area. See Wausau, Stevens Point, and Marshfield
Eastern sandstone, age of. 12 area.
Maynard, J. E., Moore, E. S., and, quoted:- ____________ 23
Menominee range, changes in geologic mapping of____________ 4
Felch Mountain trough, changes In geologic mapping of - 4 Mesahi district, changes in geologic mapping 'of______________ 6
Florence County, Wis., changes in geologic mapping of 3-4 Mesnard quartzite, occurrence of______ ________________ 8
Michigamme formation, occurrence and character of__________ 8
Michigan, changes in geologic mapping in___________________ 3-5
Geologic map of Lake Superior region- pi. 1 (in pocket). new correlation of Upper and Middle Huronian groups of 13
Geologic mapping, principal changes from old 2-5 periods of granitic intrusion in_____.__,_____________ 19-20
Geologic work in the region 2 Michipicoten district, age of granites of___ '_ __ 20
GUI, J. E., quoted __ _ 22 Mining in Lake Superior region______ _________________ 1-2
Gogeblc iron range, changes in geologic mapping of _ 3 Minnesota, changes in geologic mapping in __________ 5-7
Granites, age of_____________ __ 20-21 new correlation of Upper and Middle Huronian groups of_ 15
Intrusion of, into Huronian series 8 periods of granitic intrusion in________ __________ 18-19
into Knife Lake series____ 8-9 Moore, E. S., and Maynard, J. E., quoted_ __ _____- 23
Granitic rocks, three periods of intrusion of _ 18-21 N
Gruner, J. W., quoted______________________ 21-22
Gunfllnt district, changes in geologic mapping of 6 Negaunee Basin, geologic mapping of_____ ____________ 5
Gwlnn district. See Swanzy district.' Negaunee iron-formation, correlation of-_ _-__ 14
occurrence of _ _ _ _______ 8
H
O
Hanbury formation, occurrence and character of _ 8
Hinckley sandstone, age of . 12 Ogishke conglomerate, occurrence of_.
Huronian groups, new correlation of Upper and Middle 13-15 Ordovician rocks, occurrence of .
Hut-onion series, general features of_ ____ 8-9
relations of Knife Lake series to . 16-17
P/aint River greenstone belt, changes in geologic mapping of
Palms quartzite, occurrence of ____________________
Iron ore, production of Pentoga greenstone belt, changes in geologic mapping of _
Iron County, Mlch., geologic mapping of. Pokegama quartzite, occurrence of__________________________
54470 34 3 33
34 INDEX

Q Page
Page Tyler slate, correlation of__ ______________ 13-14
Quinnesec greenstone belt, changes in geologic mapping of_ 4 occurrence and character of ___ _ 8
R U
Randville dolomite, occurrence of United States Geological Survey, geologic work in Lake Superior
Rove formation, occurrence and character of region by _ _ _ _ _ 2
S
St. Louis County, Minn., changes in geologic mapping of_ ___ _ 5
Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., quoted. 12
Spread Eagle greenstone belt, changes in geologic mapping of _ 3
Virginia slate, correlation of __ . 15
Stevens Point area. See Wausau, Stevens Point, and Marshfleld
area. occurrence and character of ______ 8
Vulcan iron-formation, occurrence of__.
Structure sections of Lake Superior region _______ pi. 1 (in pocket).
Stuntz conglomerate, occurrence of __ _ ___ _ __ _ 8
Sturgeon quartzite, occurrence of ___ -_ _____ -__ __ 8 W
Succession of the rocks, general features of ________ _ ___ 7-10 Wausau, Stevens Point, and Marshfleld area, changes in map-
Sunday quartzite, occurrence of_ _ 8 ping of _ 5
Swanzy district, changes in geologic mapping of __ __ 4 Wewe slate, occurrence of__ __ ________ _ 8
Wisconsin, changes in geologic mapping in_____________ 3-5
T
Wisconsin, new correlation of Upper and Middle Huronian
Timiskaming sediments, correlation of _ _ 16-17 groups of _ __ _ 13-15
general features of _ ____________ _ 9 periods of granitic intrusion in _ ______ _ 19-20