Short Papers in Geology

and Hydrology
Articles 60-1 21
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1963

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 475-C

Sc£enti.ftc notes and summaries of investigations prepared

by members of the Conservation, Geologic, and Water
Resources Divisions

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963

 \.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Prin~ing Office

Washington, D.C., 20402
 FOREWORD
Tllis collection of 62 a1ticles is the second of a series to be released in 1963 as chapters of
Professional Paper 475. The ~trticles report on scientific and economic results of current
work by members of the Geologic, 1Vater Resources, and Conservation Divisions of the United
States Geological Survey. Some of the papers present the results of completed parts of
continuing investigations; others ·announce new discoveries or preliminary results of investi-
gations that will be discussed in greater detail in reports to be published in the future. Still
others are scientific notes of limited scope, and short papers on methods and techniques.
Chapter A of this series will be published later in the year, and will present a synopsis
of work of the Geological Survey during :the present fiscal year.

THOMAS B. NOLAN,
Director.
lll

,·-
).,.
 CONTENTS
Page
Foreword------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ III

GEOLOGIC STUDIES
Structural geology
60. Structure of Precambrian crystalline rocks in the northern part of Grand Teton National Park, Wyo., by J. C.
Reed, Jr------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- C1
61. Plutonic rocks of northern Zacatecas and adjacent areas, Mexico, by C. L. Rogers, Roger van Vloten, J. 0. Rivera,
E. T. Amezcua, and Zoltan de Cserna-------------------'----------------------------------------------- 7
Stratigraphy
62. The Ordovician-Silurian contact in Dubuque County, Iowa, by J. W. Whitlow and C. E. Brown________________ 11
63. Spirorballimestone in the Souris River(?) Formation of Late Devonian age at Cottonwood Canyon, Bighorn Moun-
tains, Wyo., by C. A. Sandberg __________________________________________________________ - ___ -_------- 14
64. Dark shale unit of Devonian and Mississippian age in northern Wyoming and southern Montana, by C. A. Sandberg__ 17
65. Nomenclature for lithologic subdivisions of the Mississippian Redwall Limestone, Arizona, by E. D. McKee______ 21
66. Mississippian rocks in the Laramie Range, Wyo., and adjacent areas, by E. K. Maughan _________________ ---__ 23
67. Triassic uplift along the west flank of the Defiance positive element, Arizona, by E. D. McKee ____ - ____ ------__ 28
68. Revised stratigraphic n.omenclature and age of the Tuxedni Group in the Cook Inlet region, Alaska, by R. L. Detter-
man------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30
69. Redefinition and correlation of the Ohio Creek Formation (Paleocene) in west-central Colorado, by D. L. Gaskill
and L. H. Godwin---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
70. Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy in the western San Juan Mountains, Colo., by R. G. Luedke and W. S. Burbank__ 39
71. Fenton Pass Formation (Pleistocene?), Bighorn Basin, Wyo., by W. L. Rohrer and E. B. Leopold_______________ 45
72. Nussbaum Alluvium of Pleistocene(?) age at Pueblo, Colo., by G. R. Scott___________________________________ 49
Paleontology
73. Age of the Murray Shale and Hesse Quartzite on Chilhowee Mountain, Blount County, Tenn., by R. A. Laurence
and A. R. Palmer----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53.
74. Conodonts from the Flynn Creek cryptoexplosive structure, Tennessee, by J. W. Huddle_______________________ 55
75. Middle Triassic marine ostracodes in Israel, by I. G. Sohn__________________________________________________ 58
76. Occurrence of the late Cretaceous ammonite Hoplitoplacenticeras in Wyoming, by W. A. Cobban________________ 60
77. Paleotemperature inferences from Late Miocene mollusks in the San Luis Obispo-Bakersfield area, California, by
W. 0. Addicott and J. G. Vedder--------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
78. Late Pleistocene diatoms from the Arica area, Chile, by R. j. Dingman and K. E. Lohman_____________________ 69
79. Possible Pleistocene-Recent boundary in the Gulf of Alaska, based on benthonic Foraminifera, by P. B. Smith_--- 73
Geochemistry, petrology, and mineralogy
80. Petrology of rhyolite and basalt, northwestern Yellowstone Plateau, by Warren Hamilton _____________________ _ 78
81. The Canyon Mountain Complex, Oregon, and the Alpine mafic magma stem, by T. P. Thayer _________________ _ 82
82. Modal composition of the Idaho batholith, by C. P. Ross-------------------------------------------------- 86
83. Solution breccias of the Minnelusa Formation in the Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming, by C. G. Bowles and
W. A. Braddock------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 91
84. Calcitization of dolomite by calcium sulfate solutions in the Minnelusa Formation, J3lack Hills, South Dakota and
Wyoming, by W. A. Braddock and C. G. Bowles-------------------------------------------------------- 96
85. Apatitized wood and leucophosphite in nodules in the Moreno Formation, California, by R. A. Gulbrandsen, D. L.
Jones, K. M. Tagg, and D. W. Reeser_ _______________________________________________________________ _ 100
86. Variation in element content of American elm tissue with a pronounced change in the chemical nature of the soil, by
H. T. Shacklette------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 105
Geochronology
87. Ordovician age for some rocks of the Carolina slate belt in North Carolina, by A. M. White, A. A. Stromquist,
T. W. Stern, and Harold WestleY--------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
Geophysics
88. Gravity survey in the Rampart Range area, Colorado, by C. H. Miller-------------------------------------- 110
89. Gravity survey of the island of Hawaii, by W. T. Kinoshita., H. L. Krivoy, D. R. Mabey, and R. R. MacDonald_ 114
90. Evaluation of magnetic anomalies by electromagnetic measurements, by F. C. Frischknecht and E. B. Ekren_____ 117
v
VI CONTENTS

Sedimentation Page
91. Glaciolacustrine diamicton deposits in the Copper River Basin, Alaska, by 0. J. Ferrians, Jr ____________________ C121
92. Competence of transport on alluvial fans, by L. K. Lustig __:________________________________________________ 126
93. Distribution of granules in a bolson environm~nt, by L. K. Lustig___________________________________________ 130
Marine geology
94. Sediments on the continental margin off eastern United States, by Elazar UchupL _ ___ ____ ______ ____ __________ 132
Geomorphology
95. Possible wind-erosion origin of linear scarps on the Sage Plain, southwest~rn Colorado, by D. R. Shawe _________ ~ 138
96. Glacial lakes near Concord, Mass., by Carl Koteff_________________________________________________________ 142
97. Channel changes on Sandstone Creek near Cheyenne, Okla., by D. L'. Bergman and C. W. Sullivan_____________ 145
98. Origin and geologic significance of buttress roots of Bristlecone pines, White Mountains, Calif., by V. C. LaMarche,
Jr------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149
Economic geology
99. Bauxitization of terra rossa in the southern Appalachian region, by M. M. KnechteL__________________________ 151
100. An ore-bearing cylindrical collapse structure in the Ambrosia Lake uranium district, New Mexico, by H. C. Granger
and E. S. Santos------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 156
Engineering geology
101. Formation of ridges through differential subsidence of peatlands of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California,
by G. H. Davffi---------------------------------------~--------------------------------------------- 162
Analytical techniques
102. Chemical preparation of samples for lead isotope analysis, by J. C. Antweiler ___ _____ ______ _______ ______ ___ ___ 166
103. Percent-constituent printing accessory and flow-through cell for a spectrophotometer, by Leonard Shapiro and
E. L. Curtis---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 171
HYDROLOGIC STUDIES
Engineering hydrology
104. Dissipation of heat from a thermally loaded stream, by Harry Messinger--___________________________________ 175
105. Movement of waterborne cadmium and hexavalent chromium wastes in South Farmingdale, Nassau County, Long
Island, N.Y., by N. M. Perlmutter, Maxim Lieber, and H. L. FrauenthaL_________________________________ 179
106. Effect of urbanization on storm discharge and ground-water recharge in Nassau County, N.Y., by R. M. Sawyer___ 185
Ground water
107. Mapping transmissibility of alluvium in the lower Arkansas River valley, Arkansas, by M. S. Bedinger and L. F.
Emmett-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
Surface water
108. Snowmelt hydrology of the North Yuba River basin, California, by S. E. Rantz ___ --------------------------- 191
109. Field verification of computation of peak discharge through culverts, by C. T. Jenkins_________________________ 194
110. Use of low-flow measurements to estimate flow-duration curves, by 0. P. Hunt_______________________________ 196
Analytical hydrology -~
111. Graphical multiple-regression analysis of aquifer tests, by C. T. Jenkins______________________________________ 198
. 112. Nomograph for computing effective shear on streambed sediment, by B. R. Colby_____________________________ 202
113. Distribution of shear in rectangular channels, by Jacob Davidian and D. I. CahaL_ ______ ____ ______ __ _________ 206

Geochemistry of water
114. Sulfate and nitrate content of precipitation over parts of North Carolina and Virginia, by A. W. Gambell________ 209
115. Differences between field and laboratory determinations of pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance of natural water, .. ,
by C. E. Roberson, J. H. Feth, P.R. Seaber, and Peter Anderson_________________________________________ 212
116. Increased oxidation rate of manganese ions in contact with feldspar grains, by J. D. Hem_--------------------- 216
117. Solution of manganese dioxide by tannic acid, by Jack Rawson _____________________________.________________ 218
118. Effectiveness of common aquatic organisms in removal of dissolved lead from tap water, by E. T. Oborn_________ 220
Experimental hydrology
119. Adsorption of the surfactant ABS 35 on illite, by C. H. Wayman, H. G. Page, and J. B. Robertson_______________ 221 ).
120. Biodegradation of surfactants in syn.thetic detergents under aerobic and anaerobic conditions at 10° C, by C. H.
Wayman and J. B. Robertson________________________________________________________________________ 224
121. Direct measurement of shear in open-channel flow, by Jacob Davidian and D. I. CabaL_______________________ 228

INDEXES
Subject------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
Author--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1---------- 233
....
Article 60

STRUCTURE OF PRECAMBRIAN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS

IN THE NORTHERN PART OF GRAND TETON NATIONAL PARK, WYOMING

By JOHN C. REED, JR., Denver, Colo.

A.bstract.-Metasedimentary gneisses of high metamorphic The oldest rocks mapped are a heterogeneOtis sequence
grade in the northern part of Grand Teton National Park of interlayered medium- and fine-grained amphibole
have been subjected to at least two periods of Precambrian
gneiss, biotite-amphibole gneiss, biotite gneiss, and am-
deformation. 'l~he older was preceded or accompanied by
formation of folinted granitic gneiss; the younger was fol- phibolite, containing thin beds of amphibole schist,
lowed by emplncement of quartz monzonite and mica peg- biotite schist, biotite-muscovite schist, and locally,
matite. Previously published isotopic age determinations are sillimanite schist.. The sequence also contains layers and
so111ewhat nnomalous, but they suggest that pegmatite associ- lenses of fine-grained light-gray or white quartz-feld-
ated with the younger granitic rocl{S may be as old as 2,660
spar gneiss and quartzite. In one exposure northwest
million years.
of L.ake Solitude (fig. 60.1), south of the area mapped,
a thin layer of dark-gray marble occurs in similar lay-
The Precambrian crystalline rocks of the Teton
ered gneiss. Pods and sill-like bodies of coarse-grained
R.ang.e, 'iVyo., (fig. 60.1) were first noted and briefly amphibolite, hornblendite, and altered ultramafic rocks
described by members of the Hayden survey (F.H.
are locally common in the layered gneiss.
Brn.d.ley, 1873; St. John, 1879). Since that time the
The gneisses and schists are all of high metamorphic
surrounding Paleozoic and younger rocks have been
grade, probably in the srllimanite zone. They are con-
extens;ively studied, but the Precambrian crystalline
spicuously layered and generally display a strono- folia-
r~cks 111 the ?ore of the range have received surprisingly • 0
tlon parallel to layering. Individual layers range from
httle. attentiOn. I-I01·berg and Fryxell (1942) briefly
fractions of an inch to tens of feet in thickness, and some
descr.1 bed some of the metasedimentary rocks in the
can be traced for hundreds of feet. In detail however
Precambrian com·plex, and C. C. Bradley (1956) made ' pulled'
many layers are discontinuous, and some are
a detailed study of structures in the Precambrian rocks
apart into isolated pods and lenses. Locally, some lay-
in a sn1all area in the central part of the range. Giletti
ers are found in small isoclinal folds, whereas adjacent
and Gast ( 1961) made isotopic age determinations on
layers above and below seem undisturbed (fig. 60.3). It
minerals from pegmatite and gneiss from Death Can-
seems unlikly that the layering in the gneiss is relatively
yon in the southern part of the range, and Eckelmann
undisturbed bedding as suggested by Horberg and
( 1963) studied zircons from a few of the 0Q'neisses and
• .
gnuutJc rocks. Fryxell (1942). Rather, the layers appear to represent
a sequence of isoclinally folded and intensely sheared
In the summer of 1962 the writer began a study of the
Precambrian rocks of Grand Teton National Park. beds in which individual folds have been largely sheared
Field work during the summer was concentrated in the out and obliterated, so that no lithologic contact repre-
northern part, and mapping was completed between sents an original bedding plane. Thus, inferences as
'Vebb Canyon and the divide south of Snowshoe Can- to stratigraphic sequence and original thickness are
yon (fig. 60.2). Tentative conclusions regarding the meaningless.
~reca.mbrian structural history of the crystalline rocks Nevertheless, the character of the layering, the mine-
,,
I

In the area are summarized in this article. No doubt ralogy of many of the gneisses and schists, and the oc-
some of these will have to be modified as a result of more currence of quartzite and marble strongly support
detailed petrographic studies and geologic mapping in Horberg and Fryxell's conclusion that these rocks were
other parts o£ the Teton Range. derived from sedimentary rocks; they were probably

ART. 60 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-c, PAGES Cl-C6. 1963
01
C2 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

EXPLANATION
.
.
.
.
Quaternary deposits

Tertiary volcanic and

sedimentary rocks

iiiii
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

Precambrian rocks

~
Contact
r-----·······
Fault
Dashed where approximately
located; dotted where concealed

r;r-------1
l \ MONTANA:
I\

I ~\ -\

~.:-:Teton
IDAHO r Range :
--r -'-WYOMING
'-r---~

0 5 10 MILES

FIGURE 60.1.-Generalized geologic map of the Teton Range, showing distribution of Precambrian crystal-
line rocks and location of the area studied (fig. 60.2). Modified from Love (1956).
 REED C3

EXPLANATION u

Sedimentary rocks H
<{
a..
El Diabase

LJ
Quartz monzonite and
pegmatite · z
<{
Dikes shown by dotted lines
0::

EJ
Foliated granitic gneiss
ID
~
<{
u
w
Containing concordant lay- 0::
ers of amphibolite (black) a..

Layered gneiss and

schist
Generalized trend of ·lay-
ering and foJiation shown
by lines

----------
Contact .........
Dashed where approximately
located

~-- .........
Fault
Dashed where approximately
located, dotted where con-
cealed. U, up thrown side;
D, downthrown side
10;/

Strike and dip of bedding

soy. J{
0 2 3 4 MILES
Inclined Vertical
Strike and dip of

/
10
/ 2y layering
sy /
Inclined Horizontal Strike and dip of axial plane of minor fold Inclined Vertieal
Direction and plunge of /10 / Strike and dip of
lineation marked by Inclined Horizontal foliation
alinement of mineral Direction and plunge of
grains or elongate axis of minor fold or
aggregates crenulation

FIGUIU: 60.2.-Geologic map of the Precambrian rocks in the northern part of Grand Teton National Park. Surficial deposits
not shown. Geology mapped in 1962 by J. C. Reed, Jr., assisted by J. H. Dieterich and T. B. Ranson.

\·
C4 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

derived from a sequence composed largely of shale, cal- Medium-grained granitic biotite gneiss forms large
careous shale, and siltstone, containing some inter- bodies associated with the layered-gneiss sequence and
bedded sandstone and a few layers of impure limestone forms smaller sill-like bodies within the layered gneiss.
or dolomite. Some of the amphibolite and amphibole The rock is strongly foliated but is generally without
gneiss may have been formed from mafic lava or tuff. layering, although locally it is crudely layered, espe-
In addition to the partly obliterated isoclinal folds cially near contacts with the layered gneiss. Contacts
described above, the layered gneiss displays many sub- are concordant with the layered gneiss, and foliation in
isodinal folds with diverse axial orientations. These the granitic gneiss is parallel to foliation and layering
differ from the isoclinal folds in being more open and in in the layered gneiss. Near the contacts some fine-
the continuity of layers in their limbs (fig. 60.4). grained layered gneiss is interleaved with the granitic
Locally they have refolded the older isoclines. The gneiss. The granitic gneiss contains layers of fine- to
diverse orientation of the younger folds suggests that medium-grained amphibolite a few feet to several hun-
they may be of several generations, but their pattern is dred foot thick, some of which have been traced for
complicated by post-Precambrian folding and faulting several miles. The amphibolite in these layers is similar
n.nd has not as yet been satisfactorily worked out. to that which forms thinner layers in the layered-gneiss
sequence. The granitic gneiss has nowhere been found
in dikes or other crosscutting bodies.
The structural concordance between foliation in the
granitic gneiss and in the layered-gneiss sequence, the
lack of crosscutting, the absence of inclusions, and the
continuity of the amphibolite layers suggest that the
granitic gneiss may have formed through some sort of
transformation in situ of selected parts of the sedimen-
tary sequence from which the layered gneiss was formed,
and that the amphibolite bodies represent layers of a
composition that was especially resistant to the process.
Parallelism between foliation and lineation in the
granitic gneiss and similar structures formed during the
early deformation in the layered gneiss indicates that
the granitic gneiss, whatever its origin, was emplaced
before or during the e.:<trliest recognized period of de-
FIGURE 60.3.-Layered gneiss about half a mile S. 65° E. of formation. Open folds in the foliation and in some of
summit of Ranger Peak. Interlayered amphibole-biotite
gneiss (light gray), amphibole schist (dark gray), and quartz-
the amphibolite layers are similar to the second-genera-
feldspar gneiss (white). Note the rootless isoclinal fold (up- tion folds in the layered gneiss and show that the gra-
per center) and the many discontinuous layers. nitic gneiss was clearly formed before this deformation.
Fine-grained light-gray or white muscovite-biotite-
quartz monzonite and associated muscovite- and biotite-
bearing pegmatite form large irregular masses in the
southern part of the area mapped. Dikes of similar
pegmatite and aplite cut the layered gneiss and granitic
gneiss. Similar rocks are widespread farther to the
south, where reconnaissance shows that they form a
major part of the Precambrian complex south of Leigh
Canyon.
The quartz monzonite locally displays faint flow
structure that is discordant with the structures of the
enclosing rocks. The larger bodies contain abundant
angular blocks of layered gneiss, amphibolite, and
granitic gneiss ranging from less than a foot to hun-
dreds of feet in length (fig. 60.5). At the margins of
the larger bodies of quartz monzonite and pegmatite
FIGURE 60.~Subisoclinal fold 'i n thinly interlayered amphibole
gneiss and quartzite. About 500 feet north of lower fork of the enclosing rocks are crisscrossed by swarms of peg-
Snowshoe Canyon. matite and aplite dikes, so that the contacts are arbi-
 REED C5
trarily placed where the granitic rocks form about half the metamorphic effects associated with the emplace-
of the total mass. The dike swarms dwindle out grad- ment of the younger granitic rocks and those to be
ually away from the granitic bodies, but a few scattered attributed to the older metamorphism will have to await
·dikes of mica pegmatite occur throughout the area further petrographic study.
mapped. One dike of fine- to medium-grained gray diabase
Contacts of the dikes of quartz monzonite and peg- cuts the Precambrian rocks between Raynolds Peak
matite, and of the inclusions in the granitic bodies, are and Bivouac Peak. The dike ranges from a few feet
knifesharp. Undeformed pegmatite and aplite dikes to about 50 feet in thickness. The dike rock and the
cut through second-generation folds in the layered trend of the dike are similar to the conspicuous well-
gneiss, and some of the angular included blocks of lay- known diabase dikes farther south that are truncated
ered gneiss contain similar folds, showing that the by Cambrian rocks, and the dike in the Raynolds Peak
pegmatite and quartz monzonite were emplaced after area is therefore believed to be of the same age. The
the second episode of Precambrian folding. dike has chilled borders, and rocks adjacent to it are
AdjaGent to · the large granitic bodies some of the baked and stained bright red brown. The chilled mar-
layered gneiss contains abundant granitic folia and gins and the sharp truncation of all older structures
feldspar porphyroblasts. The metamorphic grade of indicate that the dikes \Vere emplaced long after the
the layered gneiss, however, seems to remain nearly the quartz monzonite and pegmatite, as has been pointed
same throughout the area. The discrimination between out by Bradley (1956).

FIGURE 60.5.-Angular inclusipns of granitic gneiss in fine-grained quartz monzonite about 0.2 Inile northwest of Lake
Solitude (fig. 60.1). Note rotation of foliation in the blocks, and very faint flow structure in the enclosing quartz
monzonite. Dike of light-colored biotite-garnet pegmatite cuts foliation of granitic gneiss in block in upper left, but is
truncated by the quartz monzonite. A small dike of younger muscovite pegmatite (below hammer) cuts both quartz
monzonite and granitic gneiss, but is inconspicuous in the granitic gneiss in this photograph.
C6 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

The observations and conclusions summarized above tively. Determinations on biotite from the enclosing
suggest the following tentative Precambrian structural rocks, however, give 1,360 million years. This anomaly
history for the northern part of the Teton Range : casts considerable doubt on the significance of these
1. Deposition of a great but unknown thickness of sedi- determinations. It is hoped that further geochrono-
mentary rocks composed of shale, calcareous shale, logic work will permit assignment of absolute ages to
and siltstone, some interbedded sandstone and im- events ·recognized on the basis of other geologic
pure limestone, and possibly some volcanic rocks. evidence.
2. Deep burial and regional metamorphism of these REFERENCES
rocks, accompanied by intense shearing and iso- Bradley, C. C., 1956, The Precambrian complex of Grand Teton
clinal folding, and probably by emplacement of National Park, Wyoming, in Berg, R. R., ed., 'Vyoming
small bodies of ultramafic rocks. At about the Geol. Assoc. Guidebook 11th Ann. Field Conf., Teton Range
and Jackson Lake, Wyo.: p. 34-42.
same time, granitization in situ of selected parts
Bradley, F. H., 1873, Report of Frank H. Bradley, geologist of
of the sequence to form granitic gneiss. the Snake River Division, in Hayden, F. V., Sixth Annual
3. One or more periods of folding with less intense Report of the U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories
shearing. Older isoclinal folds refolded. * • * for the year 1872: Washington, U.S. Govt. Printing
4. Emplacement of discordant bodies and dikes of fine- Office, p. 189-271.
grained quartz monzonite and pegmatite. Eckelmann, F. D., 1963, Zircon paragenesis in Precambrian crys-
5. Long interval of cooling, consolidation, and frac- talline rocks. af the Teton Range, Wyoming, [abs.]: Geol.
Soc. America Spec. Paper 73, p. 143.
turing.
Giletti, B. J., and Gast, P. W., 1961, Absolute age of Pre-
6. Emplacement of diabase dike. cambrian rocks in Wyoming ·and Montana: New York Acad.
7. Long interval of erosion and subsidence followed by Sci. Annals, v. 91, · p. 454-458.
deposition of Middle Cambrian Flathead Sand- Horberg, Leland, and Fryxell, Fritiof, 1942, Pre-cambrian meta- _)
stone. sediments in Grand Teton National Park, 'Vyoming: Am.
At present it is impossible to assign absolute ages to Jour. Sci., v. 240, p. 385-393.
the various Precambrian events. The only absolute age Love, J.D., compiler, 1956, Geologic map of Teton County, Wyo-
determinations available from the Teton Range are for ming, in Berg, R. R., ed., ·wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook
pegmatite and gneiss in Death Canyon. The pegmatite 11th Ann. Field Conf., Teton Range and Jackson Lake,
Wyo. : in pocket.
is probably the same age as the mica pegmatites asso-
St. John, Orestes, 1879, Report of Orestes St. John, geologist of
ciated with the quartz monzonite in the area mapped. the Teton Division, in Hayden, F. V., Eleventh Annual Re-
Rubidium-strontium age determinations by Giletti and port of the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
Gast (1961) on muscovite and microcline from the Territories * * * for the year 1877: Washington, U.S. Govt.
pegmatite give 2,660 and 1,99Q million years, respec- Printing Office, p. 321-508.
 Article 61

PLUTONIC ROCKS OF NORTHERN ZACATECAS

AND ADJACENT AREAS, MEXICO

By CLEA YES L. ROGERS; ROGER VAN VLOTEN; JESUS OJEDA RIVERA,

EUGENIO TAVERA AMEZCUA, and ZOLTAN DE CSERNA; Denver, Colo.;
Washington, D.C.; Mexico, D.F.

Work done in cooperation with Oonsejo de Recur~>os Natttrales no

Renovables under the auspiceS\ of the Agency for International
Development, U.S. Department of State

Abstraot.-Plutonic rocl{S ranging in composition from The mineral belt is a rather broad zone occupying
dioritic to syenitic intrude Late Jurassic and Cretaceous marine the site of the central part of the Mexican geosyndine
sedimentary rocks in the central part of the Mexican geosyn-
cline. The sediments were folded and uplifted in Eocene time;
(Imlay, 1938). Perhaps because this zone contains a
the deformed sediments were intruded by igneous masses during relatively thin sedimentary section, the rocks yielded to
the late stages of the early 'l'ertiary orogeny. Faulting and the compressive orogenic forces not only by ·folding
mngmatic activity recurred during the middle and late Tertiary. but also by extensive faulting. During the late stages
of the early Tertiary orogeny these highly deformed
sedimentary rocks were invaded by numerous igneous
A number of small to moderately large plutons rang-
'masses_, and in middle and late Tertiary time there were
ing in composition from dioritic to syenitic were exam-
several recurrent episodes of faulting and magmatic
ined during tt reconnaissance study of phosphate de-
activity. During these later episodes numerous hypa-
posits in a large area of north-central Mexico (fig.
byssal bodies were formed, ·and some of the m3.oomas
61.1). This area, about 26,000 square kilometers in
breached the surface. The igneous activity was ·ac-
extent is mainly in northern Zacatecas and southern
companied by a period of extensive mineralization dur-
Coahuila States but extends eastward into Nuevo Leon
ing which mineralizing solutions penetrated nearly
and San Luis Potosi. Most of the igneous rocks are in
every anticline in the belt. The central part of the
Zacatecas.
mineral belt has played an important part in the Mexi-
The area conta.ins a thick section of marine sedi-
can mining industry since the early days of the Spanish
mentary rocks that range in age from Late Jurassic to
conquest.
Late Crebtceous and were folded and uplifted during
The intrusive rocks occur as sills, dikes, and small to
the Eocene. It has heen divided into three geologic
mod~rately large stocks. The m·ajor areas of plutonic
belts (Rogers and others, 1962), designated, from north
to south, as the valley and ridge belt, plain and range rocks tha.t were observed by the authors are shown in
belt, and mineral belt. These belts are characterized, figure 61.1, but there may be other bodies not found in
respectively, by folds alone; by folds with some faults; the reconnaissance. The plutonic rocks that were
and by both folds and relatively common normal and mapped show variations in abundance and a systematic
reverse faults, and igneous plutons. Although igneous ~hange in composition from west to e:ast, -and on this
rocks are confined mainly to the mineral belt, a few basis the mineral belt and plain and range belt ha:ve
small masses occur in the plain and range belt, as in been divided into three petrographic provinces, htbeled
the Sierra l\fesquite del Sur of Coahuila. western, central, and eastern. To some extent, the older
ART. 61 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C7-C10. 1963

07
C8 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

25•oo·

Alluvium·
24°30''

DBedrock

'
Plutonic rocks
May be one stock,
or several

Boundaries of geologic
belts and basins

Boundary of petro-
graphic province

FIGURE 61.1-Sketch map of the area studied, showing principal occurrences of plutonic rocks.

hypabyssal bodies seem to reflect the same changes in thermal activity penecontemporaneous with the intru-
composition ·as the plutonic rocks. sion of magmas. .
Plutonic rocks are relatively scarce in the western The western province extends northward into the
province and ·occur mainly in the vicinity of Pico de plain and range belt, where Imlay (1937, p. 620-622)
Teyra, an isolated mountain peak that forms the most has described several small masses of monzoJ;lite and a
prominent landmark in this part of the mineral belt. dike of light-colored granite, wh~ch probably should be
The rocks are mainly quartz monzonite, with loC'a1 classed as an aplite. ·
monzonitic and granodioritic facies (see Rogers and The greatest concentration of intrusive rocks is in the
others, 1961, table 12, p. 125); they also include some central province, a major mining district that produces
albitic pegmatite and aplite, and one albitite pluton a variety of base and precious metals, including copper,
measuring several kilometers in diameter. A smnll iso- lead, zinc, iron, silver, and gold. The largest mines are
lated mass in the Sierra de San Rafael about 25 kilo- in contact-metasomatic deposits lying along or close to
meters north of Pico de Teyra has been classed as a the margins of the three largest plutons, which have
latite. Mineralization is meager in this province, and been designated the Concepcion del Oro, Providenci~,
there are no mines. The province contains a few small and N ochebuena stocks. The rocks of these plutons
talc deposits whose origin may be related to hydro- contain m~re quartz and plagioclase than the rocks of
 ROGERS, VAN VLOTEN, OJEDA, TAVERA, AND DE CSERNA C9
t-he "·est-ern province and range in composition from some have exerted an active upward thrust that domed
granodiorite to diorite. They are cha.racterized by and in places fa.ulted -the overlying rocks. F·aulting of
modernJely n.bunda.nt associated aplite but have no as- this type can be observed around the Concepcion del
sociated pegmatite or lamprophyre. The hypabyssal Oro and Providencia stocks (fig. 61.2) and in the vicin-
rocks of the central province fall within the same general ity of Pi co de Teyra (Rogers and others, 1961, pl. 1.).
compositional rrmge and are mainly dacitic to andesitic. Other bodies, such as the Guadalupe Garceron and
The igneous roc.ks "·it-hin this province have been previ- ~1atehuapil stocks, appear to have exerted ·a la:te.ra.l
ously described by R.osenbusch ( 'l~n Burckhardt, 1906, pressure which in places strongly folded the adjacent
p. 23::::2&), Bm·gea.t (1910), Imlay (1938, p. 1670-1672), country rock without faulting.
and Rogers and others (1956, p. 35-47). .
The plutonic rocks of the eastern province are monzo-
nite and syenite (see R.ogers and others, 1961; tabies
13, 14, and 15) ; the hyprubyssal rocks range from
trachyte to latite and andesite. The most conspicuous
w.s.w. ·· .. ·. E.N.E.
pluton, the Guadalupe Garceron stock, is largely mon-
zonitic in composition but is heterogeneous in appear-
ance. It is characterized by abrupt changes in grain
size, color, and t~he ratio of light :to dark constituents,
and it is cut by numerous smallleucocratic and melano-
cratic dikes that range in composition from monzonitic
to syenitic. The stock appears to have been formed by
succ~sive surges of m·agma that were increasingly sye-
nitic. The Matehuapil stock is similwr to this mass, but
the Cerro Pedregoso stock is relatively homogeneous and
composed largely of porphyritic syenite. The albite in
these rocks occurs as independent grains as well as in
s.w.
microperthitic intergrowth with the orthoclase, and
its relative abundance suggests that the rocks may be
transitional in composition and related to the alkalic
rocks described by vVatson (1937) in the Sierra de San
Carlos, Tamaulipas, about 150 kilometers to the east.
Alkalic rocks a.Iso occur in the Tampico embayment of
southern Tamaulipas, and have been described briefly
'by ~1uir (1936). 0 1
~.I_ _ __L._
3 KILOMETERS
___.J

The eastern province is sparsely mineralized, hut it EXPLANATION

contains numerous prospects and several small mines
that have produced copper and other metals. The area ~1
Upper Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous Upper Jurassic
contains a little barite, which is being mined in the formations formations formations
Predomi=ntly shal£
Sierra de Gomez Farias (fig. 61.1) in the northern part ami. saml.stm;e
Predomi=ntly limestone Predomi=ntly limestone

of the province and in the vicinity of Galeana, Nuevo

Leon, a:bout 30 kilometers to the east of the mapped FIGURE 61.2-S-tructure sections through Con·cepci6n del Oro
granodiorite stock, showing reconstruction of fold. The stock
area. Galeana is the major barite-producing district in
has been emplaced discordantly in the core of an overturned
~1exico. anticline and appears to have domed ·and faulted the roof by
The plutons described are believed to be for the most upward magma. pres·sure.
pa.rt contem·poraneous and to have been emplaced at a
relatively shallow odept.h shortly after the folding of The plutons have sharp contacts with the enclosing
the ~1esozoic sediments toward the end of the early rock. They have metamorphic aureoles of varying
Tertiary orogeny .1 They share many of the com1non width and intensity, and the Concepcion del Oro and
characteristics ascribed by Buddington (1959) to plu- Providencia stocks are bordered by intermittent skarn
tons of the epizone. The plutons are la.rgely discordant zones. 2 Roof pendants are common in some masses.
with the country rock which they have intruded, and
2
1\Iost of the plutons have intruded carbonate rocks of Late .Turasslc
1 The Concepc16n, del Oro stock has been dated recently by Buseck or. Early Cretaceous age, but some are in C()ntact with Upper Cretaceous
(1062) by the· K-Ar method at about 40 million years, which would shales or with redbediS and metased·iments, largely schists and phyllites·,
plnce ·lntruslon at the end of the Eocene. of the basement C()mplex.
ClO STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Many pJutons ·are composite in character and appear Imlay, R. W., 1937, Geology of the middle part of the Sierra de
to be the product of successive surges of m.agma, which Parras, Coahuila, Mexico: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v.
48, p. 587-630.
generally were increasingly felsic. Late-stage dikes are ---1938, Studies of the Mexican geosyncline: Geol. Soc.
mostly aplitic, -al;though they include some dark rocks America Bull., v. 49, p. 1651-1694.
rich in mafic ·minerals. Associated hypa:byssal rocks in Muir, J. M., 1936, Geology of the Tampico region, Mexico:
part resemble rocks of the plutons in ·composition. Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 143-151.
Weakly to strongly developed primary foliation occurs Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zoltan de, Tavera, Eugenio, and Ulloa,
in the marginal zones of some plutons. Prim'ary line'a- Salvador, 1956, General geology and phosphate deposits of
tion was not observed, but it might he revealed by a Concepcion del Oro district, Zacatecas, Mexico: U.S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 1037-A, 102 p.
more detailed study of •the rocks.
Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zoltan de, van Vloten, Rogelio, Tavera,
REFERENCES Eugenio, and Ojeda, Jesus, 1961, Reconocimiento geologico
Bergeat, Alfred, 1910, La granodiorita de Concepcion del Oro en y depositos de fosfatos del norte de Zacatecas y areas ad-
el Estado de Zacatecas y sus formaciones de contacto : Inst. yacentes en Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n y San Luis Potosi: Con-
sejo de Rec. Nat. no Renovables Bull. 56, 322 p.
geol. Mexico Bull. 27.
Buddington, A. F., 1959, Granite emplacement with special ref- Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zoltan de, Ojeda, Jesus, Tavera, Eugenio,
erence to North America: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v.. 70, and Vloten, Roger van, 1962, Tectonic framework of ·an
no. 6, p. 671-748. area lying within the Sierra Madre Oriental and adjacent
Burckhardt, Carlos, 1906, Geologie de la Sierra de Mazapil et Mesa Central, north-central Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Santa Rosa: Internat. Geol. Cong., lOth, Mexico City, Guide Paper 450-0, p. C21-C24.
des Excursions, no. 26. Watson, E. H., 1937, Igneous rocks of the San Carlos Moun-
Buseck, P. B., 1962, Contact metasomatic ores at Concepcion del tains, pt. 2 of The geology and biology of the San Carlos
Oro, Mexico [Abs.], in Geological Society of America, Ab- Mountains, Tamaulipas, Mexico: Michigan Univ. Sci. Ser.,
stracts for 1961: Spec. Paper 68, p.144. v. 12, p. 99-156.
 Article 62

THE ORDOVICIAN-SILURIAN CONTACT IN DUBUQUE COUNTY, IOWA

By JESSE W. WHITLOW and C. ERVIN BROWN,

Beltsville, Md., and Washington, D.C.

Work done in cooperation with the Iowa Geological Survey

Abstraot.-The lower Silurian Edgewood Dolomite discon- tered in the oolitic layers. A 5-foot section of theN eda
formably overlies the Upper Ordovician Maquoketa Shale in and at locality 3 is the thickest seen by the authors. The
near Dubuque County. Although the rocks a·bove and below
the contact are simUar in lithology, this elusive contact can
easternmost traces of the member in Dubuque County
be recognized by a thin persistent basal conglomerate in the are at localities 4 and 5, and the northernmost exposure
Silurian rocl!:S, and locally by rare erosional remnants of the seen is at locality 1. To the west the eroded edge of the
iron-rich Neda Member of the Maquoketa Shale. Neda is about ~ miles southwest of locality 3, and 1
mile west of locality 2. The member was first dis-
The Mosalem Member of the Edgewood Dolomite of covered in Iowa by J. V. Howell (1916) in road
Early Silurian age disconformably overlies the M:a- ditches on Lore Hill (locaJity 1), about 4 miles west of
quoketa Shale of Late Ordovician age in and near the Dubuque city limits. Agnew ( 1955), in a study
Dubuque County, Iowa. Features of the contact in the of well logs and drill cuttings from Iowa, reported other
Dubuque South quadrangle ·and the location of out- occurrences of the N eda in the subsurface.
crops of the N eda Member of the Maquoketa Shale, The Brainard Member at the Ordovician-Silurian
which OCC\H'S as sparse erosional remnants on the sur- contact ranges from argillaceous thin-bedded commonly
face of disconformity, have been shown previously by fossiliferous dolomite where the upper beds are pre-
us (1960, pl. 2). In that report we also described frag- served, as at localities 3, 4, and 6, to soft unfossiliferous
ments of the Maquoketa Shale in basal Silurian beds dolomitic shale where the upper beds are eroded aw·ay.
.
but d1d not recognize the regional distribution of the
' The argillaceous thin-bedded dolomite of the Brainard
fragments. Exposures of the conglomeratic beds be- at many places resembles the lower beds of the over-
yond the Dubuque South quadrangle indicate the possi- lying Mosalem Member of the Edgewood Dolomite;
~le use of the beds regionally as a marker for a grada- Calvin (1898, p. 142) referred to the lower beds in
tional contact that is otherwise virtually undetectable. the Mosalem as "transition beds" and included them
Location of outcrops of both the conglomeratic beds and in the Maquoketa.
the N eda l\fember of the l\1aquoketa Shale seen in Du- The Mosalem Member of Early Silurian age, which
buque County is shown on figure 62.1. consists mainly of wavy-bedded argillaceous dolomite,
The ancient erosion surface on the Maquoketa Shale fills the hollows in the top of the Maquoketa Shale and
has 135 feet of relief in the Dubuque South quadrangle; consequently ranges in thickness from a few feet to as
therefore, at most places the thin uppermost unit, the much as 94 feet in the Dubuque South quadrangle.
Neda Member, has been removed, exposinO' the under- The basal conglomeratic zone is about 1 foot thick and
lying Brainard Member as shown in figur~ 62.2. The contains fragments of shale, dolomite, and phosphatic
Neda Member consists of interlayered grayish-red soft nodules from the Maquoketa Shale set in an argillaceous
shale, dolomitic grayish-green shale, and layers of red- and dolomitic matrix. The matrix also contains iron
dish-.brown limonitic oolites. Irregularly shaped phos- sulfide, glauconite, and minor quantities of barite. The
phatic nodules that have a distinctive yellowish-brown dolomite and shale fragments are mainly from the
glazed surface and contain embedded oolites are scat- Brainard Member, and are as much as 1 inch in maxi-
ART. 62 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-c, PAGES Cll-c13. 1963

694-027 0-63-2
011
C12 STRATIGRAPHY

R.l E. R.2 E. R.3 E.

•
EXPLANATION

1
r
;' Silurian rocks

T.
89
;' D
N.
;' DUBUQUE Ordovician rocks

1:;:·:.~:.~:1
I

42°
30' Ordovician- Silurian con-
tact, showing outcrops

0
Locality referred
to in text

T.
88
N.

90°45'
0 2 MILES

Il'IGURE 62.1.-Map showing approximate location of the Ordovician-Silurian contact and outcrops studied in Dubuque County,
Iowa. N, Neda Member of the Maquoketa Shale of Late Ordovician age; 0, basal conglomerate of the Mosalem Member
of the Edgewood Dolomite of Early Silurian age.
 WHITLOW AND BROWN Cl3
Tete des Morts Member. scattered phosphatic fossil fragments, t~1e detrital char-
Mosalem Member acter of the rock is difficult to see in outcrop but is evi-
dent on freshly broken surfaces. If this thin zone is
the basal conglomerate of the Mosalem Member, the
Maquoketa
Sh le
Maquoketa at Bellevue is only about 100 feet thick.
Brainard Member
This is less than reported by l(ay (1935), who included
---------------------------------- in the Maquoketa Shale some of the shaly dolomite beds
Brown shaly unit overlying the conglomerate.
Phosphatic material and fragmental debris in the
l!"''IOUIU~
62.2-Dingrammatic section showing stratigraphic re- basal beds of the Silurian rocks have rarely been re-
lations at the Ordovician-Silurian contact in and near Du- ported in Iowa or in north western Illinois. Agnew
uuque County, Iowa. Vertical scale, 1 inch=about 200 feet. ( 1955, p. 1718) reported the phosphatic material in
basal Silurian beds at only one place in Iowa, and Trow-
mum dimension. These fragments are difficult to see bridge and Shaw (1916, p. 72) described shale pebbles
megascopically because they are texturally similar to in basal Silurian beds at two places in northwestern
the matrix. Phosphatic nodules and limonitic oolites Illinois. Although previous notice of these features is
derived from the Neda ~1ember were recognized at lo- rare, the authors believe that the phosphatic conglom-
cnJities 3 and 4, where the Silurian overlies the N eda, eratic beds or traces of the iron-rich Neda Member can
n,nd at locality 6, where the Neda is missing. Frag- probably be found regionally in Iowa and Illinois and
ments of phosphatic nodules are present not only in can be used as a marker horizon for the Ordovician-
the basal conglomerate but are also scattered through- Silurian contact either in outcrop or subsurface studies.
out the overlying few feet of dolomite. The thickness
of the zone containing phosphatic debris increases with REFERENCES

increasing thickness of the ~1osalem. Locally, as at Agnew, A. F., 1955, Facies of Middle and Upper Ordovician
locality 6, weathered iron sulfide causes iron staining rocks of Iowa: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 39,
p. 1703-1752.
of the basal detrital beds. Glauconite was noted in drill
Brown, C. E., and Whitlow, J. W., 1960, Geology of the Dubuque
cuttings and in unweathered outcrops of the basal ~1os­ South quadrangle, Iowa-Illinois: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.
aJem, but was not seen in weathered outcrops. Phos- 1123-A, 93 p. [1961].
phatic nodules were found in the basal beds of the Calvin, Samuel, 1898, Geology of Delaware County, in Annual
~1osnJem in cuttings from holes drilled in the Dubuque Report, 1897, with accompanying papers: Iowa Geol. Sur-
vey, v. 8, p. 122-199.
South quadrnnge for the U.S. Geological Survey.
Howell, J. V., 1916, An outlier of the so-called Clinton Formation
Thin-bedded conglomeratic siJ.ty dolomite, about 18 Jn Dubuque County, Iowa : Iowa Acad. Sci. Proc. 23, p.
inches thick, was found at the base ( ~) of the Mosalem 121-124.
~1ember in 1962 by '''hitlow at a large roadcut along Kay, (}. l\L, 1935, Ordovician system of the Upper Mississippi
U.S. I:Iighway 67, a quarter of a mile south of Bellevue, Valley, in Kansas Geol. Soc. Guidebook 9th Ann. Field Conf.,
Iowa City, Iowa, to Duluth, Minn.: p. 281-295 .
•Jackson County, Iowa, about 21 miles southeast of Du-
Trowbridge, A. C., and Shaw, E. W., 1916, Geology and geog-
buque. The rock is lithologically similar to the con- raphy of the Galena 111nd ElizabE-th quadrangles : Illinois
glomeratic layers in Dubuque County. Except for Geol. ·Survey Bull. 26, p. 61-82.
Article 63

SPIRORBAL LIMESTONE IN THE SOURIS RIVER(?) FORMATION

OF LATE DEVONIAN AGE AT COTTONWOOD CANYON,
BIGHORN MOUNTAINS, WYOMING

By CHARLES A. SANDBERG, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-A small outlying deposit 30 miles southeast of the At Cottonwood Canyon, the Souris River(~) Forma-
main body of the marine Souris River Formation may have been tion underlies a cliff of massive dolomite, 25 feet high,
laid down in the upper reaches of an estuary. Its abundant
and unusual biota includes Spirorbis, fish remains, carbonized
which is at the base of the Jefferson Forn1a.tion of early
wood, plant impressions, spores, and megaspores. Late Devonian (Frasnian) age, and overlies thin ledges
of white dolomite at the top of the Bighorn Dolomite
of Late Ordovician age. The Souris River ( ~) has a
A thin deposit of carbonaceous spirorbal limestone maximum observed thickness of 16 feet, of which the
and silty calcitic dolomite, containing an abundant and , lower 11 feet forms a partly covered slope and the
unusual Late Devonian flora and fauna, crops out on upper 5 feet forms weakly resistant ledges. The upper
part originally was described by Blackstone and Mc-
the steep north wall of Cottonwood Canyon on the west
Grew (1954, p. 39) as a 6-foot bed of "reddish weather-
side of the Bighorn Mountains in sec. 34, T. 57 N., R.
ing pyritic limestone" and black shale 50 feet above the
93 W., Big Horn County, vVyo. (fig. 63.1). This is base of the Jefferson. However, regional correlation of
the first recognized occurrence of Upper Devonian rocks the Jefferson between its type section at Logan, in south-
that are not certainly marine in the Williston basin or western Montana, and 12 measured sections in the
in adjacent parts of Montana and northern Wyoming. Bighorn and Pryor Mountains (Sandberg, 1961b, pl.
The deposit tentatively is considered to be part of a 10) demonstrates that the 25-foot-thick massive dolo-
small outlier of the Souris River Formation, which is mite is the basal bed of the Jefferson. Blackstone and
of early Late Devonian (Frasnian) age outside the McGrew ( 1954) noted the slight disconformity between
'Villiston basin. The outlier extends at least as far it and the underlying pyritic limestone but placed t.hPI
southeast as a well drilled 15 miles from Cottonwood base of the Jefferson much lower. It is likely, however,
Canyon. that they did not observe the ledges of white Bighorn
The Souris River Formation has been traced from Dolomite about 10 feet below the pyritic limestone,
its type area in the Williston basin into south-central because the pre-Devonian erosion surface is very irreg-
Montana by Sandberg (1961b, pl. 10). It consists of ular and drops sharply eastward from the outcrop of
marine thinly interbedded shaly dolomite, argillaceous
the. Souris River( n Formation. Just 225 feet to th~-..
east, the eroded top of the Bighorn is 135 feet low~.,..
limestone, shale, siltstone, and anhydrite, and its age
stratigraphically.
and stratigraphic relations in south-central Montana The following section of Souris River ( ~) Formatiot'
are the same as those of the deposit in Cottonwood is exposed for a distance of 75 feet along the canyon
Canyon. Two southward-projecting tongues of the wall between talus slides to the east and west. R-esults
main body of the Souris River lie a;bout 30 miles north- of calcil.lm-magnesium analyses of 13 selected samples
west ttnd 110 miles northeast of Cottonwood Canyon by James A. Thomas are incorporated in the lithologic
(fig. 63.1). descriptions.

ART. 63 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PEPER 475-C, PAGES C14-Cl6. 1968.

014
 SANDBERG C15
Devonian:
Jefferson Formation.
Disconformity. Thickness
Souris River('!) }!""ormation: (feet)
Dolomite, cnlcitic, carbonaceous, pale-yellorwish-
brown, pnle-brown, nnd light-brownish-gray, micro-
crystnlline, slightly silty. Thin .bedded to platy POWDER
but thinly lnminnted nnd fissile at bnse. Contains
u.bundnlllt spores, megaspores, fish plates, and car- ----~~-
Cottonwood
bonized plnnt fragments nnd large flattened stems. a Sheridan
Grndes enstward to medium-bedded brownish-gray RIVER
to brownish-blnck carbonnceous dolomitic limestone 0 Cody
conbnining pyrite concretions nnd scattered white
0 50 MILES
coiled worm tubes of Spi?'01'b·is sp. about 1 mm in I I
dinmeter. Weathers to yellowish-gray or grayish- BASIN
orange ·smooth, powdery surface ; forms re-
entrant---------------------------------------- 11;2
I..dmestone, spirorbal, medium-dark-gray, medium to FIGURE ~3.1.-Index map showing distribution of Souris
conrsely fragmental, slightly silty, slightly dolo- River Formation and equivalents (stippled) in south-
mitic, pyl'itic. Oxidation of pyrite to hematite ern :Montana and northern "ryoming.
colors rock pale brown or grayish red rto depth of
lJ.~ to 1;2 in. from wenthered surfnces. Composed The Souris River(?) Formation has a n1numum
largely of StJirm·b-is tubes 1;2 to 1 mm in diameter.
Interbedded with thin lenses of fissile moderate-
width of 350 feet at Cottonwood Canyon, as indicated
yellowish-brown and grayish-brown microcrystal- by blocks of spirorballimestone found in the talus slide
line silty calcitic dolomite containing scattered for 275 feet west of its outcrop. At the east side of the
St>·i·ro·rb·is tubes. Contains carbonized macerated other bounding talus slide, 225 feet east of the outcrop,
plnnt remnins and large flwttened stems as much the Beartooth Butte Formation crops out slightly below
us 2 in. wide, fish plates and teeth, and rounded
the basal cliff of the Jefferson. The Beartooth Butte in
pebbles of carbonized wood as much as 1 in. in
diameter. Pyrite coats many Spi1·orbis tubes and Cottonwood Canyon is of Early Devonian age (Black-
pnrtly replnces ·some carbonized-wood pebbles. stone and McGrew, 1954; D. H. Dunkle, written com-
Weathers pn:le brown and yellowish gray; thin munication, Oct. 14, 1959). It consists largely of coarse
bedded to thinly lnminated; forms weakly resist- dolomite conglmnerate a.nd fills a deep channel in the
nut ledges-------------------------------------- 21;2 underlying Bighorn at this locality (Sandberg, 1961a,
Limestone, cnrbonnceous, argillaceous, dark-gray and
brownish-gmy, microcrystalline to cryptocrystal- p. 1305). The Beartooth Butte occupies most of the
line. Contnins spores, megaspores, ·carbonized 150-foot interval between the Jefferson and Bighorn.
macerated pi'ant remains, and ·Scn,ttered white However, the upper 20 feet of this interval, into which
Spi·ro1·bis tubes. Weathers to very-light-gray or the Souris River ( ?) Formation might extend, and the
yellowish-gray smooth, rounded surface; medium
bedded ; forms weakly resistant ledge____________ 1
basal 5 feet of Jefferson are covered. Reconnaissance of
Dolon:tite, cnlcitic, carbonnceous, silty, dark-yellow- the canyon for a,bout 4 1niles to the east fa.iled to discl<?se
ish-brown, pn:le-brown, nnd grayish-·brown, micro- additional exposures of the Souris River(?) Formation.
crystalline, ern,thy, porous, fria:ble. Collltains fish The most abundant fossil in the Souris River(?)
plntes nnd teeth, carbonized plant remains, spores, Formation at Cottonwood Canyon is Spb·orbis sp.
megaspores, and scattered Spirorbis tubes. Tubes of this polychaete worm, about lj2 to 1 mm in
Wenthers yellowish gray; thin bedded to lami-
nated; nonresistant; forms :partly covered slope diameter, are abundant throughout. Some beds of
with 1lh-foot-thick ledge near middle____________ 9 limestone, particularly those near the top of the deposit,
Dolomite, siUy, pale- ·to dnrk-yellowish-brown and are composed almost exclusively of whole and frag-
yellowish-gray mottled with pale-yellowish-brown; mentary worm tubes and are termed spirorballimestone
in pnrt cm~bonaceous. Dark-yellowish-orange (fig. 63.2). The deposit also contains fish rmnains,
porous finely to very finely crystalline rhombic
sandy dolomite n.t base. Contains fish plates and rounded pebbles of carbonized wood, impressions of
teeth, spores, megaspores, and carbonized plant large plant stems, macera.ted plant remains, spores, and
stems. Weathers to yellowish-gray or yellowish- 1negaspores. Fish remains include the antiarch Both-
orange smooth surface; thin bedded ; forms wealdy riolepis cf. B. coloradensis Eastman, palaeoniscoid teeth
resistant ledge_________________________________ 2
cf. Rhadinichthys sp., coccosteid plates, and weathered
Total Souris River ( '?) Formation______________ 16 heterostracan ca.rapaces (F. C. vVhitmore, .Jr., written
Unconformity. communication, July 14, 1961), and the crossopterygian
Ordovician: lloloptychius cf. H. giganteus Eastman (D. H. Dunkle,
Bighorn Dolomite. written communication, Feb. 5, 1963). Callixylon-type
ClS STRATIGRAPHY

marine and £resh-water £orms. 11oloptyohius is be-

lieved to have lived in £resh water, although some re-
mains have been £ound in shallow inshore marine sedi-
ments (D. H . Dunkle, written communication, Feb. 5,
1963) . The other fish also do not give a clear
paleoecologic picture, according to F . C. 'Vhitmore, Jr.
(written communication, July 14, 1961), who stated:
The Heterostraci lived in the seas or in lower reaches of
streams; palaeoniscoids and eua1•throdires liYed in both marine
and fresh water. Bothriolepis was a fresh-water form, but the
single plate in this collection could have been washed int'O a
marine deposit.
The abundance o£ Spirorbis sp. accords with a mar-
ginal marine environment, £or Spirorbis sp. apparently
was adapted to £resh water as well as to salt and brack-
ish water (Pruvost, 1930).
The main body o£ the marine Souris River Forma-
tion was deposited as the shallow Late Devonian sea
transgressed with minor pulsations westward and south-
ward £rom the ·williston basin into southern Montana
(Sandberg, 1961b). Both the regional paleogeography
and the mixed paleoecology o£ the fish £auna in the
FIGURE 63.2-Spirorbal limestone near top of Souris River(?) Cottonwood Canyon deposit suggest that rocks o£ this
Fonnation, Cottonwood Canyon. Big Horn County, "'yo. outlier were deposited in brackish or nearly £resh water
Thin section ( x 10) parallel to bedding, in plain transmitted in the upper reaches o£ a long, narrow estuary that ex-
light. Sp'i•r orbis tubes are round or crescent Hhaped and are
filled by secondary calcite. Black outlines on some tubes are
tended into the retreating shoreline.
pyrite coatings.
REFERENCES

pitting o£ tracheids was observed in the wood fragments Blackstone, D. L., Jr., and :McGrew, P. 0., 1954, X en· occurrence
by R. A. Scott (oral communication, Jan. 1961). The of Devonian rocks in north central Wyoming, in Billings
Geol. Soc. Guidebook, :'ith Ann. Field Conf., Pryor ~Ioun­
microflora consists almost entirely o£ a single spore tains and northern Bighorn Basin: p. 38-43.
species, Punctatispol'ites c£. P. plamt.s Hacquebard, but Pruvost, Pierre, 1930, La faune continentale du terrain houiller
it includes a £ew individuals o£ many diverse palyno- de la Belgique: Inst. royal colonial beige, sec. sci. nat. et
morph species (R. H. Tschudy, written communication, med., i\Iem. 44, p. 103-282.
Feb. 14, 1D62). The fish and spores indicate an early Sandberg, C. A., 1!J61a, Widespread Beartooth Butte Formation
Late Devonian age. of Early Devonian age in Montana and Wyoming and its
This biota suggests a marginal marine environment paleogeographic significance: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Ge-
ologists Bull., v. 45, p. 1301-1309.
but does not indicate whether deposition was in brack-
- - - 1961b, DiSitribution and thickness of Devonian rocks in
ish or £resh water. The diverse microflora is related ·williston basin and in central Montana and north-central
to land plants and does not include any exclusively Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1112-D, p. 105-127.
marine £orms. On the other hand, the fish include both [1962]
 Article 64

DARK SHALE UNIT OF DEVONIAN AND MISSISSIPPIAN AGE

IN NORTHERN WYOMING AND SOUTHERN MONTANA
By CHARLES A. SANDBERG, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-A marine sequence of black and moderate-yellow- Reference section of the dark shale 1mit of Devonian and Missis-
ish-brown quartzose shale and carbonaceous siltstone discon- sippian a,ge in the NE1JJ,NE1j4 sec. "1, T. 56 N., R. 103 W., Park
formably underlies the Madison Limestone (Mississippian) and County, Wyo.
is sepnl'nt:ed from underlying Upper Devonian rocks by a re- Thickness
gionnl unconformity. The stratigraphic relations, thickness, Dark sihale unit: (Feet)
lithologic cllnracter, and age of this dark shale unit approxi- Siltstone, dolomitic, greenish-gray, light-olive-gray,
mate those of tile Englewood Formation. dark-gray, and dark-yellowish-orange, fissile, partly
carbonaceous, no(lular, very fine grained ; grades to
dolomitic quartzose shale. Botryoidal nodules, abou:t
1 in. in diameter, are white crystaJline quartz geodes
A clastic marine sequence of black and Inoderate- wi1th vugs and cracks partly filled by white calcite and
yellowish-brown quartzose shale and carbonaceous silt- grayish.-red hematite. Contains several conodont
stone that unconformably overlies Devonian rocks and s·pecies that are characteristic of the Lower Carbon-
disconformably underlies the Madison Limestone of iferous of Europe (B. F. Glenister, written communi-
cation, Mar. 2, 1961). Weathers very dusky red pur-
Mississippian age in northern Wyoming and southern
ple, olive gray, Ught brown, and yellowish bro-wn.
l\{ontnna is here informally termed a dark shale unit of Interbedded with fissile siltstone are 2 thick-bedded
Devonian and Mississippian -age. This dark shale unit lenses, 0 to 4 ~t ·thicl\:, of slightly nodular coarser
is the homotaxial equivalent of the Englewood For- grained limoni1tic dolomit-ic siltstone that is light
mation of the Black I-Iills, South Dakota and Wyoming. olive gray and moderate yellowish brown mottled with
pale red purple, greenish gray, and pale reddish.
The reference locality of the dark shale unit is in the
brown. Uni't is weakly resistant and •s'lope forming,
eastern Beartooth Mountains at the mouth of Clarks except for lenses 'vhich form moderately resistant
Fork Canyon, north of the river, in the NE!4NE1JJ, sec. ledges, aobout 4 ft ·and 11 ft below top______________ 19
7, T. 56 N., R. 103 W., Park County, Wyo., in the Deep Siltstone, dolomitic, limouitic, hema:titic; dai"k yellow-
Lake 15-minute quadrangle. It is approached on ish orange to moderate yellowish brown, with grayish-
red streaks and mottles in upper half; medium dark
Wyoming State Highway 120, which extends north
gray ·and olive gray, with yellowish--brown and dark-
from Cody, Wyo. About 21;2 miles beyond the Clarks yeHowish-o-range laminae in lower half. 'Veathers
Fork bridge, which is 2·6 miles from Cody, a trail easily moderate yellowish brown, dark yellowish orange,
traversed by automobile connects the highway to the and light brown; upper half massive; lower half
mouth of the canyon, about 7 miles west. From this medium bedded; resistant; ledge forming _____ -:----- 8
Siltstone, dolomitic, carbonaceous, medium-dark-gray
trail the reference section is reached by climbing a
'to dark-gray; grades to dolomitic quartzose shale.
talus slope between the Jefferson Formation of Late 'Veathers yellowish gray and darl\: yellowish orange;
Devonian age and the Madison Limestone, which dip thick bedded to laminated; moderately resistant;
50° to 55° NE. At the head of this talus slope the fol- ledge forming_____________________________________ 8
lowing section of the dark shale unit is well exposed· S.hale, quartzose, dolomitic, carbonaceous, dark-gray to
grayish-b}ack. Contains abundant palynomorphs,
along a, steep bench below a high cliff for~ed by the
including ·hystricosphaeres, lt:fim·hustrid'iU?n, Tas-
Madison. rnanitcs, and a spore, Le,iostJhae?·a sp., which are in-
The dark shale unit at ·most measured sections consists dicative of ma-rine deposition (R. H. Tschudy, written
of dark-gray to black carbonaceous dolomitic quartzose communication, Feb. 14, 1962). Upper 8 ft weathers
sha.le ·and light-olive-gray, yellowish-brown, yellowish- dark gray to medium dark gray mottled locally wi1th
light olive gray; lower 5 ft weathers light olive gray;
gray, a.nd dark-gray dolomitic siltstone -that grade to weakly resistant; ·slope forming____________________ 13
very shaly and very silty dolomite. Commonly the tmit
for1~1s partly covered slopes and weakly to moderately Total, dark sha·le unit___________________________ 48

ART. 64 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PEPER 475-C, PAGES Cl7-C20. 1963.

C17
C18 STRATIGRAPHY

resistant ledges, but locally it forms the base of a cliff from the reference locality to about 12 feet in the west-
of Madison. At some localities it consists entirely or ern Beartooth Mountains and to about 4 feet in the
pa,rtly of microcrystalline to very finely crystalline Gallatin ·and Bridger Ranges and Horseshoe Hills. The
hematitic slightly silty dolomite that is yellowish gray unit also thins southward and eastward ; its thickness
mottled with grayish red and contains scattered fine to is about 10 feet in the Bighorn Mountains and in the
coarse sand grains and fish plates and teeth. Thin part- A·bsaroka, Wind River, and Teton Ranges.
ings of dark-gray carbonaceous shale commonly occur At Logan, Mont. (fig. 64.1), the dark shale unit over-
in this dolomitic faoies. The base of the dark shale unit lies the Sappington Sandstone Member at the top of
locally is a bed of phosphatic qua;rtzitic sandstone, as the Three Forks Formation of Devonian and Missis-
much as 6 inches thick, containing abundant large cono- sippian age. There the dark shale unit previously was
donts, ·fish plates and teeth, black phosphate pellets, and correlated by l{nechtel and others ( 1954), with the. Lit-
angular pebbles derived ·from the underlying rocks. tle Chief Canyon Member of the Lodgepole Limestone
The dark shale unit is present in north-central and of Early Mississippian age, whose type locality is in
northwestern Wyoming and south-central and south- the Little Rocky Mountains of north-central Montana.
western Montana ('fig. 64.1). It crops out in the Bear- Regional stratigraphic studies by the author indicate,
tooth 'and northern Bighorn Mountains, in the Wind however, that the southern limit of the Little Chief
River, Teton, Absaroka, Gallatin, and Bridger Ranges, Canyon lies very near the ·Little Rocky Mountains and
and in the Horseshoe Hills, near Logan, Mont. The 160 miles northeast of Logan, so the continued use of
dark shale unit is 48 feet thick at the reference -locality. this name at Logan is inappropriate.
From there its thickness increases northeastward to a From Logan southeastward to central Wyoming, the
maximum of about 70 feet in 'the subsurface north of dark shale unit truncates progressively older rocks rang-
Billings, Mont. The thickness decreases northwestward ing in age from earliest Mississippian to early Late

~
3
BRIDGER
RANGE

POWDER

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 lliiU 8 A SIN

FIGURE 64.1.---{)utcrops of the dark shale unit. Numbers indicate thickness, in feet, of measured sections.
Approximate limit of unit shown by hachured line; unit absent on unhachured side.
 SANDBERG 019
Devonian (fig. 64.2). These rocks include all three the Famennian Stage in Europe, to en,rliest Mississip-
members of t"he Three Forks Formation and the subsur- pian, equivalent to the upper part of the Gattendorfi(};:-
face Birdbear Formation n.nd upper part of the Dupe- Stufe (cui) of the Tourna.isian Stage of Lower Car-
row Formation nnd their equivalent's in the outcropping boniferous in Europe (fig. 64.2). This precise de-
.Jefrerson F01·mntion. At its reference locality the dark termination is based largely on independent conodont
shale unit overlies the lower, evaporitic member of collections of IGapper and the a.uthor. The conodonts
the Three Forks, but only about 10 miles north, south, were identified by IGapper (written communication,
and east of this locality it rests on the Jefferson. Oct. 12, 1962), who plans to publish systematic descrip-
tions of the conodont faunas of the dark shale unit and·
z
2:
....., fl)
....., ~....., AMMONOID adjacent formations.
....
fl) ~
~(:I
o< ZONE FORMATION AND MEMBER
In the Absaroka and Teton Ranges, Beartooth Moun-
>- ....., o::l-
fl) fl) :;:,fll CStufe)
....., tains, and areas to the northwest (fig. 64.1), the dark
z z PericycluB shale unit appears to be entirely Early Mississippian.
a:< 0::
<
u; (cull a.)
Madison Limestone (base)
~
u;
UJ
~
ccz This determination is supported by conodonts collected

JJljj~ )_~- -~
fl)
u; 0
...J
0::
Gattendorfia from the basal sandstone of the dark shale unit at Baker
~~
:;:)
fl)

i ....0 (cui) Mountain by the author a.nd previously determined to

~ Dark shale
Wocklumeria ~~ unit be of Early Mississippian (IGnderhook) age by W. H.
(to VI) Sappington\. ~ ~ Hass (written communication, Nov. 1, 1957).
Clymenia
(toV)
c:
0
:;;
IV
Sandstone
Member
\
" In the Bighorn Mountains (fig. 64.1) the dark shale
unit contains beds of very late Devonian as well as of
z E \ earliest Mississippian age. Conodonts collected from
z
~
zUJ
0
LL.
,I/)
.:JC.
Uljj h the unit at South Fork Rock Creek by the author were
~
c(
Platyclymenia
(toiii-IV)
5
LL. \ determined to be of Early Mississippian (I\::inderhook)
LL.
Q)
Shale member age by W. H. Hass (written communication, Nov. 1,
z
~ 0::
~
.s::. l 1957). Conodonts from a thin bed directly below the
z UJ
f-
I
0
Q..
Q.. ~ Madison at Little Tongue Canyon were determined to
>
UJ
0
::::> CheiloceraB
(toll)
Evaporitic member \ include a mixed fauna of Upper Devonian and basal
\ Kinderhook forms by I<::oucky and others ( 1961). Thjc-
~ bed is here included at the base of the dark shale unit.

z
..
c:
0
IV
Equivalent of Birdbear
Formation
\

\
Conodonts from thin beds of black shale at the top of
the Devonian sequence in Cottonwood Canyon were
~ ManticoceraB E
~
0
z (to I) LL. reported to be Upper Devonian by Blackstone and Mc-
en c:
c(
0::
LL.
0
!!! \ Grew ( 1954). Conodonts from these same beds were
Equivalent of Duperow Formation
Q)
:: equated to the Olymenia-Stufe (to V) by Ethington
..,
Q)
and .others ( 1961). These shale beds are here included
in the lower part of the dark shale unit. In the upper
Fmum~ 64.2.-Age and stratigraphic relations of dark shale beds of the dark shale unit at Cottonwood Canyon,
unit and adjncent formati<>ns. (Ammonoid zones after House, I<::lapper (written communication, Oct. 12, 1962) found
1962 ; Collinson nnd others, 1962.) Lower Carboniferous (cui) conodonts.
In the vVind River Range (fig. 64.1), south of other
The dark shale unit is disconformably overlain by outcrops of the dark shale unit, the unit appears to be
the Madison Limestone, which truncates it west of entirely of. very late Devonian age. Upper Devonian
Logn.n in southwestern Montana, in southeastern Mon- (to V) conodonts were reported from the top of the
tana, and in northeastern n.nd central Wyoming (fig. Darby Formation at two localities by I\::lapper (1958).
64.1). Conodont collections made independently by Gil- However, IGapper (written communication, Oct. 12,
bert I<:ln.pper and the author from the basal few feet 1962) now recognizes the conodont-bearing beds as the
of the Mn.dison at 14 measured sections in Montana and dark shale unit. ·
"Tyoming indicate n.n Early Mississippian age, equiva- The dark shale unit of Devonian and Mississippian
lent to the Pericyclus-Stufe ( ouiia) of the Lower Car- age is the homotaxial equivalent of the Englewood For-
boniferous in Europe (I<:lapper, written communica- mation, formerly Englewood Limestone, of the Black
tion, Oct. 12, 1962). Hills of South Dakota and extreme northeastern 'V'yo-
The age of the dark shale unit ranges from very late min g. Their lithologic character, stratigraphic rela-
Devonian, equivalent to the Olymenia-Stufe (to V) of tions, thickness, and age are very similar.
C20 STRATIGRAPHY

The Englewood Formation contains variegated silt- lated. Although these depositional basins are now only
stone, shale, and sandstone, some grayish-red to pinkish- about 30 miles apart, it would be difficult to demonstrate
gray silty dolomite, similar to the dolomitic facies of that they had once coalesced. Any vestige of very thin
the dark shale unit, and a little pinkish-gray and me- deposits, which might have been laid down on a con-
dium- to light-gray limestone. At its type locality near necting shelf area, has been removed by slight pre-Mad-
Englewood, S. Dak., the upper part of the Englewood ison erosion in the intervening Powder River Basin of
Formation is entirely dolomite, as determined by cal- northeastern Wyoming.
cium-magnesium analyses, and the lower part is silt-
stone. REFERENCES
The Englewood Formation underlies the Pahasapa Blackstone, D. L., Jr., and McGrew, P. 0., 1954, New occurrence
Limestone of Mississippian age, which is equivalent to of Devonian rocks in north central Wyoming, in Billings
a large part of the Madison Limestone, and is separated Geol. Soc. Guidebook 5th Ann. Field Conf., Pryor Moun-
tains-Northern Bighorn Basin, Montana: p. 38-43.
from the Pahasapa at some localities in the northern Collinson, Charles, Scott, A. J., and Rexroad, C. B. 1962, Six
Black Hills by an angular unconformity. Like the charts showing biostratigraphic zones, and correlations
dark shale unit, the Englewood truncates progressively based on conodonts from the Devonian and Mississippian
older beds southward. These range from the Three rocks of the upper Mississippi Valley: Illinois Geol. Survey
Forks Formation of Late Devonian age in the subsur- Circ. 328, 32 p.
Ethington, R. L., Furnish, W. M., and Wingert, J. R., 1961, Upper
face northeast of the Black Hills (Sandberg, 1961) to Devonian conodonts from Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming:
the Deadwood Formation of Late Cambrian age at the Jour. Paleontology, v. 35, No.4, p. 759--768.
south end of the Black Hills. House, M. R., 1962, Observations on the ammonoid succession of
The thickness of the Englewood Formation ranges the North American Devonian: Jour. Paleontology, v. 36,
from 18 to 54 feet at 6 sections measured by the author No. 2, p. 247-284.
Klapper, Gilbert, 1958, An Upper Devonian conodont fauna from
in various parts of the Black Hills. the Darby formation of the Wind River Mountains, Wyo-
The Englewood Formation, like the dark shale unit, ming: Jour. Paleontology, v. 32, No. 6, p. 1082-1093.
contains conodont faunas equated to both the Upper Klapper, Gilbert, and Furnish, ,V, M., 1962, Devonian-Mississip-
Devonian (to V) and the Lower Carboniferous of pian Englewood Formation in Black Hills, South Dakota :
Europe (Inapper and Furnish, 1962). On the basis Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 46, No. 11, p. 2071-
2078.
of their age determinations in the Black Hills and the
Knechtel, M. M., Smedley, J. E., and Ross, R. J., Jr., 1954,
author's stratigraphic correlation between the Engle- Little Chief Canyon Member of Lodgepole Limestone of
wood Formation at Coldbrook Canyon in the south end Early Mississippian age in Montana : Am. Assoc. Petroleum
of the Black Hills and equivalent rocks at Sand Can- Geologists Bull. v. 38, No. 11, p. 2395-2411.
yon in the Hartville area, from which Love and others Koucky, F. L., Cygan, N. E., and Rhodes, F. H. T., 1961, Cono-
donts from the eastern flank of the central part of the Big
( 1953) reported a Late Devonian brachiopod fa una, the
Horn Mountains, Wyoming, in Paleontological notes: Jour.
age of the Englewood Formation is here recognized as Paleontology, v. 35, No. 4, p. 877-879.
Late Devonian and Early Mississippian. Love, J. D., Henbest, L. G., and Denson, N. M., 1953, Stratig-
The dark shale unit of Devonian and ~iississippian raphy and paleontology of Paleozoic rocks, Hartville· area,
age and the Englewood Formation are now separate eastern Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv.
Chart OC-44.
rock bodies. They were deposited penecontempor-
Sandberg, C. A., 1961, Distribution and thickness of Devonian
aneously in two elongate, arcuate, shallow marine ba-
rocks in Williston basin and in central Montana and north-
sins, each characterized by a northeast-trending axis, central 'Vyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1112-D, p. 105-
along which a narrow belt of thin sediments accumu- 127 [1962]. . -· ;
 Article 65

NOMENCLATURE FOR LITHOLOGIC SUBDIVISIONS

OF THE MISSISSIPPIAN REDWALL LIMESTONE, ARIZONA

By EDWIN D. McKEE, Denver, Colo.

A.bstmot.-New formal names given to the principal sub- are well exposed and in which detailed sections have
divisions of the Mississippian Redwall Limestone in northern been measured; thus the names refer to appropriate
Arizona are, in ascending order: Whitmore Wash Member,
'l'huncler Springs Member, Mooney Falls Member, and Horseshoe
type sections.
Mesa Member. The vVhitmore Wash Member, at ·the base of the for-
mation, is exposed .along the east side of the valley
The Redwall Limestone of Mississippian age extends of that name in northwestern Arizona. The type sec-
across much of northern Arizona and forms in outcrop tion, 101 feet thic.k, is on the upthrown side of the
one of the thickest, most massive cliffs of the region. I-Iurricane fault, about lit, mile north of the Colorado
Although superficially it seems to consist of a single uni- River, where the member consists of very thick bedded
form lithology, detailed examination indicates that it ( 4 to 15 feet) dolomite that is ver) fine and even
is readily divisible into four distinct lithologic units. grained. In sections to the southeast along the south
These units have been recognized in the literature and side of Grand Canyon, the member ranges in thickness
referred to as informal members for more than 20 years. from 72 to 85 feet and is also largely dolomite, but
Various informal designations have been applied to farther west it is limestone composed mostly of well-
them as follows (ascending order) : I, II, III, and IV rounded bioclasts and locally of ooids. l\1edium-scale
( Gutschick, 1943, p. 5; Easton and Gutschick, 1953, crossbedding is conspicuous in a few places.
p. 3) ; bottom, lower middle, upper middle, and top (Mc- The Thunder Springs l\1ember of the Redwall Lime-
l(ee, 1958, p. 75) ; .and A, B, C, and D (Mcl(ee, 1960b). stone consists of thin beds of chert alternating with
The informal designations A, B, C, and D have been thin beds of carbonate rock. The type section, 138 feet
used .in well-log descriptions by the American Strati- thick, is in the cliff ·of Redwall Limestone west of the
graphic Co. since 1960. springs at the head of Thunder River, about 2 miles
.... The application of formal names to members of the north of the Colorado River in central Grand Canyon.
Redwn.ll Limestone is desirable at this time because the Chert beds are the most conspicuous feature of this
validity of the units has been tested and established member ( l\1cJ(ee, 1960) ; in the western part of Grand
through a detailed study of the formation by E. D. Canyon they are associated with limestone, but to the
Mcl(ee and R. C. Gutschick (report in preparation) east with dolomite. Grains within the limestone range
n.nd also because these units frequently are referred to in size from fine to very coarse and consist of both bio-
in the petroleum industry, as a result of recent discov- clasts and peloids (intraformational clastic particles),
eries o:f oil and.gas in them. The following names are commonly in an aphanitic calcite matrix. Uniformly
here given to the four members of the Redwall, listed fine grains are characteristic of the dolomite.
:from oldest to youngest (fig. 65.1) : 'Vhitmore 'Vash The Mooney Falls l\1ember is the thickest, most
Member, Thunder Springs l\1ember, Mooney Falls Mem- massive, and most prominent unit of the Red wall Lime-
ber, and I-Iorseshoe Mesa l\1ember. These names are stone. It forms a sheer cliff throughout the Grand
taken :from geographic localities in which the rocks Canyon and from east to west ranges in thickness frmn

ART. 65 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C21-C22. 1963.

021
C22 STRATIGRAPHY

Zz about 200 feet to more than 350 feet. Its type section,
:$<
z-
<~ 312 feet thick, is at Mooney Falls in Havasu Canyon,
>0:::
-1 L&J a major tributary of the Grand Canyon from the south.
>a..
en
zo This member forms most of. the walls of the narrow
zz ·supai Formation gorge in which the spectacular waterfalls are located,
~.< and it is well exposed for many miles in that area.
Mostly the Mooney Falls l\{ember is a very pure lime-
Horseshoe
Mesa stone remarkably free of all detrital matter, but locally,
Member as in the lower part of the type section, it contains
63 feet
dolomite. Detailed study shows that particle size
ranges widely from bed to bed and that a well-defined
cyclic sequence of texture can be traced across the area
(Mcl(ee, 1960). The thick, massive beds within
this member locally contain abundant coral heads
( Syringopora), as at .the type section. Zones of
certain colonial corals and of endothyrids are well
marked and persistent in the upper half. Thin chert
beds are common near the top, and large-scale cross-
Mooney bedding is well developed in some areas. Oolitic units
Falls occur in the upper part of the member in western
Member
219 feet
Grand Canyon.
The uppermost unit, the Horseshoe Mesa Member, is
en

-
Q)
;:) z s relatively thin bedded and in Grand Canyon commonly
0
0::: a:a..< I ll
forms receding ledges at the top of the great cliff of
L&J
u...
en ~
z en
:.::i the Red wall. The thickness of this unit has been much
~ en
en
(ij
~
affected locally by pre-Supai erosion, but in general
0:::
< ~ i0::: it is thin, ranging from 38 feet at the type section to 125
(.)
feet in the west. A type section has been selected at
--- Horseshoe Mesa below Grandview Point on the south
side of the Grand Canyon. The section is ·accessible
Thunder from the Grandview trail, which crosses Horseshoe
Springs Mesa. At this locality, as in most of the region, the
Member EXPLANATION member consists largely of aphanitic limestone; en-
88 feet · crusting and sediment-binding algal structures are
common. The member is characterized by features
typical of quiet-water conditions, although crossbed-
ding, ripple marks, and oolite beds occur locally.

Whitmore REFERENCES
Wash
Easton, W. H., and Gutschick, R. C., 1953, Corals from the Red-
Member
wall Limestone (Mississippian) of Arizona: Southern Cali-
87 feet
fornia Acad. Sci. Bull., v. 52, pt. 1, p. 1-27.
Gutschick, R. C., 1943, The Red wall Limestone (Mississippian)
of Yavapai County, Arizona: Plateau, v. 16, no. 1, p. 1-11.
McKee, E. D., 1958, The Redwall Limestone: New Mexico Geol.
z Soc., 9th Field Conf., p. 74-77.
< - - 1960a, Cycles in carbonate rocks, in the Bradley volume:
z Temple Butte
Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258-A, p. 230-233.
~
L&J
Limestone - - 1960b, Lithologic subdivisions of the Redwall Limestone
0 in northern Arizona-their paleogeographic and economic
significance: Art. 110 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
Bedded chert
400-B, p. B243-B245.
:F'IGURE 65.1.-Section showing stratigraphic relations and· - - 1960c, Spatial re~ations of fossils and bedded cherts in
thickness of the members of the Redwall Limestone along the Redwall Limestone, Arizona: Art. 210 in U.S. Geol.
the Bright Angel Trail, Grand Canyon. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B461-B463.
 Article 66

MISSISSIPPIAN ROCKS IN THE LARAMIE RANGE,

WYOMING, AND ADJACENT AREAS

By EDWIN K. MAUGHAN, Denver, Colo.

A.bst,mct.-Mississippinn strata in the Laramie Range equiva- west flank of the range, the Madison extends southward
lent to the Madison Limestone are composed, in ascending order, as far as Garrett, and possibly is continuous as far as
of arlcosic sandstone, limestone, and a unit containing fossilifer-
ous chert lenses. 'l'hese rocks are 500 feet thick west of Casper
the vicinity of Wheatland Reservoir (figs. 66.1 and
but wedge out southward by convergence of the basal sandy 66.2). IsolUJted outcrops are found farther south, in
unit and upper cherty unit. This convergence suggests an sees. 13 and 9, T.17 N., R. 72 W. Reworked fragments
actively rising positive area farther south in Colorado during of Mississippian rock in the basal (Pennsylvanian) part
Mississippian time. of the younger Casper and Fountain Formations have
been reported as far south as Bellevue, Colo., on the east
l\1ississippin.n strata in the Laramie Range equivalent side of the range (Henderson, 1909, p. 158-159), and at
to the l\1adison Limestone are composed of a basal unit Rogers Canyon, central Albany County, 'Vyo., on the
o:f arkosic conglomeratic sandstone; a middle unit of west flank of the range (Knight, 1929, p. 29-30).
limestone; and an upper unit that contains yellowish- Fragments of l\1ississippian rock, mostly yellow-gray
gray tabular fossiliferous chert lenses in a matrix of chert, are common in the basal part of the Casper For-
yellow siltstone in the southern part of the range, and mation north of Rogers Canyon.
limestone in the north (fig. 66.1). The basal sandstone The basal sandstone unit in the Laramie Range is
is gradational with the overlying limestone unit, but composed generally of arkosic conglomeratic sandstone
the upper cherty unit seems to rest sharply upon the that by some geologists has been correlated with the
limestone. These rocks are 500 feet thick a short dis- Flathead Quartzite or Deadwood Formation of Cam-
tance west of Casper but wedge out southward along brian age. 'Veil-rounded to subangular quartz and
both flanks of the Laramie Range. Similar rocks occur feldspar pebbles are common in a matrix which is
also in the subsurface in southeastern Wyoming and dominantly quartz sand, but which includes silt- and
11dj acent parts of northeastern Colorado and western clay-sized particles. Grains of feldspar and ferro-
Nebraska, as indicated on figure 66.2. magnesian minerals are also abundant. This arkosic
Thickness measurements given on figure 66.2 were sandstone was derived from weathering of the under-
obtained from sections measured by the author south lying Precambrian granite and metamorphic rocks. Its
of l\1arshall and I-Iorseshoe Creek in the Laramie thickness at many places is indicated on figure 66.2.
Range, and in the l\1edicine Bow l\1ountains; from The unit commonly grades upward into moderately well
subsurface logs of the American Stratigraphic Co., sorted quartzose sandstone which, in turn, is increas-
Denver, Colo., and Casper, 'Vyo. ; from measured sec- ingly calcareous upward and intertongues and grades
tions in many unpublished theses, mostly from the Uni- into the overlying limestone unit. Laterally the sand-
versity of 'Vyoming; and from measured sections in stone intertongues and grades into limestone, as illus-
published reports listed in the references at the end of trated on figure 66.1. Locally, where the sandstone is
this report. moderately thick, as in the area a few miles southeast
T'he southernmost exposure of l\1ississippian rocks of l\1arshall, it is very well sorted orthoquartzite.
known :in the Laramie Range is on the east flank of the Fossils of IGnderhook age, "notably Ohonopectus
range, wt the North Fork of Crow Creek, Laramie fischeri, were collected 13 feet above granite at the top
County, "Tyo. (Maughan and ''Tilson, 1960). On the of calcareous arkose" (Agrutston, 1954, p. 514) in the
ART, 66 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C23-C27. 1963.
023
C24 STRATIGRAPHY

SOUTH NORTH
A A
Little Medicine
Wheatland Reservoir Garrett Marshall area area
t - - - - - . 1 6 m i l e s - - - - - f . . - - 8 miles ----j--2 miles--f.---13 miles--t---3 miles---j

Gl
c:
WEST FLANK 0
¥iGl
E
:.:i
c:
0
-~
'0
B B' ~
ftl

Horse Creek Farthing Deadhead Basin

---~---11 m i l e s - - - 1 - - - - 8 miles----l

25

Sandstone Limestone 0

Calcareous sandstone Sandy limestone Quartz and feldspar pebbles

~~CJ0 \
Siltstone Dolomitic limestone Chert lenses

FIGURE 66.1.-Columnar sections showing tongue. of Madison Limestone on east and west flanks of the Laramie Range, Wyo.
Location of lines of section shown on figure 66.2.

vicinity of Farthing. ·These fossils, as well as the inter- Range are the Gilman Sandstone Member o£ the Lead-
tonguing of this sandstone with typical Madison Lime- ville Dolomite of central Colorado, the Englewood
stone, establish a Mississippim~, probably IGnderhook, Limestone of the Black Hills, the. Bakken Formation of
age for the basal sandstone in the Laramie Range; there- northern ~fontana, and possibly the Sappington Sand-
fore, these strata should no longer be correlated with the stone Member of the Three Forks Shale of south-central
Flathead or Deadwood. The basal sandstone unit in Montana.
the Laramie' Range correlates with a similar basal Mis- The ~fississippian sandstone in the Laramie Range
sissippian uilit in the Rawlins, Wyo., area. Paleonto- can be traced northeastward in the subsurface (fig. 66.2)
logic evidence (Thomas, 1951) indica·tes that at least into the Hartville uplift area in east-central 'Vyoming,
the upper part of the sandstone near Rawlins is of Mis- where it is probably represented by a thin sequence of
sissippian age. Other units that are probably corre- red shale, sandstone, and conglomerate that underlies
lated with the Mississippian sandstone in the. Laramie limestone of the Guernsey Formation. The red shale
 N

••

~---7~~=---.---,

i
i
i
iI
Alliance
0
!Ll
I j
--·----~-7-------------------~-f--------·
I .
. I
I •
Scottsbluffi \

I i • l
I
II -1 • . 'l
Ll

!--·-- ----------------:
I
~
~-----------------~
I ( ·

LARAMIE COUNTY
1

!
\

•
\ •fs?
l-----------------------~
I
\
I • ~
~------,---------~---·\i \
I ' ! • I

II ~- r>_
" I
- e !!-------
1
! "': ~~,

"
.!Q
•
Outcrop section •
Subsurface section I NEBRASKA f'""-
WYOMING
I 'X_

---~~~ ------ ---coLORADO--------r-------

-------------
Isopach
- I ' e2s 1
55 i
Thickness, in feet, of Mississippian rocks. Dashed .§i
where approximate, dotted where eroded
120
i!
I
'-.....""" 18 !
I
---~---·

27 i i
· Thickness, in ff!et of Mississippian rocks j 40 ! I
Number above bar is thickness of limestone unit; •w+ 1 i
number below is ·thickness of sandstone unit of i • i i
i
r--~---------_j ___ .,1£ i
Madison Limestone
j
10 0 10 20 30 MILES i - o23 1

FIGURE 66.2.-Distribrition and thickness of Mississippian rocks in southea,stern Wyoming, western Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado. Dark pattern, exposed
Mississippian rocks; light pattern, exposed pre-Mississippian rocks; dotted isopachs across these areas indicate inferred thickness before erosion. Local out-
liers of Mississippian rocks lie beyond zero isopach. A-A' and B-B', lines of sections shown on figure 66.1. Compiled partially from Beckwith (1914), 0
l\:)
. Condra and others ( 1940), and Lee ( 1927) . ~
C26 STnATIGRAPHY

and conglomerate unit has been correlated or tentatively Fossils collected from the chert at North CrmY Creek
correlated with the Deadwood Formation (Jenkins and (USGS loc. 18622-PC) are Sph·ifer aff. S. 1nadi8onen-
McCoy, 1958; Love and others, 1953), although origi- sis (Girty); Oomposita aff. 0. subquadnda (Hall);
nally it \vas recognized as a basal conglomerate of the Dielasma sp.; and indeterminate pelecypods. This
Guernsey (Smith and Darton, 1903). Ballard (1942, fauna suggests that these strata. "might be roughly cor-
p. 1567) affirmed that the sandy unit should be consid- related with the upper parts of the Pahasapa Limestone
ered part of the Guernsey. Love and others (1953) and l\1adison Group" ( J. T. Dutro, Jr., written com-
date limestone near the base of the Guernsey as Late munication, 1959). The late Early l\1ississippian age,
Devonian. If the sandstone in the Laramie Range is which may be implied from this statement, is supported
continuous with the sandy unit in the Hartville area, as by the occurrence in the chert of Endothyra sp. of prob-
the present work suggests, then the sandstone and its able Osage age (identified by B. L. Skipp, oral com-
correlatives transgress the Devonian-Mississippian sys- munication, 1962).
temic boundary between the Hartville area and the The thinning of the l\1adison described here compares
Laramie Range. with northward thinning of the Leadville Dolomite
It seems unlikely that rocks of Cambrian age are along the east flank of the Front Range north of Colo-
present in any part of the area shown on figure 66.2, rado Springs, Colo., and ·with thinning of the Lead-
except for anomalous remnants such as those reported ville eastward and northeast,Yard in the Pando area,
by John Chronic (oral communication, 1962) in the central Colorado (T,Yeto, 1949, p. 186). The l\1adison
southern part of the Laramie Range or, possibly, for thins from Rawlins southward to the vicinity of Sav-
wedges of Cambrian sandstone which may extend a ery, 'Vyo. (Ritzma, 1951), and a thin wedge (possibly
short way into the northwestern part of the area from an isolated remnant) is exposed at the north end of the
central vVyoming. Additional study of sandstone ex- l\1edicine Bow l\1ountains near Arlington, 'Vyo. ( R. S.
posed at the base of undoubted Mississippian rocks in I-I oust on, oral communication, 1963).
the vicinity of the Alcova and Seminoe Reservoirs is These stratigraphic relations suggest that a large pos-
needed before use of the names Flathead or Deadwood itive area in the central Rocky l\1ountain region was
can be continued in that area, because that sandstone inundated from the north in latest Devonian to earliest
also may be a locally thick sandy facies of the Madison Mississippian time. The transgression culminated in
Limestone, as it is in the Laramie Range. Osage time '"hen the sea. extended partly across this
The middle, limestone unit of the Madison is at least area, but probably not far beyond the zero isopach of
200 feet thick in the northern part of the Laramie figure 66.2. Convergence of the basal sandy unit and
Range and as much as 360 feet in the subsurface to the upper cherty unit of the l\1adison south ward along the
northwest. The unit is composed almost exclusively of Laramie Range (fig. 66.1) suggests that the positive
limestone and dolomitic limestone typical of the Madi-
area, although partly submerged in 'Vyoming, was ac-
son and has been described previously by several au-
tively rising farther south in Colorado during l\1issis-
thors (Barnett, 1914; Rapp and l\1axson, 1953; and
l\1ytton, 1954). This limestone thins southward chiefly sippian time.
REFERENCES
by intertonguing of the lower part with the underlying
sandstone unit (fig. 66.1). Abrupt thinning occurs in Agatston, R. S., 1954, Pennsylvanian and Lower Permian of
northern and eastern Wyoming: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
the vicinity of Marshall; south of Marshall this unit is
Geologists Bull., v. 38, p. 508-583.
no more than 30 feet thick. Anclrichuk, J. l\f., 1955, Mississippian Madis·on Group stratig-
The upper, cherty unit, although relatively thin, raphy and sedimentation in Wyoming and southern Mon-
varies considerably in thickness from place to place tana: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 39, p. 2170-
owing to erosion before deposition of the overlying 2210.
Ballard, N orval, 1942, Regional geology of Dakota basin : Am.
Casper Formation. The cherty unit seems to thicken
Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 26, p. 1557-1584.
slightly northward. In the northern part of the range Barnett, V. H., 1914, The Douglas oil and gas field, Converse
and in adjacent areas some of the thickening of the County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 541-C, p. 49-88.
l\1ississippian rocks· (fig. 66.2) seems to be due to preser- Beckwith, R. H., 1941, Structure of the Elk Mountain district,
vation of Mississippian strata younger than the chert Carbon County, Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 52,
bed. That younger beds are present nortlnYard is con- p. 1445-1486.
Condra, G. E., Reed, E. C., and Scherer, 0. J., 1940, Correlation
sistent with the concept of regional southward trunca- of the formations of the Laramie Range, Hartville uplift,
tion of the upper part of the l\1adison Gronp postulated Black Hills, and western Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Sur-
by Andrichuk ( 1955, fig. 5). vey Bull. 13, 52 p.
 MAUGHAN C27
Henderson, Junius, 1909, The foothills formation of north- Mytton, J. ,V., 1954, The petrology and residues of the Madison
central Colorado: Colorado Geol. Survey, First Rept. 1908, Formation of the northern part of the Laramie Range, in
p. 145-188. Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook 9th Ann. Field Conf.,
Jenkins, M. A., nnd McCoy, M. R., 1958, Cambro-Mississippian Casper Area, Wyoming, 1954: p._37-43.
correlations in the eastern Powder River Basin, Wyoming Rapp, J. R., and Maxson, Horace, 1953, Reconnaissance of the
und Montana, ·in Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook 13th geology and ground-water resources of the La Prele area,
Ann. lrield Conf., Powder River Basin, Wyoming, 1958: Converse County, 'Vyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 243,
p. 31-35. 33 p.
Knight, S. H., 1929, The l!..,ountain and the Oasper Formations Ritzma, H. R., 1951, Paleozoic stratigraphy, north end and west
o.f the Laramie Basin: Wyoming Univ. Pubs. in Sci., Geol- flank of the Sierra Madre, Wyoming-Colorado, in Wyoming
ogy, v. 1, p. 1-82. Geol. Assoc. Guidebook 6th Ann. Field Conf., South-central,
Lee, ,V. T., 1!)27, Correlation of geologic formations between 'Vyoming, 1951: p. 66-67.
east-centml Colorado, central Wyoming and southern Mon-
Smith, W. S. T., and Darton, N. H., 1903, Description of the
tana: U:S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 149, 80 p.
Hartville quadrangle [Wyoming] : U.S. Geol. Survey Geol.
Love, J. D., HeubeS't, L. G., and Denson, N. M., 1953, Stratig-
Atlas, Hartville folio, no. 91.
raphy nncl paleontology of Paleozoic rocks, Hartville area,
eustern 'Vyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas lnv. Thomas, H. D., 1951, ·Summary of Paleozoic stratigraphy of the
Chart OC-44, 2 sheets. region about Rawlins, south-central Wyoming, in Wyoming
Mnughan, E. K., and Wilson, R. 1!"'., 1960, Pennsylvanian and Geol. Assoc. Guid~book 6th Ann. Field Conf., South--central
PerJnian strata in southern Wyoming and northern Col- Wyoming, 1951 : p. 32-36.
orado, in Weimer, R. J., and Haun, J.D., eds., Guide to the Tweto, Ogden, 1949, Stratigraphy of the Pando area, Eagle
Geology of Colorado: Geol. Soc. America, 1960. Ann. Mtg.• County, Colorado: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 15, no. 4, p.
Denver, Oolo., guidebook for field trips, p. 34-42. 149-235.

694-027 0-63--3
Article 67

TRIASSIC UPLIFT ALONG THE WEST FLANK

OF THE DEFIANCE POSITIVE ELEMENT, ARIZONA

By EDWIN D. McKEE, Denver, Colo.

A.bstract.-A cross section of the Moenkopi Formation from in a cross section across the central part of n~rthern
Winslow to Fredonia, Ariz., has been redrawn with the lower Arizona from Winslow to Fredonia (figs. 67.1, 67.2).
massive sandstone used as a datum plane. The cross section
indicates that uplift, followed by erosion, occurred on the west
Data for ~the section were obtained during field investi-
flank of the Defiance positive element in Triassic time after gations in the 1940's and were illustrated later by the
Moenkopi deposition but 'before deposition of the ·Chinle author ( 1954, p. 21-22) . The relations were also shown
Formation. in section B-B' of plate 3 of McKee and others ( 1959),
but in this sootion some of the pertinent conclusions
A positive area in northeastern Arizona where Pre- are obscured by what seems 'to have been an unfortunate
cambrian rocks 'are overlapped by Permian strata was choice of datum plane.
first noted hy Gregory ( 1917, p. 17). Some details of Certain features of the stratigraphic history become
the west flank of this structure, termed the Defiance conspicuous when the data obtained in earlier investi-
positive element, were described hy McKee (19'51, p. gations are replotted with the widespread "lower mass-
484-486, 488) and illustrated by isopach maps. Notable ive sandstone" unit (McKee, 1954) as a d31tum plane
features are the radiating ridges or prtmgs extending (fig. 67.2). First, the base of the formation rises rela-
out from the-positive element with somewhat different tively evenly from northwest to southeast, apparently
locations during different geologic periods. the result of transgression. Second, the ·a~a between
The Defiance positive element seems to have been re- Black Point 'and Fredonja is one in which considerwble
peatedly uplifted. Movement along its west fl'ank dur- erosion •took place, ·cutting to and below the upper mas-
ing the Tri~assic Period is well documented by the strati- sive sandstone unit, after the Moenkopi was d~osited
graphic relations of the Moenkopi Formation as shown and before the overlying Chinle Formation began to he
EXPLANATION
__ _j£0~~0

I M~~}bo
I
I
Defiance
-o-
-·100-

Isopach a
Interval 100 feet
positive
element
I .. 7
I
Measured section

'
0 50 100 MILES

FIGURE 67.1.-Index map showing line of section and localities on figure 67.2, and isopachs of Moenkopi
Formation adapted from McKee and others (1959, pl. 3). 1, Fredonia; 2, west of Navajo Bridge;
3, Lees Ferry; 4, south of Navajo Bridge; 5, North Cedar Ridge; 6, North Gap; 7, 12 miles northwest
of Cameron; 8, 6 miles west-northwest of Cameron; 9, Poverty Tank; 10, Black Point; 11, Winslow.
ART. 67 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C-28-C29. 1963.

C28
 McKEE C29
G)
G)
bO
...
C/1

...0
G)
bO
'0 ~ J
s::.
~D
G)

NORTHWEST
;i5 bO C/1
G) ~
0 '0
J 0 c: SOUTHEAST
0 ~
'iii 'iii s::.c: 7 0 ole
> >
«<
...«< ~0
0 ...
...... c:
C/1 G) «<
«<
«<
z ~ z '0
G)
a.
«< c:e· ~~ ~
·c Qj 0 u (.!) ~«< CIIU 1::' J
0
0 ... 1.1.. s::. s::.
~
s::.
~
::U ~ .... ._
E ·- o
0
~

]
'0 C/1 G)
G)
C/1
G) G)
0 0 E > c:
~
0
~ ~
G)
...J z z ....
N
10 0..
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
I I I
-.......... ......_ I I I
Chinle .Formation ./· ..... .
.... · · · · - Upper massive

-r--_,_+--_+--__.....V
sandstone

__..,---
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... · Lower massive
--~------r--rl--r-1----rllll'--===============--t- sandstone

Moenkopi Form•v,_--_...,.-

VV Pre-Triassic rocks

~v-
--- 0 25 50 75 100 MILES

FrounE 67.2.-Section of Moenkopi Formation from Fredonia to Winslow, Ariz. The lower massive sand-
stone is used as datum plane.

formed. This surface of erosion is interpreted as evi- Moab anticline apparently was sufficiently intense to
dence of an uplift, probably a gentle upwarp, of a west- raise the Moenkopi Formation completely above the base
wnrd-extending prong of the Defiance positive element. level of erosion, as shown by angular discordance (Mc-
The tim.e of uplift of the western prong of the De- 1\:night, 1940, p. 50) . In the Capitol Reef area of Utah,
fiance positive element can be dated within relatively favther west, the writer has observed a discordant con-
narrow limits in the Triassic. The uppermost part of tact. between these formations, and similar ·relations
the Moenkopi Formation in the area concerned is con- have been reported from other areas. Furthermore, up-
siderably higher stratigraphically than the zone of Tiro- lift of considerable magnitude must have occurred at
lites tlutt marks the late part of the Early Triassic this time in many places adjacent to the region, as shown
(Smith, 1932, p. 15), which suggests that the uppermost by much conglomerate in basal Upper Triassic strata
part of the 1\{oenkopi may be of Middle Triassic age. (McKee, 1951, p. 494).
Supporting evidence is the presence of the amphibian REFERENCES
Oyclotosau/r'ltS high in the Moenkopi Formation near
Gregory, H. E., 1917, Geology of the Navajo country: U.S. Geol.
IIolbrook, Ariz.; this genus is characteristic of the Mid- Survey Prof. Paper 93, 161 p.
dle and Upper Triassic of Europe 'and South Africa, McKee, E. D., 1951, Sedimentary basins of Arizona and adjoin-
according to '\V'elles (1947). Above the unconformity ing areas: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 62, p. 481-506.
at the top of the l\{oenkopi Formation in tlris area is the --1954, Stratigraphy and history of the Moenkopi Forma-
Chinle Formation, considered to 'be of Late Triassic 'age tion of Triassic age : Geol. Soc. America Mem. 61, 133 p.
McKee, E. D., and others, 1959, Paleotectonic maps of the Trias-
'by n1ost geologists (Mcl\:ee and others, 1959, p. 38-39). sic System: U.S. Geol. Survey. Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-300,
Thus the uplift and resulting erosion must have taken 33 p. [1960].
place lwter than the end of Early Triassic and before McKnight, E. T., 1940, Geology of area between Green and
the early part of Late Triassic time. . Colorado Rivers, Grand and San .Juan Counties, Utah: U.S.
. Crustal disturbance and 'Warping of beds apparently Geol. Survey Bull. 908, 147 p .
Smith, J.P., 1932, Lower Triassic ammonoids of North America:
also took place in other parts of southwestern Unite.d U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 167, 199 p.
States during the interval between deposition of the Welles, S. P., 1947, Vertebrates from the Upper Moenkopi For-
l\foenkopi nnd Chinle Formations. In eastern Ut~h a mation of northern Arizona: California Univ. Pub., v. 2:7,
renewal of movement 'along the general axis of the no. 7, p. 241....,.294.
Article 68

REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE AND AGE OF THE TUXEDNI GROUP

IN THE COOK INLET REGION, ALASKA

By ROBERT L. DETTERMAN, Menlo Park, Calif.

.Abstract.-The Tuxedni Formation is raised to group rank in side, 4% miles S. 62° E. of Iliamna Volcano, and the
the Cook Inlet region. Names are given to three formerly lower 1,230 feet is on the north side of the glacier, 61h
unnamed members, and these and three other members are
raised to formation rank. In ascending order they are desig-
miles N. 86° E. of Iliamna Volcano. The Re:d Glacier
nated the Red Glacier Formation, Gaikema Sandstone, Fitz Formation is 1,980 feet thick at Tuxedni Bay, 18 miles
Creek Siltstone, Cynthia Falls Sandstone, Twist Creek Siltstone, northeast of Red Glacier, and about 6,500 feet thick in
and Bowser Formation. the subsurface under Iniskin Peninsula, 18 miles south-
west of Red Glacier.
The Tuxedni Formation was defined as the Tuxedni The Red Glacier Formation consists mainly df
Sandstone by Martin and Katz (1912, ·p. 59-64) to in- arkosic sandstone and shale with minor amounts of sub-
clude all the marine sandstone and sha:le of Middle graywacke-type sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone
Jurassic age exposed on the south shore of Tuxedni in the lower part, and sandy siltstone in the upper part.
Bay, Alaska. The formation was subdivided as the At the type locality the lower 200 feet is light-brown
result of mapping by oil company and Geological Sur- arkosic sandstone. This is overlain by 200 feet of black
vey geologists during and immediately after World silty shale, 200 feet of arkosic sandstone, 1,000+ feet
"\Var II (fig. 68.1). of soft black silty shale in which a small fault cuts out
Recent mapping in the Cook Inlet region and south- part of the section, 720 feet of 1ight-brown arkosic sand-
ern Alaska has shown that the formation should be stone, 1,060 feet of interbedded sandstone and s1ltstone,
considered a group. Therefore, in this article the and at the top by 1,160 feet of sandy siltstone. The
Tuxedni Formation is raised to the rank of group and base of the formation rests unconformably on the
its former members to the rank of formation, except Talkeetna Formation of Early Jurassic age. The up-
for the former Bowser Member, which is subdivided per contact is gradational into the overlying Gaikema
and raised to two formations. In ascending order, the Sandstone.
formations are the Red Glacier Formation, ·Gaikeina The Gaikema Sandstone Member, named by Kirsch-
Sandstone, Fitz Creek Siltstone, Cynthia Falls Sand- ner and Minard (1948) after Gaikema Creek on Iniskin
stone, Twist Creek Siltstone, and Bowser Formation. Peninsula, is herein designated the Gaikema Sandstone.
The marine rocks of the Tuxedni Group are ·abundantly The type locality is designated as the left bank of the
creek, starting 5,000 feet from the mouth and continu-
fossiliferous. Ammonites studied and described by R.
ing for 1,800 feet upstream. The section at the type
W. Imlay ( 1961,. 1962a, 1962b, and report in prepara-
locality is 850 feet thick and consists of resistant cliff-
tion) indicate that the Tuxedni Group is of Middle and. forming sandstone, in part conglomeratic. Siltstone,
Late Jurassic age. · shale, and cobble-boulder conglomerate are subordinate
The name Red Glacier Formation is here introduced constituents.
to replace the term lower member of the former Tuxedni Measured sections of the Gaikema Sandstone range
Form·ation in the older reports. The formation is in thickness from 500 to 870 feet. At the type locality
named after Red Glacier, and the type section is. desig- the lower 180 feet is medium-bedded olive-gray to
nated as exposures along both sides of the glacier ('fig. yellowish-green sandstone containing beds of silty shale,
68.2). The upper 3,310 feet is exposed along the south siltstone, and conglomerate. This is overlain by 220

030 ART. 68 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C3G-C34. 1963.
 r ('

Martin and Katz (1912) Kirschner and Standard zones IEXPLA.NATION

Kellum (1945} Hartsock (1954) This article Stage in Europe F9
Moffit (1927) Minard (1948)
(Imlay, 1952) I ~
Bedded sandstone
a::-
....,en
a... en
a..<
(..)
Chinitna Shale Not examined Chinitna Siltstone
Chinitna Formation
-...
c
0
«J
E
0
Generalized
geologic
Only those zones
present in ~
;:)~

~
c
section Cook Inlet Massive sandstone
......
-
«J
«J
c lonnie Silt- ·;:
-~ lonnie Silt- _g region are
c
- stone Member- :c
(..)
stone Member b-.~--~ tV
(..) shown
Upper sandstone ~ Macrocephalites Conglomerate
member ~~~~~~~ macrocephalus
Bowser ·:-·.- ·.
(;;_~-- ~: ~-;: E3
~-- --------
Formation '?~~:.<?. ~--~~ .€ Clydoniceras
I

~
~:~-----=:
~.ca
~c discus Siltstone
Bowser Member Bowser Member ()00000 1%) c Oppelia
~-:.::.-.:·.7.-: 0
asPiiloides
··:.-;;..;::····· ~
1\
~
c
«J
E Upper sandy- -c
0
«J

E Twist Creek
t--OP~

~~+i~~;.~
Strenoceras
subfurcatum
~
Sandy siltstone
...
0 shale member ...
0
Siltstone
~~-:~
Stephanoceras
humphriesanum E===t
·c: ·c: --~---
t--···-- I ~ tj
~ ~
~:·-::-,ri;-:= trJ
cu cu Shale
~
>< ><
(..)
v.;
::I
1-
Cynthia Falls
1-
::I
Cynthia Falls Cynthia Falls Cynthia Falls
1------
~--=--= I trJ
en Sandstone San~stone Sandstone I -~~'\~-.c;>~~- ~~v~~
~
c: Otoites sauzei
a:: Sandstone Member
c
0 Member ~·.;c;c;c;c;;
~ Tuxedni Sandstone Member :;::;
«J oo 0000 Tuff and lava flows
..... E Q.
:·::.:..: ·::
....I
0
0
...
0
::I
e
C!J
~:..:.::

~-~~\~:
c
«J
·u I~C\7&1
:i ·c: ·c: -------
0
·c;-

-
~ ~
cu cu 1%)
limestone concretions
>< ><
::I
-=:=:-:-::=:;~:.:. Sonninia
::I
Lower sandy- Lower sandy- 1-
Siltstone Fitz Creek ~-~~-----:-~ sowerbyi
shale member shale member member Siltstone . .:.:::~---~=·
~~-~~---~ :·:·~
..............
:.:-:-.·: ~: -_-_-_:· 2000 FEET
I

~f't~~
c c
0 0
:;::;
«J
Sandstone :;::;
«J
Gaikema Sand- Gaikema Sand- Gaikema Sand- Tmetoceras
member stone Member stone Member stone scissum 1000
E E
...
0
...
0

....:
--= --=-=
~---:::
....: ~--
·;: ·;:
CoO Sandy- shale
~
CoO Sandy-shale
Lower member
Red Glacier ~ ~ 0
~ member
~-~~;~
«J «J member Formation
X: X:
(..)
'rl!z_"l~~(l~
ffi~ Porphyries Volcanic rocks Volcanic rocks Volcanic rocks
Talkeetna
~
~c:
oa:: and tuffs Formation
....I~

68.1-Revision of stratigraphic nomenclature of the Tuxedni Group in Cook Inlet region, Alaska.
FIGURE
9
.......
 C32 STRATIGRAPHY

Iliamna Volcano
~IL
II"-
N

I!'IGURE68.2.-Index map showing type localities of formations in the Tuxedni Group, Cook Inlet region, .Alaska. 1, Red
Glacier Formation. 2, Gaikema Sandstone. 3, Fitz Creek Siltstone. 4, Cynthia Falls Sandstone. 5, Twist Creek. Silt-
stone. 6, Bowser Formation.
 DETTERMAN C33
feet of n1edium-bedded greenish-gray sandstone, 110 The Twist Creek Siltstone is herein named for the
feet of cobble-boulder conglomerate and coarse-grained sequence of rocks included by Imlay ( 1962b) as the
arkosic sandstone, 220 feet of thin- to medium-bedded lower part of the former Bowser Member of the
olive-green sandstone, and at the top by 120 feet of Tuxedni Formation. The formation is named after
medium-bedded medium-grained dark-olive-green sand- Twist Creek on Iniskin Peninsula, and the type sec-
stone containing a few beds of cobble-boulder conglom- tion is on Tonnie Creek, starting 5,000 feet S. 47° E. of
erate. The lower contact is gradational into the Red Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for 500 feet.
Glacier Formation, and the upper contact with the The Twist Creek Siltstone is uniformly soft, poorly
Fitz Creek Siltstone 1s conformable and sharp. consolidated siltstone and shale with a few thin gray-
The Fitz Creek Siltstone is here named to replace \vacke-type sandstone interbeds. The siltstone is thin
the term siltstone member of the former Tuxedni For- bedded to massive, arenaceous, dark gray, and weathers
mation of older reports. The formation is named after rusty dark brown. Many thin beds of volcanic ash
Fitz Creek, the principal stream on Iniskin Peninsula. are intercalated with the siltstone, and small discoidal
The type locality is on Tonnie Creek, a tributary of limestone concretions occur abundantly throughout.
Fitz Creek, starting 7,000 feet S. 55 o E. of Tonnie Peak The formation is 240 feet thick at the type locality
and continuing upstream for 1,400 feet. The forma- and has a maximum thickness of about 410 feet near
tion is 1,090 feet thick at the type locality. Red Glacier.
The formation is composed mainly of massive bluish- A major unconformity exists between the Twist
gray arenaceous siltstone that commonly weathers rusty Creek Siltstone and the overlying Bowser Formation.
brown and contains many small ovoid fossiliferous As a result of this unconformity the Twist Creek is
limestone concretions. Interbedded with the siltstone missing in the southwestern part of Iniskin Peninsula.
are .fine-grained sandstone and, locally, conglomerate. The Bowser Member of the Tuxedni Formation,
Measured sections range from about 650 to 1,280 feet named by IGrschner and Minard ( 1948), is here re-
in thickness. The lower 80 feet of the type section is stricted to the upper part of the member and raised in
a massive bluish-gray siltstone, with a 70-foot covered rank to the Bowser Formation of the Tuxedni Group.
interval above the siltstone. The covered interval is The formation is named after Bowser Creek. The for-
overlain by 340 feet of siltstone, 70 feet of very fine mation is exposed at many localities along the creek, but
grained silty sandstone, and at the top by 530 feet of the type locality is on Tonnie Creek, starting 4,500 feet
massive bluish-gray arenaceous siltstone. The upper S. 47° E. of Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for
and lower contacts are conformable. 1,500 feet.
Formational status is given the former Cynthia Falls Rocks assigned to the Bowser Formation include
Sandstone Member of J(ellum ( 1945). The formation massive units of cliff-forming graywacke-type sand-
was named after Cynthia Falls, a prominent waterfall stone, pebble-cobble conglomerate, thin-bedded shale,
on liardy Creek, Iniskin Peninsula. The type section and massive siltstone. Measured sections of the forma-
is on Tonnie Creek, starting 5,600 feet S. 50° E. of tion range in thickness from about 1,250 feet to as much
Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for 600 feet. as 1,850 feet. The type section is 1,830 feet thick and
Massive- to thick-bedded coarse-grained greenish-gray consists of 70 feet of thin-bedded sandstone overlain by
graywacke-type sandstone is the main constituent. 280 feet of massive siltstone, 70 feet of cobble conglomer-
Interbedded with the sandstone are thin layers of rute, 260 feet of gray siltstone, 250 feet of sandstone with
pebble-cobble conglomerate and arenaceous siltstone. . pebble-conglomerate layers, 130 feet of dark-gray silt-
Much of the sandstone is mottled green and white. The stone, 170 feet of thin-bedded light-gray sandstone, 170
white spots are formed by the abundant zeolite minerals feet of cobble conglomerate, 250 feet of massive olive-
in the sandstone. gray siltstone, and at the top by 180 feet of massive
The Cynthia Falls Sandstone is 600 to 700 feet thick coarse-grained dark-gray sandstone. The contact with
the overlying Chinitna Formation, of Late Jurassic age,
in the Cook Inlet region. The type section is 600 feet
is locally unconformable.
thick; it consists of 270 feet of massive coarse-grained
Ammonites from the lower part of the Bowser For-
greenish-gray-mottled sandstone at the base, overlain mation have been identified by Imlay (1962a) as of
1&..
by 50 feet of brownish-gray arenaceous siltstone and Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) or Callovian (Late Juras-
280 feet of massive sandstone containing a few layers of sic) age, and from the upper part as of definite Callo-
pebbles. The contacts with the underlying and over~ vian age. Therefore the age of the Bowser Formation
lying formations are conformable. is herein considered to be Middle(~) and Late Jurassic .

..
C34 STRATIGRAPHY

REFERENCES Imlay, R. W., 1962b, Late Bajocian ammonites from Cook Inlet
Hartsock, J. K., 1954, Geologic map und structure sections of the region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 418-A, 15 p.
In:iskin Peninsula and adjacent area, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Kelhim, L. B., 1945, Jurassic stratigraphy of Alaska and petro-
Survey open-file report, 1 ni.ap, cross section. leum exploration in northwest America: New York Acad.
Imlay, R. W., 1952, Correlation of the Jurassic formations of Sci. Trans., ser. 2, v. 7, p. 201-209.
North Amer'ica exclusive of Canada: Geol. Soc. America Kirschner, C. E., and Minard, D. L., 1948, Geology of the Inliskin
Bull., v. 63, p. 953-992. Pelllinsula, Alaska: U.S. Gool. Survey Oil and Gas Inv.
- - - 1961, New genera and subgenera of Jurassic (Bajocian) Prelim. Map 9·5, scale 1 inch to 4,000 feet [1949].
ammonites from Alaska: Jour. Paleontology v. 35, p. 467- Martin, G. C., and Kat~, F. J., 1912, A geologic reconnaissance of
474. the Iliamna region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 485,
---1962a, Jurassic (Bathonian or early Callovian) ammo- 138p.
nites from Alaska and Montana; U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Moffit, F. H., 1927, The Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula and the Snug
Paper 374-C, 32 p. Harbor District, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 789, 71 p.

....
 Article 69

REDEFINITION AND CORRELATION OF THE OHIO CREEK FORMATION (PALEOCENE>.

IN WEST-CENTRAL COLORADO

By D. L. GASKILL and L. H. GODWIN, Denver, Colo.

A.b8t1·act.-The redefined Ohio Creek FormaUion includes A sequence of conglomeratic sandstone beds of prob-
strata formerly mapped as Ohio Creek Conglomerate as well as able Paleocene age, similar to the unnamed Tertiary ( ~)
underlying conglomeratic sandstone beds formerly incluqed sandstone of the Colorado Book Cliffs area (Erdmann,
with the upper part of the Mesaverde Formation. These con-
glomerntic beds .in the West Elk Mountains are similar to stratA 1934, p. 53-55), underlies the Ohio Creek Conglomerate
described elsewhere in the Piceance Basin at equivalent strati- of Lee (1912) in the Ruby-West Elk Mountain area of
graphtic positions. .Gunnison County, Colo. (fig. 69.1).

6. RIFLE GAP
~l... Areeof
~ report

COLORADO
E A G L E

I
'---1
I T K N
I
I
.. _..,
I 1e ATWEll GULCH
I
1---1 0
Mesa
1-------.

Butte

10 0 10 20 MILES

~ FIGURE 69.1.-Index map showing Ruby-West Elk Mountain area (shaded outline in lower right corner) and localities
referred to in text and on figure 69.2.

ART. 69 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C35-C38. 1963.
035
C36 STRATIGRAPHY

In the Ruby-West Elk Mountain area this conglom- is possible: a lower conglomeratic sandstone-shale unit,
eratic sandstone sequence is about 380 to 430 feet thick 150 to 250 feet thick; a middle nonconglomeratic locally
and consists of very thick massive beds of white to coal-bearing sandstone-shale unit of Mesaverde-like
medium-gray very coarse to fine-grained sandstone lithology, 100 to 230 feet thick; and an upper conglo-
interbedded with shale and siltstone. Locally some meratic sandstone unit, 10 to 55 feet thick (the Ohio
carbonaceous shale and coal are present. Small well- Creek Conglomerate of Lee). The sandstone of these
rounded pebbles of light- to dark-gray chert predomi- units is predominantly white to light gray, very coarse
nate. in the conglomeratic sandstone beds. Pebbles of to medium grained, quartzose, feldspathic, and friable.
gray, purple, and pink quartzite, quartz, shale, and Erosional disconformities, like those in the underlying
silty clay are common, and a few pebbles of varicolored Mesaverde Formation, commonly separate many beds.
reddish- to yellowish-orange chert and igneous rock Individual beds in the lower and middle units may or
may be present. Most of the pebbles range from a may not have a wide lateral extent. Similar sandstone
quarter of an inch to 1 inch in diameter and occur in beds with very coarse grained sand to granule lenses
thin discontinuous layers, thin to thick lenses, or pockets containing silty clay pellets are found at many places
in a matrix of coarse sand and granules. Abundant below the lowest conglomeratic sandstone.
pebble- to boulder-size sandstone concretions cemented The lower contact of the formation is gradational
with .limonite are present at several localities. The with the underlying Mesaverde beds and is arbitrarily
sandstone beds iU: many localities are more conglomer- placed at the base of the lowest conglomeratic sandstone
atic at or near their base. l\1any exposures contain only bed. In the Ruby-West Elk Mountain area the upper
a few scattered pebbles. conglomeratic sandstone unit is generally overlain by a
The conglomeratic beds of this sequence generally thick gray to greenish-gray commonly maroon-stained
differ from the overlying Ohio -Creek Conglomerate of shale, greenish coarse-grained sandstone, or sandy
Lee only. in the scarcity, smaller size range, and less micaceous claystone, siltstone, and dense siliceous mud-
variety of color of the: pebble components. stone. Locally a basal conglomerate of the Wasatch
Incomplete exposures of the Ohio Creek Formation of
Eldridge ( 1894) in the type area at the head of Ohio
directly overlies the upper sandstone unit. _,
The upper contact seems to be conformable with the
and Carbon Creeks, Gunnison County, Colo., seem to overlying beds in places, but is locally disconformable.
include both the Ohio Creek Conglomerate of Lee and The basal conglomerates of the Wasatch are distinc-
the lower conglomeratic sandstone sequence described tive beds easily differentiated from the Ohio Creek
above. Similar conglomeratic beds are present at an heds. They form very thick to thin beds of '_Veil-
equivalent stratigraphic position near Mesa, Colo., and cemented poorly sorted generally well rounded pebbles
along the Grand Hogback (Hill, 1890, p. 391; Gale, in a coarse angular-grained quartzose feldspathic
1910, p. 79; Lee, 1912, p. 48; Donnell, 1953, p. 17, 1959, matrix. Igneous pebbles of dacite, ande'site, gneiss, and
p. 76, 1960, p. 48, 79, 1961, p. 843, 844; Young, 1959, granite predominate. Varicolored chert, quartzite, and
fig. 4, p. 23; F. G. Poole, oral communication, March quartz pebbles are scattered throughout or locally con-
7, 1963 ; and several theses 1 ) • centrated in many of the conglomerate lenses.
We here redefine the Ohio Creek Formation so that A typical stratigraphic section for the redefined Ohio
it includes the Ohio Creek Conglomerate of Lee, the Creek Formation is located at the head of Deep Creek
underlying conglomeratic sandstone sequence ·of the (Wlj2 sec. 12, T. 14 S., R. 90 W.), about 10 miles east
Ruby-West Elk Mountain area, and equivalent beds of Paonia, Colo. {93, figs. 69.1 and 69.2), (Lee, 1912, pl.
elsewhere in the Piceance Basin. Beds included in the VI-A). A reference locality for the upper conglom-
redefinition below Lee~s Ohio Creek Conglomerate were eratic sandstone unit is well expos·ed on both sides of
formerly mapped as Me8averde Formation undifferen- Muddy Creek below the McClures Pass road in the
tiated (Lee, 1912) or Barren member of the Mesaverde SW:lh sec. 29 and NE:lh sec. 31, T. 11 S., R. 89 W. (3,
(Johnson, 1948). In the Ruby-West Elk Mountain figs. 69.1 and 69.2).
area the following threefold division of this interval
Stratigraphic sections of the lower and middle units
1 Mull, C. G., 1961, Geology of the Grand Hogback monocline near
are best exposed on the south face of Schuylkill Moun-
Rifle, Colorado : Colorado Univ. Master's d<egree thesis. tain (W1h sec. 11, T. 13 S., R. 87 W., unsurveyed) and
Newman, K. R., 1961, Micropaleontology and stratigraphy of Late
Cretaceous and Paleocene formations: Colorado Univ. Ph. D. dissert., in Buck Basin on the west slope of the Ruby Range
available on microfilm from University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, (SE:lh sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 87 W., unsurveyed) (1, figs.
Mich.
Phipps, J. B., 196'1, Geology of area near Newcastle, Colorado: Colo- 69.1 and 69.2).
rado Univ. Master's degree thesis. The Ohio Creek Formation is believed to be of Paleo-
·Poole, F. G., 1954, Geology of southern Grand Hogback area, Garfield
and Pitkin Counties, Colorauo : Colorado U:niv. Master's degree thesis. cene age on the basis of a fqssil flora collected about 20
 ,. ... c
'! ;. ~
'""' 1

RUBY-WEST ELK MOUNTAIN AREA GRANO HOGBACK AREA MESA-DE BEQUE AREA
Gunnison County, Colo. Pitkin and Garfield Mesa County, Colo.
1 Counties, Colo.
RUBY RANGE
COMPOSITE SECTION
T. 13 S., R. 87 W. 6
RIFLE GAP
Wasatch beds measured Sec. 18,
on Ruby Peak (sees. 21,
T. 5 S., R. 92 W.
28); Ohio Creek beds
measured in Robinson
EXPLANATION
basin (sec. 21) and on
SchUYkill Mtn. (Wlfz
sec. 11) [2]
Sandstone

5
~
100 ~
NEWCASTLE Sandstone with
Sec. 2.

- -?-
large concretions
T.6S.,R.91W.

- ~

-
200 ~
Conglomeratic sandstone

C onglomerate
300

~
Siltstone and sandy shale §;
UJ
~?---
~
~
Shale and claystone
~
t"4
?--

2 3 4 7 8 9 D e
~
ATWELL GULCH SAND WASH DE BEQUE CANYON Covered
DEEP CREEK MUDDY CREEK NORTH THOMPSON NW~ANW!A sec. 16,
CREEK
SW!A sec. 8, Sec. 26,
T. 10 S., R. 96 W. T. 9 S., R. 97 W. T. 9 S., R. 97 W.
Be 0
0

~
Sec. 28,
ra? ?- T. 8 S., R. 89 W. Coal

;\; F.e\ ?-

T .
.
?

/
'1•
?-r····;
ZZ: ... ;,;.·
?
-Jc
/"·
t.:;:
/··.•·:·
c Carbonaceous shale

3
Number refers to locations
shown on index map

/
/
/

0
Col.?
FIGURE 69.2.-Stratigraphic sections of the Ohio Creek Formation in Gunnison, Pitkin, Garfield, and Mesa Counties, Colo. .....:t
C38 STRATIGRAPHY

feet above the base of the formation in the Nlf2 sec. 1, Donnell, J. R., 1959, Mesaverde stratigraphy in the Carbondale
T.13 S., R. 88 W. (Gaskill, 1961). Reevaluation of this area, northwestern Colorado, in Rocky Mountain Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists, Symposi~m on Cretaceous
fossil locality shows the flora to be near the base of rocks of Colorado and adjacent area, 11th Field Conf.,
the lower conglomeratic sandstone unit and not in the Washakie, Sand Wash, and Piceance Basins, 1959: p. 76-77.
Ohio Creek Conglomerate of Lee as indicated by· Gas- ---1960, Road logs, Rifle to Craig, Colorado ; Rangely to
kill ( 1961). Grand Junction, Colorado, in Rocky Mountain Association
Reconnaissance examination of scattered outcrops of Petroleum Geologists, Geologic road logs of Colorado : p.
48, 79.
along the Grand Hogback and in the Mesa-DeBeque,
---1961, Tertiary geology and oil-shale resources of the
Colo., area has convinced the authors that beds present Piceance Creek Basin between the Colorado and White Riv-
at each of the numbered localities shown on figure 69.1 ers, northwestern Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1082-
are equivalent, in part, to the redefined Ohio Creek L, p. 835-891.
Formation. Some of these conglomeratic sandstone Eldridge, G. H., 1894, Descriptions of the sedimentary forma-
beds, correlated with the Ohio Creek Formation on fig- tions, in Emmons, S. F., Cross, Whitman, and Eldridge,
G. H. Anthracite-Crested Butte [Colorado]: U.S. Geol.
ure 69.2, closely resemble the upper conglomeratic sand-
Survey Geol. Atlas, FoU<>9, p. 6--10.
stone unit in the Ruby-West Elk Mountain area. Other Erdmann, C. E., 1934, The Book Cliffs coal field in Garfield and
beds, generally those lower in the section, are similar Mesa Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 851, 150 p.
to the lower conglomeratic sandstone unit in the Ruby- [1935].
West Elk Mmmtain area. The DeBeque Canyon se- Gale, H. S., 1910, Coal fields of northwestern Colorado and
quence is identical with the general description of Erd- northeastern Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 415, 265 p.
Gaskill, D. L., 1961, Age of the Ohio Creek Conglomerate, Gun- .~
mann's unnamed Tertiary ( ?) sandstone unit in the
nison County, Colorado: Art. 96 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Colorado Book Cliffs. However, because of the litho- Paper 424-B, p. B230-B231.
logic similarity of these fluvial deposits and their re- Hill, R. C., 1890, Orographic and structural features of Rocky
gional distribution and different source areas, it will Mountain geology: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 3 p. 362:...458.
probably be necessary to trace beds along outcrops in Johnson, V. H., 1948, Geology of the Paonia coal field, Delta and
order to correlate individual units in the Ruby-West Gunnison Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey unnum-
bered coal-investigations map.
Elk Mountain area with those elsewhere in the Piceance
Lee, W. T., 1912, Coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk
Basin. Mountains, Q9lorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 510, 237 p.
REFERENCES
Young, R. G., 1959, ·cretaceous deposits of the Grand Junction
Donnell, J. R., 1953, Columnar section of rocks exposed be- area, Garfield, Mesa a:nd Delta Counties, Colorado, in
tween Rifle and DeBeque Canyon, Colorado, and road logs Rocky Mountain Association of Petroleum Geologists, Sym-
north of Rifle, Colorado, in Rocky Mountain Association of posium on Cretaceous rocks of Colorado and adjacent areas,
Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, Field conference in north- 11th Field Conf., Washakie, Sand Wash, and Piceance
western Colorado; 1953: p. 16--17. Basins, 1959 : p. 22-23.

....
 Article 70
••
TERTIARY VOLCANIC STRATIGRAPHY
IN THE WESTERN SAN JUAN MOUNTAINS, COLORADO

Bv R. G. LUEDKE and W. S. BURBANK, Washington, D.C.,

and Exeter, N.H.

Work done in cooperation with the Colorado State Metal Mining Fund Board

A.bstmct.-Eruptive materials, genetically related to the west- divided into several formations each. Changes in
ern San Juan eruptive centers, are divided into three principal nomenclature of these volcanic units throughout the
stratigraphic units: San Juan }.,ormation, Silverton Volcanic
Group, and Potosi Volcanic Group; the second and third units
period of geologic investigations in the western San
are further subdivided into formations. These stratigraphic Juan Mountains are shown in the accompanying table.
units are, in part, renamed and redefined. The unit definitions and name changes here proposed
are restricted to e~uptive centers of the western San
Juan Mountains. The centers are confined mainly to the
Volcanism in the middle and late Tertiary built a head water basins of the Uncompahgre and Animas
tremendous pile of eruptive materials upon an exten- Rivers and the Lake Fork of the Gunnison River (fig.
sively m:oded basement of Precambrian, Paleozoic, and 70.1). The interrelations of the several eruptive units
l\1esozoic rocks to form most of the western San Juan to those of other centers of the San Juan Mountains are
l\1ountains (fi.g. 70.1). The volcano-tectonic structures not as yet fully established.
consisting of a younger comagmatic pair of calderas Only a few poorly preserved plant and animal fos-
superimposed upon an older volcanic depression (super sils have been found so far in the volcanic units of the
caldera) are related to this volcanism.
western San Juan Mountains, and these are too inade-
The volcanic rocks form a layered suc<?ession aggre- quate to permit age assignments closer than middle and
gating nearly 11;2 miles in thickness and having a late Tertiary.
volume greater than 1,000 cubic miles. The types of.
deposits are many, but tuff breccia, lava flows, and SAN JUAN FORMATION

welded ash-flow tuffs (terminology of Smith, 1960a) Cross ( 1896, p. 226) initially named the oldest of
predominate. Eruptive materials composing these de- the local volcanic units the San Juan Formation for ex-
posits range in composition from basalt to rhyolite but posures in the vicinity of Telluride. The name was
are predominantly rhyodacitic and quartz latitic. The changed by Cross and others ( 1905, p. 7), after their
volcanic rocks are quite heterogenous, as indicated by study of the limited exposures in the Silverton quad-
lithologic, petrographic, and meager chemical data. rangle, to the San Juan Tuff, which it has been called
'Ve therefore believe it desirable to refer to the different until the present article. The unit consists predomin-
units, with one exception explained herein, either as antly of rhyodacitic tuff breccia with minor associated
formations or as rock types rather than as petrographic volcanic conglomerates and air-fall tuffs, rhyobasaltic
types. and rhyodacitic lava flows and flow breccias, and rhyo-
The eruptive materials are divided from older to dacitic to quartz latitic welded ash-flow tuffs. The
..... younger into three principal units: the San Juan For- lower few hundred feet of the formation contains er-
mation, the Silverton Volca1iic Group, and the Potosi ratically distributed foreign fragments derived from
Volcanic Group. The second and third units are sub- the underlying prevolcanic terrane. Because of the

ART. 70 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C39-c44. 1963. 099
C40 STRATIGRAPHY

38"00'

EXPLANATION

([ITJ7J]
tJBlli2J
Tertiary volcanic rocks
:-----------1 D
I : Prevolcanic rocks
: COLORADO I ~

I
: ~reaof
:I Contact
--r--,,.....__
L----~~port _______: Fault
Dashed where inferred; hachures
on downthrown side

10 0 lOMILES
~J

FIGURE 70.1.-Generalized geologic map of part of the western San Juan Mountains, Colo., showing location of the San
Juan volcanic depression and the Silverton and Lake City calderas within it. Depression rim is locally a fault zone,
fault-line scarp, or topographic escarpment.

.~
 LUEDKE AND BURBANK C41

variations in type of eruptive materials, the original Picayune Formation.-The Picayune Formation was
rmme proposed by Cross is preferred and is here re· first named and described by Cross and others ( 1905,
assigned. p. 7), for exposures at the mouth of Picayune Gulch
'rhe San .Juan Formation has a maximum thickness northeast of Silverton in the Silverton quadrangle, and
of more tha.n 3,000 feet, was deposited over an .estimated since has undergone several name changes (see table).
., 2,400 scp:mre miles, and had a volume of about 600 The formation consists of thin to thick flows, breccias,
cubic miles. Typically it appears from a distance as a and tuffs that range widely in composition from basaltic
single unit in which rude bedding is readily discernible. andesite to rhyolite. The heterogeneous sequence of
~f.ost of the tuff breccia beds were probably deposited rocks is exposed in limited outcrops throughout the
n,s mudflows (Burbank, 1930, p. 189), but the origin volcanic depression. It is best developed, with a thick-
of some features of the formation is obscure. ness of about 2,000 feet, near Lake City (Cross and
,,. The source of the v'olcanic materials is believed to Larsen, 1935, p. 60).
have been a cluster of volcanoes centered within the E1treka Tuff.-The second formational unit of the
headwater areas of the Uncompahgre and Animas Riv- Silverton Volcanic Group, named the Eureka Rhyolite
ers and the Lake Fork of the Gunnison River. Most by Cross and others ( 1905, p. 7), for exposures in the
if not all of the volcanoes are presumed to have been vicinity of Eureka Gulch northeast of Silverton, is re-
destroyed during explosive activity that led to the defined as the Eureka Tuff. The more descriptive rock
•... widespread dispersal of mudflows and ash beds. The
engulfment of the vents during the late San Juan erup·
term is substituted for the generally incorrect lithologic
term. Also, the formation has been restricted to one
tions initiated the formation of the San Juan volcanic principal rock type except where impracticable to do
depression. so. The Eureka Tuff, now restricted, consists predomi-
. SILVERTON VOLCANIC GROUP nantly of a succession of even bedded rhyodacitic to rhy-
This group of volcanic deposits, recognized and re- olitic welded ash-flow tuffs that range in thickness from
ferred to by Cross ( 1896, p. 228), first was named the In- 0 to locally more than 1,000 feet. The welded tuffs
termediate Series (Cross and Purington, 1899, p. 5). indicate a period of ash-flow eruptions of great magni-
The name was changed to the Silverton Series by tude, and have a volume of probably 100 cubic miles or
Cross (in Hansome, 1901, p. 32) and, later, to the Silver- more. The Eureka is an excellent example of Smith's
ton Volcanic Series (Cross and others, 1905, p. 7) for (1960b, p. 158) ash-flow composite sheet.
its extensive exposures in the Silverton quadrangle. In Burns Formation.-The Burns Formation was orig-
1961, the name was changed to Silverton Volcanic inally named for exposures in Burns Gulch northeast
Group in keeping with the code adopted by the Ameri- of Silverton (Cross and others, 1905, p. 8) and, as de-
can Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, in fined, consisted of only a few thick flows between con-
which "group," a rock-stratigraphic term, is substituted spicuous tuff layers at the bottom and top. The 500-
for "series," a time-stratigraphic term. foot-'thick type sootion, however, is not characteristic of
The Silverton Volcanic Group is divided into four the formation ·as a whole. The Burns Forma;tion 'as re-
:formations which are, from the base upwards, the defined is a heterogeneous and complex accumulation of
Picn,yune Formation, Eureka Tuff, Burns Formation, thin to thick lava flows, breccias, and tuffs associated
and lienson Formation (see table). The sequence of with local volcanic piles, volcanic domes, and minor
major eruptions, characterized by the individual forma- welded ash-flow tuffs. About 200 feet of tuffaceous ·and
tions, is an alternation of explosive episodes of ash varved shale and limestone is interlayered wibh the pre-
and pumice and less violent outporings of lava and dominant volcanic rocks in the center of the depression.
nsh. The bulk of the Silverton consists of thin to The :formation has a total cumulative thickness of sev-
thick flows and breccias interbedded with air-fall and eral thousand feet. Except fur a local thick rhyolitic
partly reworked tuffs, local volcanic piles and domes, mass near the western edge of the depression, the Burns
and related intrusive bodies. Formation consists of rhyod'acitic eruptive m·a1terials.
The Silverton Volcanic Group is confined to an area Hens on F or'nWtion.-The Henson Form•ation as here
of about 425 square miles, mainly within the San Juan defined includes the two upper units of the Silverton
volcanic depression. Some of the materials overflowed Volcanic Series as mapped originally by Cross and
the con temporary rims of the depression, particularly others (1907, p. 9). The present formation includes
to the west. The total volume of intradepression erup- (1) the Henson Tuff, named for exposures in the head-
tive materials :forming this group is estimated to be waters of Henson Crook west of Lake City, and (2) the
about 400 cubic miles, compared with 15 or 20 cubic unnamed unit of interbedded lava flows and tuffs pro-
miles which overflowed. visionally C'alled pyroxene andesite or more recently
C42 STRATIGRAPHY

r'

Nomenclature of Tertiary volcanic units in the western San Juan Mountains

Telluride quadrangle Silverton quadrangle . Ouray ~uadrangle San Juan region San Juan region Western San Juan region I
(Cross and Purington, (Cross and others, 1905) (Cross an others, 1907) (Cross and Larsen, 1935) (Larsen and Cross, 1956) (this report)
1899)

Piedra rhyolite 0.
~ ~a:>
::l
Piedra rhyolite Huerto quartz latite g
·rn~ Huerto andesite ....
<IJr/l
Alboroto rhyolite -;;o
Potosi rhyolite series Potosi volcanic series Potosi volcanic series Oo Alboroto quartz latite Sheep Mountain quartz Sunshine Peak
Sheep Mountain andesite ~-a
Eo
¢·= latite o·a Rhyolite .
p..~ Treasure Mountain quartz p..~ Treasure Mountain rhy- p..~ Gilpin Peak Tuff
0 latite 0 olite 0
I> Conejos andesite I> Conejos quartz latite >
Sunshine Peak rhyolite Sunshine Peak rhyolite

rn 0.
~ Pyroxene andesite ~ Henson tuff a:> Henson tuff ~ Henson tuff ::l
~:fC ~e
~·i
~·;:::: ,:::(C
oa:>
..,rn flows and tuffs Pyroxene andesite ..,,
oa:> Pyroxene andesite ..,,
oa:> Pyroxene-quartz latite £0 Henson Formation
Intermediate series Burns latite complex ... C) Burns latite Burns latite Burns quartz latite Burns Formation
~-8
... C) ... C) ... C)
a:>·-
I>Q Eureka rhyolite g?·a Eureka rhyolite a:>·-
l>d Eureka rhyolite g?·a Eureka rhyolite Eureka Tuff
;J~ Picayune andesite ffi~ ===~
Picayune andesite rn- Picayune volcanic group ~JJ Picayune quartz Iatite ~~0 Picayune Format-
0 0 0 0 tion
I> I> I> I>
>
SanJuan San Juan tuff San Juan tuff San Juan tuff San Juan tuff San Juan Formation
formation

I As a result of studies in progress, other new units will be established in the Potosi Volcanic Group. Units that were previously assigned to the Potosi Volcanic Series
of former usage will be redefined, restricted, or abandoned.

I,

: l·
 LUEDKE AND BURBANK C43
pyroxene-quartz latite (see table). Tuff beds originally west-southwest of Ouray in the western San Juan
assigned to the Ifenson tuff actually are interbedded Mountains. The former name has been used elsewhere
with the lava flows, rather than exclusively overlying in the San Juan Mountains for similar rocks from other
then1. The tuff beds in all occurrences are identical, volcanic centers; correlation of these other units with
and it is impractica:b.Je if not impossible .to distinguishthe local Gilpin Peak Tuff is now considered doubtful
between them, pa·rticularly in 'belts of complexly :faultedand without value in working out the complex sequences
and tilted rocks. Moreover, similar or identical tuff beds of local centers.
fllre found ·throughout most of the volcanic depression. The Gilpin Peak Tuff so :far can he subdivided into
l"~he entire sequence of eruptive rocks in the Silverton 7 mappable units; 6 are moderately crystal-rich welded
Volcanic Group above the Burns Formation is •accord- ash-flow tuffs, and ·1 consists of reworked air-fall tuff
ingly assigned :to the I-Ienson Formation. Thus defined, moderately rich in fOssil plant fragments. The units
the I-Ienson Formation includes andesitic to rhyodacitic are even bedded and range in thickness from 0 to ruhout
tuffs, flows, and brecoias, a few local rhyolitic flows and500 feet. The bulk of the rock is pr6hably quartz latite
tuffs, ·and a looal quartz latitic welded ash-flow tuff hut m'ay range from rhyodacite to rhyolite. The welded
(I..o~uedke and Burbank, 1961). The maximum thiclmess tuffs of the Gilpin Peak are an excellent ex·ample of
of ·the forma;tion is ·rubout 1,000 feet. Smith's (1960b, p. 158) composite she~t of ash-flow de-
posits and represent a wide range in local conditions
POTOSI VOLCANIC GROUP
during a complex cooling history, ·as he suggests.
•• The third and youngest major unit of volcanic rocks S'll/n..shilf/!3 Peak Rhyolite.-The Sunshine Peak Rhyo-
in the western San Juan Mountains is the Potosi Vol- lite was named by Cross and Larsen (19·35, p. 67) for
canic Group, which was named for exposures on Potosi the exposures on Sunshine Peak southwest of Lake City,
Peak southwest of Ouray (Cross and Purington, 1899, and included both extrusive and intrusive rhyolitic
p. 5), From the first description of this sequence of rocks. Parts of the rocks comprising this unit were
layered volcanic rocks by Cross ( 1896, p. 229) to the originally described by Cross (in Irving and Bancroft,
compl~tion of work upon them 'by Cross and his associ- 1911, p. 30-31) as intrusive rhyolite, locally resembling
ates (Larsen and Cross, 19·56), the group name and its the Eureka Rhyolite of the Silverton Series. Larsen
subdivisions have been extended throughout the San and Cross ( 1956, p. 89) later stated that the formation
J nan Mountains. Use of the name Potosi here does not resembles Alboroto rocks of the Potosi Series, and pos-
imply any specific correlations outside the local occur- sibly forms a basal part of that unit. However, the
rences described in this report and covering the type Sunshine Peak Rhyolite was not included in the Potosi,
locality of the name. owing to its somewhat restricted occurrence and uncer-
The Potosi as represented in the •area of the Silverton tainty of age, but was placed arbitrarily between the
and Lake City calderas is presently. divided into two Silverton and Potosi Volcanic Series (Larsen and
formational units, the Gilpin Peak Tuff and the Sun- Cross, 1956, p. 88-89). In contrast, we have found
shine Peak Rhyolite. Both formations consist princi- that the Sunshine Peak Rhyolite, as shown on their
pally of welded ash-flow tuffs, which possibly could geologic map, is interbedded with and equivalent to
have covered an area of more than 1,000 square miles their so-called Alboroto rocks southeast of Lake City.
and had a volume of 200 to 300 cubic miles. vVe therefore are excluding the name Alboroto in the
The Gilpin Peak Tuff and Sunshine Peak Rhyolite western San Juan Mountains, using instead a local
are related genetically to the development of ·the Silver- name, Sunshine Peak Rhyolite, ·for these deposits, and
ton and Lake City calderas., respectively. are placing the Sunshine Peak in the Potosi Volcanic
Gilpin Peak Tuff.- The Gilpin Peak Tuff was form- Group. The lithologic term will be retained pending
erly called the Treasure Mountain Quartz Latite (Cross completion of studies in progress.
and Darsen, 1935, p. 76-78) and Treasure Mountain The Sunshine Peak consists of moderately crystal-
Rhyolite (Larsen and Cross, 1956, p. 117-124); the rich welded ash-flow tuffs. The rocks have a probable
formation is here renamed for a specific sequence of composition ranging from quartz latite to rhyolite. The
rocks exposed in a 1,400-foot-thick seotion at Gilpin deposits are even bedded and range in thickness from
Peak, near bhe he:ad of Canyon Creek, about 7 miles 0 to a few hundred feet.

694-027 0-63-4
C44 STRATIGRAPHY
....
REFERENCES Cross, Whitman, Howe, Ernest, and Ransome, F. L., 1905, De-
scription of the Silverton quadrangle [Colorado] : U.S.
Burbank, W. S., 1930, Revision of geologic structure and stra- Geol. Survey Geol. .Atlas, !!"'olio 120.
tigraphy in the Ouray district of Colorado, and its bearing Irving, J. D., and Bancroft, Howland, 1911, Geology and ore
on ore deposition : Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 12, no. 6, p. deposits near Lake City, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
151-232. 478, 128 p.
Cross, Whitman, 1896, Igneous rocks of the Telluride district, Larsen, E. S., Jr., and Cross, Whitman, 1956, Geology and
Colorado: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 5, p. 225-234. :~;
petrology of the San Juan region, southwestern Colorado :
Cross, Whitman, and Larsen, E. S., 1935, A brief review of the U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 258,303 p.
geology of the San Juan region of southwestern Colorado : Luedke, R. G., and Burbank, W. S., 1961, Central vent ash-flow
U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 843, 138 p. eruption, western San Juan Mountains, Colorado: .Art. 326
in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-D, p. D94-D96.
Cross, Whitman, and Purington, C. W., 1899, Description of
Ransome, F. L., 1901, A report on the economic geology of the
the Telluride quadrangle [Colorado]: U.S. Geol. Survey
Silverton quadrangle: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 182, 265 p.
Geol. .Atlas, Folio 57. Smith, R. L., 1960a, Ash flows: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71,
Cross, Whitman, Howe, Ernest, and Irving, J. D., 1907, De- p. 795-842.
scription of the Ouray quadrangle [Colorado]: U.S. Geol. - - - 1960b, Zones and zonal variations in welded ash flows :
Survey Geol. .A·tlas, Folio 153. U.S. Geol. ·Survey Prof. Paper 354-F, p. 149-159.
 Article 71
-,..
FENTON PASS FORMATION (PLEISTOCENE?), BIGHORN BASIN, WYOMING

By W. L. ROHRER and E. B. LEOPOLD, Denver, Colo.

A.bstract.-The Fenton Pass Formation, which is made up overlies the Tatman Formation of Eocene age. The
of Pleistocene(?) andesitic conglomerate and sandstone, is new name replaces the name Tatman Mountain Gra '\els,
named for li'enton Pass on Tatman Mountain. Two members
of the formation are recognized at the type locality : the lower to avoid confusion with the Tatman Formation. A de-
member, a channel conglomerate that rests unconformably on scription of the type section follows.
Lhe Tatman ll'ormation, and the upper member, a flood-plain Fenton Pass Formation:
Thicknea8
•• deposit. Sandstone member: (feet)
Sandstone, grayish-brown, fine-grained to very fine
grained, silty and clayey; composed mainly 'of an-
The sequence of andesitic conglomerate and silty gular grains derived from andesitic rocks but in-
sandstone thrut caps Tatman Mountain near Fenton cludes scattered rounded pebbles and cobbles;
Pass (fig. 71.1) is here named the Fenton Pass Forma- caliche layer at base; calcareous cement, poorly
tion. The conglomerate occurs on both sides of Fen- indurated, very porous-------------------------- 10
ton Pass, which is about 35 miles northwest of Worland. Conglomerate member:
Conglomerate of well rounded pebbles, cobbles, and
The exposure in the Nlf2SEl;iSE14 sec. 24, T. 50 N., boulders; composed mainly of andesite, some quartz-
R. 98 W., sixth principal meridian, Park County, Wyo., ite, traces of chalcedony and waterworn pieces of
is desigmtted the. type section and is slightly more than silicified coniferous wood; calcareous cement, well
1 mile west of the pass. The Fenton Pass Formation, indurated at base; angular unconformity at base__ 36
which is probably Pleistocene in age, unconformably Total thickness of formation__________________ 46

R. 97 W.
+

~171-----.~----·
~· .----l.::f-r-·3
I
I

II 18
+

,_..,
R. 98 W. I
+ +- - - - - + 0 .-~+ + + +
T.
T A T IM A N • ~-r·-t:o. M 0 u N T A , N

~i~ EX~ON
50 24
N.

~--------1
~ Typ.e section ~ + Contaet
+ + I>< 1
I
-Area of
report
\
I
~·~
zl;::l ·-----....L!~---
g8 Fault, showiJlA' dip I WYOMING \
26 25
~~~
Da.slt.ed wlt.ere approxi'lflattJlN locatM,
dotted wlt.ere co'll<:ealtJd; U, uptlt.rowm :
~,~ side; D, downtlt.row'lt side
L______________ _j
0.. t.:l

+ --------f'liii
_,_10
+ I Strike aiM! dip of beds
0 Sheets
A' Mountain

lPIOUU.E 71.1.-Map showing Fenton Pass Foflmation· and location 'of type section, central· Bighorn basin, Wyoming. Sand-
stone member (shaded) ; conglomerate member (diagonal pattern).

ART. 71 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C45-C48. 1963. C45
.C46 STRATIGRAPHY

The silty sandstone of the upper member is here rec- Pollen and spores ot the sandstone member of the Fenton Pass
ognized as a distinctive unit in the Fenton Pass Forma- Formation at the type section
[X, form preseat in the Tatman Formation]
tion, as shown on figure 71.2. Hitherto, the whole for-
mation was referred to as gravels, and the sandstone Fenton Pass Tatman
Formation Forma-
member at the top was not recognized as a separate unit. tion
D1911 1
The areal extent of the formation is shown in figure
71.1. Apparently the Fenton Pass Formation is re-
Dl909 1
I
D1910 1 Dl810 1

Group I. Late Cenozoic pollen forms

stricted to a broad terrace that is cut in rocks of early
Eocene age and is the highest and oldest within the Big- Pin us (pine) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 18 33 X
horn basin (Mackin, 1937, p. 866 ). The rocks lying Picea cf. engelmanii (spruce)__ __________ 1 4
Ephedra cf. torreyana } , 1
upon this planed surface were called Quaternary by Ephedra cf. nevadensis (Mormon s tea)- -- 2
Fisher (1906), Eocene by Loomis (1907), Oligocene by cf. Juniperus (juniper?)________________ 1 1
Chenopodiaceae or A maranthus _ _ _ ______ 57 8
Sinclair and Granger ( 1911) , Miocene by Alden ( 1932), Sarcobatus vermiculatus (greasewood)_____ 1
post-Miocene by Mackin (1937), Quaternary by Love Compositae undet e rmined (sunflower
family)____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 4
and others (1955), and Pliocene by Schulte (1961) . cf. Taraxacum__ _______________________ 1
Gramineae (grass family)____ ________ ___ 1
Eriogonum__ __ __ _______________ ____ __ _ 1 1
Alnus (alder)_________________________ 2
cf. Populus_ __________________________ 1
,-'
TotaL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 89 51
Minimum percentage of late Ce-
nozoic forms__ ______________ _ 61. 4 42. 2

Group 2. Redeposited pollen (p robably ail from Eocene Tatman Form>tion)

cf. Bignoniaceae__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 X
cf. Celtis_____ ____________________ _____ 1 X
Cary a (hickory) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 3 X
Platycarya cf. strobilacea________________ 3 10 X
Betula claripites_______________________ 1 1 X
Betulapollenites___ ________ ___ __ ________ 3 X
cf. P odocarpus _ _ _ _ __ __________ ________ 1
1 X
cf. Jatropha_____ _____ ____ _____________ 1 X
Tilia (linden) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
1 X
cf. Engelhardtia ___________________________ -- 4 X
M onocol popollenites cf. areolatus_ __ ______ 4
Pistillipollenites mcgregorii ___ _________ __ 2 1 X
Eucommiidites_____ ___ ___ ______ ___ _____ 3 4 X
Tricolporopollenites n. sp____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 ---- -- X
TotaL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 25 25
Minimum percentage of Eocene 17. 2 20. 7
forms.

Group 3. Late Cenozoic or redeposited Eocene forms

Pollen:
Tsuga (hemlock) ______ _____________ ____ - 1 X
.Juglans (walnut) ____ ___ ____ ______ - 1 X
Ulmus or Zelkova (elm)____ _______ _ 2 1 X
Fern spores, algae:
Polypodiaeeae? ___________________ - 8 4 X
Pterospermopsis_ _ _ _______ ______ ___ 1 1 X
Botryococcus_ _____________________ 1 1 X
Pediastrum ______________ - _- _----- 1 8 X
FIGURE 71.2.-Type section of t he Fenton Pass Formation, Undetermined pollen__ _________________ 17 26
showing lithology and basal unconformity (dashed line). Undetermined spores __________ -- - - - --- ------ 3
TotaL_ __________________ __ ____ 31 45
No megafossils except silicified wood have been ob- Percentage of forms of uncertain age__ 21. 4 37. 1
served in the Fenton Pass Formation. Two samples of
USGS paleobotanical localities.
sandstone from the upper member at the type section t

were examined for pollen: sample D1909 from 2 feet Each sample contained a mixture of Eocene and late
above the base, and sample D1910 from the caliche layer Cenozoic forms. The late Cenozoic forms (group 1 of
at the base. Pollen and spore tallies from these sam- the table) are dominant (61 percent) in sample D1909,
ples are listed in the following table. but are less abundant (only 42 percent) in sample
 ROHRER AND LEOPOLD C47
D1910. The Eocene forms (group 2) make up 17 per-
cent and 21 percent, respectively, of each sample. The
forms considered to be of unequivocal late Cenozoic age
hav~ better preserved wall structures than the Eocene
pollen and represent genera that grow in the region
today. Pollen of the family Compositae noted here
have not yet been found in strata older than Miocene
and are not common until Pliocene time. The Eocene
components are mainly forms known from the under-
lying Tatman Formation. One of these forms, Platy-
carya, is atree genus that is now monotypic and limited
to Japan and North China; fossil pollen of the genus
in this country seems to be limited to the Eocene.
The remaining forms of pollen are listed in group
3 of the table. These forms are found in the Tatman FIGURE 71.3.-Faulting in the Tatman Formation. The normal
Formation of Eocene age and are also known from fault offsetting Tatman strata occurred before deposition of
younger, late Tertiary strata in the region. Although t'he Fenton Pass Formation. Maximum displacement along
these forms may possibly be of late Tertiary age, their the fault is about 250 feet. The angle of view relative to the
poor preservation and their known occurrence in the fault trace m'a kes the fault appear to be a rev·e rse fault. Dip
Tatman Formation indicate that they probably belong of sandstone at right edge of picture is 10° N.
to the Eocene fraction of this assemblage. The following brief summary of the geologic history
Precautions were taken in the field and laboratory of the Fenton Pass Formation is based on data pre-
against possible contamination. The pollen is therefore sented by previous investigators as well as data col-
interpreted as a mixture of late Cenozoic and Eocene
lected by us. Some time after the early Eocene, prob-
forms. The presence of Eocene pollen results from re-
ably during the Miocene, the Tatman Formation was
working of older pollen-bearing sediments. The in-
corporation of older pollen-bearing sediments in faulted in the central part of the Bighorn basin, result-
younger deposits is common in the Quaternary of ing in the development of adjacent minor folds. The
Europe (Iversen, 1936). If the primary polien in the start of the present erosional cycle may be genetically
Fenton Pass Formation is limited to the forms which related to the deformation. Eventually, the folded and
now occur in the region (group 1), the age of the for- faulted strata of the Tatman Formation were truncated
mation is probably Pleistocene. However, if the tree by an eastward-flowing stream which had a gradient
forms listed in group 3 are in place, the deposit could of about 40 feet per mile in the Tatman Mountain area.
be Pliocene. The presence of members of the highly Deposition of the conglomerate and sandstone members
evolved family Compositae precludes a pre-Miocene age. of the Fenton Pass Formation accompanied the cutting
The physiographic age, extrapolated from terraces of of this surface of unconformity during the early
late Pleistocene age (Moss and Bonini, 1961, p. 550), Pleistocene.
indicates that the formation can be no older than early
Correlatives of the Fenton Pass Formation are un-
Pleistocene.
certain. The upper part of the Cypress Hills Gravels
The lower member of the Fenton Pass Formation
has been tentatively correlated with the gravel on Tat-
rests unconformably upon shales and sandstones of the
Tatman Formation, which generally dip southward man Mountain (Mackin, 1937, p . 869). The Flaxville
about 50 feet per mil('l. Adjacent to faults the dip may Formation, which has a late Miocene or early Pliocene
be reversed. Locally a sharp angular relation is pres- fatma except for a Camelops tooth of probable Pleisto-
ent, as shown in figure 71.3. Gentle ridges and swales, cene age (Mackin, 1937, p. 871), may also be a corre-
which are oriented N . 45°-60° E. and which represent lativ~ if the exception is valid. Study of pollen in the
flood-plain irregularities, remain on the surface of the units may yield a more definite answer to the correla-
upper member. tion.
C48 \ STRATIGRAPHY

REFERENCES Mackin, J. H., 1937, Erosional history ()If -the Big Horn -basin,
Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 48, no. 6, p. 81&-893.
Alden, W. C., 1932, Physiography and glacial geology of eastern Moss, J. H., and Bonini, W. E., 1961, Seismic evidence support-
Mon.tana and adjacent areas: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper ing a new interpretati'on of the Oody terrace near Oody,
174, 133 p. Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 72, no. 4, p. 547-
Fisher, C. A., 1906, Geology and water resources of the Bighoru 555.
basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper ·53, 72 p. Schulte, J. J., 1961, Highlights of Cenozoic geologic hiSitory of
Iversen, Johanes, 1936, Sekundiires Pollen als FehlerqueiJ.le: the Big Horn Canyon region, Montana and Wyoming in
Billings Geol. Soc. Guidebook 12th Ann. Field Cont., Float
Danmarks geol. Undersogelse, raekpe IV, no. 15, p. 3-24.
trip, Big Horn River from Kane, Wyo., to Yellowtail Dam
Loomis, F. B., 1907, Origin of the Wasatch deposi·ts: Am. Jaur. site, June 1961: ta:ble 1, p.16-17.
Sci., 4th ser., v. 23, art. 34, p. 356-364. S·inclair, W. J., and Granger, Walter, 1911, Eocene and Oligocene
LoV'e, J. D., Weitz, J. L., and Hose, R. K., 1955, Geologic malp of the Wind River and Big Horn -basins, Wyoming: Am.
of Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Surve). Mus. Nat. History Bull., v. 30, art. 7, p. 83-117.
 Article 72

'J'
NUSSBAUM ALLUVIUM OF PLEISTOCENE(?) AGE AT PUEBLO, COLORADO

By GLENN R. SCOTI, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-The Nussbaum Formation at Pueblo, Colo., is re- to emphasize the fluviatile origin of the formation. In
designated Nussbaum Alluvium because of its fluviatile origin. the ensuing discussion the extent of the Nussbaum is
The age, which has been considered Pliocene(?), is changed to
Pleistocene ( 'l) because of the geomorphic and stratigraphic limited to the type locality at Baculite Mesa. Ac-
relation of the Nussbaum with known Pleistocene and Pliocene knowledgment is made to J. H. Irwin, H. E. McGovern,
deposits, and because of the resemblance and sequential relation and W. G. Weist, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey, who
of the formation to adjacent Pleistocene alluvium. supplied information on the Ogallala Formation and
surficial deposits east of Pueblo, Colo.
The Nussbaum Formation was named by Gilbert From 1896 to 1912 the name Nussbaum Formation
(1897) for its outcrop on Baculite Mesa (fig. 72.1) in was widely applied to small deposits of high-level
the Pueblo quadrangle and was assigned by him to the gravel on the High Plains in southeastern Colorado.
"Neocene epoch." Hills (1889) subsequently assigned The deposits thus named are now known to embrace a
the Nussbamn to late "Neocene," and later, Stose wide range of ages. In 1924 the formation was consid-
( 1912) changed the age to Pliocene ( ~), where it has ered by the Colorado Geological Survey ( Toepelman,
been placed until now. This article shows that the age 1924) to be synonymous with the Arikaree Sandstone
is early Pleistocene and changes the name to alluvium (Miocene) and the Ogallala Formation (upper Mio-

KIOWA

FREMONT _j
---r
I
I PUEBLO

_,r-,1
..,. /-...1 \( _ _ _ _ _ BENT PROWERS
OTERO

HUERFAN.O

FiouRE 72.1.-lndex map showing Baculite Mesa and location of profile A-A' of figure 72.2. Known Ogallala
Formation crosshatched in northeast corner.

ART. 72 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C49-C52. 1963.
C50 STRATIGRAPHY

cene and Pliocene ( ~) ) . As a result of this extension of The gradient of this surface and the lithology of frag-
usage the formation came to include deposits of gravel, ments in <the Nussbaum suggest that the streams that
both consolidated and unconsolidated, that ranged deposited the alluvium flowed southeastward from an
from Miocene to I\:ansan in age. Burbank and others area of weathered Pikes Peak Granite (Precambrian)
(1935) listed the Arikaree, Ogallala, and Nussbaum near Turkey Creek on the southeast flank of the Ram-
Formations as separate units on the geologic map of part Range. The location of the ancestral Arkansas
Colorado, but implied, by juxtaposing the latter two River into which the above streams flowed is unknown.
units, that the Nussbaum was partly equivalent to the As indicated by the position of high-level terraces south
Ogallala Formation. This intent seems certain because of the present river, on which gravel brought in from
they included in the Ogallala Formation some outcrops the west by the Arkansas is now perched, the ancestral
that previously had been designated as Nussbaum. Arkansas River must have flowed about 5 miles south
Some of these outcrops are still considered to be Ogal- of the modern river.
lala Formation, but others ri.ow are known to be of The extent of deposits truly equivalent to Nussbaum
Pleistocene age. Alluvium as redefined here is unknown because very few
The identification of most of the outcrops that have of the outcrops previously m.apped as Nussbaum have
been mapped as Nussbaum in southeastern Colorado been restudied. Outcrops of high-level gravel that have
and most of the area mapped as Ogallala between Big been mapped as Nussbaum are scattered throughout the
Sandy Creek and the Arkansas River should be viewed area from the Arkansas River south to New Mexico and
with skepticism (Elkin, 1958, p. 9). Probably most of from the Rocky Mountain front east to Baca County,
these outcrops or areas eventually will have to be Colo. Most of these outcrops are no longer considered
reassigned to other formations. to be equivalent to the Nussbaum Alluvium and some
have been reassigned to other formations. For examples
DESCRIPTION
of such changes compare Levings (1951), Harbour and
The Nussbaum at its type locality is a stream-laid Dixon ( 1956), Burbank and others ( 1935), and Mc-
deposit of loose coarse sand, as much as 100 feet thick, Laughlin (1954) with earlier maps that showed out-
t.hat contains pebbles. Near the top it contains a layer crops of Nussbaum.
J
-",-

of pebbly silt more than 10 feet thick. This silt layer

EVIDENCE FOR A CHANGE IN AGE
resembles layers of locally derived silt containing
pieces of limestone that lie in the upper part of the Slo- A Pleis'tocene age for the Nussbaum has been sug-
cum, Louviers, and Broadway Alluviums (see table) gested by Hills (1899, 1900, and 1901), Tator (1952, p.
near Pueblo. The· Nussbaum Alluvium is composed 273), and Mitchell and others (1956, p. 134). The
chiefly of fragments of granite and hard sedimentary Pleistocene age was preferred by them because the al-
rocks. The major part of the alluvium is lacking in luvium is lithologically like other Pleistocene alluvium
caliche; however, the basal 2 to 4 feet of alluvium is and lies at a topographic level comparable to that of
commonly cemented by calcium carbonate to hard con- other Pleistocene alluvium.
glomerate or coarse sandstone. The cement probably Refutation of a Pliocene(~) age, which has been used
was precipitated by ground water that contained for the Nussbaum, requires that the correlation of the
calcium bicarbonate derived from the leaching of Nussbaum with the Ogallala Formation be disproved.
underlying Cretaceous rocks. Evidence to disprove this correlation is based on the
h
No fossils from the Nussbaum have been identified lithologic dissimilarity of the two deposits and their
despite searches by G. K. Gilbert, G. W. Stose, G. E. topographic disparity.
Lewis, and many others._ Two bones have been found The most significant ways in which the Nussbaum
in a gravel pit operated by the city of Pueblo at the and the Ogallala differ are as follows: The Nussbaum
south end of Baculite Mesa. One bone was lost, and a is for the most part a uniform coarse sand containing
large bone left lying in the pit overnight slaked beyond small pebbles; the Ogallala characteristically is poorly
recognition by morning. It is noteworthy, however, sorted and consists of calcareous .clay, sand, gravel, and
that neither of these bones was permineralized, as is fresh-water limestone. The coarse sediments in the
characteristic of many bones from the Ogallala Nussbaum are unconsolidated except for the basal con-
Formation. glomerate; the coarse sediments in the Ogallala com-
The Nussbaum caps Baculite Mesa at the type local- monly are firmly cemented and contain hard layers of
ity, northeast of Pueblo, wl1ere it unconformably over- caliche, called mortar beds, more than 50 feet thick
lies 'the Pierre Shale (Upper Creta;ceous) on a well- (Boettcher, 1962, p. 14). The Nussbaum contains a
formed erosion surface. The erosion surface slopes 30 thick diffuse layer of calcium carbonate near its top,
feet per mile to the south and 20 feet per mile to the east. which presumably formed as a pre-Wisconsin soil ; the
 SCOTT C51
Ogal1ala has a thick hard caprock of calcium carbonate tion, is more than 500 feet above the Nussbaum Al-
at the top. The Nussbaum is only 100 feet thick; the luvium at Baculite l\1esa and more than ~50 feet above
Ogallala is nearly 400 feet thick east of Big Sandy lower Pleistocene alluvium near Galatea.
Creek (Boettcher, 1962, p. 12) and locally is 200 feet The geomorphic history of the upper Tertiary and
thick near the mountains at Raton ·Mesa (Levings, 1951, Quaternary deposits further supports differentiation of
p. 23). These distinct differences can hardly be the the Nussbaum and the Ogallala, and placement of the
result of facies differences within the Ogallala, for the Nussbaum in the Pleistocene. The Nussbaum Alluvium
Ogallala is characterized by mortar beds and the other at Baculite Mesa lies only 100 feet above the uppermost
fentures listed above wherever it has been described in of a sequence of deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age
southeastern Colorado. and is nearly identical in lithology to the later deposits.
Two profiles (fig. 72.2) were drawn to determine The age and height above modern stream level of suc-
topographic relations of the Nussbaum and the Ogal- cessive deposits younger than the Nussbaum are listed
lala Formation. A lower profile was constructed along in the table, which suggests that the Nussbaum is the
a. line from the mountain front at Canon City, Colo., to earliest of a closely spaced sequence of alluvial de-
southwest of Big Sandy Creek, near Galatea, across the posits. Evidence (Scott, 1963) from the Denver area
highest outcrops of Pleistocene high-level gravel, in- shows that a great erosional hiatus separated this se-
cluding the Nussbaum Alluvium at Baculite l\1:esa. A quence from the earlier Ogallala Formation. Near
higher one was drawn from a well-defined pre-Pleis- Denver the Rocky l\fountain (Pliocene and Miocene)
tocene (Rocky l\fountain ~) erosion surface in the Royal surface, which underlies the Ogallala Formation (Lee,
Gorge area west of Canon City to water well C17-44- 1922, p. 15-17), is 2,000 feet above modern streams
4cdn. (Boettcher, 1962, p. 9) in known Ogallala deposits (Scott, 1963), whereas the oldest of a sequence of Pleis-
east; of Big Sandy Creek. The two profiles converge tocene deposits, which probably is equivalent to the
somewhat toward the east. The higher profile, which Nussbaum Alluvium, lies only 450 feet above modern
~-· shows the inferred original level of the Ogallala Forma- streams. The cutting of canyons more than 1,500 feet
"0
Q)
::l
c
~~
oo
\J"ij
c.c
.E
A Dakota tiQ)
Sandstone (/)
7000'

5000'

4000'

A'

5 0 5 10 15 MILES

FIOUJtE 72.2.-Probable profiles of deposition in Nussbaum time and Ogallala time. Lower protile drawn across
outcrops possibly equivalent to the Nussbaum .&lluvium fron:t Canon City, Colo., to near Galatea. Upper
profile drawn from n low pre-Pleistocene (Pliocene?) erosion surface near Royal Gorge to inferred original
level of Ogallala Formation above the Nussbaum Alluvium at Baculite Mesa, and on to the Ogallala
Formation east of Big Sandy Creek.

·,._.
C5.2 STRATIGRAPHY

Quaternary alluvium exposed near Pueblo, Ooli:Yrg,do Elkin, A. D., 1958, Geology of eastern Elbert County, Colorado,
in relation to soil development: U.S. Dept. Agriculture
Height of Soil Conserv. Service, 17 p.
surface
System Series Glaciation Stage AlluVium above Gilbert, G. K., 1897, Description of the Pueblo quadrangle
modern
stream [Colorado]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 36.
(feet)
Harbour, R. L., and Dixon, G. H., 1956, Geology of the Trinidad-
Post-Piney Creek o-10 Aguilar areas, Las Animas and Huerfano Counties, Colo-
Recent Late rado: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-174.
Piney Creek 20
Hills, R. C., 1899, Description of the Elmoro quadrangle [Colo-
Late Broadway 40 rado]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 58.
Wisconsin
Early LouViers 7Q-80 - - - 1900, Description of the Walsenburg quadrangle [Colo-
Sangamon rado]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 68.
Quater- or Slocum UQ-120
nary lllinoian - - - 1901, Description of the Spanish Peaks quadrangle [Colo-
Pleistocene _rado]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 71.
Yarmouth
or Verdos 20Q-220 r~ee, W. T., 1922, Peneplains of the Front Range and Rocky
Kansan
Mountain National Park, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
Aftonian
or Rocky Flats 250-260 730-A, p. 1-17.
Nebraskan Levings, W. S., 1951, Late Cenozoic erosional history of the
Pleistocene(?) Nussbaum 32Q-360 Raton Mesa region [Colorado-New Mexico]: Colorado
School Mines Quart., v. 46, no. 3, 111 p.
McLaughlin, T. G., 1954, Geology and ground-water resources
deep probably required all of late Pliocene time. The of Baca County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
advent of a closely spaced sequence of nearly identical Paper 1256,232 p. [1955]
alluvial deposits suggests that conditions of deposition Mitchell, J. G., Greene, John, and Gould, D. B., 1956, Catalog of
changed after the hiatus and then remained much the stratigraphic names used in Raton Basin and vicinity
same during deposition of the alluvial sequence. I be- [Colorado-New Mexico], in Rocky Mountain Association of
lieve that this change marked the onset of Pleistocene Geologists, Guidebook 1956: p. 131-135.
Scott, G. R., 1963, Quaternary geology and geomorphic history
time and that the Nussbaum is the earliest Pleistocene of the Kassler quadrangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey
alluvium. Prof. Paper 421-A, 70 p. ·
REFERENCES Stose, G. W., 1912, Description of the Apishapa quadrangle
Boettcher, A. J., 1962, Records, logs, and water-level measure- [Colorado]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 186.
. ments of selected wells and test holes and chemical analyses Tator, B. A., 1952, Piedmont interstream surfaces of ·the Col<>-
of ground water in eastern Cheyenne and Kiowa Counties, rado Springs region, Colorado: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
Colorado: Colorado Water Conserv. Board Basic-Data Rept. v. 63, no. 3, p. 255-274. '
13, 18 p. Toepelman, W. C., 1924, Preliminary notes on the revision of
Burbank, W. S., Lovering, T. S., Goddard, E. N., and Eckel, the geological map of eastern Colorado: Colorado Geol
E. B., 1935, Geologic may of Colorado: u.s.· Geol. Survey. Survey Bull. 20, 21 p.
 Article 73

AGE OF THE MURRAY SHALE AND HESSE QUARTZITE

ON CHILHOWEE MOUNTAIN, BLOUNT COUNTY, TENNESSEE

t By R. A. LAURENCE and A. R. PALMER, Knoxville, Tenn.,

and Washington, D.C.

Abstraot.-Well-preserved specimens of Indiana tennesseensis

(Resser) have been discovered in place in the lower part of
the Murray Shale. They show that the age of the Murray
Shale and the overlying Hesse Quartzite should now be con-
sidered as definite, rather than questionable, Early Cambrian.

The discovery of well-preserved fossils in the lower

part of the Murray Shale at Murray Gap, on Chilhowee
Mountain, Blount County, Tenn., indicates an Early
Cambrian age for the Murray Shale and the overlying
Hesse Quartzite. These two formations were pre-
viously considered to be Early Cambrian ( ~) because
of the uncertainty as to the location of the site and
the stratigrnphic position of the collections reported by
)Valcott (1890, p. 536-537, 588) and Keith (1895, p. 3).
Roadcuts on the newly constructed Foothills Park-
way and a county access road at and near Murray Gap
in 1962 exposed much of the 350-foot thickness of the
Murrny Shale (fig. 73.1). The Murray may be divided
into three units of approximately equal thickness: a
lower unit consisting of bluish-gray noncalcareous shale
with scattered quartz grains and muscovite flakes up
to about 1 mm across and occasional biotite flakes and 1000 0 2000 FEET
glauconite grains; a middle unit which is principally a
dark-gray muscovite-bearing fine siltstone and which, EXPLANATION
when weathered, yields buff chips similar to the weath-
Contact Thrust fault Fault
ered shale of the bottom unit; and an upper unit con- Barbs on upper plate Approximately located
sisting of siltstone, shale, and fine-grained sandstone
with many glauconitic ]ayers. FIGURE 73.1- Map showing fossil localities and distribution of
rocks of Chilhowee Group in the vicinity of Murray Gap,
Identifiable fossils were found only in the bottom unit, Chilhowee Mountain, Tenn. Geologic units, youngest to
:from a:bout 20 to 60 feet above the top of the under- oldest: 0 Mu, post-Cambrian rocks; £h, Hesse Quartzite;
lying Nebo Quartzite. The two upper units yielded £mu, Murray Shale; £ne, Nebo Quartzite; £ni, Nichols Shale;
only numerous fossil tracks and trails. No fossils were £ch, Cochran Formation. Fossil localities indicated by X,
found in the older ·Nichols Shale, which is separated Base from Blockhouse quadrangle; geology modified fr.om
Neuman and Wilson ( 1960). Contour interval 200 feet.
from the lithologically similar lower unit of the Mur-
ray by 300 feet of Nebo Quartzite (Neuman and 'Vilson,
1960).

ART. 73 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C53-C54. 1963.
C53
C54 PALEONTOLOGY

The critical fossil in dating the Murray Shale, and

the only fossil present other than problematic tubular
structures and trails, is a large ostracode identified as
Indiana tennesseensi.s (Resser). Species of Indiana
are known from Lower Cambrian beds in eastern and
western North America, and in western Europe.
Although the specimens from the Murray Shale are not
associated with trilobite remains, they are here assigned
to the Lower Cambrian because of the occurrence of A B
the genus elsewhere in Lower Cambrian beds and the
absence of any known fossils with a mineralized cara- FIGURE 73.2.-Indiana tennesseensis (Resser). A, Left valve,
pace in beds of undoubted Precambrian age. USNM 143799. B, Right valve, USNM 143800. Both speci-
The specirllens of I. tennesseensis described by Resser mens X5, from USGS collections 3796-CO and 3911-CO, re-
spectively, Murray Gap, Chilhowee Mountain, Tenn.
( 1938) were collected by Walcott and Keith in 1893
from the "Upper shales of Chilhowee, Tenn." according Discussion.-All the specimens of I. tennesseensis are
to data placed in the locality file of the U.S. National crushed to some degree, but about 20 valves are reason-
Museum in 1927. Resser assigned them to "Lower ably complete and form the basis for the description
Cambrian? Antietam?" in 1938, apparently questioning given a;bove. The ·best specimens are illustrated. This
the stratigraphic occurrence because the specimens did material is much superior to specimens in the older
not look like any Lower Cambrian fossils known to collection. The holotype (USNM 94759), however,
him. The discovery of these specimens in place and shows the papiNate surface and groove paralleling the
well down in the Chilhowee Group leaves no doubt free margin that characterize the specimens described
about their stratigraphic occurrence. Both the lith- and illustrated here. 'These characteristics distinguish
ology of the enclosing rock and the morphologic details I. tennesseensis from all other species assigned to Indi- ••
of specimens in Walcott's original collection are the ana. The only other described Cambrian ostracode
same as those of the specimens collected in 1962. The with a papillate surface is Cambria sibirica (Neckaja
and Ivanova, 1956), from the Lower Cambrian of Si-
more recently collected specimens of the I. tennesseensi.s
beria. This species also has an outline similar to that
are better preserved than the type material; the species
of I. tennesseensis, but differs by having prominent
is redescribed below.
ridges on the valves and a reportedly sinuous hinge
Genus INDIANA Matthew, 1902 line.
Lower Cambrian ostracodes are so rare that an ade-
Indiana tennesseensis IResserl
quate classification at the generic level is not possible.
Figures 73.2A, 73.28 The ohange in generic assignment of I. tennesseensis
Indiarllites tennesseensis Resser, 1938, p. 107, pl. 3, fig. 47. from I ndianites to Indiana results from the genera being
based on the same type species and not on any reevalua-
Description.-Carapace inequilateral, leperditiform,
tion of the charaoteristics or content of Indiana.
thin, apparently only weakly calcified. Valves equal
in size, length up to 10 mm. Hinge straight, simple; REFERENCES

lerigth about eight-tenths length of valve; both anterior Keith, Arthur, 1895, Description of the Knoxvi'lle sheet ( Tennes-
and posterior ~nds terminate in acute cardinal angles. see and North Carolina) : U.S. Geoi. Survey Geol. Atlas,
Greatest height posterior to midlength; height beneath Folio 16, 6 p.
Neckaja, A. I., ·a nd Ivanova, V. A., 1956, First discovery of an
anterior end of hinge about two-thirds greatest height. ostracode from the Lower Cambrian of eastern Siberia :
Posterior end of valve with strong posterior swing so Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, 111, no. 5, p. 1095-1097 [in
that most posterior point is well behind end of hinge. Russian].
Neuman, R. B., and WHson, R. L., 1960, Geology of the Block-
Anterior end barely produced in front of hinge end.
house quadrangle, Tennessee: U.S. Gool. Survey Geol. Quad.
External surface without nodes or ridges, but many Map GQ-131 [1961].
valves have a distinct, shallow groove paralleling free Resser, C. E., 1938, Cambrian system (restricted) of the south-
margin at a distance about four-fifths maximum height ern Appala~hians: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Pa.p er 15, 140 p.
Walcott, C. D., 1890, The fauna of the Lower Oambrti.an, or
of valve. Both valves evenly covered with close-spaced Olenellus zone: U.S. Geol. Survey lOth Ann. Rept., pt. 1,
fine papillae. p. 509-763.
 Article 74

CONODONTS FROM THE FLYNN CREEK CRYPTOEXPLOSIVE

STRUCTURE, TENNESSEE
By JOHN W. HUDDLE, Washington, D.C.

Abstract.-A 'l·imestone breccila in the base of the Oha.ttanooga This assignment was based on conodonts identified by
S·bale in the crater of the F1lynn Creek cryptoexpl'O'Sive structure, W. H. Hass. Conant and Swanson (1961, p. 23, 25)
about 5 miles south of Gainesboro, Tenn., contains a mixture of
early La•te Devoni·an ·and Ordovician conodonts. The age of the
showed that the basal sandstone of the Chattanooga
breccia is early Late Devonian, and the well-preserved Ordovi- Shale varies with the character of the underlying rock,
cl:an conodon'ts in the samples probably include reworked .speci- and they considered the bedded breccia to be an expecta-
mens in the matrix and specimens from pebble-size fragments ble variant of the basal sandstone in the Chattanooga
in the breccia. Most of the Ordovician conodonts probably came Shale. Overlying the bedded breccia is a greatly over-
from the r. . ei·pers ·and Crutheys Limestones.
thickened lower (Dowelltown) member of the Chatta-
nooga Shale which fills the crater. The upper ( Gassa-
The Flynn Creek cryptoexplosive structure lies about way) member of the Chattanooga Shale extends across
5 miles south of Gainesboro, Tenn. (fig. 74.1). It is the crater with normal thickness.
about 2 miles in diameter, slightly elliptical, and at least The bedded breccia (fig. 74.3) grades from a basal
170 ·feet deep. The structure was described by Wilson coarse-grained unit up .into a fine-grained laminated
·~·
and Born ( 19;36), and the strrutigrruphy of the Chatta- sandy limestone unit. The lower part consists of more
nooga Shale by Conrad •and others (1957) and Oorrant or less rounded fragments of Ordovician limestone as
and 'Swanson ( 1961). The following discussion is based much as 4 inches in diameter that rest in a matrix com-
posed mainly of fine-grained to very fine grained dolo-
on these reports.
mitic limestone. This rock iies with sharp contact on
The oldest rocks exposed in the crater are jumbled
more angular, chaotic, and tmbedded breccia of Ordo-
blocks of Middle and Upper Ordovician limestone (fig. vician limestone. The entire unit is 15 feet thick at one
74.2) . These formations lie in normal stratigraphic locality but is absent in others.
sequence immediately outside the disturbed area. Over- The age of the bedded breccia is important in dating
lying the jumbled blocks of Ordovician limestone is a the explosion, as the breccia is the oldest unit not in-
sedimentary breccia called "bedded breccia" by Wilson volved in the F·lynn Creek structure. Fauna consists
and Born ( 1936, p. 821) and "fresh water limestone" of a mixture of Devonian and Ordovician species of
by Conrad and others (1957, p. 16). Conant and conodonts. A study of the fauna was undertaken to
Swanson (1961, p. 11) established that the bedded brec- see if any part of the bedded breccia is Ordovician in age
cia is a marine basal unit of the Chattanooga Shale.
-----~----

aa· as·
I I
oGainftboro
NASHVILLEo

,. --..Area of
report
z
<
u
>
0
0
a:
0 100 MILES 0

FIGURE 74.1-Mlaop of Tennessee, showing location of the Flynn FIGURE 74.2.-Diagrammatic section, showing the Flynn Creek
Creek cryptoexplosive •structure. structure after Chattanooga Shale deposition (not to scale).

ART. 74 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C. PAGES C55-C57. 1963. 055
 056 PALEONTOLOGY

Conodonts idootifted from the Flynn Creek oryptoeaJp'losive

.:.!Q)
structure, Tennessee-continued
u-
IV IV [Numbers in table are number of specimens identified from each locality; numbers
m~ in notes at end of table are USGS collection numbers]

................-:)( 4524SD Species

...
Q)
L 1•1 I 7 Laminated breccia
Q) Q Devonian species-Continued
Q
iij
~ :::>
z (/) 4520SD
~
z
IV
tiO ;. I ;>< 4521SD Polygnathus cristata Hinde___________ 4 ---- ---- ---- ----
Polygnathus joliata Bryant ______________ _ 1 ---- ---- 8
0 8c: .! I Polygnathus lingulijormis Hinde______ 36
~
> 6 3 6 29
LLJ
0
IV
t:IV .ll
!. Polygnathus ordinata Bryant_________ 40 13 5 4 60
~ I I Polygnathus pennata Hinde __________ 102 6 2 11 92
... Breccia with dolomitic

I 7
()
i Polygnathus n. BP·------------------ 10
Q)
~
0
....J
-; matrix Polygnathus n. sp. _ _ _ _ ___ ____ _______ 1
Polygnathus n. sp_ ____ ___ __ _______ __ 5
Prioniodina n. sp _______ - __ --- _- __ __ 2
v • 7"' Prioniodina n. SP------------------- 7
3 ---- ---- ----

I ~ I~;}4 Ordovician species

L
n
4522SD

Limestone blocks
Aphelognathus SP------------------- 43 16 24 30 ___ _
Pre- Ohattanoosa Cordylodua BP---------------------- 18 8 6 19 ___ _
and breccia Drepanodus sp _____ - _____ __________ ____ 1 ____ ____ ___ _
Drepanodus cf. D. subrectus (Branson
and Mehl) _____ ________ ___ ___ ____ ____ 1 ____ ____ _ __ _
74.3.-Generalized section of the lower part of the Chat- Eoligonodina cf. E. jlexuosus (Bran-
FIGURE son and Mehl) _ _ _ ______ _ _______ __ ____ ____ 11 5 ___ _
tanooga Shale, showing the stratigraphic position of collec- Eoligonodina cf. E. richmondensis
tions. (Exact position of 4523SD unknown). Branson, Mehl, and Branson_______ 33 8 12 _______ _
Eoligonodina cf. robusta Branson,
Mehl, and Branson_ __ __ __________ 1 _________ - _____ -
and whether or not any of the conodonts present suggest Microcoleodua panderi? Branson,
MeW, and Branson_ _ _ ___ _ __ __ ____ 2 ___ _ __ __ _- __ _ __ -
the former presence of pre-Chattanooga, post-Leipers
Oistodus cf. 0. abundana Branson and
formations in the area of the crater. Mehl ________________________________ ---- 4 ---- ----
Conodonts were collected from the bedded breccia by Oistodua cf. 0. inclinatus Branson and
Mehl_ _ _ _ _ ____________ __________ 6 _________ - _____ -
W. H. Hass on November 14, 1958, with the help of Panderodus cf. P. gracilis (Branson
and Mehl) ___ ____________ ____ __ __ 3 ____ ____ 2 ___ _
L. C. Conant, R. A. Laurence, S. H. Maher, H. C. Mil- Polycaulodus sp____________________ 2 ---- ---- ---- ----
hous, R. G. Stearns, and C. W. Wilson, Jr. Hass made Prioniodina oregonia Branson, Mehl,
and Branson _____________________ 15 5 6 ---- ----
preliminary identification of the conodonts and plans Prioniodina sp _ _ _ __ _______ ___ _ ___ __ 2 ___ - ________ --- ..
for this paper before he died in 1959. His identifica- Rhipidognathus cf. R. curvata Bran-
son, Mehl, and Branson_ __ __ ___ _ __ ____ __ __ 2 _______ .
tions were checked, and additional material was studied Rhipidognathus cf. R. paucidentata
by the writer, who prepared this article from Hass' Branson, Mehl, and Branson_______ 1 1 ____ 2
Rhipidognathus cf. R. symmetrica
notes and from the literature cited. The conodonts Branson, Mehl, and Branson___ __ _ _ 9 ---- __ -- 11
Rhipidognathus fragments _____________ - __ 1 11 ---- ---- ).
identified are listed in the accompanying table. Trichonodella cf. T. nitida Branson,
Mehl, and Branson_______________ 2 2 15 --~- ----
Conodonts identified from the Flyrvn Cre;ek cryptoe;:cploswe Trichonodella cf. T. undulata Branson,
structure, Tennessee Mehl, and Branson_ __ ___ _ ________ 9 2 7
Trichonodella sp __ ______ ________ ____ - - __ - - . - - _- - 2
[Numbers in table are number of specimens identified from each locality· numbers Zygognathus cf. Z. pyramidalis Bran-
in notes at end of table are USGS collection numbers] '
son, Mehl, and Branson ___________ 20 8 13 3
Zygognathus sp _____________________ ---- ---- 7 1
Species

Devonian species 1. 4520SD; road cut at mouth of Cub Hollow opposite Antioch
School, Gainesboro quadrangle, Tennessee; base of) upper
Ancyrodella rotundiloba (Bryant)______ 86 18 6 3 52 laminated part of bedded breccia 4-5 feet below lowest black
Bryantodua radiatus (Bryant) _________ 21 3 ---- ---- 6 shale in Chattanooga Shale.
Euprioniodina prona Huddle ____________ _ 1 2. 4521SD; same locality as 4520SD; bedded breccia 5.7-6.2
Hibbardella BP---------------------- 5 feet below lowest black shale in the Chattanooga Shale.
Hindeodella SP---------------------- 5 3. 4522SD; same locality as 4520SD; base of bedded breccia
Icriodus sp_________________________ 7 14.5-15.0 feet below lowest black shale in the Chattanooga
Ligonodina BP---------------------- 8 _______________ _ Shale.
Neoprioniodus alatus (Hinde)_________ 5 ____ ____ ____ 9 4. 4523SD; road cut at mouth of Steam Mill Hollow, 4,000 feet
Ozarkodina sp_ ___________ _______ _ __ ____ 1 ___________ _ west of Antioch School, Gainesboro quadrangle, Tennessee;
Palmatolepis (fragments)_____________ 1 2 ____ 6 bedded breccia. .~
Polygnathellus collingatus Ulrich and 5. 4524SD; Flynn Creek, · about 100 feet north of road near
Bassler__ ___ ____ _________________ 11 9 · mouth of Lacy Branch, Gainesboro quadrangle, Tennessee;
Polygnathus alata Huddle____________ 1 ____ ____ ____ 2 sandstone, 0.2 feet thick, 0.25 feet above base of lowest black
Polygnathus caelata Bryant___________ 5 1 _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ shale in the Chattanooga Shale.
 HUDDLE C57
Many unidentifiable fragments ,of conodonts were Zygognathus occur as low as the base of the Cannon
found in addition to the species listed in the table. A Limestone in · the Tennessee Ordovician section ; that
few of the specimens are nearly whole, but most are Rhipidognathus is common in the Cannon, Catheys, and
broken. They are fresh, unworn, and, except for break- Leipers Limestones; and that big species of E oligo-
age, show no evidence of reworking. Some specimens, ·rwdina, Trichonodella cf. wndulata, T. cf. nitida, and
mainly Devonian ones, are slightly weathered. Nearly Prioniodina oregonia are abundant in the Catheys and
complete specimens are more common in the Devonian Leipers Limestones.
..,.. species than in the Ordovician. However, this may be The conodont fauna of the bedded breccia indicates
due to the fact that the Devonian species are stronger an early Late Devonian age. All the Devonian cono-
and heavier than those from the Ordovician. Many un- donts in the lower part of the bedded breccia at local-
identifiable ·fragments· can be classed as probably Devon- ity 4522SD are regarded as indigenous. There is no
ian or Ordovician on the basis of thickness of the bar, evidence that these conodonts came from the overlying
blade, or plate. In general, the Ordovician conodonts rocks by stratigraphic leakage. The Ordovician cono-
· have light, slender bars and expanded thin-walled basal donts could all have come from the.Leipers and C~theys
cavities. Limestones locally. Probably most of them were de-
All the Devonian species found in the bedded breccia rived from the explosion breccia which provided most
are also found in the Genesee Formation of Middle and of the material reworked into the bedded breccia. Some
Late Devonian age, and most of them are found in the of the well-preserved Ordovician conodonts probably
Genundewa Limestone Member of the Genesee Forma- were enclosed in pebble-size fragments in the bedded
.~. tion in New York. The list of species in the table is breccia. Other conodonts were transported as particles
somewhat longer than that given by Hass ( 1956) for and included in the matrix. None of the bedded breccia
the basal sandstone of the Chattanooga Shale, but is considered Ordovician in age and there is no evidence
his age determination is confirmed. The new species of of the former presence of a pre-Chattanooga, post-Leip-
Polygnathrus and Prioniodina listed here are identical ers formation near the Flynn Creek structure. This is a
with species that are abundant in the Genesee Forma- good example of mixed conodont fauna, but no im-
tion. Devonian species of conodonts occur throughout provement in dating the age of the explosion was made.
the bedded breccia but are most abundant in the base
REFERENCES
of the laminated part of the bedded breccia at locality
4520SD at Antioch School. Only one specimen of Branson, E. B., Mehl, M. G., and Branson, C. C., 1951, Rich-
mond conodonts of Kentucky and Indiana : Jour. Paleon-
AnmJrodella rotundiloba was found in the upper 2:Y2 tology, v. 25, no. 1, o. 1-17.
feet of laminated breccia. All the species that are Conant, L. C., and Swanson, V. E., 1961, Chattanooga Shale and
abundant in the bedded breccia are also found in the related rocks of central Tennessee and nearby areas: U.S.
lower part of the black shale at locality 4524SD. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 357, p. 1-91.
Ordovician conodonts are common in the lower unit Conrad, S. G., Elmore; R. T., and Maher, S. W., 1957, Stratig-
raphy of the Chattanooga Shale in the Flynn Creek struc-
of the bedded breccia and in the base of the upper lami- ture, Jackson County Tennessee: Tennessee Acad. Sci.
nated unit. No Ordovician, and only one Devonian, Jour., v. 32, no 1, p. 9-18.
conodont has been found in the upper 4 feet of the lami- Bass, W. H., 1956, Age and correlation of the Chattanooga
nated unit in the localities sampled. Many of the speci- Shale and the Maury Formation: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Paper 286, p. 1-47.
mens were not identified because they are fragmentary Pulse, R. R., and Sweet, W. C., 1960, The American Upper
and comparative material was n<rt. available. Most of Ordovician standard. III. Conodonts from the Fairview
the Ordovician conodonts listed occur in Middle and and McMillan Formations of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana :
Jour. Paleontology, v. 34, no. 2, p. 237-264.
Late Ordovician rocks in Kentucky and Indiana (Bran-
Sweet, W. C., Turco, C. A., Warner, Earl, Jr., and Wilkie, L. C.,
son and Mehl, 1951; Pulse and 8weet, 1960; Sweet and 1959, The American Upper Ordovician standard. I. Eden
others, 1959). Sweet (written communication, 1963) conodonts from the Cincinnati region of Ohio and Kentucky :
)· Jour. Paleontology, v. 33, no. 6, p. 1029-1068.
reports that the species of Aphelognathus, Oordylodus,
Wilson, C. W., Jr., and Born, K. E., 1936, The Flynn Creek
Drepanodus listed in the table, Oistodrus abwndans, 0. disturbance, Jackson County, Tennessee: Jour. Geology, v.
inclinat'WS, Pa?Ulerodus gracilis, and some species of 44,no.7,p.815-835 .

.,..
Article 75

MIDDLE TRIASSIC MARINE OSTRACODES IN ISRAEL 1

By I. G. SOHN, Washington, D.C.

Work doM in cooperation with the Geological Survey of I&rael

Abstraot.-The first Middle Triassic marine ()lStracodes in the The genera B airdia and M onoeeratina are presumed
world are recorded from the Makhtesh Ramon, in southern to have lived in the Triassic because species are assigned
Israel. Their age is established by associated megafossils.
to them from both pre- and post-Triassic sedimentary
rocks. Oryptophyllus Levinson, 1951, is also in this
This is a preliminary note recording the presence of category, but Jones (1962, p. 5) suggests that the Upper
well-preserved ostracodes in Middle Triassic marine Jurassic (Redwater Shale) species may have been re-
sedimentary rocks of the Makhtesh Ramon, in southern worked from older, possibly Paleozoic, beds. Koll-
Israel. The ostracodes occur in the vicinity of Har mann ( 1960, p. 87) also lists small specimens of Kirkby-
Gevanim, in the same beds from which Parnes ( 1962) idae, a Paleozoic family, in sample214/2 from Lanzing,
described an amm'Onite fauna. On the basis of the Austria (Upper Triassic).
megafossils, these beds belong to the Anisian and Preliminary work disdosed well-preserved ostracodes
Ladinian Stages (Muschelkalk). The location of the in three samples of weathered and marly fossiliferous
outcrops is shown on figure 75.1. limestone. The most common genus is a minute
Definite Middle Triassic marine ostracodes are as yet dimorphic sulcate form with a healdiid muscle scar,
undescribed anywhere in the ·world, and only a few represented by growth stages, that probably belongs to
genera of marine Triassic ostracodes are known (see a new genus. Individuals of several additional genera
accompanying ta;ble).
are present, including one that resembles Monoceratina
Range of Triassic marine ostracode genera Roth, 1928, and a second that ·resembles 0 gmoconcha
[Data from Kollmann, 1960; Moore, 1961}
Triebel, 1941.
Pre-
Tri-
Triassic
Post-
This find is incidental to my work on Lower Creta-
assic
Lower Middle Upper
Triassic ceous ostracodes in Israel. I am grateful to M. I. Price,
------------1------------- Naphtha Oil Co., for taking me to the outcrops, and to
Bairdia McCoy, 1844 _________ X _______________ X
I. Zak, Geological Survey of Israel, for stratigraphic
Bairdiocy~ris Kegel, 1932______ X _____ _____ X
Bythocypras Brady, 1880 ______________________ X X information.
Cytherella Jones, 1849 ________________________ ? X REFERENCES
Cytherissinella Schneider, 1956__ __ ___ X _______________ _
Fabalicypris Cooper, 1946_ _ _ _ _ X _____ _____ ? Jones, P. J., 1962, The ostracod genus OryptophyUm,s in the
Gemmanella Schneider, 1956____ _____ X _______________ _ Upper Devonian ·and Carboniferoos of Western Australia:
Glyptobairdia Stephenson, 1946_ _____ _____ _____ cf. X
Healdia Roundy, 1926_____ ____ X _____ _____ X Australia Bur. Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics
Hungarella Mehes, 191L _____________________ X Bull. 62, no. 3, 37 p., 3 pls.
Monoceratina Roth, 1928 __ .:, ___ X _______________ X -~
Kollmann, Kurt, 1960, Ostracod~n aus der alpinen Trias Oster-
Ogmoconcha Triebel, 1941_ ____________________ X X
Parabairdia Kollmann, 1960 __________________ X reichs I. Parabairdia n.g. und Ptychobairdia n.g. (Bairdi-
Paracytheridea MUller, 1894 ___________________ cf. X idae) : Jahrb. geol. Bundesanstalt, Wien, Sonderband 5, P-
Ptychobairdia Kollmann, 1960 _____ . : _ _____ _____ X 79-105, pls. 22-27, 3 figs. )
Pulviella Schneider, 1957 ___________ X __________ ------ Moore, R. C., ed., 1961, Treatise on 1nvertebrate paleontology,
Renngartenella Schneider, 1957 _ ----- X __________ ------
Triassinella Schneider, 1956____ ----- X _______________ _ Pt. Q. Arthropoda, 3. Ostracoda : Geol. Soc. America and
Univ. Kansas Press, 442 p., 334 figs.
Parnes, Abraham, 1962, Triassic ammonites from Israel: Gool.
1 Sponsored by Smithsonian Institution grant NSF-G-24305. Survey of Israel Bull. 33, 76 p., 9 pls., 12 figs.

058 ART. 75 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C58-C09. 1963.

-o4..
 SOHN C59

N
EXPLANATION

Contact
Da11hed where approximately located

Fault
Haclt.\l.retJ 1m downtAruw" Bide 1

..
j"'
~
loj
::t
II)
It
loj
loj
Ill ..;J/
~ Tel-Aviv
/ic1~
.....

OG~:;::Y"]i=
-~

31"
.~:::: y:
• . Area of i
0
\MAKHTE~eport / ~

"'" \~-:~::~ ,/'

.: \\\ \

.... 30°
K
0
-\
50 KILOMETERS
.
.~ 4 KILOMETERS
I
Elat

l!'"'IouRE 75.1.-Sketch map showing the geology of the Makhtesh Ramon (after Parnes, 1962) and the location of ostracode-
bearing Middle Triassic sedimentary rocks. K, Cretaceous sedimentary rocks; J, Jurassic sedimentary rocks; "R, Triassic
sedimentary rocks; M, igneous intrusive rocks; X, location of outcrops containing Middle Triassic marine ostracodes.

694-027 0-63--5
Article 76

OCCURRENCE OF THE LATE CRETACEOUS AMMONITE

"'f)
HOPLITOPLACENTICERAS IN WYOMING

By W. A. COBBAN, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-Hoplitoplacentioeras, a genus well established dn ""'

Europe as an index fossil to the upper part of the Campanian
Stage, has been discovered in the Baculites asperiforrwis Range
Zone near the top of the Steele Shale in Carbon County. The
Wyoming specimen is compared to Hoplitoplacenticeras coes-
teldiense (SchlUter) var. schuteri Mikhailov.

While mapping in south-central Wyoming, E. N.

Harshman, of the U.S. Geological Survey, collected
a fragment of H oplitoplacenticeras, thus providing the
first record of this genus in the western interior of the
conterminous United States. Aside from its great
rarity, the find is of considerable importance because
of the association of the Hoplitoplacenticeras with Baa-
ulites asperiformis Meek, one of the western interior
zone fossils (Cobban, 1962, p. 708). The fossil was
FIGURE 76.1.-Hoplitoplacenticeras cf. H. Ooesteldiense (Schlu-
found in a bed of concretionary sandstone near the top ter) var. schliiteri Mikhailov. USNM 132373.
of the Steele Shale at USGS Mesozoic locality D2923
in the NW%'SE%SW% sec. 35, T. 27 N., R. 79 W., Only 4 ribs are visible but, judging from their spacing,
Carbon County, Wyo. Associated fossils included nu- a:bout 10 or 11 would be present on a half whorl. Each
merous baculites and bits of carbonized wood, and a rib has a low, weak clavate node high on the flank, and
few fish scales and small pelecypods. each rib terminates in a strong clavate node at the
The fragment of H oplitoplacenticeras, 59 mm high margin of the venter. In the illustration the lateral
and 73 mm wide, consists of the middle part of an adult nodes appear to be located about at the base of the upper
living chamber, and part of the septate whorls. The third of the flank owing to the shortening caused by
suture is not visible. Only one side of the living cham- the fracture lower on the flank. On the opposite and
ber is preserved, and the younger part of it is broken undamaged side of this whorl (not visible in the il-
near the venter .and the parts separated. The septate lustration) these nodes are located at the base of the
whorls have been pushed into the living chamber, and upper qua~ter of the flank. Small sharp umbilical
the height of the outer septate whorl has been shortened
on one side along a fracture. A slightly oblique view
of the specimen is shown in a drawing prepared by John
nodes are present; these are widely spaced and only
two are visible on the exposed part of the outer septate
whorl.
.
R. Stacy (fig. 76.1). The living chamber has flattened flanks and well-
The cross section of the outer septate whorl is very defined umbilicus and venter. The older part is orna-
narrow, and the flanks are flattened. The venter is flat mented by low, broad, prosiradiate, sinuous ribs that
and bordered by nodes. The flanks of the outer septate terminate in moderately strong ciavate nodes at the edge
whorl have broad, straight, slightly prosiradiate ribs. of the venter. There is no trace of the weak lateral

C60 ART. 76 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C60-C62. 1963.
 COBBAN C61
nodes present on the outer septate whorl. Strong, standard of the Cretaceous, recognized H. coesfeldiense
sharp, bullate umbilical nodes are present on the older as one of the zones of the Campanian and, in the upper
.>-
part of the living chamber. On the younger part, the part of this zone, H. vari was used as a subzone.
ribbing abruptly becomes much denser and the ventral Schluter (1876, p. 252) noted that H. coesfeldiense and
and umbilical nodes weaken and disappear. H. vari occurred together in his zone of H. coesfeldiense
The fragment from Wyoming very closely resembles but that H. vari ranged on up into the next higher zone
the adult from Germany figured by Schluter (1872, p. ( B ostrychoceras polyplocum). This longer range of
';10
56, pl. 17, figs. 1, 2) as a variant of his Awmonites
H. vari has been verified by Mikhailov (1951, p. 108).
coesfeldiensis. The only conspicuous difference is the
Giers (1934, p. 476) also noted the association of H.
persistence of the lnteral nodes onto the part of the liv-
ing chamber of the German specimen that is the equiv- coesfeldiense and H. vari, and that H. dolbergense
alent of the Wyoming specimen. This difference may occurred a little below them. .
have little meaning inasmuch as the species of Hop- In the western interior region, rocks near the bound-
..,. ary of the lower and upper Campanian have been zoned
litoplacenticeras are extremely variable, as demon-
strated by Paulcke (1907, p. 181-220) for material from best by means of baculites. Above rocks containing the
Argentina. Schluter's specimen differs from the typical well-known Scaphites hippocrepis of early Campanian
form of H. coesfeldiense by its wider umbilicus and age, the following sequence of baculites (from oldest to
more coarsely sculptured ·septate whorls. Mikhailov youngest) has been determined (Cobban, 1962, p. 705) :
(1951, p. 82), in the course of describing Russian speci- Baculites obtusus Meek, B. mclearni Landes, B. asperi- ·
mens, named Schluter's specimen H. coesfeldiense var. formis Meek, B. sp. (smooth), and B. perplexus Cob-
schl!Uteri. N aidin a:nd Shimanskii ( 1959, p. 193) ac- ban. The discovery of H oplitoplacenticeras cf. H.
cepted Mikhailov's assignment, although Glazunova coesfeldience var. schliiteri in the B. asperiformis
and others' (195'8, pl. 5·5) had earlier regarded Mik- Range Zone suggests that this baculite zone lies at or
hailov's variety as a species. Schluter's Ammonites
very near the boundary between the lower and upper
dolbergensis ( 1876, p. 159, pl. 44, figs. 1-4) resembles
Campanian. If H. coesfeldiense var. schliiteri and H.
the septate whorls of H. coesfeldiense var. schliiteri, and
if these forms prove to he the same, Schluter's name will dolbergense are the same, a very low position in the
take priority over Mikhailov's. upper Campanian is indicated.
Aside from the occurrences in Germany, Russia, and The Wyoming specimen is in the U.S. National Mu-
Argentina, H opUtoplacenticeras is known from France seum, Washington, D.C. (USNM 132373). A plaster
(Grossouvre, 1893, p. 116-123), Sweden (0dum, 1953, cast is at the Federal Center, Denver, Colo.
p. 23), Poland (Nowak, 1909, p. 765), Spain (Basse,
REFERENCES
1931, p. 36), Libya (Maxia, 1943, p. 470-473), Mada-
Basse, :fmane, 1931, Monographie paleontologique du Cretace de
gascar (Basse, 1931, p. 35-37), British Columbia
la Province de Maintirano: Service des Mines, Govt. Gen.
(Usher, 1952, p. 93, 94), and Texas (Young, 1963, Madagascar et Dependencies, 86 p., 13 pls .
..... p. 63, 64). Cobban, W. A., 1962, Baculites from the lower part of the Pierre
In all of these areas the genus is restricted to rocks of Shale and equivalent rocks in the western interior: Jour.
Paleontology, v. 36, no. 4, p. 704-718, pls. 105-108.
... late Campanian age. Schluter ( 1876, p. 245-254) rec- Giers, Rudolf, 1934, Die Schichtenfolge der Mukronatenkreide
ognized a "zone des Ammonites Ooesfeldiensis" in his der Beckumer Hochflliche: Centralbl. Mineralogie, 1934, B,
sequence of Late Cretaceous fossil zones for northwest p. 471-476.
Germany, and Grossouvre ( 1901, p. 801, table 35) pro- Glazunova, A. E., Luppov, N. P., and Savel'ev, A. A., 1958,
Nadseme stvo Noplitaceae, in Luppov, N. P., and Drushchitz,
posed a "Zone a H oplites V ari" as marking the lower V. V., Molluski-Golovonogne II [Superfamily Hoplitaceae,
part of the upper Campanian. Since the time of in Mollusca-Cephalopoda II] of Orlov, Y. A., ed., Principles
Schluter and Grossouvre's publications, one or the other of paleontology-Handbook for paleontologists and geolo-
gists of the U.S.S.R.: Moscow, State Sci. and Tech. Pub-
of these species of H oplitoplacenticeras has been used
lishing House of Lit. on Geology and the Preservation of
as a zonal fossil in the Campanian Stage. Spath ( 1926, Mineral Resources [Gosgeoltekhizdat], v. 6, pt. 2, p. 112-
table opposite p. ·80) accepted H oplitoplacenticeras vari 116, pls. 53-55 [in Russian].
as one of the Campanian zones in his compilation of Grossouvre, Albert de, 1893, Les ammonites de la craie superi-
Late Cretaceous ammonite levels. J eletzky ( 1951, p. eure, pt. 2, Paleontologie, of Recherches sur la craie su-
perieure: Carte Geol. France, Mem., 264 p., pls. 1-39.
18) and Seitz (1952, p. 149) have used II. vari as the - - 1901, Classification des couches supracretacees, chap. 22
basal zone of the upper Campanian. Muller and in Pt. 1, Stratigraphie generale, of Recherches sur la craie
Schenck ( 1943, text ~~- 6), in their proposal for the superieure: Carte Geol. France, Mem., p. 751-830.
C62 PALEONTOLOGY

Jeletzky, J. A., 1951, Die Stratigraphie und Belemnitenfauna Nowak, Jan, 1909, 0 kilku glowonogach i o charakterze fauny
des Obercampan und Maastricht Westfalens, Nordwest- z Karpackiego Kampanu [On some cephalopods and the ...
deutschlands und Diinemarks sowie einige allgemeine character of the fauna of the Carpathian Campanian]:
Gliederungs-Probleme der jtingeren borealen Oberkreide Kosmos, v. 34, p. 765--787, 1 pl. [Polish with German sum-
Eurasiens: Geol. Jahrb., no. 1, 142 p., 7 pls. mary].
Maxia, Carmelo, 1943, Ammoniti maestrichtiane della Tripoli- 0dum, Hilmar, 1953, The macro-fossils of the Upper Cretaceous,
tania: Soc. geol. italiana Boll., v. 61, p. 469-487, pl. 8. pt. 5 of De geologiska resultaten fran oorrningarna vld
Mikhailov, N. P., 1951, Ammonity werchnego mela yuzhnoj Bollviken: Sveriges geol. unders<>kning, ser. C. Arsbok 46
(1952) N :o3, no. 527, 37 p., 4 pls.
chasti jewropejskoj chasti SSSR i ich stratigraficheskoe
Paulcke, W., 1907, Die Cephalopoden der oberen Kreide Slid-
znatschenie [The ammonites of the Upper Cretaceous of the
patagoniens: Freiburg Naturf. Gesell. Berichte, v. 15, p.
southern part of the European part of the US·SR and their 167-244, pis. 10-19.
stratigraphic significance] : Akad. Nauk SSSR, Inst. geol. Schluter, Clemens, 1871-1876, Cephalopoden der oberen deut-
nauk Trudy, no. 129, geol. ser. no. 50, 143 p., 19 pls. [in schen Kreide: Palaeontographica, v. 21 (1871-1872), p.
Russian]. 1-120, pl. 1-35 ; v. 24 ( 1876) , p. 121-264, pis. 36--55.
Muller, S. W., and Schneck, H. G., 1943, Standard of Cretaceous Seitz, Otto, 1952, Die Oberkreide-Giiederung in Deutschland
System : Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 27, no. 3, nach ihrer Anpassung an das internationale Schema :
p. 262-278. Deutsche geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., v. 104, p. 148-151.
Naidin, D. P., and Shimanskii, V. N., 1959, Golovonogne Mol- Spath, L. F., 1926, On new ammonites from the English Chalk:
.Geol. Mag., v. 63, no. 740, p. 77-83.
luski, in M. M. Moskvin, ( ed.), Atlas verkhnemelovoi fauny
Usher, J. L., 1952, Ammonite faunas of the Upper Cretaceous
Severnogo Kavkaza i Kryma [Cephalopod Molllisca, in
rocks of Vancouver Island, British Columbia: Canada Geol.
Atlas of the Upper Cretaceous fauna of the Northern Cau- Survey Bull. 21, 182 p., 31 pls.
casus and Crimea]: Trans. All-Union Sci.-Research Inst. Young, Keith, 1963, Upper Cretaceous ammonites from the Gulf
Natural Gases (VNIIGAZ), [Moscow] p. 166--220, 23 pls. Coast of the United States: Texas Univ. Pub. 6304, 373 p.,
[in Russian]. 82pls.

I!'
~·

Article 77

PALEOTEMPERATURE INFERENCES FROM LATE MIOCENE MOLLUSKS

•
IN THE SAN LUIS OBISPO-BAKERSFIELD AREA, CALIFORNIA

By W. 0. ADDICOTT and J. G. VEDDER, Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.~Troplcal molluscan taxa in upper Miocene strata

near Bakersfield, Calif., suggest a marine hydroclimate warmer
than existed in the San Luis Obispo area, 100 miles to the west.
A late Miocene temperature regime analogous to that of the ~---"'-..-1.o.o,

present-day outer coast of southwestern Baja California, Mex- ~of/~

~t.
ico, is indicated. '<-------~--_,_~ #Fresno
'~~.li
Certain faunal data critical to the interpretation of
late Miocene water-temperature distribution in Cali-
fornia apparently have been overlooked in Hall's (1960,
King City:fj=
1962) study and definition of molluscan provinces of
this age along the San Andreas fault. Approximately
60 molluscan taxa of late Miocene age from the south-
ern San Joaquin basin not listed by Hall include several
species and genera suggestive of a tropical marine cli-
mate. Most of the additional taxa are listed in pub-
lished reports that discuss subsurface occurrences of
late Miocene mollusks in the southern San Joaquin ba-
sin; a few are previously unreported species from sur-
face localities in this area. The modification of Hall's 35
' #Santa Maria
paleotemperature interpretation required by these data
invalidates the use of his inferences as definitive evi-
EXPLANATION
dence for large lateral displacement along the San X
Andreas fault. · S:urface megafossil
locality
A critical 'area in Hall's interpretation ( 1960) is the •
Subsurface megafossil
San Luis Obispo---southern San Joaquin Valley region locality 50 MILES
(fig. 77.1}. According to Hall, a composite subtropical
fauna from 5 areas on the west side of the fault is
opposed by a composite warm-temperate fauna from 2 FIGURE 77.1-Late Miocene molluscan fossil localities and ma-
widely separated areas east of the fault. Temperature rine deposition in southern San Joaquin Basin.
inferences were made by comparing certain species and
genera with the modern faunas of northern and south- separating Hall's Magdalenan (subtropical) and Ense-
ern Baja California. The living mollusks of these geo- nadian (warm-temperate) subprovinces is placed near
graphic areas along the outer coast of Baja California Cedros Island (lat 28° N.). Provincial boundaries can
are considered sufficiently distinct by Hall ( 1960, be conveniently expressed by mean winter surface-
map 1} to include them in a newly recognized tripartite water isotherms which are generally normal to the
subdivision of the California province (lat 23° N. to coastline of western North America. Northern end
·~· points of range for tropical (Panamic) and subtropical
341h 0 N.) of Dall (1909} and others. The boundary
ART. 77 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C63-C68. 1963.
C63

'?<
C64 PALEONTOLOGY

taxa measured in these terms have been used to interpret Santa Margarita Formation, which is described as a
Cenozoic paleotemperatures (Durham, 1950a; Hall, gray, fine- to medium-grained sand with abundant fos-
1960; Vah~ntine, 1961). The.principal indicator for a . sil remains (Preston, 1931, p. 12). Beck ( 1952) assigns
subtropical marine environment in the San Luis Obispo the Santa Margarita Formation penetrated by wells in
region seems to be the occurrence of an undescribed the area southwest and southeast of Bakersfield to the
pelecypod referred to the subgenus Area s.s., which · upper Mohnian Stage (Kleinpell, 1938). A recent cor-
today is limited, in the eastern Pacific, to latitudes relation section (Church, Krammes, and others, 1957) ....
south of the 18°C minimum winter surface-water tem- places the upper part of the Santa Margarita Forma-
perature isotherm (Hall, 1960, p. 298). Supporting tion at the Fruitvale field within the upper Mohnian
evidence presented by Hall for interpreting subtropical Stage. As stated by Gale (in Preston, 1931, p. 15), the
water temperatures west of the fault was the diversity molluscan assemblage is indicative of "post-Temblor
of species of Turritella (four species) and the abun- Miocene" or a late Miocene age in the usage of the
dance of A nadara and Lyropecten. In the· southern Pacific coast larger invertebrate chronology.
San Joaquin basin, Hall (1960, p. 286) lists 20 mollus- Recent collecting at Comanche Point has nearly dou-
can taxa which he regards as a warm-temperate fauna. bled the number of taxa from that locality (see table
All but one of these forms occur in the Comanche Point 77.2) and further increases the known late Miocene
area, where 27 taxa previously have been reported fauna from the southern San Joaquin basin to about
(Clark in Merriam, 1916; Nomland, 1917; and Hoots, 80 taxa.
1930). Other published occurrences of marine mollus- Analysis of the supplementary faunal druta strongly
can fossils considered were from the San Emigdio area suggests that interpretation of temperature ·affinities of
(2 species listed by Pack, 1920, p. 42, which were re- l3ite Miocene molluscan ·assemblages, ·as they are now
garded as Pliocene forms by Hoots, 1930, p. 258); the known, cannot be used as definitive evidence for large
Crocker Flat landslide area (3 species listed by Simon- lateral displacement along the San Andreas fault as
son and Kreuger, 1942, p. 1620); and 11 taxa from the was proposed hy HaH ( 1960) . The tropical faunal ele-
Lebec quadrangle identified by Corey (in Crowell, ment neaT Bakersfield indicates water temperatures
1952, p. 13). higher than those suggested by the San Luis ()bispo
Faunal data from east of the fault not included by fauna west of the San Andreas fault (table 77;3), in
Hall consist of an assemblage of 55 taxa of mollusks contradistinction to Hall's (1960, p. 288) conclusion that
ident]fied by H. R. Gale (in Preston, 1931, p. 15, 16) "cooler temperatures must have prevailed [in the south-
from well cores in upper Miocene strata west of Bak- ern San Joaquin basin] 'because of the total absence of
ersfield (see table 77.1). This assemblage includes 48 distinct Magdalenan faunal [=subtropical] elements."
taxa previously unreported from surface localities in Furlher evidence for subtropical to tropical marine
the southern San Joaquin basin and contains a number water temperatures east of the fault is found in the
of tropical and subtropical species and genera. Coalinga area, where t~ taX'a characteristic of the Pan-
The mollusks identified by Gale (in Preston, 1931, amic moHuscan province have been described from the
p. 15, 16) are from the Fruitvale oil field 3 miles west 8anta Margarita Form·ation (Nomland, 1917, p. 301).
of Bakersfield, Calif. (fig. 77.1). North west of the DisGU88ion.- For the purpose of this discussion the
Fruitvale field, Grant and Gale ( 1931, p. 408) list 15 species identified by Gale and other workers are con-
species of mollusks from the Santa Margarita Forma- sidered to have been competently determined. Infor-
tion in the Superior Ansolabehere No. 1 well (sec. 9, T. mation on the geogr3iphic ranges of living species and
29 S., R. 27 E., M.D.B. and M.). All of these species genera is from Grant and Gale (1931), Burch (1944-
are recorded in Gale's larger list. Other subsurface 46), and Keen ( 1958). Although d~finitive criteria for
occurrences of megafossils of probable late Miocene age Hall's (1960) subdivision of the Californian molluscan
are from the Mountain View oil field southeast of Bak- province into. Magdalenan, Ensenadian, and Southern •I

ersfield, where the Wharton sand (local usage) has Californian subprovinces are not readily ·apparent, par-
been compared with the type Santa Margarita Forma- ticularly along the unprotected outer coast, these units
tion on the basis of the molluscan assemblage (Miller are used provisionally in the following discu,ssion ·and
and Ferguson, 1943). In the southeast part of the are referred to as provinces as a matter of convenience.
Mountain View field, Miller and Bloom ( 1937, p. 10) A l·arge lucinid, M iltha wantusi ( Dall), one of the
describe "marine fingers" in the lower part of the most abundant species in the well cores, is reported liv-
Chanac Formation with marine fossils including ing off Oape San Lucas, Baja California, near the
"Clementia pertenuis, large variety." boundary of the Panamic and Magdalenan ·provinces
Miocene mollusks identified by Gale from the Fruit- and has been collected intertidally at La Paz (Pilsbry
vale field are from the upper 500 to 600 feet of the and Lowe, 1933). A similar form is present at Coman-
 ADDICOTT AND VEDDER C65
che Point. The extinct gastropod "Plws" dwmble'ana north side of Mount Di·a:blo, and an unnamed "Turri-
Anderson iJn Hanna is an indicator of tropical hydro- tella, sp. (large) " in the Santa Margarita Formation
climate at the generic level. Al,though this species is north of Coalinga (Nomland, 1917, p. 301). There are
probably 'ootter ·assigned to the genus Tritiaria, it is here thus at least 3 ·and possibly 4 species of Turritella in
referred to "Phos'~ in de~~rence to the most recent treat- upper Miocene strruta on the east side of the San An-
ment of living ~astern Pacific· species by Strong and dreas fa ul.t.
'r
Lowe ( 1936) . Another extinct species listed by Gale, Cancellarids commonly found in middle Miocene
Fi(JU8 ( Trophosycon Qcoyana (Conrad), supports the strata of California also are listed from the subsurface
interpretation ·of subtropical ·to tropical marine waters section of upper Miocene rocks ne•ar Bakersfield. Using
in the southern San Joaquin bas!n during late Miocene the classification of Marks (1949), Cancellaria lickana
time. In the eastern Pacific the genus Fir.:us is re- Anderson and Martin is best assigned to Cancellaria
stricted to the Panamic province; its northernmost oc- s.s., which, in the eastern Pacific, is restricted to the
currence along ·the outer coast of Mexioo is off Cape San Magdalenan and Panamic provinces. Cancellaria cf.
Lucas, at or south of the tropical-subtropical provincial C. pacifica Anderson is representrutive of the .subgenus
boundary. This species occurs in well cores from the Euclia, which lives in tropical seas. Cancellaria joa-
Reef Ridge Shale of late Miocene age at Kettleman Hills q't/Ji.tnensis Anderson, a form that seems to have no Recent
oil field (Barbat •and Johnson, 19'34) . Fwus ·also has analogs in the eastern Pa·cific, may be intermediate be-
been reported from the Santa Margarita Formation tween Cancellaria s.s. and Euclia. Cancellaria joaquin-
northeast of Coalinga by Nomland (1917, p. 301) as ensis closely resembles Cancellaria pabloensis Clark
"Fi(JU8, cf. nodiferous Gabb." The genus Turricula, from the Mount Diahlo, Coalinga, and Comanche Point
o,. represented in the Santa M·argarit·a fauna from the areas. Two other species referable to Cancellaria s.s.
Fruitvale field by the extinct species Turricula och.meri have been collected recently at Comanche Point (see
(Anderson and Martin), is characteristic of the Pan- table 77.2) .
amic province. This species seems to ·be very closely Corey (in Crowell, 1952, p.13) lists·an Olivasp. front
related to Turricula (Turricula) libya Dall, which is the .Santa M·argarita Formation of the Lebec quad-
living in the Panam.ic province off Oape San Lucas. rangle, about 20 miles south of Com·anche Point 'On the
Calypt;raea ma;millaris Broderip, the second most abun- east side of the San Andreas fault. Living representa-
dant gastropod in cores from the Santa M·argarita For- tives of this genus ·are c;haracteristic of the Panamic
mrution at the Fruitvale field, is not known to be living molluscan province, but one species ranges northward
farther north than M•agdalena Bay 'along the southern into the Magdalenan province. Gale (in Preston, 1931)
coast of Baja California (Keen, 195'8, p. 311). A similar lists •a taxon as ~Olivella bipli.cata Sowerby 'but indi-
form is present ·at Comanche Point. cates parenthetically that the specimen might be an
Turritella cf. T. vanvlecki Arnold, ·also listed by Gale, 0 liva, 0. futheyana Anderson.
')o· is very closely related to the living T. gonostoma Valen- The late Miocene Lyropectens are related to the
ciennes. Both species have been placed in a group of Recent Panamic-Magdalenan species Lyropecten
approxim·ate subgeneric rank, the Turritella broderipi- (Nodipecten) subnodosus (Sowerby), which is as-
ana stock, by Merriam ( 1941, p. 51). In the eastern signed to Lyropecten s.s. by some authors (Hertlein
... Pacific, living representatives of this stock range [as subgenus of Pecten], 1935, p. 317; Durham, 1950b,
throughout the Panamic province. Turritella gono- p. 65; Keen, 1958, p. 74) . The common occurrence of
stoma, which typifies this stock, is the most northerly late Miocene species of Lyropecten s.s. in the southern
ranging species occurring in the living fauna as far San Joaquin basin further suggests water warmer than
north ·as San J uanico Bay ( htJt 26 ° N.) on the outer coast that postulated by Hall. It should be noted that
of southern Baj-a California (Keen, oral communication, Lyropectens are among the most rubundant fossils at
1962) .1 Another species referable to this stock, Turri- nearly al'l late Miocene localities in the Coalinga area,
tella freya N omland, is described from the Santa Mar- along the west side of the Temblor Range from Recruit
..... garita Thrmation north of Coalinga. Other species of Pass south to Bitterwater Creek, at Comanche Point,
Turritella occurring east of the San Andreas fault in and in the ~bee area.
strata of this age are Tu.rritella cf. T. cooperi Carpenter, A point to be considered in paleoecologic interpreta-
identified by Merri~m (1941, p; 49, fig. 8; p. 118) from tion is the difference in opinion of various workers in
;., the San Pablo "formation" (Cierbo Sandstone) on the ascribing tem·perature ranges to certain critical mollus-
1 A more northerly occurrence reported from Scammons Lagoon (lat
can taxa. Do8ilnia ponderosa Gray, for example, is
28° N.) In the "Hemph1ll collection" (Grant and Gale, 1931, p. 773) is closely related to late Miocene species. Grant and Gale
questionable Inasmuch as Pbleger and Ewing (1962\) list T. gonostorna (1931, p. 352-354) consider late Miocene forms as· vari-
as 11 characteristic element in late Pleistocene deposits that lie n, few
feet above sen. level. ants df the living Dosinia pO'll.derosa, which ranges from
C66 PALEONTOLOGY

Scam·mons Lagoon, near the latitude of the Magdale- Andreas fault; rather, it is to point out that the faunal
nan-Ensenadian provincia'} boundary, southward to assemblages, as they are now known, do not necessarily
Peru. Valentine and Meade ( 196'1) treat this species support the contention that late Miocene molluscan
as a Panamic form which extended its range north of provinces were alined from north to south through the
the provincial boundary by inhabiting protected, warm- present area of California in a manner which appi·oxi-
water environments. Hall (1960), however, identifies mated the present latitudinal distribution of winter
the northern end point of range of this taxon with the oceanic surface-water temperatures. Instead, a fairly
Ensenadian moHuscan province. Doubtless, arguments complex temperature regime, possibly analogous to that
can be made for either interpretation, but the former of the outer coast of southern Baja California but with
seems to be more acceptable in light of Emerson's much larger protected embayments, existed in the cen-
(1956) discussion of the latitudinal coexistence of tropi- tral California region during late Miocene time.
cal species in protected emhayments and cooler water
TABLE 11.1.-Miocene moll1t,sks from the F'ruitvale field
assemblages in outer coast environments in the Magda-
[Gale in Preston (1931). Generic designations as listed by Gale;
lerran province. It is apparent that use of the indicated arrangement revised!]
minimal temperatures of tropical ('Panamic) or warm- Gastropods
tem·perate (Ensenadian) provinces in interpreting late Calliostoma sp.
Miocene occurrences of this taxon will yield widely di- Tegula sp.
vergent estimates of paleotemperature. ?Melanella californica (Anderson and M-artin)
Turritella cf. T. vanvlecki Arnold ../..J
Oonclusion.-The distribution of tropical and sub-
Calyptraea mamillaris Broderip
tropical marine species and genera is not compntihle Polinices (Polinices) diabloensis (Clark)
with Hall's (1960) interpretation of late Miocene sur- Polinices ( N everita) reclusianus ( Deshayes)
face-water temperatures from which he has postulated Ficus ( Trophosycon) ocoyana (Conrad)
large right-lateral movement along the San Andreas Forreria wilkesana (Anderson)
Mitrella tuberosa (Carpenter)
fault. The relationship of the critical San Luis
Phos dumbleana Anderson in Hanna
Obisp~southern San Joaquin basin late-Miocene N assarius ( U zit a) antiselli (Anderson and Martin)
faunas suggests a complex distribution of ma.rine sur- N assarws ( U zit a) cf. N. arnoldi (Anderson)
face-water temperatures. The pattern proba:bly was ?Olivella biplicata Sowerby
related more to the configuration of an irregular, em- Olivella pedroana (Conrad)
Cancellaria joaquinensis Anderson
bayed coastline protected to the west and to the north
Cancellaria .lickana Anderson and Martin
by large insular or peninsular blooks separated by nar- - Cancellaria cf. C. Pacifica Anderson
row straits rather than to the present latitudinal dis- Cancellaria cf. C. nevadensis Anderson ·and Martin
tribution of ·winter surface-water temperatures along a ?Daphnella sp.
fairly regular, open coast. ?Mangelia cf. M. kernensis Anderson and Martin
If large right-lateral slip has occurred along the San Turricula ochsneri (Anderson and Martin)
Pseudomelatoma penicillata (Carpenter)
Andreas fault since deposition of upper Miocene strata, Terebra pedroana Dan 1
a paleogeographic restoration would place the moHus- Turbonilla sp.
can fauna of the San Joaquin hasin ~ith its tropical Pelecypods
element considerably farther north than the presumed Glycymeris septentri<malis (Middendorff)
subtropical fa una of the San Luis Obispo region. Ostrea cf. 0. lurida Carpenter
Whether or not the fault has had relatively great lateral Pecten (Aequipecten) discus Conrad
Anomia sp.
movement, the presence of tropical and subtropical
Lucina (Here) richthofeni Gabb
molluscan species at the same latitude in late Miocene Lucina ( M iltha) a:antusi (Dan)
time seems to be indicated. This can be satisfactorily Lucina ( M yrtea) acutilineata Conrad
explained by reference to the modern occurrence of f Lucina ( M yrtea) californica Conrad
many Panamic species in shallow emh'ayments ·along Lucina (Myrtea) nuttalli Conrad
Taras harfordi (Anderson)
the west coast of southern Baja California. If the
Cardium sp.
southern San Joaquin basin was a protected embayment Dosinia ponderosa longidens Grant and Gale
during late Miocene time, it seems likely that ·relicit Irus lamellifer perlamellifer Grant and Gale
faunal elements m·ay have persisted there long after Chione sp.
more temperate faunas had spread southward along the V enerupis (Protothaca) staminea (Conrad) -~

Amiantis callosa stalderi (Clark)

open outer coast.
Petricola carditoides (Conrad)
The intent of this discussion is not to conclude Mactra (Spisula) hemphill Dan
whether paleoecologic interpretation can be used to Mactra (Spisula) sp.
prove or to disprove lateral movement along the San Anatina (Raeta) plicatella longio-r Grant and Gale
 ADDICOTT ·AND VEDDER C67
TABLE 11.1.-Miocene moUusks from the Fruitvale ftel~Con- TABLE 11.2.-MoUusks from the Santa Margarita Fo-rmation at
tinued Com,anche Point-Continued
Pelecypods-Continued Gastropods-continued
TeZlina idae Dall "Trophon" sp.
.Apolymetis biangu,lata (Carpenter) Pterynotus sp.
llf acoma illentata (Carpenter) Mitrella aff. M. tuberosa (Carpenter)
'lllfac01na inquinata (Deshayes) Olivella aff. 0. pedroana (Conrad)
llf acoma wilsoni (Anderson and Martin) Cancellaria (Cancellaria) cf. C. sanjosei Anderson and Martin
Gari edenhtla ( Gabb) Cancellaria (Cancellaria) n. sp.? cf. C. decussata Sowerby
Solen sicarius Gould Cancella·ria ( Cancellm·iaf) cf. C. pabloensis Clark
,., Co•rb1tla (Lentiditunt) luteola Carpenter Crassispira n. sp.? cf. C. ericana Hertlein and Strong
'lllf yra sp. Conus n. sp.? cf. C. p11rrpur018Ce1UJ Sowerby [presumably Corvus
Pan()f)e generosa Gould sp. of Clark]
Strioterebrum aff. S. martini (English)
TABLE 11.2.-Mollusks from the Santa Margarita Fo-rmation at Scaphanderf sp.
Comanche· Poilnt Pelecypods
.Anadaraf sp.
[Combined Hats of previous collectors. Clark in Merriam, 1916; Nom-
land, 1917, Clark in Hoots, 1930. Generic designations revised In Glycymeris aff. G. subobsoleta (Carpenter)
part]' Hinnites'! cf. H. giganteus (Gray) 1
Gastropods Pododesmus cepio (Gray) ?
Calyptraea sp. Lucinisca nuttalU (Conrad)
Miltha cf. llf. wantusi (Dall)
"Natica" sp.
Nassat·ius pabloe?'wlis (Clark) Dosinia cf. D. merriami Clark [may be Dosinia sp. of
"Fusinus" tabulator Nomland . Clark]
Protothaca'! cf. P. staminea (Conrad)
Conus sp.
Bulla sp. Protothaca cf. P. tenerrima (Carpenter)
Tellina sp.
Pelecypods
Co-rbula ( Caryocorbula) n. sp.
Pinna alamede?UJis Yates 1 University of Callfornla Museum of Paleontology localltles A-9417,
Ostrea titan Conrad A-9418.
Ost?·ea cf. 0. vespertina Conrad
Chlamys hastatus ( Sowerby)
TABLE 11.3.-Late Miocene mollusks from the San Luis Obispo
.Aeq1tipecten raymonlli (Clark)
area
Lyropecten crassicardo (Conrad)
Lyropecte?t crassicarllo biformatus ( Nomland) [Compiled by Hall (1960, table 7)]
Lyropecten est?·ellanus (Conrad) Gastropods
.Lucina ea:cavata Carpenter [ =Phacoides rioMhofeni ( Gabb) ] .Astraea rayrnondi (Olark)
llfiltha sanctaecrucis Arnold [possible misidentification of Miltha Bulla sp.
wantusi ( Dall) ] Calyptraea martini Clark
Cardium sp. Crepidula sp.
Dosinia arnoldi Clark Neptwnea cierboe1Ulis (Olark)
Dosinia sp. Nucella rankini Eaton and Grant
.Atniantis stalderi (Clark) Ocenebra selbyensis ( Olark)
Sawidormts n1tttalli Conrad Trophon (Forreria) carisaensis (Anderson)
Clementia (Bgesta) pertenuis (Gabb) Trophon (Forreria) carisae1Uli8 mirandaensis Eaton and Grant
Chione sp. 'l'rophon clarki cuyamanus Eaton and Grant
.Apolytnetis biangulata (Carpenter) [=Metis alta (Oonrad)] Trophon gillulyi Eruton and GraD!t
Solen sp. Trophon pabloensis Clark
Siliqua cf. S. lucida ( <J?nrad) 'l'urritella carri8aensi8 Anderson and MaJ."ltin
Tet·edo sp. Turritella oooperi Carpenter
[Supplementary list from USGS loc. M1619 (near head of second east- Turritella freya Nomland
draining gully due north of h1ll 1039, NW~SW~4 sec. 24, T. 32 S., 'l'urritella margaritmw Nomland
R. 29 E., collected by J. G. Vedder, 1962. Most of the taxa listed
•above are present at this locality] Pelecypods

Gastropods .Anaaara obi8poana ( Oon.red)

.Atw.dara trilineata (Conrad)
.Astmea cf. biang1tlata ( Gabb) [?=A. raymondi (Clark)]
.Apolym,eti8 biangulata (Carpenter)
Littot·ina mariana Arnold?
.Area s.·s. n. sp.
Calypt·raea tnan.,mila·ris Broderip 'l Chione sp.
Crepidula cf. C. adunca Sowerby Dosiniasp.
Crepidula princeps Conrad? Garisp.
Polinices sp. [may be Natica of Clark] Glyoymeris sp.
Neverita reclusiana (Deshayes) [may me Natica of Clark] Lucini8ca nuttallii (Conrad)
C68 PALEONTOLOGY

TAB~ 77.3.-Late Miocene mollusks from the San Luis Obispo Hall, C. A., Jr., 1960, Displaced Miocene molluscan provlnces
area-Continued along the San Andreas fault, California: OaUfornia Univ.,
Pelecypods-Continued Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 34, no. 6, p. 281--308.
--1962, Reply [to a review of Han (1960) by J. W. Durham
Lucin01na acutilineata (,Conrad)
and S. R. Primmer, in the same issue]: Am. Assoc. Petro-
Ostrea bourgeoisii Remond
leum Geologists Bull., v. 46, no.10, p.1953-1960.
Ostrea titan Conrad Hertlein, L. G., 1935, The Templeton Crocker ex.pediJtion of the
Ostrea titan eucorrugata Hertlein
California Academy of Sciences, 1932-No. 25, The Recent
Panope generosa Gould
Pectinidae: California Acad. Sci. Proc., 4th ser., v. 21, p.
Pecten ( Lyropeoten) crassicardo Conrad
301-328.
Pecten (Lyropecten) estrellanus Oonrad
Hoots, H. W., 1930, Geology and oil resources along the SOUlthern
Pecten ( Ohlamys) hodgei Hertlein
border of San Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey
Pecten ( .Aequipecten) raymondi (Tha.rk
Bull. 812-D, p. 243-332.
Saxidorwus nuttalUi (Conrad)
Keen, A. M., 1958, Sea shells of tropical west America ; marine
Schizothaerus nuttallii (Conrad)
mollusks from Lower California to Columbia : Stanford,
Solen sp. Oalif., Stanford University Press, 624 p.
Tivela sp.
Klffinpell, R. M., 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of California: Tulsa,
Trachycardium quadragenarium (Conrad)
Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, 450 p.
Yoldia sp.
Marks, J. G., 1949, Nomenclatural unlits and tropical American
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Jour. Paleontology, v. 23, no. 5, p. 453-464.
Barbat, W. F., and Johnson, F. L., 1934, Stratigraphy and Merrif}lll, C. W., 1941, Fossil Turritellas from the Pacific coast
Foraminifera of the Reef Ridge shale, upper Miocene, region of North America: California Univ., Dept. Geology
California: Jour. Paleontology, v. 8, ;p. 3-17. SC'i. Bull., v. 26, no.1, p.1-214.
Beck, R. S., 1952, Correlation cha!'lt of Oligocene, Miocene, Merri,a.m, J. C., 1916, Mammalian remains from the Chanac
Pliocene, and Pleistocene in San Joaquin VaHey and Cuyama Formatlion of the Tejon Hills, California: California Univ.,
Valley areas : Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Soc. Econ. Dept. Geology Bull., v. 10, no. 9, p. 111-127.
Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Soc. Explorrution Geo- Miller, R. H., and Bloom, C. V., 1937, Mountain View oil field:
physicists Guidebook, Joint Ann. Mtg., Los Angeles, Calif., California Div. Oil and Gas, Summary of Operations, Cali-
p.104. fornia Oil Fields Ann. Rept. 22, no. 4, p. 5-36.
Burch, J. Q., ed., 1944-46, Distribwtional list of the west Ameri- Miller, R. H., and Ferguson, G. C., 1943, Mountain View oil field:
can marine mollusks from San Diego, California, to the Californli.a Div. Mines Bull. 118, p. 565-570.
Nomland, J. 0., 1917, Fauna of the Santa Margarita beds in the
Polar Sea : Conchological Club Southern California Minutes,
North Coalinga reg.ion of California: California Univ., Dept.
nos. 33-63.
Geology Bull., v. 10, no. 18, p. 293-326.
Church, H. V., Jr., and Kmmmes, Kenneth, (chairmen) and Pack, R. W., 1920, The Sunset-Midway oil. field, California, pt. 1,
others, 1957, Cenozoic correlation section, south San Joa- Geology and oil resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
quin Valley: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Geol. 116,179 p.
Names and Oor.relations Comm., San Joaquin Val.ley Sub- Phleger, F. B., and Ewing, G. C., 1962, Sedimentology and ocean-
comm. on the Cenozoic. ography of coastal lagoons in Baja California, Mexico:
Crowell, J. C., 1952, Geology of the Lebec quadrangle, Cali- Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 73, p. 145-182.
fornia : California Div. Mines Spec. Rept. 24, 23 p. Pilsbry, H. A., and. Lowe, H. N., 1933, West Mexican and Central
Dall, W. H., 11909, Report on a collection of shells from Peru, American mollusks collected by H. N. Lowe, 1929-1931:
with a summary of the littoral marine Mollusca of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc., v. 84, p. 33-144.
Peruvian zoological P,rovince: U.S. Nat. Museum Proc., v. Preston, H. M., 1931, Report on Fruitvale oil field : California
37, p. 147-294. Div. Oil and Gas, Summary of Operations, California Oil
Durham, J. W., 1950a, Cenozoic marine climates of the Pacific Fields Ann. Rept. 16, no. ·4, p. 5-24.
Coast: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 1243-1264. Simonson, R. R., and Krueger, M. L., 1942, Crocker Flat land;
slide area. Temblor Range, California : Am. Assoc. Petro-
Durham, J. W., 1950b, Megascopic paleontology and marine
leum Geologists Bull., v. 26, no. 10, p. 1608-1631.
stratig·raphy, pt. 2 of The 1940 E. W. Scripps cruise to the
Strong, A.M., and Lowe, H. _N., 1936, W~st American ,spec!ies of
Gulf of California : Geol. Soc. America Mem. 43, 216 p.
the genus Pho8: San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Trans., v. 8, p.
Emerson, W. K., 1956, Pleistocene inyertebrates from Punta 305-320.
China, Baja California, Mexico, with remarks on the Valentine, J. w., 1961, Paleoecologic molluscan geography of the
composition of the Pacific Coast Qwaternary faunas: Am. Californian Pl~istocene : California Univ., Dept. Geol. Sci.
Mus. Nat. Hist. BuH., v. 111, art. 4, p. 317-342.
Grant, U. S., IV, and Gale, H. R., 1931, Catalogue of the Marine
Bull., v. 34, no. 7, p. 309-442.
Valentine, J. W., and Meade, R. F., 1961, Californian Pleistocene .
If
Pliocene and Pleistocene Mollusca of California : San Diego paleotemperatures: Californ:ia Unliv., Dept. Geol~ Sci. Bull.,
Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem., v. 1, 1,036 p. v.40,no.1,p.1-46.
 )-

Article 78
'r•
LATE PLEISTOCENE DIATOMS FROM THE ARICA AREA, CHILE

By ROBERT j. DINGMAN and KENNETH E. LOHMAN, Washington, D.C.

Work done 4n cooperation with the Instituto cJ.e Investigaci6nes Geol6gicas,

Santiago, Ohile, under the auspice8 of the Agency for International Development,

•· rT.S. Depart_ment of State

Ab8traot.-The extensive Tertiary ( ?) sequence of ash-flow consists of 3 coarse-grained sedimentary members inter-
and detrital deposits in the Arica area was studied. Samples bedded with 2 intercalated welded-tuff members. Doyel
from wlthln the Lluta Formation and from strata underlying
it were barren of microfossils.. Samples from two deposits of
and Henriquez (written communication, 1962) proposed
diatomaceous earth overlying ·the formation or interbedded in the name Lluta Formation for the same sequen.ce in the
the upper part indicate a probable late Pleistocene age. Arica area. The presence of the pyroclastic members
within the sequence suggested the name given to the
formation by Bertrand (1885), "Traquitica"; and by
A thick sequence of ash flows and fnterbedded fan-
Bruggen (1918}, "Liparitica" and "Riolitica". The
glomerate locally associated with deposits of diatomace-
last two formation names are still in general use, al-
ous earth mantles much of northern Chile western
though they are misnomers inasmuch as volcanic rocks
Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, and south~rn Peru.
make up less than 10 percent of the formation in many
In general the sediments are coarse grained, poorly
areas.
sorted, and poorly stratified. The crossbedding of the
water-laid sediments indicates deposition from areas The determination of the age of this sequence, which
that correspond to the present areas of high relief. For extends over many thousands of square kilometers arid
example, in northern Chile the direction of deposition may be 2,000 m thick in some localities, has been one
was westward from the Andes Mountains, and the of the main problems of Chilean geology. The se-
sequence is preserved in the attitude in which it was de- quence is generally considered to be of Tertiary or
posited, with few exceptions. Along much of the west- possibly Quaternary age (table 78.1). It is of con-
ern slope of the Andes the uppermost ash-flow bed is a tinental origin and contains no diagnostic vertebrate or
moderately welded tuff that forms the present land sur- invertebrate fossils, nor is it known to interfinger with
face ·and slopes uniformly 3° to 5°·W. Below ·an alti- marine deposits. All the ages assigned in table 78.1
tude of approximately 2,000m the tuff bed is mantled by are, therefore, only estimates by the various authors.
a thick series of detrital material. Bowman (1909) mis- The only fossil evidence is the classification by Douglas
interpreted this depositional surface in the Pica area (1914) of fragments of a jawbone from the Stratos de
of Chile as a peneplain, and upon this interpretation Rio Mauri as being from a N esodon similar to that of
based his still widely accepted theory of Pleistocene a Miocene species from the Santa Cruz Formation of
uplift of the Andes. Argentina.
The volcanic-clastic sequence has been described by In June 1960 an attempt was made to date the Lluta
many geologists and has been assigned many names. Formation of the Arica area by means of diatoms.
The most complete description was made by Galli and Samples were collected from the shales of the
Dingman (1962) in the Pica area, where the deposits (marine~) Arica Formation, which underlies the
were named the Altos de Pica Formation. The Altos de Lluta Formation with marked angular unconformity;
Pica Formation in the type locality is 735 m thick and from dolomitic beds intercalated within the Lluta For-
ART. 78 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C69-C72. 1963.

069

,,..
C70 PALEONTOLOGY

TABLE 78.1.-Tertiary and Quaternary formations in northern Chile and adjoining areas

Chile
(Doyel
Chile and
(Galli Hen- Chile
Period Epoch Bolivia (.Douglas, Bolivia (Ablfeld, Peru (Jenks, Chile (Bruggen, Argentina (Groeber, and riguez, (Ding-
1914) 1946) 1948) 1950) 1957) Ding- written man,
man, com- 1963)
1962) munica-
tlon,
1962)

I>. CD
--
~ s:l
= s:l~
CD
C)
Rio Utica =
""'
~:::;
.s-~ Formacion 1 0
~
...
c::
.9~
~Ill
Cl:SO
~ (Chile) g:S
.9 s~
Cl ~ s ~
g:S a~
""'0
~ s .... ~
8 g:S ""'
0 "CO
CDc;::l
~
0
Estratos del
Rio Mauri 1
Araucaniano
Formacion ~
C) ~
g:S
s·
g:S...c:l
:.= +" s:l~
~ CD
"0
:::;
;::s =
po..
Ill
Liparitica 0
8 Formacion 1 ;::
~ Mauri Volcanic Rio Utica <
0
Series 1 Formacion 1
~ (1950)
-??-
?--
CD
I>.
""'
=
~ s Chacani
s:IC::
.9.9
.~ ~
~
~ Ill Volcanics +"~
Cl:Sg:S
§s:~
""'CD
E-t
:.=
0
I>.
00 .... 0
+" ....
ss
0 --? s
g:S~
g:S
""'""'
oo
~~
CD ""'
0 ,..S
=
~
C)

""'
0
o""'
~0
~
Orll
~~
0
r.1
0
·a g:S ~_g
g:Sc:l
=s
~~
g:Sg:S
ooE-t
8
~ San Pedro
0
~ Formacion
~
J Stratigraphically and lithologically equivalent to the Altos de Plea Formation.

mation; and froni deposits of diatomaceous earth that northeast of Arica and 4 km east of the coast on a head-
overlie or are intercalated in the uppermost beds of the land approximately 240m above sea level. The diatoms
Lhita Formation (table 78.2). The locations of the from this outcrop were .studied by Frenguelli (1938),
sampled localities are indicated in figure 78.1. who gave a different location for the deposits. How-
All 17 of the samples listed in table 78.2 were ever,. the samples examined by Frenguelli were ob-
disaggregated, concentrated for diatoms, and systemat- tained from Dr. Humberto Fuenzalida, present director
'ically examined under the microscope. Five samples of the School of Geology at the University of Chile,
( 5272, 5273, 5283, 5287, and 5288,} proved to be devoid who had been given them by Senor Tomas Vila.
of diatoms. Because many of the remaining 12 samples Senores Fuenzalida and Vila have agreed (oral com-
had ·very similar diatom assemblages, 7 were selected munication, 1963) that the earlier samples were ob-
for intensive study. The diatoms found in them are tained from the same deposit that was sampled during
listed in table 78.3. It will be noted that several were this investigation. .
selected from each of the two productive localities. This deposit probably formed in a shallow fresh-
Unfortunately, two of the barren samples (5272 and water lake that may have been a sag pond along one
5273) came from the older marine(?) sediments that of the north-trending faults of the area. The deposit
unconformably underlie the Lluta Formation; thus no overlies an ash-flow bed of the Lluta Formation and
inferences can be made concerning these beds except may be overlain by the upper detrital member of the
that they are older, according to the field evidence. formation. Unfortunately, the upper part of the Lluta
All samples containing diatoms were obtained from Formation is lithologically identical with the more re-
the two deposits of diatomaceous earth listed in table cent colluvial deposits of the area so that it is possible
78.2. The larger of these deposits is 7lf2 km north- that the coarse sediments that overlie the eastern part
 DINGMAN AND LOHMAN C71
70"00'
TABLE 78.2.-.List otsampZes colleotea tor aiatom aetermination 18"..------,---------r--.,..---------,
USGS dwtom Location
locaUty on fig. 78.1 LocaUon and description o! samples
.~
5272 1 5 4 km northeast of Arica, Chile ; clay pit in
)
the Arica Formation 200m east of Esso oil
tanks. Sample ·from unconsolidated ma-
rine ( ? ) sediments of probable early to mid-
dle Tertiary age which are overlain with
marked angular unconformity by .the Lluta
(upper Tertiary to Recent) Formation.
5278 1 5 Same locality as 5272.
5274 1 Approximately 'Ph km northeast of Arica,
Chile; 3 km east of Pan-American highway.
Samples from deposit of diatomaceous
earth overlying or intercalated in the
Lluta Formation. -samples 5274-5279 were
taken by channeling the exposed vertical
face of the deposits. Sample 5274 from
0-1.6 m above base of sampled interval.
5275 1 Same locality as 5274. Interval 1.6-2.25 m.
5276 1 Same locality as 5274. Inte:rval 2.2~.45 m.
5277 1 Same locality as 5274. Interval 4.45-5.85 m.
5278 1 Same locality as 5274. Interval 5.85-7.1 m.
5279 1 Same locality as 5274. Interval 7.1-7.65 m. w··~
0 ·.
5280 1 Same locality as 5274. Layer of very pure ~···- ...
diatomaceous earth.
5281 1 Same locality as 5274. Layer of very pure
diatomaceous earth.
5282 1 Same locality as 5274. Caprock overlying
deposit of diatomaceous earth.
5288 1 8 Arica, Chile. Dolomite quarry in Quebrada
.... Diablo, 20 km east of Arica. Dolomite is
0 30 KILOMETERS
10 20
intercalated in the Lluta Formation.
5284 2 Boca Negra, Chile. Deposit of diatomaceous
earth in the Lluta Valley. Deposit overlies FIGURE 78.1.-Map of the Arica area, Chile, showing the loca·
or is intercalated in uppermost part of the tions from which samples were collected. 1, Arica diatom
Lluta Formation. deposit; 2, Boca Negra diatom deposit; S, Dolomite beds;
5285 2 Same locality as 5284. 4, Chaca diatom deposit; 5, Tertiary sediments.
5286 2 Same locality as 5284.
5287 1 4 5.1 km south of the Chaca, Chile, police sta- diatomite near Arica by Frenguelli (1938), who con·
tion. Impure dolomite bed intercalated in
sidered it to be late Pleistocene. Because the last
the Lluta Formation, on south side of
Quebrada Chaca. species, N avioula fue'l12alida, occurs conuponly in the
5288 1 4 Same locality as 5287. Lluta Formation, more importance can be attached to
1 No diatoms found. it. The balance of the species found, with the excep-
tion of two thought to be new, are represented in living
of the diatomaceous deposit may be younger in age assemblages. The diatoms indicate a late Pleistocene
than the Lluta Formation. The same stratigraphic age for the diatomaceous earth.
situation exists at Boca Negra, where the diatomaceous- Some species of diatoms from the Lluta Formation
earth deposit overlies the uppermost ash flow and is (marked by the footnote reference in table 78.3) also
overlain by coarse sediments. occur in the Calama basin in the limestone considered
by Frenguelli (1936) to be early Pleistocene. However,
The extensive assemblage of diatoms obtained con-
the most abundant species in all the collections studied
tains three extinct species, M atJtogloia atacamae, Melo-
for this report is Dentioula elegaJnB, a Recent form that
sira spilnigera and N avioula fue'l12alida, the first two of
goes back to late Tertiary. It is rare in the Calama
which were originally described from a lacustrine lime-
basin. Although the diatomaceous deposits in which
stone in the Calama basin, Chile. The limestone has these collections were made may be early Pleistocene
been called early Pleistocene by Frenguelli ( 1936) on in age, the evidence for a late Pleistocene age is much
, the basis of somewhat tenuous stratigraphic correla- more compelling. The diatom assemblages indicate
tions. These two species occur rarely in the present deposition in a nonmarine, though somewhat saline,
material. The last species was described from the shallow lake, whose waters were cool to cold.

...
C72 PALEONTOLOGY

TABLE 78.3.-Diatoms identified from the Lluta Formation in TABLE 78.3.-Diatoms identified from the Lluta Formation in
the Arica area the A rica area-Continued
[A, abundant; C, common; F, frequent; R, rare. Numbers in boxheads are USGS [A, abundant; C, common; F fiequent; R, rare. Numbers in boxheads are USGS .....
diatom localities] diatom localities]

8 km northeast of Arica BocaNegra 8 km northeast of Arica BocaNegra

Diatom Diatom
5274 5276 5279 5280 5282 5284 5286 5274 5276 5279 5280 5282 5284 5286
------------1-------------- ------------1·-- ------------ ....\
Achnanthes cf. A. micro- Pinnularia major (Kiitzing)
cephala Kiitzing 1 ____________ F ___________________ _ Cleve__________________ _ __ _ ___ _ ____ R _______ .____ _
Amphora acutisculaKi.itzing __ ________________________ R virid~s (Nitzsch)
lineata Ehrenberg______ ____ ____ __ __ ____ ____ R ___ _ Kutzmg_ _ _____ ___ __ ___ _ __ __ ___ _ R ___________ _
salina Wm. Smith _________ F ___________________ _ sp _ _ _ ________ _____ ___ R ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ _
cf. A. salina Wm. Smith _____ R ____ F ____ R ___ _ Rhopalodia gibberula
sp_-------------- ____ R _______________________ _ (Ehrenberg) Muller ______ F _______________________ _
Anomoeoneis sphaerophora gibberula var. ru pestris
(Kiitzing) Pfitzer _ _ _____ _ F Grunow 1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ R ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ _
F
Caloneis formosa (Gregory) musculus (Kiitzing)
Cleve__________________ ____ ___ _ ____ ____ ____ ____ R Muller_____________ ___ _ __ __ ____ R ___________ _
Cocconeis placentula var. Syn~~ra_ tabulata (Agardh)
euglypta (Ehrenberg) Kutzmg_ _ __ ___ ______ ___ ___ _ __ __ ____ R ___________ _
Cleve 1 - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ F ____ ____ F R R F ulna (Nitzsch) Ehren-
Cymbella cf. C. gracilis berg 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C C C R ____ C
(Rabenhorst) Cleve____ ____ ____ ____ ____ __ __ ____ F
turgida (Gregory) Cleve 1 _____ R ___________________ _
sp- - - - - - - - - - - _- - - ___ ___ C ____ __ __ ___ _ ____ ____ _ ___ _ • Also occur in lacustrine limestone of the Calama basin.
Denticula elegans Kiitzing 1__ A A R A F A A REFERENCES
kittoniana Grunow_ ____ ____ ____ __ __ ____ ____ ___ _ F
tenuis var. crassula Ahlfeld, Friedrich, 1946, Geologia .de Bolivia: La Plata, Argen-
(Naegli) Hustedt ____________________________ F tina, Mus. La Plata Rev. (nueva serie), Secci6n Geol., v. 3,
valida Grunow 1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ F _______________________ _
p. 3-370.
Epithemia turgida var.
granulata (Ehrenberg) Bertrand, A., 1885, Memoria sobre las Cordilleras del Desierto
Kiitzing 1 _______________ R ________ F ___________ _ de Atacama i rejiones limitrofes: Santiago, Chile, Imprenta
Fragilaria construens ,var. }·
Nac.
subsalina Hustedt ____________ F ___________________ _
Bowman, Isaiah, 1909, The physiography of the central Andes:
Gompho.nema intricatum
Kutzing ____________________ F ___________________ _ ·Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., v. 29, no. 165, p. 197-217.
lanceolatum Ehrenberg __ R _______________________ _ Bruggen, Juan, 1918, Infrome sobre el agua subterranea de la
lanceolatum var. in- rejion de Pica: Santiago, Ohile, Soc. Nac. de Mineria.
signis (Gregory) - - - 1950, Fundamentos de la geologia de Chile: S·antiago,
Cleve ____ ._ _____________________ F ___________ _
longiceps var. gracilis Chile, Instituto Geografico Militar.
Hustedt_ _ ___ _______ ___ _ ____ ____ R ___________ _ Dingman, R. J., 1963, Quadrangulo Tulor, Antofogasto Province,
Mastogloia atacamae Chile: Santiago, Ohile, Instituto Inv. Geol., Oarta Geol.
Hustedt 1 _______________________________________ R
Mastogloia elliptica de Chile, v. 4 [In press]
(Agardh) Cleve ______________ F ____________ R C Douglas, J. A. 1914, Geological sections through the Andes of
elliptica var. dansei Peru and Bolivia, pt. !-From the coast of Africa in the
(Thwaites) Cleve ____ F F ________________ C
sp _ _ ___ ____ __ _ ____ ___ ____ ____ ___ _ ____ ____ ____ R north of Chile to La Paz and the Bolivian "Yungas": Geol.
Melosira spinigera Hustedt 1_____________________ R ___ _ Soc. London Quart. Jour., v. 70, p.1-53.
Navicula cari Ehrenberg ________________ F ___________ _ Frenguelli, Joaquin, 1936, Diatomeas de la Caliza de la Cuenca
cryptocephala Kiitzing_ _ F F ___________________ _ de Cal•ama: Mus. la Plata Rev. (nueva serie'), Seccfon
cryptocephala var. · paleontologia, v. I, p. 3-34. -~
veneta (Kiitzing)
Grunow_ _ _ _________ ____ R ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ _ - - - 1938, Analisis microscopico del tri-poli de Arica : Santi-
cuspidata Kiitzing_ _ _ _ _ ____ ____ ____ _ ___ _ ___ ___ _ F ago, Chile, Dept. Minas y Petroleos, Ministerio de Fomento.
fuenzalida Frenguelli_ ______ F ________ R _______ _ Galli, C. 0., and Dingman, R. J., 1962, Quadrangulos Pica, Alca,
lanceolata (Agardh) M:atilla y ChacariHa: Santiago,_ Ohile, Instituto Inv. Geol.,
Kiitzing_ _ __________ ____ R ___________________ _
pupula var. capitata . Carta. Geol. de Ohile, v. 3, nos. 2, 3,-4, and 5, 125 p., 11 pl.
Hustedt_ _ _______ ___ F F ___________________ _ Groeber, P.alblo, 1957, Chile, pt. 7 of Amerique Latine, in Ho:lf-
cf. M. simplex Krasske_ ---- ________ R ___________ _ stetter and others, Lexique Stratigraphique International:
sp- - - - - - - ____________ - - - - R - - - - ____ ____ ____ R
Nitzschia cf. N. sublinearis Paris, France, Comm. Stratigraphy, Internat. Geol. Cong.,
Hustedt_ _ ______________ R _______________________ _ v. 5, p.195.
sp- ___ - _________ ____ _ ___ - ___ _ __- - ____ ____ ____ R Jenks, ·W. F., 1948, Geologi•a de la Hoja de Arquipa: ~ma,
See footnotes at end of table. Peru, Direcci6n de Minas y Petroleo Bull. 9.

I!·
 Article 79

POSSIBLE PLEISTOCENE-RECENT BOUNDARY

IN THE GULF OF ALASKA, BASED ON BENTHONIC FORAMINIFERA

By PATSY B. SMITH, Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.-of 10 cores from sed-iments in the Gulf of Alaska,

7 contained boreal faunas throughout, similar to those living
in the 'area tod:ay, ·and 3 cont8.'ined boreal foraminiferal faunas 58°00'I------1--1-----+---..,5~1ti'Z"l
at the top and Arctic faunas in the lower part. It is inferred
.\ from the cores that the change in faunas marks a possible
Pleistocene-Recent bound,ary in the sed-iments.

In the spring of 1961, 10 cores were taken by scient~sts

on the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Pioneer
from sediments in the Gulf of Alaska, west and south-
west of J(odiak Island (fig. 79.1). The coring was done
under the direction of Lt. Comdr. H. P. Nygren, ocean-
ographer of the Pioneer, and the samples were ex-
amined by G. W. Moore, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo
Park, 'Calif. Eight cores were obtained with ·a
Phleger coring tube and two with a modified Ewing
piston coring tube. Five of the cores are from the Con-
tinental Shelf (at depths of 76 to 240 meters) and
five are ·from the north scarp of the A'leutian Trench
(at depths of 810 to 5,540 meters) (table 79.1).
The top centimeter of each core was preserved in
ethanol so that living Foraminifera could be recognized
TAnLE 19.1.-Location ana length of cores ana description of
the top centimeter of sediment

Location
Core
Coro Depth length Sediment Colort 0 50 100 MILES
No. Latl- Longi- (m) (om)
tudo tude
(north) (west)
- - - - --- - -
1 _______ Clayey silt_ _________ Dark greenish
FIGURE 79.1.-Map of part of the Gulf of Alaska, showing station
57°18' 155°20' 230 56 loeati'ons. Depth contours in meters.
3 _______ gray.
54°33! 157°24' 2,070 6 _____ do ____ ---------- Olive gray.
4_ ------ 55°31' 156°16' 240 122 Medium sand _______ Grayish olive.
5 _______ Clayey silt_ _________
55°17' 155°09' 1,950 33 Do. by a stain test for protein. Generally, !-centimeter
6_ ------ 55°52' 154°25' 810 54 Clayey very fine Grayish olive
sand. green.
7 _______
56°25' 155°36' 76 15 Very fine sand ______ Dark greenish samples were taken at 10-centimeter intervals from the
gray.
8 _______
9 _______ 55°36' 158°23' 146 101 Sandy silt ___________ Olive gray. remainder of each core. From these samples, distribu-
54°55' 157°59' 117 72 Pebbly medium Dark greenish
sand.
Clayey silt __________
gray. tion of successively older faunas was determined and
10_ -----
11 ______ 54°51' 155°24' 4,170 13 Do.
54°27' 155°23' 5,540 43 _____ do ____ ---------- Olive gray. the age and depositional environment df the cored sedi-
t Color of tho wet sediment follows the convention or Goddard and others (1948)
ments were interpreted.
ART. 78 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C. ;PAGES C73-C77. 1963.
073
C74 STRATIGRAPHY

Living and dead faunas (table 79.2) from the tops las, Bulimlinella elegantissirna, Uvigerina hollicki,
of all the cores are similar to those from the boreal V irgulina paucilo(fUlata, and E pistominella pacifica
waters of the Continental Shelf and Slope off Washing- (generally a bathyal species off California).
ton, Oregon, and California. A few species character- The ·present bathyal faunas in the Gulf of Alaska
istic of arctic waters are present in the samples from (cores 6, 5, 3) (810-2,070 meters) have a wider distribu-
the Continental Shelf and Slope in the Gulf of Alaska, tion than the shallow faunas; many of the species occur
but most forms characteristic of Arctic water are not at similar depths not only off Washington, Oregon, and
present (Phleger, 1952; Loeblich and Tappan, 1953; California, but also off the coast of Central America
. Green, 1960) .
(Smith, 1963). Included in these faunas are BoUvina
The shallow (76-240 meters) benthonic faunas of the
shelf samples (cores 9, 8, 7, 4, 1) are similar to those of argentea, B. s[J'Msa, Bulimitna marginospinata, B. suba-
the Continental Shelf off Washington, Oregon, and mvminata, and most commonly, Uvi'gerina peregrina.
·northern California (Enbysk 1 ; Bandy, 1953). Char- The present abyssal faunas (cores 10, 11) ( 4,170 and
acteristic species are most of theNonions and Nonionel- 5,540 meters) -are composed almost entirely of arena-
1 EnbY'Sk. B. J .. 1960, Distribution of Foraminifera in the northern
ceous species, very similar to faunas found i11; deep north
Pacific: Univ. Washington, Ph. D. thesis. Pacific waters from the Aleutian Trench to Hawaii.
TABLE 79.2.-:Foraminifera in the top centimeter of each core
[Abundance given as percentage of dead faunas. Number of living specimens shown in parentheses]

~ Depth zone Shelf Bathyal Abyssal

~ Core No. 7 91 8 1 4 6 5 3 10 11

Species '-..~ Depth (m) 76 117 146 230 240 810 1,950 2,070 4,170 5,540

Arenaceous

Adercotrema glomeratum (Brady) ____________ ------------ 1 2. 5 <1(4) -------- ------ ______ ------ 1
.Alveophragmium nitidum (Goes) _____________ ------------ 4. 5 1 <1 1 ------ ------ 15 8
A. ringens (Brady) _____________________________________________________________________________________ _ <1
A. subglobosum (G. 0. Sars) ______________________ -------------------------------------------------- 10 1
A. weisneri (Parr) ________________________ -. ___ __ _ _____ _ ________ ________ __ ______ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ __ __ __ ____ __ . <1
Ammobaculites agglutinans (d'Orbigny) _____________ ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ 9

~:Ammoglobigerina
~~g~ti~:~ifiiif::~~<;~:~~ii(_-~ ~ =====and
3
== ======= === ========= == === ==== ==== ===== ====== ======= ==== ==== ====== 6. 5
globigeriniformis (Parker
Jones)--------------------------------- ____________ --------------------------------______ <1 10 2
Ammomarginulina foliacea (Brady)__________ __ ___ _ __ ___ _ ______ __ _______ _ ___ ____ _ ______ __ _____ _ _ __ ___ 5 2
Bigenerina minutissima (Earland) _ _ _ ___ __ ___ ____ __ ______ <
1 _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ < 1

g;i::r~i:;~~~~u!t~~~:~i--_-~ ~ ==== ======= ------

C. trullissata (Brady)______________________ ______ =
_=
_=
_==
__=_ ==
__==
_ _=
_=
__==
_=_=
_====
_ _ _ _=
_=_ ===
_ _ _=
_=
_=
__=_==== === =
1=____
_______=
_=
<_=
_=
_== ~
__ ====5== ----- 1 <i
<
Cystammina galeata (Brady)________________ ______ ___ ___ ________ ____ ____ _______ _ _____ ___ __ ____ _ ____ _ 5 _______ _
Eggerella bradyi (Cushman) _______________________ ---------------------- ________ -------- 7 10 30 1
Eggerella p!!Jyinqua (Brady) ________________ ------------------------------------ 1 ------ ------ --,---- --------
E. scabra (Williamson) _________________ .:.___ 1 ____ __ 2( 1) 2 7 ______ __ ____ __ 1. 5 _____________ _
Gaudryina SP-'---------------------------- ------ -------------- -------- <1 -------- ------ ------ ------ -------- ~I
Glomospira gordialis (Jones and Parker) ____________ -------------------------------------------------------- 2
Haplophragmoides canariensis (d'Orbigny) ____ ------ ------ 1 -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ -------- .;
Hyperammina and Astrorhiza spp __________________ ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ Frag. A

}:~~k~~:~!~~:iBr<:d;~~!~== =====____________
Karreriella apicularis (Cushman) === == ======== =====
------ ==: ====: === ==== ===== ======== === == ==== ==== == ==== ==== ====
______ ---------------------------------~---~------------ <1 <~
Nodellum membranaceum (Brady) ____________ -------------------------------------------------------------- <1
Placopsilina bradyi Cushman and McCulloch_-----..., ______ -------- ____ .____ -------- ________ ------------------ 7
Psammosphaera fusca Schulze _________________________________________________________ .: _______ -- __ -- ------ 6
Reophax bacillaris Brady.... _ _ _______ __ _______ ______ ______ 1 __ _ __ _ _ _ <
1 _____________________ - _- _-- --------
R. difflugiformis Brady ___________________________ ------------------------------ <1 2 ------ 10 16 ._,
~: ;~~~;;:~~~~j~~~~::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::: ::::::i: :::::::: :::::::: :::::::: :::::: :::::: ::::::
R. scotti Chaster ____________________________·___________ -------------------------------- 5. 5 ------ ------ --------
2
~
Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and Jones)_-----------~ 1. 5 <1 l 1 ------ _____ :.. 5 --------
Textularia torquata Parker__________________ __ __ __ ____ __ 1 _ _ _ __ _ _ _ < 1 < 1 ______ - _---- ------ --------
Trochammina grisea Heron-Allen and Earland __________________________________________ -- ___ --- ___ - --- ------ <1
T. cf. I. inflata (Montagu) ______________________________ -------- -------- <1 <1 ------ ------ ------ --------
T. kellettae. Thalmann______________________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 1 1 ( 1) __ ____ 2 ------ --------
T. cf. T. malovensis Heron-Allen and Earland_ ------ ______ -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ 1

See footnote at end of table .

 SMITH C75
'!'ABLE 79.2.-Foraminifera; in the top centimeter ot each core-Continued
[Abundance given as percentage of dead faunas. Number of llvlng specimens shown In parentheses]

~ Depth zone Shelf Bathyal Abyssal

~ Core No. 7 91 8 1 4 6 5 3 10 11

Bpeoles
~ Depth (m) 76 117 146 230 240 810 1,950 2,070 4,170 5,540

Calcareous benthonic

Angulogerina angulosa (Williamson) __________ ------ (1) -------- -------- 5(4) 2 5. 5 ------ --------
Astrononion gaUowayi toeblich and Tappan __ ------------ 1 -------- <1(1) 1 2 ------ ------ --------
Bolivina argentea Cushman_-_---_---------- ____ -- _----- ___ ---- ______ - -- ____ ---- <
1 ------ ------ ------ ------- _
B. decussata BradY------------------------ 10 (3) 2 <1(1) 9(4) 2. 5 ------ <1 ------ --------
B. pacifica Cushman and McCulloch--------- 1 .(3) 1(2) <1 <1 1 ------ <1(2) ------ --------
B. pseudobeyrichi Cushman _____________ .:, ___ ---------------------------- <1 <1 ------ ------ ------ --------
B. BpisBa· Cushman _______________________________ - -- ___ ----- __ ____ ____ ______ __ 17 ( 11) ___ - __ < 1 - _---- ----- __ _
Buccellafrigida (Cushman)----------------------- (1) 3. 5 <1 <1 -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
Bulimina of. B. auriculata Bailey ____________ ------ (1) -------- -------- -------- -~------ 2 ------ ------ _____ .:, __
B. marginospinata Cushman and Parker ______ ------------------------------------ 1(2) 5. 5 ------ ------ --------
B. subacuminata Cushman-------------------------------------- -------- -------- 13(5) ------ ------ ------ --------
Buliminella elegantissima (d'Orbigny)________ 1 ------ <1(1) -------- 1 -------- ------ ------ ------ ------·--
B. subfusiformis Cushman------------------------------------------------------ 3(2) ------ <1 _____ ..; --------
CasBidulinacushmani R. E. and K. C. Stewart_----------------~------------------- 8(3) ------ ------ ------ --------
C. islandica nprvangi Thalmann _____________ ------------ 2 4(6) 1 -------- ------ 21 ------ --------
C. norcrossi Cushman ______________________ ------------ 1(1) <1 1 -------- 2 <1 ------ --------
C. of. C. subglobosa BradY--------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1) --------
Cibicideslobatulus (Walker and Jacob) _______ ------ (2) -------- -------- <1(1) <1 ------ ------ ------ --------
Ehrenbergina SI!_--------------------------- ------ ------ -------- -------- -------- 1 ------ ------ ------ --------
Elphidium of. E. incertum (Williamson) _______ -------------------- <1 <1 -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
E. magellanicum Heron-Allen and Earland____ 10 ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
Epistominella exigua (Brady)________________ 37 (1) 17(4) 13(43) 33(15) <1 ------ 32(1) ------ --------
E. pacifica (Cushman) __ ,.. __________________ -------------------- 15(9) 4. 5(3) <1 ------ ------ ------ --------
Eponides tenera (Brady) ____________________ ------------ -------- -------- -------- -------- 4 ------ ------ --------
Eponides tumidulus (Brady) ________________ ------------ 2. 5 -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ --·-----
Globobulimina pacifica Cushman _____________ ---------------------------- <1(4) <1 ------ _____ : ------ --------
Lagenid SPP------------------------------- 1 ------ <1 <1 1 2. 5 2 ------ ------ --------
Loxostomum amygdaliformis (Brady) _________ ------ (1) -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
Nonio7 of. N. de'ftressulum (Walker and Jacob)_ ------ ------ -------- -------- 2. 5(6) -------- ------ 6 ------ --------
N. grateloupi (d Orbigny)___________________ 1 ------ <1 4 <1 -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
N. labradoricum (Dawson>------------------ ------ (8) 5(3) 1 <1(2) -------- 2 ------ ------ --------
Nonionella auricula Heron-Allen and Earland_ ------ ------ --~----- -------- -------- 1 15(8) 1 ------ --------
N. bradii Chapman------------------------ 7 ------ 9(6) 6 12 -------- ------ ------ ------ --------
N. globosa Ishiwada ________________________ ------ ------ 8(5) <1 <1 1(2) 2 ------ ------ --------
N. miocenica Btella Cushman ________________ -------------------- 2. 5(20) -------- -------- ------ ------ ------ ___ :., ___ _
Pullenia bulloides (d'Orbi~ny) _______________ ------ ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- 4 ------ ------ --------
P. subcarinata (d'Orbigny)------------------ ------ (1) -------- -------- <1 1 2 ------ ------ --------
~~~~y:z~~~~~~~=~--:::~::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::: ------~- ------~- ~~> :::::::: :::::: :::::: :::::: ::::::::
~~i~!~::~~lli~f{Th-ai~;~~:::::::::::::::: ----~- ---(i) --5~5{4) --i7(i8) ---i9(5) :::::::: :::::: :::::: :::::: ::::::::
U. peregrina Cushman _____________________ ------------------------------------ 14(15) 4 3. 5 ------ --------
Valvulineria SP---------------------------- ------ ------ -------- 1 -------- 2(1) 2 <1(2) ------ --------
~~'%e~'!~S:~u~~~t~-~~~~:::::::::::::::: ---~~- ---~~~ --~~~~~~ ------~- --~~~~~ :::::::: ----4- ----~- :::::: ::::::·::
V. spinosa Heron-Allen and Earland _________ ------ ------ <1 1. 5 <1 -------- ------ <1 ------ --------

Planktonic

Globigerina bulloid~s d'Orbigny______________ 16 ------ -------- 4. 5 <1 4 9 <1 ------ --------

G. pachyderma Ehrenberg ___________________ ---------------~---- 11 4 11 9 10 -----"" --------
.... Globigerinita uvula (Ehrenberg) __ :____________
-----------------------1-----
3 ------ --------
-------------------------------- <1 2 <1
Total dead population ______________ _ 67 196 260 1, 200 190 26 175 20 928

• Only Uvtng speotmens counted, as reworked Pleistocene(?) specimens are present.

Faunas from belo·w the top of the cores were also and in core 9, within the first 2 centimeters. All three
examined. Cores 1, 5, 6, and 7 contained faunas over cores contain similar faunas, and except for the depth
the length of the core similar to those at the top. Cores of the faunal break the three cores are similar. The
4, 8, and 9 contained boreal faunas at the top but arctic upper layer, characterized by a Recent fauna, generally
benthonic faunas in the lower part. In core 4 (table ·thins toward the edge of the shelf. The bSJthyal and
79.3) the chan~ in faunas occurs between 26 and 29 abyssal faunas in cores 3, 5, 10, and 11 show no signifi-
centimeters; in core 8, between 80 and 90 centimeters; cant change from top to bottom.
~270-68-6
 C76 STRATIGRAPHY

TABLE 79.8.-Distributicm of Foram4nifera in core 4

[Abundance given as percentage of dead faunas. Number of living specimens in top 2 em is shown 1n parentheses)
I

~ Age Recent Pleistocene(?) ~'

Species~ Depth in core (em) Q-2 2-14 114-26 26-29 1 29-32 1 41-42 1 51-52 1 61-62 1 71-72 1 81-82 j 91-92 1101-102

Arenaceous

Adercotrema glo~ratum (Brady)________ <1(4) <1 ------ ______ ------ ------ ______ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
Alveophragmium nitidum (Goes)-------- <1 . <1. ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ __________________ ------
A. ringens (Brady) _____ --- __ --- __ .:___ _____ __ _ < 1 ___________________________________________________________ _
Eggerella bradyi (Cushman)____________ ________ <1 ------ ______ ------ ------ ______ ------ ____________ ------ ------
E. scabra (Williamson)________________ 7(5) <1 ------ ______ ------ ------ ______ ------ ------ ______ ------ ------
Gaudryina sp ____ --- ~ _______ - _______ - < 1 < 1 1 < 1 < 1 ______ .:. _____________________________ --- _--
Haplaphragmoides SPP----------------- -------- <1 ------ ____________ ------ ______________________ .:._ ------ ------
Karreriella bradyi (Cushman) __________ --------------------
Reophax bacillaris Brady_ _ _ _ __________ < 1 ______ ______ ____2__ __<1 ________________________ ------ ______ ------
____ _'- ____ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ _____ _
R. difflugijormis Brady________________ ________ < 1 ___________________________________________________________ _
Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and
Jone~----------------------------
Textularia torquata Parker ____________ _
Trochammina cf. T. injlata (Montagu) __
T. kellettae Thalmann ________________ _

Calcareous benthonic

Angulogerina angulosa (Williamson)_____ 5( 4) 23 30 8 5 < 1 _ _ _ __ _ < 1 -~·

Astacolus SP------------------------- -------- ------ -----.- ______ ______ ______ ______ <1 __________________ ------
Astrononion gallowayi Loe blich and
Tappan ___ -------- __ - __ - __ ---- __ - _ < 1 ( 1) 1 2 _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ < 1 < 1 __ ---- ------
BolivinadecussataBrady ______________ 9(4) 4 1.5 6 6 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ·<1
B. pacifica Cushman and McCulloch____ <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ------
B. pseudobeyrichi Cushman_ _ ___ _____ __ < 1 < 1 < 1 ________________________________________________ -- ----
B. spissa Cushman_ _ _ __ _______ ______ _ _____ ___ < 1 < 1 ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ _____ _
Buccellafrigida (Cushman)____________ <1 ______ ______ 1 2 ______________________________ ------------
B. inusitata Anderson _________________ -------- 1. 5 1 3 7. 5 2 3. 5 5 3 5 5 4. 5
Buliminella elegantissima (d'Orbigny)___ 1(1) <1 <1 <1 <1 ____________ ------ ______ ------------------
B. subfusijormis Cushman ________________ .:. _ ___ < 1 __ _ _ _ __ ________________________ -- ------
Cassidulina·islandica N~rvang __________ -------- 1 <:i- ---io - --3 ----3 ----3 3 2. 5 10.5 3. 5 2. 5
C. islandica nprvangi Thalmann________ 1 <1 <1 10 9 11 8. 5 8 11 17 8. 5 11
C. norcrossi Cushman_ _____ __ ____ _____ 1 3 6 2 1 < 1 1 < 1 _____ _ < 1 < 1 1
Cibicideslobatulus (Walker and Jacob)__ <1(1) <1 <1 8 7. 5 <1 1 2 2. 5 5 3 4. 5
C. pseudoungerianus (Cushman)________ _______ _ < 1 1 < 1 ______ ___ __ _ < 1 ______________ - ____ ----- ------
Dentalina SPP------------------------ -------- ______ ______ <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 -·-----
Dyocibicides biserialis Cushman and
Valentine __________________________ -------- ______ ------ 3 <1 __ ___ ____ ------------------
Elphidium cf. E. bartletti Cushman______ ________ ______ ______ 1. 5 5 ----2- ----7 -6- -- 6 4. 5 3 5. 5
E. clavatum Cushman _________________ --------______ <1 10 12 30 30 26 40 13 32 31
E. cf. E. incertum (Williamson)_________ <1 <1 ------ ______ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
Elphidiella groenlandica (Cushman) _____ --------____________ 5 1. 5 2 1. 5 2 1 5 15 4
Epistominella exigua (Brady)___________ 33(15) 6 4 11 9 23 16 15 16 , 17 13 8
E. pacifica (Cushman)________________ 45(3) 12 7 <1 <1 1 1 1 ______ ------------------
Globobulimina pacifica Cush~an ______ :._ <1(4) <1 <1 <1 <1 _____ ,___________________ ------ ------ ------
Gyroidina broekiana (Karrer) ___________ -------- <1 <1 <1 --- .- -- -- -.- -- -- -.- -- ---- -- -- -.- -- -- -.-_ -- ---- -------3
Lagenid SPP-------------------------- 1 1. 5 2 2 1 5 3 5 2 5 4 3 5 3 5 5
Nonion cf. N. depressulum (Walker and
Jacob)-_----------________________ 2. 5 ( 6) _ _ _ _ _ _ < 1 1. 5 ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
N; grateloupi (d'Orbigny)______________ <1 ___________ _ 1 1. 5 2 2 <1 <1 1 <1
N. labradoricum (Dawson)_____________ <1(2)
Nonionella auricula Heron-Allen and
1 <1 <
1 - - - - - - 6. 5 3. 5 4 1 < 2 4 2
Earland___________________________ ________ _____ _ ______ ______ 1 ________________________ - _---- ------ ----- '-
N. bradii (Chapman)_________________
N. globosa Ishiwada__________________ <1
12 2. 5 <1 ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
<1 ______ ______ ______ ______
.1
<1 ______ ------ ------ ------ ------
1 2 1. 5
....
Parafrondicularia advena Cushman______ ________ ______ ______ <1 ______________________________ ------ ------ ------
Patellina corrugata Williamson_________ _____ ___ ______ ______ ____ __ ______ _ ___ __ < 1 ______________ - ___ ------ ------
Pullenia subcarinata (d'Orbigny)_______ <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ______ ------ ____________ ------------------
Pyrgo spp _ _ _ ___ ________ __ ____ ___ ___ _ ________ ______ ______ 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - - - - - - - - -
Quinqueloculina stalkeri Loeblich and ·
Tappan_ _ _ __ ____ __ . < 1 < 1 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

!fJfz~~~~~~~~~~~~=~:~:::~~::~~~ ::~~;; ::~;: ~~~~: :;~~; ~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ==~~= ==~~= :::=~: ~~~~~~ ==~~= :::::;
Uvigerina hollicki Thalmann___________ 19(5)
Valvulineria sp ________________________ .:. _ _____
28 30 1 <1 <1 <1 ------ ------ <1 ------ ------
< 1 ______________ ~ _____________________________ ---- 1 . < 1
Virgulina pauciloculata Brady__________ < 1 ( 1) < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 ___________ - ------ ------ ------
V. spinosa Heron-Allen and Earland____ <1 <1 ------ ------ --.---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----:--

~I
 SMITH C77
TABLE 79.3.-Distribution of Foraminifera in core 4-Qontinued
[Abundance given as percentage of dead faunas. Number of living specimens 1n top 2 em 1s shown 1n parenthesis]

.........._~ Age Recent Pleistocene(?)

Species ""' ~. Depth 1n core (em) 1}-2 1 2-14 1 14-26 2~29 1 28-32 1 41-42 1 51-52 1 61-62 1 71-72 1 81-82 1 91-92 1· 101-102

Planktonic

Globigerina bulloides d'Orbigny _-------- . <1 1 <1 5 9 4 6 6 3 7 11 12

G. ~achyderm,a Ehrenberg _____ -- ______ - 4 7 6. 5 8 9 6 4 6 8 5 3. 5 5. 5
Glo igerinita uvula (Ehrenberg) ___ ---_-- 2 ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
1 <1 ------
Total population in 10 cc of sedi-
- - - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - -
ment-----------~------------ 1,200 1,280 250 900 1,000 500 350 325 190 700 440 460

The distribution of species in core 4 is trubulated in Ar<~tic to bOreal. The most probaJble explan31tion for
ta;ble 79:3. The faunas of the upper 26 centimeters of this change is that the lower sediment containing the
this core oontain a high percentage of .Angulogerina aibundant Arctic species was deposited when glaciers and
angulosa, Epistominella pacifica, and Uvigerina hol- pack ice were nearby ·and that the upper sediment was
liolci. The f.aunas below 29 centimeters ·are character- deposited when conditions resembled th~ of today.
ized by 0 assiduliJna islandica ·and su·bsp. nprvangi, El- Thus, the faunal break in the cores marks •a possible
phidiJwm cf. E. brcrtletti, E. ol(Jfl)afJwm, and Elphiiliella Pleistocene-Recent 'boundary in the sediments in the
groevnl(}Jndioa. These species are ~haracieristic of Recent Gulf of Alaska.
faunas of the Point Barrow region (Loeblich and Tap- REFERENCES
pan, 1953) and the Canadi·an and Greenland Arctic
{Phleger, 1952). The species characterizing the upper· Bandy, 0. L., 1953, Ecology and paleoecology of some California
Foraminifera, pt. I, The frequency distribution of Recent
part of the core, with· a few exceptions, form only a Foramrill!ifera off Oalifornia: Jour. Paleontology, v. 27, no. 2,
very sma;ll percentage of the :faunas from the lower p. 161-182, pl. 21-25, 4 fi.gs •
•• part. Goddard, E. N., and dthel.'ls, 1948, Rock-color chart: W·a·sbington,
In core 4, woody materia;! is common below the faunal Natl. Research Council, 1.1 p.
break and rare above. Chlorite is the predominant clay Green, K. E., 1960, Eoology of some A:rctic Foraminifera : Micro-
paleontology, v. 6, no. 1, p. 57-78, 1 pl., 9 text figs., 6 tables.
mineral below and montmoriHonite above. G. W. Moore
Loeblich, A. R., Jr., ·and Tappan, Helen, 1953, S·tud·ies of AI"Ctic
{Written communication, 1961) considers the chlorite Foraminifera: Smithsonian Mi·sc. Con., v. 121, no. 7, 142 p.,
to have been derived from the erosion of rocks on Kod- 24pl.
iak Island by former glaciers. Perhaps the woody ma- Phleger, F. B., 1952, F'oraminife~a di:strilbution in some sediment
teri·a;l was also delivered to the m·arine environment by samples from the Canadian and Greenland Arctic: Cush-
these glaciers. man Found. Foram. Research, Contr., v. 3, p. 80-88, pl. 18,
14, 1 table, 1 text fig.
The evidence suggests that while the sediment sam- Smith, P. B., 1963, Recenlt Foraminifera off Central America.
pled 'by cores 4, 8, and 9 was being deposited, the water Ecology of •benthonic species: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
temperature ·and ·characteristics abruptly changed from 429~B. [In press]
 Article 80

PETROLOGY OF RHYOLITE AND BASALT, NORTHWESTERN YELLOWSTONE PLATEAU

By WARREN HAMILTON, Denver, C~lo.

Ab~tract.-Late Pliocene and Quaternary rhyoLite ash-1low monly of oligoclase (Boyd, 1961). The mafic minerals
tuffs and lava 1lows are compositionally uniform and have a very are sparse iron oxides and clinopyroxene, and rare faya-
high si'li~a content. Olivine basalt -and olivtine basaltic ande-
sfite tB.re grealtly subordinate in outcrop ·rubund·ance but may be
lite; biotite and hornblende are nearly lacking (Boyd,
widespread beneath yo1mg rhyolilte laVIa flows. 1961; Hamilton, 1960). The rhyolite lava flows have
lithoidal interiors which grade upward into obsidian
breccias consisting of flow-contorted obsidian blocks in
The Yellowstone Plateau is an upland 50 miles across a matrix of unconsolidated, sandlike glass shards
in northwestern Wyoming and adjacent Montana and (B~yd, 1961; Hamilton, 1960).
Idaho. The northwest part of the plateau (fig. 80.1) A few small flows of nearly holocrystalline olivine-
consists in the north of welded rhyolite ash-flow tuffs augite-labradorite basalt and olivine-augite-calcic an-
of late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age, which have desine basaltic andesite lie upon the rhyolite ash-flow
been warped down beneath the West Yellowstone basin tuff. Similar basalt is probably widespread beneath
and raised up on the flanks of the Madison Range to the young rhyolite lava flows. The large moraines of
the west. The rhyolite ash-flow tuff section is broken Bull Lake (early~ late Pleistocene) age of the southern
by an arcuate fault, locally composite and everywhere part of the West Yellowstone basin were deposited by
concealed by younger rhyolite in the area of figure 80.1, ice that flowed from the central part of Yellowstone
along which the rocks on the southeast side were Plateau, since buried by young rhyolite lava flows
dropped more than 1,500 feet (Boyd, 1961). Enor- (Richmond and Hamilton, 1960). Blocks in the mo-
mous steep-fronted lava flows that erupted during late raines are almost entirely of olivine basalt, although
Pleistocene time, after the faulting, overlap the fault such basalt forms only a minute proportion of the ex-
scarp. The Central Pl3tteau, forming the central part posed rocks of the plateau. During Bull Lake time the
of the Yellowstone Plateau, consists of rhyolite lava central part of the plateau may have been surfaced
flows extruded from scattered vents (fig. 80.1) which largely by basalt erupted in the interval between ex-
apparently overlay a large magma chamber. The lava trusion of the rhyolite ash flows and the rhyolite lava
flows of the Madison Plateau were extruded from a
flows. No mafic rocks younger than the rhyolite lava
crestal .:fissure zone trending north-northwestward
flows are known.
(Hamilton, 1960, fig. 1). Minor volcanism has con-
tinued into Recent time in the Madison Plateau, south The accompanying table presents 3 new analyses of
of the area of figure 80.1 (Hamilton, 1960). An ex- basalt and basaltic andesite and 8 of rhyolite from the
trusive rhyolite obsidian dome of middle ( ~) Pleistocene northwestern part of the Yellowstone Plateau. The
age stands at the east edge of the West Yellowstone mafic rocks analyzed are all from flows; of the speci-
basin (fig. 80.1). mens of rhyolite, 3 are from lava flows, 1 is from an
The rhyolite of all occurrences generally contains extrusive obsidian dome, and 4 are from welded ash-
crystals of high quartz and clear sanidine, and com- flow tuff.

078 ART. 80 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES ·C78-C81. 1963.
 HAMILTON C79

0 5 10 MILES

l.?8.~~.\i1
Alluvium and
glacial deposits
EXPLANATION

Rhyolite lava flows of

Central Plateau
-- Contact
STRUCTURES OF LATE
QUATERNARY AGE

D
*,vent area .>- Normal fault
Rhyolite lava flows 0:::
of Madison Plateau <{ Dotted where concealed.
Showing form lines z D, downthrown side
0:::
w
Qm3, youngest flow
Qm2, intermediate flow
1- ~
<{ Syncline
Qm1, oldest }low ::J
0 6
l!!!ll:g~llllll 112:~1111
X

Analyzed specimen
Obsidian dome Basalt flows and (see table)
basaltic andesite
>-
~
Rhyolite tuff of
Yellowstone P.lateau }~w
t-

8
Oligocene, Cretaceous,
and Precambrian rocks
FioUBE 80.1.-Geologlc map of the northwest part ot the Yellowstone Plateau, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. Geology
by Warren Hamilton in 1959, with additions from Boyd (1961) and W. Bradley Myers (written communication, 1962).
 C80 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

Ohemicaz analyses of basalt and rhyolite ot the northwest part of Yellowstone Plateau
[Major oxides determined by rapid colorimetric methods by Paul Elmore, I. Barlow, S. Botts, and G. Chloe, Washington, D.C., 1961. Fluorine and chlorine determined by
Vertie C. Smith, Denver, Colo., 1961. Other minor elements determined by semiquantitative spectrographic methods by Paul R. Barnett, Denver, Colo., 1961; values
reported as midpoints of logarithmic-third divisions)

Averages Range or col-

Basalt and basaltic andesite Rhyolite ash-flow tuff Rhyolite lava-flow and dome rocks of column umns 4-11
4-11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - ----
Field number •••••••••••••••• YS6
H3303
YS20C
H 3310
YS5
H 3302
YS4
H3301
YS 20A
H 3309
YS8
H 3305
YS 24
H 3311
YS26A
H 3313
YS 7A-2
H 3304
YS3
H 3300
YS 27 ---------- ------------
H3314 ---------- ------------
Laboratory numbers •••••••.• 158059 158055 158047 158046 158054 158050 158056 158058 158049 158045 158048 ---------- ------------

Major oxides, In weight percent

8101 •• --------- ••••• ------ •• -- 46.7 48.1 51.5 75.8 76.1 77.3 77.3 75.7 75.8 76.4 76.7 76.4 75.7-77.3
AbO a•••• -.- ••••• -.-.--.- •• - •• 15.7 15.7 15.5 12.4 12.7 12.5 12.2 11.9 12.0 12.2 11.9 12.2 11.9-12.7
Fe10a••••••••••••.••••••••.••• 1. 2 4. 2 2.0 1. 2 1. 7 .8 1.3 .5 .8 .5 .5 .9 }0. 9-1.9 as
FeO •••••• ----·-· ------- ••••• - 13.0 9. 4 9.0 .40 .10 .17 . 08 1.0 1. 2 .84 1.2 .6 FeO
MgO. _••••. _••••••• _••••••• _. 6.8 6.8 6.0 .15 .16 .07 .08 .06 .18 . 21 .13 .13 0. 07-02
cao ••••• ----- •• ---------.---- 9.3 9. 2 8.5 . 27 .34 .24 .22 .34 . 57 . 57 .38 .4 0. 2-0.6
Na10 •••• ---------- _______ •• __ 3. 2 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.0 3.4 3.3 3. o-3. 6
KIO.--.------.--------------- .46 .56 1.1 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.6 5.0 4. 9 5.0 5.0 4. 9 4. 6-5.0
RIO-------------------------- .30 .18 1.2 . 72 .30 .58 .30 1.1 .32 .68 .60 .6 0. 3-1.1
Tl01 •••• -----·--------------- 2.4 2.2 1.8 .14 .14 .10 .10 .12 . 20 .13 .14 .13 0.1-0. 2
P10a.••••• _------------------- .39 .33 . 28 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 . 04 . 01 .02 0. 01-0.04
MnO ••• ------·--·-- -------- __ .22 . 21 .17 . 03 . 04 .02 .04 .04 .06 .03 .04 .04 o. 02-0.06
--- -100.1
---- --- - - - - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - -
TotaL •• ___ --------------- 99.7 100.2 99.4 99.9 99.9 99.8 99.1 99.5 99.6 100.0 ----·----- --------------
Minor elements, In weight percent ,)..

Ba. ___ ----------------------- 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.003 0.007 0.015 0.03 0.07 0.015 0.04 0. 007-.0 7
Be _________ ----- _____ ----- ____ <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003
Ce ••• __ --- ___________________ <.01 <.01 .015 . 015 <.01 .015 . 015 .015 .015 ~.01 <.01-.01 5
<.01 <.01
CL. _-- _------------- ___ --- ___ .01 .01 .02 .01 .03 .02 .02 .09 .08 .08 .09 .05 .01-.09
.007 .007 .007 <.0002 <.0002 <.0002 <. 0002 <. 0002 <.0002 <. 0002 <. 0002 <.0002
Co. ____
Cr ---- ----------------------
________ • ___ ---- ________
Cu •••. __ •••••••. _____ •• __ ••. _
.015
.007
.015 .015 <.0001 . 00015 <.0001 <.0001 <. 0001 .00015 <.0001 <. 0001
. 00015
<.0001
~.001
<::oooi::oiioi
. 00015-.003
5
.007 .003 . 00015 .003 .00015 .00015 . 00015 .0003 .0003
F------
Ga. •• -----·---------------
__________________________ .03 .03 .03 .01 .01 .03 .03 .14 .14 .12 .14 .08 . 01-.1 4
La ____________________________ .0015 .0015 .0015 .0015 .0015 .0015 . 0015 .003 .0015 .003 .0015 .002 . 0015-.003
Mo ___________________________ <.002 <.002 <.002 .007 .007 .007 . 003 .007 .015 .007 .015 . 008 . 003-.01 5
Nb. __________________________ <.0002 <.0002 <.0002 .0003 <.0002 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 <. 0002-. 0003
N d. __ • _______ ._. _____________ <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 .0015 .003 . 003 . 0015-.003
<.005 <.005 <.005 .007 .007 <.005 <.005 .007 . 015 <.005 . 015 ~.004 <. 005-.01 5
NL ••• ___________ ----- ________
Pb. __ ---- _______ --- __________
Sc. ___________ • _______________
.007
<.0005
.015
<.0005
.007
<.0005
<.0002
.0015
<. 0002
.0007
<.0002
.0015
<.0002
.0015
<.0002
. 0015
<.0002
.0015
.0003
. 0015
<.0002
.0015
<. 0002
.0015 --·:ooo7::ooi-5
.003 .003 .003 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <. 0005 <. 0005 <.0005 <.0005
Sn •... ________________________
Sr ____________ • _______ --------
<.0002 <.0002 <.0002 .0007 <.0002 .0015 .0007 .0007 . 0007 . 0007 .0007 .0007
.001
-<:ooo2::ooi 5
. 0007-.003
.07 .07 .07 .0015 .003 .0015 .0007 .0007 .0007 .003 .0007
v ----------------------------- .03 .03 .03 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005 <.0005
y---- ------------------------ .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 . 0015 .007 .007 . 003 .007 .004 ----:iiiiiS::iiii7
Yb. -------------------------- .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0007 .0003 .0003 .0007 .0007 .0003 .0007 .0005 . 0003-.000 7
Zr _________ ------------- _----- .007 .007 .015 .03 .03 .015 .015 .015 .03 .015 .015 .02 .015-. 03

Descriptions o:f ·analyzed specimens follow (see analy~ 4. Devitrified welded rhyolite ash-flow tuff. Light-gray rock
ses in table and locations on figure 80.1) : consisting of crystals and fragments of sanidine ( abun-
dant) and oiigoclase (An2o, sparse) in thoroughly divitri-
1. Olivine-augite basalt. Dense medium-light-gray flow rock of
fled hazy aggregate of minute grains of quartz, feldspar,
subophitic texture. Flow-alined laths of labradorite are and opaque dust. One fragment of clinopyroxene noted
partly enclosed in plates of light-green augite. Forsteritic
in thin section. Outlines of squashed shards faintly
olivine forms granules and microphenocrysts. Ilmenite visible. Collected 7.9 miles east-northeast of West Yel-
and magnetite are euhedral. Collected from quarry (in lowstone (on north side of Cougar Creek near Cougar
hill6809, south of Madison River, West Yellowstone quad-
Creek patrol cabin, Madison Junction quadrangle).
rangle) 2.6 miles east of West Yellowstone.
5. Partly devitrified welded rhyolite ash-flow tuff. Light-
2. Olivine-augite basalt. Very fine grained (0.01-0.1 mm)
purplish-gray porcelaneous rock streaked by white, consist-
medium-gray flow rock with small irregular· vesicles;
ing of large squashed shards and crystal fragments of
intergranular texture. Sodic labradorite occurs as tiny
sanidine (abundant), quartz (common), and oligoclase
zoned laths, greenish augite is in gt'anules, and olivine
(An 25 , uncommon). Much hematite dust and minor an-
forms subhedral prisms. Magnetite and ilmenite are ir-
hedral magnetite is in the glass, which· is partly de-
regular. Sparse microphenocrysts t)f labradorite are 0.5
vitrified. Overlain by basalt (specimen 2). Collected
mm long. Collected from highway cut 4.1 miles east of
from highway cut 4.1 miles east of West YelloWstone.
West Yellowstone.
6. Devitrified welded r'hyolite ash-flow tuff. Ligb:t-purplish-
3. Olivine-augite basaltic andesite. Finely vesicular medium-
g.ray rock st:Jreaked by whi'te, cons,isting 'of thoroughly
light-gray flow rock. Microphenocrysts of labradorite lie
devitrified welded tuff containing fragments of sanidine
in a groundmass consisting of laths of calcic andesine,
granules of augite, magnetite, and sparse olivine. Col- ('abundant), qua'rtz (sparse), and clinopyroxene (rare).
lected near Cougar Creek road (northwest of hill 7210, Collected 3 miles west~soutbwest of WeiSt Yellowstone
Madison Junction quadrangle) , 6.8 miles east-northeast of (from roadcult oh weS't side of the South Fork of Madison
West Yellowstone. River, Wes't Yellowstone quadrangle).
 HAMILTON C81
1. Spherulitlc rhyolite. Very light purplish gray rock, con- for example, Si0 2 ranges from 73.1 to 78.0 percent in
Sisting largely of 3-mm spherulites encllosing phemJICrysts them, whereas it ranges only from 75.7 to 77.3 in the new
of sanid.ine ( abun'd·aut) and quartz ('sparse). SJ)herules analyses~ The greater ranges in the older group may
were produced 'by devitrification of a glassy rock that
could have been a flow but was probErbly a welded tuff. reflect ana1ytical biases of the several laboratories in-
Colleeted 6.5 miles ea·&t of West Yellowstone (from cliffs volved, and the true range throughout the plateau may
southwest of Madison River, Madison Junction quad- be generally closer to that of the new analyses.
rangle). Comparison of samples of welded rhyolite ash-flow
8. Uncom~olidated rhyolite shards. Angular ·Shards and
tuff (columns 4-6 and probably 7) with the rocks of
splin'ters of clear to smoky glass, some subpumiceous, 0.2
to 5 mm 'l'ong. No welding or rounding. This is the ma- lava flows and the dome (columns 8-11) shows that the
trix materl·al of the obsidian ·breccia at the top of a very two groups are virtua1ly identical in most components,
•thick rhyolite flow. Collected 10.1 miles s'ou'th-sout~west varying through the same narrow ranges in each. There
of West YelloW'Sitone (from roadcut of Black Canyon are, however, differences in some components. The lava
forest access road, West Yellowstone quadrangle).
flows appear to contain slightly less alumina and
9. Rhyolite obsidian. Black glass, containing phenocrysts of
sanidine (abundant) •and quartz (common), ·and numer- slightly more calcium. The lava-flow rocks contain a
ous spherulites. Flow structures are shown by a•bundant much greater quantity of halogens: they contain an
microlites of clinopyroxene (0.001X0.003 mm) and feld- average of 4 times ·as much chlorine and 7 times as mu~h
spar; :flow structureS J)as•s uninterrupted throug1h devitri-fluorine as do the welded ash-flow tuffs. Presumably
ficatl'on spherulites. The sample is fr'om an obsidian
chlorine and fluorine. were lost with the steam during
block in breccia at top of a rhyolite flow and was collected
from the fron't of the :flow, 2.3 miles south of West transport and welding of the ash-flow tuffs. The total
Yellowstone. iron content is the same in each type, but 75 to 95 per-
10. Rhyolite obsidian. ·Granular black obsidian, crowded with cent of it is oxidized in the ash-flow tuffs, whereas only
1- to 5-mm pink spherUlites and sanidine crystals. Strong 30 to 40 percent is oxidized in the lava-flow rocks. The
swirled flow·structure, shown ·by microUtes of clinopyrox-
ene and feldspar(?), passes uninterrupted through the degree of oxidation of iron appears from this sampling
devrtri1i'cation spherulites. Scattered phenocrysts of to provide a tentative means to distinguish welded ash-
san1dine and sparse fragments of mi'cropegmBJtite ; rare flow tuffs from lava-flow rocks. Presumably the high
phenocrysts of grid-twinned albite and faya'lite ( -2V=
oxidation of the iron is due to the high content of super-
50°). Collected from obsidi•an dome (hill 7085, Madison
Junction quadrangle) 6.5 miles east-no:r'tiheast of West critical water of the ash-flow magmas.
Y~llowstone. Rhyolite and low-alkali olivine basalt are closely as-
11. RhyoUte obsid'i'an. Granular-structured undevitritled black sociated throughout the Snake River province of Plio-
obsidi•an with many sanidine phendcrysts. Flow struc- ·
tures ·are defined by mi:croUtes. Collected (along Black
cene and Quaternary volcanism, of which the Yellow-
Canyon forest access road) from block in obsidian breccia stone Plateau is the high, east end. Rocks intermediate
at top of rhY'Olite flow, 10.6 miles west of south from West between basaltic andesite and quartz latite are lacking.
Yellowstone. The contrasted basic and silicic magmas have come from
The basa·It and basaltic andesite have a high content the same chambers in some instances. Field and petro-
of iron and moderate content of m·agnesium, calcium, logic characteristics are satisfied by the explanation that
alkalies, and titanium. Their minor-element content tholeiitic basaltic magma has here fractionated as a
is typical of nonalkaline mafic rocks. liquid, before appreciable crystallization, -into olivine-
Rhyolite throughout the Yellowstone Plateau is basaltic and rhyolitic magmas.
highly silicic and varies little from the average_ (col-
umns 12 and 13 <?f table); relative to calc-·alkaline REFERENCES
rhyolite of andesitic associ~tions, this rhyolite is a littie Boyd, F. R., 1961, Welded tuffs and flows in the rhyolite plateau
high in both silica and sodium content, and a little low of Yellowstone Park, Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
in aluminum, magnesium, calcium, and potassium con- v. 72, no. 3, p. 387-426.
tent. The relatively high ratio of alkalies to aluminum Hamilton, Warren, 1959, Yellowstone Park area,· Wyomdng: a
possible modern lopolith : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70,
in the rhyolite of the Yellowstone Plateau is reflected no. 2, p. 225--228.
mineralogi~ally in the presence of clinopyroxene and - - 1960, Late Cenozoic tectonics and volcanism of the
fayali~e and in the absence of biotite and hornblende. Yellowstone region, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, in
The average of the new analyses (column 12) is Billings Geol. Soc. Guidebook 11th Ann. Field Conf., West
practically the same as the average of 10 prior modern Yellowstone-earthquake area, 1960: p. 92--105.
-analyses of rhyolite from varied occurrences and differ- Richmond, G. M., and Hamilton, Warren, 1960, The late Quater-
nary age of obsidian-rhyolite flows in the western part of
ent parts of the plateau (Hamilton, 1959, table 1). The Yellowstone NatJional Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey
ranges of oxides are a little greater in those 10 analyses; Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B224-B225.
 Article 81

THE CANYON MOUNTAIN COMPLEX, OREGON,

AND THE ALPINE MAFIC MAGMA STEM

By T. P. THAYER, Washington, D.C.

Abstraot.-The C'anyon Mountain Complex shows rell:itions rangle, Oregon (fig. 81.1). It is faulted off at the east
between peridotite, gabbro, quartz diorite, and albite granite end and along half of the north side; elsewhere it in-
that characterize a Lower to Mliddle Triassic magma series in
eastern Oregon. Because of th~ir similarities, these Oregon
trudes volcanic and sedimentary rocks, of which at least
rocks, the Troodos Complex in Cyprus, and certain other aipine part are Late Permian in age. On the west, Upper
peridotite-gabbro complexes are believed to belong to a dis- Triassic pillow lava, conglomerate, and graywacke lie
tinctive alpine mafic magma stem. lHlconformably on serpentine that forms part of the
present border of the complex.
At least two major types of nonalkalic ultramafic rock The complex, which is believed to have been emplaced
associations are now recognized.: stratiform and alpine. as a crystal mush during Early to Middle Triassic time
.
The stratiform ultramafic rocks show remarkable layer- consists of the following rocks: olivine-rich peridotite,'
ing, are associated with large volumes of gabbroic rocks about 50 percent; gabbro and no rite, about 40 percent;
and, ~t is generally agreed, were formed by fractional pyroxene~ri~h peridotite and pyroxenite, 6 percent; .)
crystallization of basaltic magma in place. The alpine quartz diOrite and albite granite, 4 percP.nt. The
ultramafic rocks may or may not be closely associated olivine-rich peridotite averages about 80 p~rcent oli-
with gabbroic rocks and occur along geosynclinal belts vine; it includes large masses of. dunite and some small
that have undergone an alpine type of defOrmation. pyroxene-rich lenses and contains podiform chromite
Although there are differing opinions (Hess 1955) deposits. The gabbro ranges from olivine:..rich to oli-
. rapidly mounting field evidence points to empl~men~ vine-free varieties, in which the ratio of orthopyroxene
of the many alpine ultramafic rocks as crystal mushes to clinopyroxene varies widely and unzoned plagioclase
(Thayer, 1960) or fragmented solid masses (De Roever, ranges in composition from about An 85 to ·An60 • The
1957), as postulated by Bowen and Tuttle (1949). The pyroxene-rich peridotite and pyroxenite lie composi-
presence of gabbro as an essential constituent of several tionally and spatially between the gabbro and olivine-
peridotite-rich alpine complexes (Guild 1947. Flint rich peridotite. In many places all varieties of the
and dthers, 1948; Rossman and others, i959; Thayer, three ~oc~s i~tergrade and are intricately interlayered.
~963) suggests that there may be more siliceous members.ll~.l~'he distributiOn (fig. 81.1, and Thayer, 1956), composi-
In the petrogenetic series. This, in turn, leads to the tion, texture, and structure (Thayer, 1963) of the gab-
concept of an alpine magma stem. bro and peridotite are characteristic of the alpine type.
The Canyon Mountain Complex in eastern ·OreO'on The attitude of the constituent rock units and their
is one of three examples in which mapping has dem~n- cont~cts against co~nt~y rocks is consistently steep or
~trated the existence of a complete series of rocks rang- vertical. Quartz diOrite cuts the g~bbro and ne~rby
Ing in composition from peridotite to albite granite count~y rocks as sharply bounded dike~, s.mall PIJ?es,
( Gilluly, 1937) or closely related albite- and uartz- an~ Irregular masses. . The. quartz diOrite consists .
rich rocks. The complex consists mainl of e~dotite mainly of zo~e~ andes~ne-ohgoclase and hornblende
and bb h" h f C .Y P . that show hypidwmorphiC texture, and quartz (No.1 in
ga ro ': IC orm anyon Mountain (after which table). As shown on the map, the quartz diorite occurs
the c?mplex IS here ?arne~) and occupies an area about mostly in or near the contact zone between gabbro and -~·
12 miles long by 5 miles wide across the John Day quad- country rocks.

C82 ART. 811N U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C82-C85. 1963.
 THAYER C83

·-

Strawberry
Mountain
6.

0 4 MILES

EXPLANATION

~
D
Post-Triassic rocks
~
Gabbro and norite
Contact
Dashed where approximately located
Interlayered with and grades into pyroxenite

~-~{
and peridotite D
Fault

~~ u D, downthrown side; dotted

Pillow lava, graywacke, !/) where concealed
!/)
and conglomerate <(

!<i IX -..<:0
·~
(I) 1-
u
~ Strike and dip of beds

i
!/)
!/)
(5 <(
Quartz diorite and albite granite Olivine-rich peridotite
IX BD_y
(I)
·~ 1-
Contains about 80 percent olivine; includes

i
-
~· dunite, small pyroxene-rich lenses, and Strike and dip of igneous
chromite deposits layering
~
}~
1 8
Serpentine
Mostly derived/rom peridotite, but
.......
t
;::! it pm·tly from pyroxenite and gabbro Metavolcanic and sedimentary rocks 8 Strike of vertical igneous
c:sl layering
..s Partly schistose; highly schistose facies occur
only as tectonic inclusicnis in serpe1.tine
~
c..

FIGURE 81.1.-Geologic map of the Canyon Mountain Complex, Grant County, Oreg.

Parts of the quartz diorite, gabbro, and country rocks granite instead formed massive coarse-grained horn-
have been metasomatically altered to albite granite of blende rocks that resemble pegmatite, but are in no wise
the kind described by Gilluly ( 1933) near Sparta, 80 related to many small masses of pyroxenic truly
miles to the east. Much of the albitized gabbro closely gabbroic pegmatite (Guild, 1947).
resembles quartz diorite (Gilluly, 1937, p. 35) in hand Similar relations between the same kinds of rocks
specimen. In parts of the gabbro, the same kind of have been Jllapped and described in the Baker (Gilluly,
alteration that transformed quartz diorite into albite 1937) and Sparta quadrangles (Gilluly, 1933; Prostka,
C84 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

1962) in Oregon, and in Cyprus (Wilson and Ingham, diorite-albite granite stage in which fluid magma was
1959; Bear, 1960; Gass, 1960). In the summer of 1962 accompanied or followed closely by pervasive albitiza-
the writer found like relations between gabbro, diorite, tion. Great disparities in proportions of the various
and albitic alteration in the Hindubagh igneous com- rocks in different complexes., plus other features, pre-
plex, Pakistan (Bilgrami, 1961) and in the Guleman clude differentiation in place. The rest magma in the
district, eastern Turkey. The gabbro and peridotite in peridotite and gabbro, if late dikes are a true sample
these areas is of the alpine type, and podiform chromite (Thayer, 1960, p. 252), was no more siliceous than the
deposits have been mined in all except the Baker-Sparta solid constituents.. The diorite, therefore, cannot have
area. been derived from the gabbro by filter pressing during
Close affinity between the quartz diorites and albite emplacement. Field relations in Canyon Mountain indi-
granites in eastern Oregon and between trondhjmnites cate some time lapse between emplacement of the gabbro
and quartz-albite porphyries of the Troodos Complex in and quartz diorite, but in. the Sparta quadrangle the
Cyprus is indicated in the accompanying table. In view gabbro and quartz diorite seem to have been nearly
of the spotty variation in such rocks and the concomitant contemporaneous (H. J. Prostka, oral communication,
problems of sampling, the rocks are notably similar even 1963). Close areal correlation of albitization effects
though those near Sparta are consistently richer in with quartz diorite masses in the gabbro in Canyon
K20. Despite differences in interpretation of textures Mountain shows that the two are genetically related.
and field relations, geologists in all three areas agree The presence of pyroxene instead of talc or amphibole
that the rocks, from peridotite to soda-rich varieties, are in the peridotite and gabbro implies a dearth of water
comagmatic (Gilluly, 1937, p. 40; Wilson and Ingham, during their consolidation that contrasts markedly with
1959, p. 124; Bear, 1960, p. 43; Gass, 1960, p. 90). The the evidence of abundant water during and after em-
evidence seen in Pakistan and Turkey implies, further- placement of the diorite.
more, that the same kinds of rocks and relations will The magmatic history of these rocks, from dunite
be found in still other alpine mafic complexes. to albite granite, seems to. have been quite different from
These complexes as a class seem to have been emplaced that of normal intermediate to granitic rocks. The
in two rather diE:tinctive stages: an early stage during peridotite and gabbro apparently were emplaced as
which peridotite and gabbro were emplaced together crystal mushes that were formed, deep in the crust or
more or less as a unit, and a somewhat later quartz mantle, from previously differentiated rocks by incipient
melting just sufficient to render them mobile en masse
Analyses of quartz diorite, trondhjemite, and albite-rich rocks
frfNn eastern Oregon and Oyprus under high tectonic pressures. These mushes seem to
have been emplaced at early stages in the evolution of
1 2 3 4 5 6
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -
7 most eugeosynclines, before severe metamorphism and
complete dehydration of the country rocks. The
Si02-------- 58.74 54. 67 67.81 73.06 78.27 77. 04 75. 8
Al20a------- 17. 17 15.95 14. 13 12.30 11. 43 11. 88 12.9 dioritic rocks were emplaced as fluid magmas, but
Fe20a ______ . 82 2.08 1. 50 2. 32 1. 44 1. 05 1.6
FeO ________ 4. 53 7. 48 4. 04 2. 23 whether they were generated by refusion of upper layers
MgO _______ 5. 30 4. 09 1. 56 . 14 1. 32 2.0
. 65 . 57 . 04 . 39 of a deep stratiform-type complex or fusion of eugeo-
CaO _______ 5. 91 7. 97 3. 76 3. 56 . 92 1. 28
Na20 _______ 3.99 2. 71 3. 36 3. 90 4. 70 4. 45 5.. 879 synclinal country rocks is pure conjecture. The alhit-
K20 ________ . 13 1. 16 1. 62 izing solutions may have been derived partly from the
. 18 . 53 1. 64 . 20
H20-t- - - - __ . 24 0 . 06 . 52 . 53 0
H20+1_--- __ 2..89 1. 26 1. 24 1. 09 1. 39 . 54} 1.0 diorite, and partiy from alteration of country rocks
Ti 02 _______ . 25 1. 16 . 79 . 28 . 25 . 37 . 14 (Gilluly, 1933, p. 76).
C02- __ - ____ . 01 1. 24 . 45 ------ ------ . 14 . 28
P20~------- . 04 .11 . 06 . 07 . 05 . 04 . 04
The Canyon Mountain Complex represents the old~
MnO _______ . 08 . 17 . 13 . 05 . 03 0 of two plutonic magma series of Mesozoic age in north-
. 06
- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - eastern Oregon. The older series is post-Permian and
100. 10 100. 05 100. 51 100. 21 100. 25 99. 79 101
pre-Upper Triassic; the younger one is Lower to middle
1. Quartz diorite, nprth slope of Canyon Mountain, Oreg., F. Cretaceous, the same as the Idaho batholith (Larsen
H. Neuerburg, analyst. and Schmidt, 1958). Dioritic rocks constitute only a
2. Quartz diorite, Sparta quadrangle, Oregon (Gilluly, 1933, p.
70). small part of the older magma series, in the Cai_lyon
3. Partiy albitized quartz diorite, same locality as 2.
4. Hornblende trondhjemite, Troodos Complex (Wilson and Mountain area less than 5 percent and in the Baker
Ingham, 1959, p. 98). quadrangle 10 percent or less. The ·Bald Mountain
5. Quartz-albite microporphyry, Troodos Complex (Gass, 1960,
p. 83). bathoiith, which belongs to the younger magma series,
6. Albite granite, Sparta quadrangle, Oregon (Gilluly, 1933, p. contains only about 3 percent of rocks more mafic· than
70).
7. Albite granite, Canyon Mountain, Oreg. K. E. White, S. D. diorite (Taubeneck, 1957, p. 226)_; its final product was
Botts, analysts; analyzed by methods described in U.S.
!Jeol. Survey Bull. 1036-C. quartz monzonite. The contact relations around the
 THAYER C85
respective plutons could scarcely differ more: extensive Gass, I. G., 1960, The geology and mineral resources of the
albitization and brecciation without development of Dhali area : Oylprus Geol. Survey Dept. Mem. 4, 116 p.
Gilluly, J·ames, 1933, Replacement origin of the albite granite
foliation is found around the older series, and strong near Sparta, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 175-C,
foliation without much albitization a round the younger p. 65-81.
series. There must have been fundamental differences --1937, Geology and mineral resources of the Baker quad-
in the nature of the magmas during emplacement, which rang:le, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 879, 119 p.
presumably were rel~ted to different stages in the devel- Guild, P. W., 1947, Petrology and structure of the Moa district,
Oriente Province, Cuba: Am. Geophys·. Union Trans., v.
-,:
opment of the Blue Mountain eugeosycline. Identifica- 28, p: 218-2.W.
tion and mapping of the two magma series close to the Bess, H. B., 1938, A primary peridotite magma: Am. Jour. Sci.,
Idaho batholith might be very uncertain and difficult. 5th ser., v. 35, p. 321-344.
In summary, most of the peridotite and ga.bbro in --1955, Ser.pentines, orogeny, and epeirogeny in Poldevaart,
northeastern Oregon, as exemplified by the Canyon A., Crust of the earth : Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper
62, p. 391-407.
Mountain Complex, is part of a pre-Upper Triassic Larsen, E. S., Jr., and Schmidt, R. G., 1958, A reconnaissance of
magma series in which peridotite and gabbro predom- the Idaho batholith and comparison with the southern
inate, soda-rich dioritic rocks form a small part, and California batholiJth: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1070.:.A, p.
late-stage metasomatic albitization is characteristic. 1-33.
Prostka, B. J., 1962, Geology of the Sparta quadrangle, Oregon:
The similarity to the Troodos Complex in Cyprus, and Oregon Dept. Geology and Mineral Industries Geol. Map
to like rocks in so~e other alpine-type complexes, is Ser.1, 6 p.
believed to show that they all belong to a distinctive line Roever, W. P. de, 1957, Sind die alpinotypen Peridotitmassen
of magmatic descent, for which the name "alpine mafic vielleicht tectonisch verfractete Bruchstiicke der Peridotit-
schalle?: Sond. Geol. Rundschau, v. 46, p. 137-146.
magma stem" is suggested. The "primary" peridotite Rossman, D. L., Fernandez, N. S., Fontanos, C. A., Zepeda,
rocks of Hess ( 1938) are at the ultramafic end of this Z. C., 1959, Chromite deposits on Insllllar Chrom.iJte Reserva-
magma stem, and soda-rich rocks represented by the tion Number One, Zambales, Philippines: Philippine Bur.
Mines Spec. Projects Ser., PU!b. 19, Chromite.
albite granite of Gilluly ( 1933) and quartz-albite por-
Taubeneck, W. B., 1957, Geology of the Elkhorn Mounta}ns,
phyries of the Troodos area are at the silicic end. northeastern Oregon: Bald Mountain batholith: Geol. Soc.
America Bull., v. 68, p.181-238.
REFERENCES
Th·ayer, T. P., 1956, Preliminary geologic map of the John Day
Bear, L. M., 1960, :I'he geology and mineral resources of the quadrangle, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Map
Agros-Apsiou area: Cyprus Geol. Survey Dept. Mem. 7, MF-51.
pt.l,p.ll-50. ' ' --1960, Some critical differences between alpine-type and
Bilgrami, S. A., 1961, Distribution of Ou, Ni, Co, V, and Or in stratiform peridotite-grubbro complexes·: Internat. Geol.
rocks of the Bindubagh igneous complex, Zhob Valley, Congress 21st, Copenhagen 1960, Rept. pt. XIII, p. 247-259.
West Pakistan: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 72, p. 1729-1738. --1963, Flow-layering in rulpine .peridotite-gabbro complexes:
Bowen, N. L., and Tuttle, 0. F., 1949, The System MgO-Si02- Internat. Miner. Assoc. Symposium on layered intrusions,
B20: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 60, p. 439-460. Third General Meeting, 1962. [in press]
ll''lint, D. E., Albear, J. F. de, and Guild, P. W., 1948, Geology Wilson, R. A. M., ·and Ingham, F. T., 1959, The geology and
and chromlte deposits of the Oamagiiey district, Camagiiey mineral resources of the Xeros-Troodos area: Cyprus Geol.
Province, Cuba : U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 954-B, p. 39-63. Survey Dept: Mem. 1, 183 p.
 Article 82

1
MODAL COMPOSITION OF THE IDAHO BATHOLITH

By CLYDE P. ROSS, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-Mo<lal analy·ses of 56 rock samples suggest that the those of Anderson and Rasor ( 1934) from the Boise
Idaho batholith may be slightly more calcic than previous esti- Basin.
mates indicate. Rel atively 'Silicic rocks and calcic rocks occur
1

in the outer parts of the batholith.

As shown in figure 82.1, most of the samples came
f·rom that part of the batholith south of lat 45°30' N.
As the samples were gathered for varied purposes over
Data on the modal composition of components of the a period of more than 60 years, they are not systetnatic-
Idaho !batholith have been assembled as a part of are- ally distributed and hence :fail to give ·a statistically
newed study. M'any. ~f the published mod·al analyses srutisf~tory concept of the ·composition of the brutholith.
from the 'batholith and from ·dther rocks in Idaho have Also, for the same reasons, the meth~s of 'analysis vary
been 'brought together by E. S. Larsen, Jr., ·and R. G. so widely that the results are not strictly comparable.
Schmidt (1958, p. 15). D. L. Schmidt (1958) has Some of the modal compositions represented in figure
studied rooks from ·areas in the western part of the bath- 82.2 were computed from chemical analyses (Lindgren,
olith and near Ha:iley, in the southern part, ·and has 1904, p. 1~19'), but most were detemined by the meth-
kindly made his analyses ·available to me. A number of ods of Rosiwal or of Chayes (19'56). A few are based
dther modal,arralyses, mostly my own, are recorded here on estim·aJtes. The discrepancies that arise from these
fur the first time; some· of these resulted from recon- differences 'are not large enough to be significant in the
n8Jissance in 1959-61. present discussion.
The most thorough study of the modal composition The rocks represented in figure 82.2 are all re-
of any part of the Idaho 'batholith is that by Anderson garded as components of the Idaho batholith proper
and Rasor ( 1934). They studied rooks from more than (fig. 82.1). Outlying masses and intrusions within
50 localities in and ·around the Boise :Basin in the south- the area of the batholith that are not known to be dis-
western part of central Idaho and plotted thffir results tinctly related to the batholith are not included. This
on a triangular diagra~. Their data are not reproduced has resulted in elimination of a few analyses attributed
in the ·present ·article only because the numerous analyses to the batholith in previous compilations but now known
.f.rom a small part of the batholith would crowd and tend to be from younger rocks. Conceivably a few analyses
to unbalance the illustrations. that are shown on figure 82.2 are also from rocks of
Figure 82.1 shows the localities from which the sam- postbatholithic age; future detailed work should elim-
inate them. All analyses on figure 82.2 are of rocks
pies were collected and the relrution of the samples to
of dominantly granitoid texture. A few of the rocks
the Idaho batholith and_ its border zone. The boundaries
are gneissic, but those that are unquestionably metamor-
of the batholith and, especially, those of parts of its phosed derivatives of sedimentary rocks are not in-
border zone are expected to be modified very extensively cluded.
when detailed mapping is d~ne. Figu·re 82.2 shows GEOLOGIC SETTING
graphically the proportion of quartz, potassium ·feld- The Idaho batholith, as shown on figure 82.1, lie~
spar, plagioclase, and other constituents (largely bio- mainly in central Idaho, but its northeastern part ex-
tite) in the samples that have been studied, other than tends a short distance into Montana. Its exposures
1
Research supported In part by a grant from the National Science
cover about 16,000 square miles and embrace an irreg-
Foundation. ular area up to 120 miles in width and 240 miles in

086 ART. 82 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 47,5-C, PAGES C86-C90. 1963.
 ROSS C87

FIGURE 82.1.-Sketch of the Idaho batholith (shaded) and its border zone (diagonal pattern) showing the loca•
tion of samples for which modal analyses are plot ted on figure 82.2. . Source of samples as follows : An-
derson and Wagner (1946) 53; ·Chase\ "/; Choate (1962), 38; Davidson (1939), 8, 9; Hewett, in Umpleby
and others (1930), 55; Larsen and Schmidt (1958), 3, 4, 6, 31, 32, 36, 40, 4"1; Leischner 11, 1, 2; Lindgren
(1900), 1,1, 1,6, 50, 51; Lindgren (1904), 5; Schmidt (1958), 15, 1"1, 20, 21, 22, 23; Schmidt 3 , 51,; other
samples by the author.
1 Chase, R. B., 1961, Geology of Sweethouse Canyon, Bitterroot Range, Montana: Montana State Univ. unpub. M.A. thesis.
n I&lschner, L. M., 1959, Border-zone petrology of the Idaho batholith in vicinity of Lolo Hot Springs, Montana: Mon-
~-.
tana State Univ. unpub. M.S. thesis, 76 p.
8 Schmidt, D. L., 1962, Quaternary geology of the Bellevue area in Blaine and Camas Counties, Idaho: Unlv. of Wash-

ington unpub. lPh D. thesis.

C88 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

Quartz

·~
80

Granite 60
Quartz
iorite

Syenite Monzonite Syenod iorite

Potassium feldspar ~ Plagioclase

PERCENT

FIGURE 82.2.-Diagram of modal analyses from the Idaho batholith. Square, sample from inner facies; circle, sample
from calcic border facies; triangle, sample from silicic border zone. J..ength of inclined lines indicates percentage
of essential constituents (mainly biotite) not otherwise represented in the diagram. Numbers indicate sample loca-
tions as shown in figure 82.1.

length. Much the greater part belongs to the main, sic, and is in turn cut by dikes and other small intru-
inner facies of fairly uniform rather light-colored gran- sions. Most of these are of early to possibly middle
itoid rock. · An outer mass, somewhat older and more Tertiary age but may include some rocks as old as Late
diversified, may have originally constituted an envelope Cretaceous (Anderson, 1952, p. 263). Most of the
that enclosed much of the main facies. Most of the younger intrusive rocks are fine grained and porphyrit-
outer zone is rather calcic and is commonly referred to ic, but some in central Idaho have a coarsely granitic
as the calcic border zone. Locally, however, silicic texture and can easily be confused with the rocks of
rocks are conspicuous along the border of the batholith. the batholith. Possibly a few of the analyses reported
This distinction is not made on figure 82.2, but the here are of granitic rocks of Tertiary age.
principal area of these silicic rocks is near Shoup, Idaho, On the basis of its geologic relations the Idaho
on the east side of the batholith. · batholith has been deduced to be not older than Early
The Idaho batholith i11trudes sedimentary and vol- Cretaceous or, at most, Late Jurassic (Ross and For-
canic rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Trias- rester, 1958, p. 24-25) : possibly much of it did not con-
 ROSS C89
solidate until the middle of the Cretaceous. Deter- All of the analyses corresponding to diorite and
minations of absolute age by the lead-alpha method quartz diorite are of samples from the calcic border
(Larsen and Schmidt, 1958, p.18-19; Larsen and others, zone. Some from that zone are as siliceous as grano-
1958, p. 50-51, 54-55) average about 105 million years, diorite and quartz monzonite. As the calcic zone is
if a few determinations on rocks not belonging to the known to be cut by offshoots of the main interior mas~
Idaho batholith proper are eliminated. (Ross and Forrester, 1958, p. 22), some of the more
siliceous rocks here grouped with the calcic border zone
MINERALOGY
may be apophyses of the inner facies.· This statement
The rocks are mineralogically rather simple. The is not intended to apply to the rock of the approximate
princjpal components of the quartz monzonite and gran- composition of granite referred to below.
odiorite of the main inner facies are quartz; potassium Attention may be called to samples 1, 2, 8, 9, and 10
feldspar; plagioclase; commonly biotite or, more (fig. 82.2), which represent the siliceous variant of the
rarely hornblende; and muscovite or pyroxene. Much rocks along the batholith border. These show that the
of the potassium feldspar is microcline, some of which Idaho batholith, as now mapped, includes rocks dis-
is perthitic. Sphene and apatite are among the most tinctly n1ore siliceous than is apparent from most pub-
abundant accessory minerals. Dike rocks such as peg- lished descriptions. The siliceous and calcic compon-
matite, aplite, and lamprophyre are not considered. ents of the outer parts of the batholith have not been
Most of the rocks of the calcic border zone are gran- observed in contact with each other. The relation
odiorite and quartz diorite. Many of them are similar between the two is among the unsolved questions re-
in mineral composition to rocks of the main mass ex- garding the Idaho batholith.
cept that commonly the most abundant plagioclase is The diagram presented by Anderson and Rasor
akin to andesine, and hornblende is the principal dark (1934), while corresponding to .a much smaller part of
mineral. Some contain no potassium feldspar; a few the batholith than figure 82.2, has much similarity to
contain pyroxene. The border zone as plotted on figure the figure. Their compilation is especially like the
82.2 includes metamorphosed sedimentary material, not denser portion of figure 82.2. It shows a slightly
considered here, that is gradationaJ with the granitoid larger proportion of quartz monzonite, no granite or
rocks. diorite, and little quartz diorite.
The few siliceous rocks that border the batholith, as The part of the batholith north of lat 45°30' N. is·
noted by Davidson (1939) and Leischner 2 , are largely poorly represented by samples. Reconnaissance in the
granite and augen gneiss in which such components as summer of 1962 and a little published data (Lindgren,
quartz, microline, perthite, albite, oligoclase, and bl.o- 1904, p. 17-23; Shenon and Reed, 1934, p. 16, 17, 19-21 ;
tite are plentiful. Micropegmatite intergrowths are Anderson, 1930, p. 17-23) show that gneissic rocks are
also conspicuous in many of them. fairly common and that in some areas, notably in the
MODAL ANALYSES northernmost parts, the rock varies in texture and com-
The 1nodal analyses of rocks referred to in this article position even within a single outcrop.
are shown graphically in figure 82.2, which is plotted in REFERENCES
a,ccord with a method proposed by Johannsen ( 1932) . Anderson, A. L., 1930, Geology and mineral resources of the
According to the subdivision of rock names indicated region about Orofino, Idaho: Idaho Bur. Mines and Geology
in the figure, the samples from the main, inner facies Pamph. 34.
are mainly granodiorite, although many are quartz --1952, Multiple emplacement of the Idaho batholith: Jour.
Geoiogy, v. 60, p. 255-265.
monzonite. Most published summaries indicate that
Anderson, A. L., and Rasor, A. C., 1934, Composition of the
the main mass of the batholith is dominantly quartz Idaho batholith in Boise County, Idaho: Am ..Tour. Sci.,
monzonite. Thus the diagram suggests that the main 5th ser., v. 27, p. 287-294.
mass may be somewhat more calcic than most published Anderson, A. L., and 'Vagner, ,V, R., 1946, A geological recon-
reports indicate. It is interesting, however, to note naissance in the Little 'Vood River (Muldoon) district,
that most of the samples plotted contain more than 20 Blaine County, Idaho : Idaho Bur. Mines ami Geology
Pamph. 75, 22 p.
percent quartz and a few contain more than 45 percent. Chayes, Felix, 1956, Petrographic modal analysis-an element-
Many have a dark-mineral content of scarcely more ary statistical appraisal: New York, John Wiley and Sons,
than 10 percent, and several samples have less than 5 113 p.
percent. Choate, Raoul, 1962, Cinnabar district east of Stanley: Idaho
Bur. Mines and Geology Pamph. 126.
111
Leischner, L. M., 1959, Border-zone petrology of the Idaho batholith Davidson, D. l\1., 1939, Geology and petrology of the Mineral Hill
In vtclntty of Lolo Hot Springs, Montana: Montana State Unlv. unpub. mining district, Lemhi County,. Idaho [abs.]: Minnesota
M.S. thesis, 76 p. Univ. summaries of Ph. D. theses, v. 1, p. 218-221.
C90 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

Johannsen, Albert, 1922, On the representation of igneous rocks Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the
in triangular diagrams: Jour. Geology, v. 30, p. 167-169. United Nations International Conference on Peaceful Uses
Larsen, E. S., Jr., and Schmidt, R. G., 1958, A reconnaissance of of Atomic Energy: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300,
the Idaho batholith and comparison with the southern Cali- p. 375-380.
fornia batholith: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1070--A. Ross, C. P., 1962, Stratified rocks in south-central Idaho: Idaho
Larsen, E. S., Jr., Gottfried, David, Jaffe, H. W., and Waring, Bur. Mines and Geology Pamph. 125, 126 p.
C. L., 1958, Lead-alpha ages of the Mesozoic batholiths of Ross, C. P., and Forrester, J. D., 1958, Outline of the geology of
western North America: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1070--B, Idaho : Idaho Bur. Mines and Geology Bull. 15, 74 p.
p. 35-62. Schmidt, D. L., 1958, Reconnaissance petrography of the Idaho
Lindgren, Waldemar, 1900, The gold and silver veins of Silver batholith in Valley County, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey open-
City, De Lamar and other mining district in Idaho: U.S. file report.
Geol. Survey 20th Ann. Rept., pt. 3, p. 65-256. Shenon, P. J., and Reed, J. C., 1934, Geology and ore deposits
Lindgren, Waldemar, 1904, A geological reconnaissance across of the Elk City, Orogrande, Buffalo Hump, and Tenmile
the Bitterroot ~ange and Clearwater. Mountains in Montana districts, Idaho COlmty, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 9.
and Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 27, 123 p._ Umpleby, J. B., Westgate, L. G., and Ross, C. P., 1930, Geology
Mackin, J. H., and Schmidt, D. L., 1956, Uranium- and thorium- and ore deposits of the ·wood River region, Idaho, with a
bearing minerals in placer deposits in Idaho, in Contribu- description of the Minnie Moore and near-by mines, by D. F.
tions to the geology of uranium and thorium by the U.S. Hewett: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 814, 250 p.
 Article 83
\~.

SOLUTION BRECCIAS OF THE MINNELUSA FORMATION

IN THE BLACK HILLS, SOUTH DAKOTA AND WYOMING

By C. G. BOWLES and W. A. BRADDOCK, Denver, Colo.

Work clone in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commiss.ion

Abstraot.-Solutlon features in the Minnelusa Formation both surface and subsurface rocks in the southern Black
(Pennsylvanian and Permian age) have been formed since early Hills.
Tertiary time by the removal of as much as 250 feet of anhydrite
and gypsum by ground water. Breccia pipes and sinks in Brecciation, with few exceptions, is restricted to the
Permian to Lower Cretaceous formations are attributed to upper part of the Minnelusa Formation and decreas~s
collapse in the Minnelusa. in intensity downward from unit 1 to unit 3. In unit
1, layers of breccia are composed of angular c~rbonate
and clastic fragments which have moved very httle rel-
Breccias in the Minnelusa Formation were recog- ative to one another; thus, bedding is preserved. Unit
nized by Darton (1905, p. 29) as "a distinctive feature 1 also contains vertical pipes of breccia, against which
throughout the southern Black Hills." Breccia was recognizable bedding terminates. Unit 2 is character-
observed in parts of seven 71h-minute quadrangles ized by contorted and locally brecciated strata and by
(Braddock, 1963; D. A. Brobst, and J. B. Epstein, ·breccia "sills" as much as 3 feet thick (fig. 83.3) . The
1963; V. R. Wilmarth, oral communication, 1.957; and weathered sills, composed of fragments of dolomite,
Wolcott and others, 1962) during recent mapping of the. limestone, and sandstone, are heavily cemented by cal-
Minnelusa in ~he area between Hot Springs, S. Dak., cium carbonate and form rounded tufalike ledges that
and Stockade Beaver Creek, 6 miles east of Newcastle, are connected by pi pes of similar breccia. Presumably
Wyo. (fig. 83.1). the sills were formed where dolomite beds bridged cav-
The Minnelusa Formation has been divided into 6 ernous areas, permitting lateral movement of breccia
units totaling 700 to 1,100 feet in thickness (fig. 83.2). fragments outward from the pipes into the caverns to
The units, numbered from youngest ,to oldest, corre- form tabular bodies. In unit 3 the rocks are slightly
spond closely to the 6 divisions of Condra and Reed brecciated and stylolites have formed along bedding
(1940). In outcrop, units 6, 5, and 4 in the lower part planes in the carbonate rocks. Str31ta in units 4, 5,
of the Minnelusa consist, respectively, of a basal sand- and ·6 commonly are undisturbed, except in areas where
stone, a lavender to cream-colored limestone, and a se- solution of the underlying Pahasapa Limestone of Mis-
quence of interbedded red shales and gray to purple sissippian age has caused collapse and draping.
1imestones and dolomites. Outcrops of units 3 and 2 In the subsurface within a mile or two of the Min-
of Middle and Late Pennsylvanian age are composed nelusa outcrop, units 1, 2, and 3 are unhrecciated and
of cherty yellow dolomites and limestones, yellow sand- ·are thicker than the equivalent surface exposures. The
stones, and ·black shales. Rocks of Permian age, des- additional thickness, amounting to as much as 250 feet,
ignated unit 1, crop out as thick red and yellow sand- is due to intercalated beds of anhydrite. In cores from
stones, thin gray or yellow limestones and dolomites, the USGS No. 2 Pass Creek drill hole (fig. 83.1) about
and red mudstones. The base of unit 1 is the lower 200 feet of anhydrite was recovered in unit 1, 25 feet of
contact of the "Red Marker') (Thompson and. Kirby, anhydrite in unit 2, and 10 feet of anhydrite at the top
.A.., 1940, p. 145), a red mudstone that may be traced in of unit 3 ('fig. 83.2). Within unit 3, additional beds

ART. 83 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C&l-C95. 1963. 091
694-027 0-63-7
 C92 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

EXPLANATION
3
0
Drill hole
d'&)
Newcastle
•
Breccia pipe or
collapse feature
2
•
Water-sampling
locality
43°
45'

,¢
,..C9
'4?.
//)
/)C9
/v
J'Q> .....
03° 30'

<
E-<
0 • • ."J'S":
~
<
0
2s--··
·. Crf
€J€lv.,

:X::
E-<
:::::>
li
:d •
0
r:n ?0-.
43° -----
30'

,¢
OJ' -.../
t,4?
//)
.>
\~es>/
•
( ,<-
o,.. •
./ ~Q>
>< ><
E-< E-<
z ::>z
::::>
0
u
·o
u
~
~ • t/
0/) ..•
6 •

< w
~
< >
~ ~
ill ..J
0
z< ..J
~

43
15'

0 5 10 MILES

FIGURE 83~1.-Map showing outcrop of the Minnelusa Formation (shaded), location of brecci~. pipes and collapse features in
Pei-m.ian and younger roeks, and distribution of springs emitting sulfate water, southern Black Hills of South Dakota and
.,Vyoming. Hachures-.outline area· mapped in 1953-59; data compiled ·from published and unpublished reports of the U.S.
",Geological Survey.
 BOWLES AND BRADDOCK C93
USGS Pass
Creek No. 2
drill hole

Unit

.,uc
0

.,
u"'
~
~

.,"'
::;;"'

2
"0
Q)
0::

3
FIGURE 83.3.-Breccia sills ( o) connected by pipes (b) in unit
EXPLANATION 2 of the Minnelusa Formation in R ed Canyon, NE14 sec. 11,
~ T. 6 S., R. 3 E ., Custer County, S. Dak.
~
Sandstone Limestone
replaced, and sandstone and breccia have been cemented,
by calcite (Art. 84). The intensely brecciated rocks
4 Siltstone Dolomite
are firmly cemented, in contrast to the thick, moderately
to weakly brecciated sandstones, which are loosely ce-
mented. In many places the only evidence of disturb-
Shale Anhydrite ance in the sandstones is a slight development of box-
5 work structure resulting from differential weathering
. 6
FEET of the poorly cemented sandstones and the well-
cemented joints. Within the brecciated rocks, cavities
ranging from several inches to 4 feet across are lined
with calcite crystals. In core from the USGS No. 3
Minnekahta drill hole south of Argyle, S. Dak. (fig.
FIGURE 83.2.-Stratigraphic sections of the Minnelusa Forma-
83.1), calcite crystals rim breccia fragments and, in
tion of P ennsylvanian and Permian age showing correlation
of brecciated r ocks in outcrop with anhydrite-bearing strata turn, are enclosed by a matrix of silt and clay. The
of the subsurface in Custer County, S. Dale The locations abundance of this fine-grained matrix suggests that
of the stratigraphic sections are: Hell Canyon section, NW% in places silt and clay from the overlying Opeche For-
sec. 3 and NE14 sec. 4, T . 5 S., R. 2 E.; USGS No.1 Hell Can- mation of Permian age and possibly the Spearfish For-
yon drill hole, sec. 3, T. 5 S., R. 2 E. ; USGS No.2 Pass Creek
{!rill hole, sec. 1, T. 6 S., R. 1 E.
mation of Permian and Triassic age have been incor-
porated within the breccia following the initial collapse
of anhydrite were identified by Gordon Hurd ( 1942, and brecciation.
written communication) in cores and cuttings from the The breccia pipes (fig. 83.4) are cylindrical masses
Continental Oil Co. State No. 1 drill hole, sec. 36, T. 8 of blocks and fragments derived from overlying beds
S., R. 3-E. Correlation of beds from the thicker sub- and are firmly cemented by calcite. Intense cementa-
surface sections into the brecciated section indicates tion causes the pipes to weather out in relief along the
that the breccia has resulted from collapse induced by canyon walls or to form free-standing masses of brec-
solution of anhydrite. cia. The maximum height of the pipes is not known,
The breccia layers are composed predominantly of but within the Minnelusa Formation breccia pipes 200
fragments of Minnelusa rocks, but fine-grained detritus feet high and "tens to several hundred feet" in di-
from the overlying formations is also incorporated in ameter (Brobst and Epstein, 1963) are exposed in
the upper part of the formation. Petrologic studies of canyon walls. Many of the pipes were undoubtedly
the Minnelusa breccia show that dolomite has been formed well below the ground surface, as indicated by
C94 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

ABUNDANCE
FORMATION AGE
1 2

Lakota Formation Early Cretaceous

~nkpapa
Morrison
Formation Sandstone
Late Jurassic
..
Sundance Formation

Spearfish Formation Permian and Triassic

I
?

Minnekahta Limestone
Permian
Opeche Formation

Pennsylvanian
Minnelusa Formation

~·
and Permian

Pahasapa Limestone Early Mississippian

1. Related to solutton wtthm the Pahasapa Limestone.

2. Related to solution within the Minnelusa Formation.

FIGURE 83.5.-Stratigraphic distribution of breccia layers and

pipes and other collapse features in the southern Black Hills
South Dakota and Wyoming. '
FIGURE 83.4.-Breccia pipe (p) in the upper part of the Min-
nelusa Formation in Gettys Canyon, SE:i4 sec. 16, T. 3 s., R.
1 E., Custer County, S. Dak. Photograph by J. B. Epstein.
upward stoping through the overlying formations,
ground water circulating through the pipes probably
.
leac?ed blocks of gypsum from the Spearfish, thus re-
large blocks of Minnekahta Limestone of Permian
ducmg t?e volume of the breccia and thereby increasing
age that were dropped 150 feet or more below the nor-
the s~opmg. Near the margin of the pipes, collapse of
mal stratigraphic position and incorporated in pipes
the Siltstones probably sealed off the gypsum beds from
near Argyle, S. Dak. Other pipes probably were
further solution by ground water.
formed after the overlying formations were removed
. Solution in the Minnelusa began in early Tertiary
by erosion (Epstein, 1958). Many pipes in Gettys
tlme and has progressed downdip from the brecciated
Canyon, SE:ly4 sec. 16, T. 3 S., R. 1 E., are funnel shaped
outcrops. Inclusions of fragments of Minnekahta
(fig. 83.4), suggesting that they originated as sinks
Limestone within the collapse structures indicate that
formed above the water table and later filled by debris
solution and collapse were not penecontemporaneous
from the outcrop.
with deposition of the Minnelusa. Only after the Lara-
Collapse. fea~ures in more than 1,000 feet of overlying
mide uplift of the Black Hills was the Minnelusa ex-
rocks rangmg mage from Permian to Early Cretaceous
posed to erosion and subjected to solution by ground
(fig. 83.5) appear to be related to the solution breccias
water. Collapse and brecciation in the Argyle quad:
of the Minnelusa Formation. These pipes, sinks, and
rangle occurred before deposition of the Chadron For-
collapse features (.fig. 83.1) must have resulted from the
mation in Oligocene time. During Recent time two
solution of calcium sulfate in the Minnelusa Formation
because no comparable solution has occurred in th~
sinks, the largest measuring 240 feet in diameter and
60 feet in depth, have formed downdip in Cretaceous
overlying rocks. Even the gypsum beds of the Spearfish
stmta at the head of Brady Canyon, 2 miles south of
Formation, which total more than 100 feet in thickness
crop out almost continuously. The absence of wide~
Hot Springs, S. Dak. (D. E. Wolcott, 1957, oral com-
spread solution within the Spearfish may be attributed munication). Analyses of present-day sprina water
to the lower permeability of the siltstones of that forma- ascending from the Minnelusa (Gott and S~hnabel,
tion, a property which has restricted the migration of 1963) show that solution of anhydrite, replacement of
solvents. In contrast, the Minnelusa contains highly dolomite, and recementation of the collapse breccias by
permeable sandstones that aided solution of anyhdrite calcite are continuing in the Minnelusa Formation at
and gypsum. Where collapse in the Minnelusa initiated the present time (Art. 84) .
 BOWLES' AND BRADDOCK C95
•..
REFERENCES Epstein, J. B., 1958, Geology of part of the Fanny Peak quad-
rangle, ·wyoming-South Dakota: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file
Braddock, ,V, A., 1963, Geology of the Jewel Cave s·w quad-
report.
ruugle, South Dakota: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1063-G.
Gott, G. B., and Schnabel, R. \V., 1963, Geology of the Edgemont
[In press]
NE quadrangle, South Dakota: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
Brol>st, D. A., und Epstein, J. B., 1963, Geology of the Fanny
1063-E, p. 127-19.0.
Peak qundrnngle, 'Vyoming and South Dalwta: U.S. Geol.
Thompson, ·w. 0., and Kirby, .J. l\L, 1940, Cross sections from
Survey Bull. 10G3-I. [In press]
Colorado Springs to Black Hills showing correlation of
Conch·1~, G. E., and Heed, E. C., 1940, Correlation of the Carbon-
Paleozoic stratigraphy: Kansas Geol. Soc. Guidebook 14th
iferous und Permiun horizons in the Black Hills and Hart-
Ann. Field Conf., Aug. 26 to Sept. 1, 1940, p. 145 pl. XV.
ville upli~t: Knnsns Geol. Soc. Guidebook 14th Ann. Field
Conf., Aug. 2(1 to Sept. 1, 1940, p. 127-128. Wolcott, D. E., and others, 1962, Geologic and structure map of
Darton, N. H., 1905, Geology nnd underground wnter resources the Minnekahta NID quadrangle, Fall River and Custer
of the Centrnl Grent Plains: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper Counties, South Dalwta: U.S. Geol. ·Survey Mineral Inv.
32, 433 p. Field Studies Map MF-242.

).

.....
~-
 ...

CALCITIZATION OF DOLOMITE BY CALCIUM SULFATE

SOLUTIONS IN THE MINNELUSA FORMATION, BLACK HILLS,
SOUTH DAKOTA AND WYOMING

By W. A. BRADDOCK and C. G. BOWLES, Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with the U.S. Atom·ic Energy Commission

A.bstract.-From early Tertiary time to the present, anhydrite though some beds are irreguJ arly spotted red, yellow,
and gypsum have been dissolved from the Minnelusa Formation or purp1e in streaks paralleling the strrutifica;tion, and
in a zone near the outcrop. The residual rocks have been oxi-
dized, dolomite and anhydrite cements of sandstones have been
others are mottled red ·along fractures. The cement of
replaced by calcite, and bedded dolomites have been converted the gray to mottled sandstone is predominantly coarsely
to limestone. crystalline ·anhydrite containing small rhomhs of dolo-
mite. ·Pyrite occurs as interstitial filling in some of the
Anhydrite beds in the upper part of the Minnelusa gray sandstone. Carbonate rock in the core is very ·fine
Formation have been removed by solution in a zone grained, dark gray, and consists largely or entirely of
near the outcrop of the formation in the Black Hills. dolomite.
The removal of several hundred feet of rock has re- Rocks in all hurt one outcrop ·df the Minnelusa in the
sulted in the formation of depression features, breccia southern Black Hills are altered •and contain neither
layers and breccia pipes (Art. 83, fig. 83.1). A descrip- •anhydrite nor gypsum. The 'brecciated sandstone beds
tion of the solution .breccias and a summary of the in ~the leached area are dominantly yellow and red. In
stratigraphic units in the Minnelusa Formation are outcrop the sandstone is friable and weakly cemented by
given in Article 83. C'oarsely crystalline calcite; it con:tains ·authigenic hem·a-
In the zone in which anhydrite has been removed, tite crystals but no pyrite. •M uch of the brecciated car-
the remaining rocks have been oxidized, dolomite and bonate rock is red and contains abundant spots and
anhydrite cements of sandstones have been replaced dendrites of manganese oxide. In tihe outcrop the oar-
by calcite cement, and bedded dolomites have been bonate rock ranges from calciitic dolomite to medium-
converted to limestones. grained limestone that contains less than 1 percent dolo-
These conclusions are based upon examination of mite. These mixed carbonate rocks are rthe product of
replacement of dolomite hy cakite and the precipitation
samples collected from the brecciated part of units 1 and
of calcite in vugs and fractures.
2 of the Minnelusa Formation in the vicini·ty of Hell
The determination of calcite and dolomite was m·ade
Canyon and in the USGS No. 3 Minnekahta drill hole by studying the rate of solution of the minerals in dilute
(Art. 83, ·fig. 83.1). •Samples were also studied from HCl, sta;ining the calcite in thin sections with heina-
the USGS No. 2 Pass Creek drill hole in the NW~ sec. toxyline, measuring the refractive indices, ahd studying
1, T. 6 S., R. 1 E. This core test is downdip from the X-ray diffractometer patterns.
zone of intense leaching, and it penetrated rocks of Progressive stages of caicitiz,ation exhibited hy the
unit 1. dolomite breccias are significant in the interpreta;tion of
The rocks cored in the No. 2 drill hole •are mostly un- the origin of medium-grained lime8tone. The initial
alrtered and include 235 feet of anhydrite. The sand- stages of calcitization of dolomites are shown by the
stone in the core is dominantly light to dark gray, ·al- phot!omicrographs (figs. 84.1A. and B) of the dolomite

C96 ART. 84 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C96-C99. 1963.

,...;
 BRADDOCK AND BOWLES C97
...

. FIGURE 84.1.-Photomicrographs of carbonate rocks in the Minnelusa Formation, Custer County, S. Dak.
A., Dolomite breccia cemented and partly replaced by calcite. The dolomite (dark gray) below the fracture (white) has
been extensively calcitized. The light gray patches are individual calcite crystals that poikalitically enclose abundant
small doloonite grains. Area of figure 84.1B shown by outline. X10.
B, Enlargement of the center of figure 84.1A.. X30.
C', Dolomite breccia. Some dolomite rock fragments (dark gray) have sharp boundaries, and other fragments are quite
diffuse. Many of the coarse calcite crystals (light gray) have cores containing relict dolomite grains. X10.
D, Ca:lcitic dolomite. Residuals of dolomite rock (dark gray) are largely replaced by calcite (light gray). X 10.
E, Medium-grained limestone containing only traces of dolomite. X10.
F, Gypsiferous dolomite. White areas are gypsum. Areas marked F are fluorite. The dolomite bed from which this sample
was taken has been replaced by calcite in the zone of brecciation to form the limestone shown in figure 84.1E. X10.
C98 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

breccias. Fractures in 'the dolomi•tes •are filled with tities of calcite along fractures and porous zones. In
coarse-grained calcite. Where there has been little re- addition, these solutions brought ·about the extensive
placement by calcite, the breccia fragments are clearly replacement of the fractured dolomite by calcite, a
defined and have sharp margins. With more advanced process which at completion produced limestone.
replacement, coaTSe c·alcite crystals have developed with- We conclude from the study of collapse features
in the dolomite rock fragments ·and have poikalitically (Art. 83) that evaporitic rocks of the Minnelusa For-
enclosed many smaJler grains of dolomite. The forma- mation have been dissolved by ground water, beginning
tion of large calcite cryst,als with inclusion-filled cores in early Tertiary time and continuing to the present.
and abundant 'fine -grains of dolomite along their mar- Water analyses confirm our belief that solution is oc-
gins ·appears to be typlca'l of the replacement process curring now. Present day spring waters ascending
(:figs. 84.1A, B, and 0). With even more advanced re- from the Minnelusa contain in solution much calcium
placement, the dolomite rock fragments have become sulfate and some magnesium and bicarbonate (see
quite diffuse ('figs. 84.10 'and D), and where oalcitiz·a- table), indicating that the major ions are derived\from
tion is nearly complete the rock is a medium-grained the solution of calcium sulfate (anhydrite and gypsum), .
limestone (fig. 84.1E). dolomite, and possibly limestone.
Progressive degrees of ·altera:tion of an 8-foot carbo- Ground water that dissolves the sulfate and carbonate
nate bed were obse.rved from the USGS No.2 drill hole rocks of the Minnelusa also precipitates CaC0 3 and
to an outcrop in Hell Canyon, 5 miles updip~ At the replaces Mg with Ca. If the composition of the spring
crest of a ·small anticline, 2 miles updip from the drill waters resulted only frol!l the process of solution of
hole, slight alteration is indica:ted hy the hydration of the above-described rocks, then the concentration of cal-
).
·anhydrite masses to gypsum as shown in figure 84.1F. cium would at least be equivalent to the total concen-
Between the ·anticline and the outcrop in the zone of tration of sulphate and magnesium, which it is not.
intense alteration in Hell Canyon, the dolomite bed has Also, too little bicarbonate is present to support the
heen completely converted to a medium-grained lime- assumption that solution is the only process affecting
stone (fig. 84.1E). the spring water. These deficiencies can be explained
The alteration .discussed above not only has affected
by the precipitation of CaCOs, the exchange of Ca
surface exposures, but is believed also to have occurred
and Mg during calcitization of dolomite, or by a com-
throughout the subsurface part of the formation from
which anhydrite has been leached. Specimens cored 25, bination of both processes, as found in the Minnelusa
to 180 feet below the surface in the USGS No. 3 Min- rocks (fig. 84.1).
nekahta drill hole show similar evidence of alteration. Yanat'eva (1956) showed that calcium sulfate solu-
It is clear that as the sandstone and dolomite were tions, similar in composition to the spring waters frmn
fractured by the subsidence resulting from leaching of the Minnelusa Formation, will calcitize dolomite and
anhydrite, oxidizing and calcium-rich solutions gained precipitate calcium carbonate. In a solution of calcium
ready access to them and precipitated appreciable quan- sulfate at 25°0 and a low partial pressure (0.0012 at-

Chemical analyses of spring water from the Minnelusa Formation, Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming 1

[All data from Gott and Schnabel, 1963; ppm, parts per million; epm, equivalents per million 1)

1 2 3 4 5 6
Chemical constituent
ppm epm ppm epm ppm epm ppm epm ppm epm ppm epm
--
Calcium (Ca)+2 _______________ 532 26. 6 472 23. 6 402 20. 1 252 12. 6 508 25. 4 568 28. 3
Sulfate (S0 4)-2 _______________ 1,420 29. 6 1,260 26. 2 1,040 21. 7 639 13. 3 1, 610 33. 5 1, 540 32. 1
Magnesium (M~+2 ___________ 83 6. 8 78 6. 4 56 4. 6 51 4. 2 112 9. 2 92 7. 6
Bicarbonate (H 0 3)-1 _________ 225 3. 7 227 3. 7 190 3. 1 232 3. 8 112 1.8 235 3. 9
Carbonate (C03)-2 ____________ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sodium (Na)+I _______________ 5 .2 6 .2 4 .2 86 3. 7 21 .9 54 2. 4
Chloride (CJ)-1 _______________ 4 .1 5- .1 1 .0 112 3. 2 13 .4 62 1.8
Other dissolved solids _________ 25 ------ 21 ------ 17 ------ 40 ------ 18 ------ 31 ------
1. Sample 2208. SE~ sec. 31, T. 45 N., R. 60 W., Weston County, Wyo.
2. Sample 2209. NE~ sec. 31, T. 45 N., R. 60 W., Weston County, Wyo.
3. Sample 2210. SW~ sec. 17, T. 45 N., R. 60 W., Weston County, Wyo.
4. Sample 2247. Evans Plunge, Hot Springs, Fall River County, S. Dak.
5. Sample 2249. NW~ sec. 35, T. 7 S., R. 5 E., Fall River County, S.Dak.
6. Sample 2250. Cascade Springs, SW~ sec. 20, T. 8 S., R. 5 E., Fall Rivet County, S. Dak.
1 Locations of springs shown on fig. 83.1 of Article 83 as numbered water-sampling localities.
J Equivalents per million= parts per million X 1/combining weight.
-c.
 BRADDOCK AND BOVVLES C99
mosphere) of carbon dioxide, dolomite was many times REFERENCES

more soluble than calcite. Dolomite and gypsum were Gott, G. B., and Schnabel, R. W., 1963, Geology of the Edge-
unstable, and the reaction mont NE quadrangle, South Dakota : U.S. Geol. Survey
Bull. 1063--E, p. 127-190.
CaCOs·MgCOs+CaS04:;2CaCOs+MgS04( + water) Yanat'eva, 0. K., 1956, The nature of the solubility of dolomite
in water and in calcium sulfa·te solutions at different par-
~·
occurred, causing calcitization of dolomite and the ac- tial pressures O'f C02: Zhur. Neorg. Khim. Trans., v. 1, no.
cumulation of magnesium sulfate in solution. 7, p. 1473-1478.

·~ .

•
 -'•.

Article 85

APATITIZED WOOD AND LEUCOPHOSPHITE IN NODULES

IN THE MORENO FORMATION, CALIFORNIA

By R. A. GULBRANDSEN, D. L. JONES, K. M. TAGG, and D. W. REESER,

I

Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.-Nodules containing apatitized wood fragments oc- The specimens of fossil wood were obtained from the ' ;-'-'I
cur in the Moreno Formation of Cretaceous age. Pyrite, depos- lower part of the Moreno at the head of Escarpado
ited in open space in the wood, and apatite are primary minerals
formed in a marine environment ; leucophosphite and gypsum Canyon, Fresno County (figs. 85.1 and 85.2), where
are secondary minerals formed during weathering. X-ray data Payne ( 1941; 1951) divided the formation, in ascend-
for leucophosphite are presented for this new occurrence of the ing order, as follows: Dosados Sand and Shale, Tierra
mineral.
Lorna Shale, Marca Shale, and Dos Palos Shale Mem-
bers (fig. 85.3). The fossil wood was obtained .from the
Apatitized fossil wood in itself is rare, but in associ- upper part of the Dosados Sand and Shale Member
ation with .leucophosphite in gypsum-encased nodules, and the lower part of the Tierra Lorna Shale Member.
as described here, it is unique. Simpson (1912) re-
viewed early reports of phosphatized fossil wood, and 120°00'
since then only a few occurrences have been described r'---------1- 42°00'
(Simpson, 1920; Read, 1936; Hofmann, 1944; Maslen-
nikov and Kavitskaya, 1956; Goldberg and Parker,
1960). The wood in the samples described here has
been replaced by carbonate fluorapatite, hereinafter
referred to as apatite. Leucophosphite, a hydrous
potassium ferric phosphate, is new in this mode of
occurrence and previously has been found only in a peg-
matite (Lindberg, 1957) and in deposits formed by
38°00'
reactions of iron-rich materials with bird guano (Simp-
Area of
son, 1931-32) and bat dung (Axelrod and others, 1952). report
The Moreno Formation, in which the fossil wood ri •Fresno
occurs, is of latest Cretaceous and earliest Paleocene ( ~)
age. It crops out in the foothills along the western side
of San Joaquin Valley, mainly in Fresno and Merced • Bakersfield
Counties, Calif. It consists of several thousand feet of
dominantly purple and chocolate-brown organic-rich
• Los Angeles
mudstone with intercalated sandstone lenses. Marine
fossils occur throughout the section, although preserva- 0 100 MILES
tion of megafossils is generally poor. Foraminifera
are locally abundant, and several rich floras of diatoms
have been described (Hanna, 1927, 1934; Long and FIGURE 85.1.-Index map of California showing location of
others, 1946) . described area.

C100 ART. 85 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C100-C104, 1953.
 GULBRANDSEN, JONES, TAGG, AND REESER 0101
R. 11 E. R. 12 E.
the microscope _!nost of it is seen as brown submicro-
Sec.6
crystalline pariic.les that are isotropic in aggregate; a
very small amount is a colorless anisotropic filling of
microscopic fractures. Some brown apatite masses re-
~ veal no cell structure. Pyrite is associated with the
GKp
0
apatite and is regarded as contemporaneous; it occupies
T. i cell space and larger openings. Gypsum o~curs as light-

15
S. -=~--- brown fine-grained crystals in veins and larger replace-
ments of the apatitized wood, ra.rely preserving the cell
structure. In son1e nodules, bassanite occurs in place of
gypsum. Leucophosphite in the core is rare. Although
the dissolution of apatite and pyrite is complete in many
cores, a gross wood structure is still evident.
Km The earthy zone partly encases the core material and
differs markedly from the enclosing mudstone in that
0 1000 2000 FEET
it characteristically is a tan soft aphanite composed
principally of cristobalite-opal, qua.rtz, leucophosphite,
... EXPLANATION
and gypsum. The composition ·ranges widely, and
either cristobalite-opaJ or brown gypsum may constitute
most of the earthy matrix in some nodules. Montmoril-
.1, Km
I C/)
:::::>
lonite and jarosite are· present in small amount in the
~ ~ Moreno Formation 0 earthy zone of some nodules. Leucophosphite, which is
~~C5
LI.J
(.)
<: regarded as a seconda:ry mineral, occurs as spherulites
~~ Kp
I 1-
LI.J
0:::
and pellets that commonly are concentrated in a layer
Panoche Formation (.) immediately beneath the gypsum crust but also are
found in fractures and other areas within the earthy
. -------- ..........
Contact zone. Two unidentified minerals, one common but not
Mapped by Payne (1951) abundant, appear to be confined to the earthy zone.
x2 The crust is composed of white coarsely crystalline
Fossil-woOd locality gypsum. The crystals are elongate perpendicular to
the surface of the earthy zone, or wood core where the
FIOUI~E 85.2.-Mnp showing location of fossil-wood localities
earthy zone is absent, thus delineating a sharp discon-
in the Moreno .l!. . ormntion, Fr~sno County, Calif.
tinuity between the crust and the rest of the nodule.
The wood is not ideal for fossil identification, as it is The 1nudstone in which the nodules were found is
poorly preserved. Two of the better preserved speci- composed principally of mixed-layer montmorillonite-
mens, examined by R. A. Scott, U.S. Geological Survey, illite, quartz, plagioclase, !(-feldspar, and mica; traces
.... could be identified with certainty only as dicotyledons; of cristobalite-opal and gypsum also are present. Gyp-
one is provisionally assigned to the family Sapotaceae, .sum occurs in veins and is strikingly abundant in sur-
genus 0h'I'Y801Jhyllu;m, a form now found only in tropi- face exposures. Samples of mudstone from ch·ill cores·
cn.l and subtropical regions. are similar in composition to surface samples except
The fossil wood occurs in gypsum-encrusted nodules that pyrite is present and gypsum is absent.
in brown mudstone, and the nodules have considerable All mineral identifications have been confirmed by
range in size and shape. The largest found was a slab X-ray analysis. X-ray data for the leucophosphite in
1 X 1lf2 feet in l:argest dimensions ; the longest, a branch, the lVIoreno Formation are listed in the accompanying
was 1lf2 feet long. A typical nodule (fig. 85.4) is com- table along with data of the synthetic mineral and data
posed of three parts: a core of fossil wood, an earthy from well-formed crystals in the Sa.pucaia pegmatite
zone, and a crust of gypsum. Nodules exposed to sur- mine. The leucophosphite of the M:oreno Formation
face weathering usually lack all or part of the gypsum is submicrocrystalline m~d produces a generally diffuse
.....
crust. X-ray pattern. The d values and intensities of the
The core of a nodule is composed principally of gyp- principal peaks check well with the values measured on
stun, pyrite, and apatite. Apatite generally preserves in the other samples, despite the lack of sharp resolution
detail the cell structure of the wood (fig. 85.5) and and the partial interference, clue to impurities, that is
apparently is an initial replacement mineral. Under indicated for a few peaks .
...
C102 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY
··~

Formation and
System Series member Lithologic description
(after Payne,
1951)

sto<
t'o·
> a;
ct: c::
<( Q)
(.)
Cima Sand-
i= 0
ct: ~
UJ C\1
t- CL r--- Gray fine-grained massive friable. silty sandstone; 80 feet thick

Dos Palos
S h a I e Brown organic-rich shale;. 800-900 feet thick
Member

c:: Marca Shale Siliceous light-gray, creamy-white, or light-brown shale, varies from
0
:;::; Member soft and punky to very hard. Contains abundant Siphogenerinoides whitei;
C\1 diatomaceous; 300 feet thick
E
0
LL.
0
c::
Q)
....
0
~
1/)
::J
en 0
:::> Q)
(.)
0 C\1
UJ +-'
(.) Q) Tierra
<(
t-
UJ
u
.;;,
Lorna
Brown shale with local sandstone dikes. Contains abundant fossil
fish scales and other organic matter; 1,150 feet thick
Q) Shale
ct: a.
(.)
a. Member
:::>

Dosados
Sand and Interbedded massive thick-bedded fine-grained light-yellow sand-
S h a I e stone and brown shale. Sandstone dikes common; 209 feet thick
Member

c::
0
:;::;
C\1
E
0
LL.
Massive brown-weathering sandstone
Q)
..c::
(.)
0
c::
C\1
CL

FiouRE 85.3.-Diagrammatic columnar section of Moreno ·Formation in Escarpado Canyon, Fresno County, Calif.
Modified from Payne ( 1951) .
 GULBRANDSEN, JONES, TAGG, AND REESER C103
X-ray diffraction data tor leucophosphite
[Lines less than 2.629 not included]

Moreno Formation 1 Synthetic • Sapuce.!a pegmatite mine,

Brazil •

d I d I d I

7. 55 25 7. 50 0. 31 7. 60 3
6. 72 100 6. 77 1. 00 6. 79 10
--------- --------- --- ------ --------- 6. 09 1
5. 94 95 5. 92 76 0 5. 99 7
4. 70 30 4. 73 280 4. 76 3
4. 23 21 4. 28 2
4. 22 • 35 { 4. 20 28
0

0 4. 21 2
4. 06 • 40 4. 05 140 4. 08 2
3. 76 20 3. 78 210 3. 79 3
------ --- --------- --------- -- ------- 3. 65 1
--------- --------- --- ------ --------- 3. 54 1
3. 34 6 65 3. 34 35 0 3. 37 63
3. 20
~7
l____j --------- --------- 14 0 3. 25
lcm --------- --------- 3. 09 14 0 3. 23
3. 03 55 3. 03 59 0 3. 06
3. 00 28 3. 017 1
FIGURE 85.4.-Section of nodule showing apatitized wood, A ;
earthy zone with leucophosphite pellets, B; and gypsum
2. 970 40 { 2. 97 28
0

0 2. 990 1
----- ---- -------- - --------- -- --- - --- 2. 956 1
crust, C. 2. 869 25 2. 90 370 2. 916 4
2. 798 35 2. 81 410 2. 829 4
'2. 672 30 2. 66 350 2. 685 1
2. 629 30 2. 64 370 2. 655 3

1 Esce.rpado Canyon, SW~SWJ,4 sec. 6, NW~NW~~ sec. 7, T . 15 s., R. 12 E.,

Fresno County, CalU. X-ray powder analysis on wide-range diffractometer Nl-
filtered Cu Ka1 radiation, (X=l.54050.A). '
' Haseman and others, 1950, p. 80. Product i.
'Lindberg, 1957, p. 219.
'Peak broad and Intensity enhanced by crlstoballte-opal and quartz Impurities.
'Intensity enhanced by quartz Impurity.
• Broad.

ment that had a pH lower than that of ordinary sea

water. In addition, the wood itself probably created a
local environment that favored deposition of apatite.
Limited data from a modern occurrence of apatitized
wood on the Pacific sea floor (Goldberg and Parker,
1960, p. 631) show that the bottom water contains al-
most no oxygen and is rich in phosphate. The cristo-
halite-opal composition of the earthy zone probably
was derived from diatoms or other siliceous organisms
that were attached to the wood before it sank or that
drifted against it on the botJtom. The abundance of
'FIGURE 85.5.-Apatitized wood (family Sapotaceae?, genus such organisms is a feature of oceanic areas of modern
ChrysophyUum?) showing preservation of intricate wood phosphate deposition (McKelvey, 1959, p. 1783). Leu-
structure. cophosphite and gypsum represent in large part only
a recombination of the elements already present in the
The origin of the nodules may be postulated from
the nature and distribution of the minerals within the phosphatized wood when uplift of the enclosing Mo-
nodules themselves and from evidence in the sedimen- reno Formation exposed it to weathering. Oxidation
tary rocks in which the nodules occur. The presence of the pyrite locally produced sulfuric acid, which dis-
of pyrite in the nodules and the abundant organic mat- solved the apatite. Ensuing reactions produced the
ter as well as pyrite in .the surrounding sediments indi- new solid phases, leucophosphite and hydrous calcium
cates that the wood was deposited in a reducing environ- sulfate.
C104 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

REFERENCES McKelvey, V. E., 1959, Relation of upwelling marine waters to

phosphorite and oil [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70,
Axelrod, J. M., Carron, M. K., Milton, Charles, and Thayer, p.1783.
T. P., 1952, Phosphate mineralization at Bomi Hill and
Maslennikov, B. M., and Kavitskaya, F. A., 1956, 0 foSifatom
Bambuta, Liberia, West Africa: Am. Mineralogist, v. 37,
veshchestve fosforitov [The phosphate substance of phos-
p. 883-909.
phorites]: Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, v. 109, no. 5, p.
Goldberg, E. D., and Parker, R. H., 1960, Phosphatized wood from
990-992 [in Russian].
the Pacific sea floor: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p.
Payne, M. B., 1941, Moreno shale, Panoche Hills, Fresno· County,
631-632.
California [a:bs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 52, p. 1953-
Hanna, G. D., 1927, Cretaceous diatoms from California: Cali-
1954.
fornia Acad. Sci. Occasional Papers, no. 13, 48 p.
---1934, Additional notes on diatoms from the Cretaceous ---1951, Type Moreno Formation: California Div. Mines
of OaUfornia: Jour. Paleontology, v. 8, p. 352-355. Spec. Rept. 9, 29 p.
Haseman, J. F., Lehr, J. R., and Smith, J. P., 1950, Mineralogical Read, C. B., 1936, The flora of the New Albany shale, pt. 1,
character of some iron and aluminum phosphates contain- Diichnia kentuckiensis, a new representative of the ... _

ing potassium and ammonium: Am. Soil Science Soc. Proc., Oalamopityeae: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 185-H, p.
v.15, p. 76--84. 149-162.
Hofmann, Elise, 1944, Pflanzenreste aus dem Phosphoritvorkom- ·Simpson, E. S., 1912, Unusual types of petrifaction from Dan-
men von Prambachkirchen in Obel'donau: Palaeonto- darragan: Nat. History and Sci. Soc. Western Australia
graphica, v. 88, pt. B, .p. 1-81. Jour., v. 4, p. 33-37.
LiiJ.dberg, M. L., 1957, LeucophospMte from the Sapucaia peg- ---1920, On gearksutite a.t Gingin, Western Australia:
matite mine, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Am. Mineralogist, v. 42, Mineralog. Mag., v. 19, p. 23-39. A
p.214-221. ---1931-32, OontribUJtions to the mineralogy of western
Long, J. A., Fuge, D. P., and Smith, .Tames, 1946, Diatoms of the Australia-series VII: Royal Soc. Western Australia Jour.,
Moreno Shale: Jour. Paleontology, v. 20, p. 89-118. v. 18, p. 61-74.
 Article 86

VARIATION IN ELEMENT CONTENT OF AMERICAN ELM TISSUE

WITH A PRONOUNCED CHANGE IN THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE SOIL

By HANSFORD T. SHACKLETIE, Denver, Colo.

A.1Jstnwt.-Ohemicnl nnnlysis of ash of an American elm tree TABLE 86.1.-Chemical analyses of American elrn samples and
whose base wns flooded 'bY galena and sphalerite tailings indi- soil samples
en ted thn t phosphorus nnd zinc were concentra,ted in the living [J. B. McHugh, J. H. Turner, and S. L. Power, U.S. Geological Survey, analysts]
wood, that calcium wns depleted, .and tha~t potassium was con- Ash
centrated in both living wood and nonliving cells. (percent p
Sample of dry Ca K Cu Pb
I Zn
weight)
I I I I
Percent or ash, by weight
Two hu:·ge American elm ( Ul'11'11U8 a1nericana L.) trees
Wood:
growing under sharply contrasting conditions were Flooded tree, 1952-61_ ________ 1.5 20 23.0 1. 50 0.008 0. 0050 0.070
Flooded tree, 1942-51_ ________ 1.3 16 35.0 . 60 .012 .0075 . 050
:tnn;]yzed to detect differences in the element content of. Normal tree, 1952-61_ ________
Normal tree, 1942-51_ ________
2. 5 41 9.4 1.20 .006 .0025 .060
1.0 19 25.0 .60 . 015 . 0100 .050
their tissues. The trees, near Tennyson, Grant County, Branches (1-4 years old):
Flooded tree _________________ 4. 5 25 12.0 2.40 .008 . 0150 . 400
:in southwestern vVisconsin, "~ere growing on a slope Normal tree __________________ 5.0 32 7.0 1. 20 .004 . 0150 . 050
within 150 feet of each other and were 31f2 feet in Average elm •-------- --------
Leaves:
4. 8 ------ ------ ------ .009 .0080 . 073
Flooded tree _________________ 7.0 16 16.0 2.40 . 006 .0050 . 070
diameter at breast height. One was growing in normal Normal tree __________________ 12.0 20 16.0 1. 80 .004 .0025 . 010
soil, whereas the other had been enclosed on the lower Average elm •---------------- 13.3 ------ ------ ------ .004 . 0025 . 021

side o:t: the slope by an earth and rock dam to make a Percent or dry weight
settling basin for tailings from an ore mill located a
few h1u1dred yards upslope. The dam was constructed
Talllngs fines __________________ .....................
Soil ncar normal tree, As
,_ 0 I0.•• 0 ... 0. 0000 • 000

:tnd the basin put in use in 1952, 10 years before the

horizon __ -------------------- ---------- ·: I 1. 4 . 06
1
. 001
1
. 0150
1
. 020

field study reported here. Fine tailings suspended in t From 22 other American elm trees growing under normal soil conditions in
Wisconsin.
water, resulting from. the crushing of lead (galena)
n.nd zinc (sphalerite) ores and from their separation in oro us ·and healthy, judging frorri its growth increments
.... the milling process, had been poured into the basin. and leaf color .
The water had evaporated and .the "fines" had settled Samples of the tree -trunk at breast height were taken
:into a fil·n1 deposit composed principally of dolomite, separately of the wood formed during the last 10 years
) .. estimn,ted to be 5 feet thick around the trunk of the and that formed during the 10 years before flooding to
enclosed tree. A partial chemical analysis of this soil ascertain whethe·r the change in chemical composition
material is given :in table 86.1. of the soil was reflected in the element content of the
The c:ha.nge in soil level over the roots of the tree and
1 wood. An increment borer was used to determine, by
the periodic flooding is slowly killing the tree, prdb- ring count, the thickness of the. wood formed during
·a:bly because of the effect of reduced soil aera:tion on the these 2 periods (2% and 2 inclH!S, respec:tively). A l-
roots ·and not because of the heavy-metal content of the inch-diameter wood auger was then used to remove the
deposit. At the time of examination the last 2 years wood for chemical -analysis from thrut part of the trunk
of growth had been greatly retarded, as determined by thrut grow during these two periods. The same proced-
the length of branch-growth increments and the width ure was followed in sampling the normal tree, the wood
of annual-growth rings. In addition, the leaves were increments for the 2 periods being 2112 and 2 inches.
markedly sparse and c;hlordtic; more so in 1962 than in In addition, samples of the leaves -and of current to
.:-.., 1961. The adjacent elm tree on unaffected soil was vig- 4-year-old branches were collected from the 2 trees. The

ART. 86 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C105-C106. 1963. 0105
C106 GEOCHEMISTRY, PETROLOGY, AND MINERALOGY

A 2 soil horizon from near the normal tree was also that the transport and deposition of this element is not
sampled. exclusively related to metaJbolic processes of the tree,
The tissue samples were ·ari.r dried ·and then burned for the gain in potassium of the older wood presum-
to ash in an electric oven in which the heat was irrcreased ably took place ·after the wood cells were dead. ·Wood
50°0 per hour to 550°0 and then held constant ·for 14 cells of this age (10 years and older) ·are generally as-
hours. The ash was analyzed hy colorimetric methods sumed ·to be nonliving, and in this tree the older wood
(Ward and others, 1963) fur calcium, potassium, phos- sample was entirely "heartwood."
phorus, copper, lead, and zinc. The sample of fines 4. The differences in the copper and lead content of
from the tailings ·and the sample of normal soil were the ash appear to have no clear-cut relation to the in-
sieved without grinding, and the minus-80-mesh fraC- creased amounts of these elements in· the. soil. The in-
tions were analyzed by colorimetric methods. Results dicated increase of these elements in recently formed
of these analyses are presented in tahle 86.1, as are also wood of the flooded tree compared with the amount in
the averages of tissue •analyses of 22 American elm trees the normal tree is ~ahout the same as their decrease in
which are growing under normal soil c~nditions in Wis- the older wood (table 86.2) . The apparent reduction of
consin and which are cited to demonstrate the validity these elements in the ash of recently formed wood of the
of using the normal tree of this study as a control. flooded tree as oompared with the older wood of the
Results.-The following results were noted in the same tree (t~ble 86.1) is likewise proha:bly within the
study: limits of experimental error.
1. Flooding the A·me.ri~an elm tree with ore-mHl tail- 5. An increase in the zinc content of the soil resulted
ings resulted in a greater percentage of phosphorus and in an eightfold increase in the percentage of zinc in
zinc in the ash of wood ·formed after the flooding oc- ash of the branches and a sevenfold increase in ash
curred, but had no effect on the percentage of these ele- of the leaves (table 86.1). This is the most pronounced
ments in ash of the wood form·ed before flooding, as change in element content of any of the plant tissues.
compared with the percentage in wood ash of the norm·al 0 onclusions .-The addition of zinc and phosphorus
tree (table 86.2) . to the soil in which the tree was growing resulted in an
increase of these elements only in wood formed sub-
TABLE 86.2.-Increase or decrease in percentage of elements in sequently. Therefore, chemical analysis of tree rings
flooded tree samples as compared with normal tree samples
[Percentage of ash by weight. +,increase; .....:, decrease]
,may be a useful method of determining the year when
the trees were exposed to increased amounts of these
p
Sample Ca K Cu Pb- Zn elements in the soil. In geochemical exploration it is
- -- -- -- - important to know if a chemical anomaly in the soil is
Wood, 1952-61.----------------- -21 +13.6 +0.30 +0.002 +0.0025 +0.01

:~~~h!~=~~================== caused by naturally occurring element concentration

-3 +10.0 0 -.003 -.0025 0
-7 +5.0 +.12 +.004 0 +.35
Leaves_------------------------ -4 0 +.60 +.002 +.0025 +.60 or by manmade soil contamination; if the date of this
increase in element content can be determined, it may
2. The percentage of calcium in the ash of ·all tissues be possible to determine the cause. If anomalies in
was lower in the flooded tree (table 86.2), although the certain elements at a site can be attributed to habitation
amount of this element in the soil was increased almost by man, one may suspect that anomalies in some other
threefold (table 86.1) . No explana.tion is offered for elements are due to the same cause.
the reduction in calcium content of the tissue. REFERENCES
3. The percen'tage of potassium in the ·ash of 'both
Ward, F. N., Lakin, H. W., Canney. F. C., and others, 1963
recently formed and older wood was significantly Analytical methods used in geochemical exploration by the
greater in the flooded tree (table 86.2) . This indicates U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1152, 100 p.
 Article 87

ORDOVICIAN AGE FOR SOME ROCKS OF THE CAROLINA

SLATE BELT IN NORTH CAROLINA

By A.M. WHITE; ARVID A. STROMQUIST; T. W. STERN, and HAROLD WESTLEY;

Washington, D.C.; Denver, Colo.; Washington, D.C.

Work done in cooperation with the North CaroZina Department

of Conservation and Development, Division of MineraZ Resources

.Abst?·aot.-Two lead-alpha age determinations on zircon from ward across the Carolinas into Georgia, where the rocks
felsic crystal-lithic tuff in part of the Carolina slate belt indicate are known as the Little River Series ( Crickmay, 1952, p.
an Ordovician age for these rocl{S. The results add to growing
31). To the east it is bounded by rocks similar to those
evidence of a Paleozoic rather than a Precambrian ·age for
much of the southeastern Piedmont province. of the Charlotte belt (ICing, 1955, p. 346-350), by dis-
continuous outcrops of the Newark Group of Triassic
age, and by overlap deposits of the coastal plain of
Lead-alpha ages have been determined for zircon Cretaceous and younger age. To the west, rocks of
from two localities in the Carolina slate belt in the the slate helt are truncated by faults and meta-
eastern part of the North Carolina Piedmont. Both morphosed along the border of a complex of plutons
samples of zircon are from the southeastern part of the of the Charlotte belt.
Albemarle quadrangle (fig. 87.1), and the indicated age Only -rocks of the greenschist facies are commonly
for each is Ordovician according to the Holmes time considered slate-belt rocks. They comprise a sequence
scale (I-Iolmes, 1959, :p. 204). Results of analyses and of alternating rhyolitic to basaltic volcanic rocks inter-
age calculations for the zircon are given in the accom- bedded with argillite, siltstone, sandstone, and their
panying table. tuffaceous equivalents. The sequence is intruded by
granitic to gabbroic siUs, stocks, and batholiths of prob-
Lead-alpha age deterrninatiom of ziroon from rooks of the
Carolina slate beU able Paleozoic age (King, 1955, p. 349), and by Triassic
AZpha counts per diabase dikes that trend northwest to northeast.
~nUlig.ram per
SampZo No. ·hour Pb(ppm)l CaZouZated age 2 (m.y.)
Felsic flows and tuffs were s.elected as the most likely
ZU-1---------- 52 9.6 440±60 rocks to yield zircon, the sole mineral in these rocks on
ZU-2_________ _ 201 40 470±60 which age determinations are possible. Only 1 of 12
1 Average of duplicate determinations ZU-1 analyzed by Charles units sampled,. however, yielded .enough zircon for
Annen and Harold Westley; ZU-2 by Harold Westle:y and I. H. Barlow.
II Ages (rounded to nearest 10 mlllion years) calculated from the
analysis.. This unit, which is in the southeastern part
equations: of the Albermarle quadrangle, is part of a sequence of
t=O Pb/« acid lithic tuffs in the 1ower volcanic unit as mapped
whero t Is the calculated age, In mUiions of years; 0 is a constant based
on tho U/'l'h ratio and has a value of 2,485; Pb is the lend content, in
by Stromquist and Conley ( 1959, p. 15, 16, and map)
par.ts per mllllon; and a Is the alpha counts per mllligrnm per hour; and and by Conley (1962). It is the lowest stratigraphic
T=t-lhkt' . .
where T Is the age, In mlllions of years, corrected for decay of uranium
unit in the Albemarle and Denton quadrangles and con-
and thorium; and k is a constant based on the U /Th ratio a.nd has a sists of felsic lithic tuff and crystal tuff with inter-
value of 1.56 X 10-'.
bedded rhyolite flows. The tuffs are cut by several
The Carolina slate belt of low-grade met·asedimentary rhyolite dikes. The unit is traceable from the southern
and metavolcanic rocks extends from Virginia south- part of the Albemarle quadrangle to the area north of

ART. 87 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C107-Cl09. 1963. 0107
694-027 o-68-8

'
'
 C108 GEOCHRONOLOGY

ary of the slate belt with the Charlotte belt to the west.
Eastward, the younger unit may extend to the sedi-
mentary rocks of the Newark Group (fig. 87.1).
The tuff was sampled at exposures in roadcuts along
North Carolina Highway 27, 3.4 miles east of the Pee
36 Dee River and 1 mile north of the junction of Clarks
and Dumas Creeks (sample ZU-1), and 1.3 miles east
of the Pee Dee River and 0.7 mile southeast of vVhite
Crest Church (sample ZU-2). Both localities are in
Montgomery County. About 700 pounds of saprolite
of felsic crystal-lithic tuff was panned to obtain zircon
for sample ZU-1, and about 300 pounds for sample
ZU-2. The zircon obtained from the tuffs is euhedral,
very fine grained, and pale pink. Detrital zircon of
more than one generation and from more than one
source is present in some slate-belt tuffs as well as in
alluvial deposits in the area (White and Stromquist,
1961), but the zircon reported here is believed to be
primary ·because of its euhedral ·crystal form and uni-
form grain size and color. I
34 r,
Rocks of the Carolina slate belt heretofore have been
dated only by inference and by speculation, for no de-
finitive fossil material has been reported from them.
EXPLANATION Ordovician fossils have been found in the Arvonia and
Quantico slates of Virginia, but the geologic relations
Deposits of the coastal plain Volcanic and sedimentary rocks
of these rocks to the Carolina slate belt are not known.
(Cretaceous and younger) of the Carolina slate belt For many years the slate-belt rocks were considered
(Paleozoic) Precambrian, and they were assigned a Precambrian age
on the geologic map of the United States ( Stose and
~
Sedimentary rocks of the
G
Rocks of the Charlott.e belt
Ljungstedt, 1932). Stuckey and Conrad (1958, p. 26-
Newark Group (Triassic) (probably Precambrian and 29; map) designated them as Precambrian· or lower
Paleozoic)
Paleozoic ( ~) on the_ geologic map of North Carolina.
ZU-2 X

Sampled locality
An increasing amount of evidence favors a Paleozoic
age for the slate-belt rocks as well as for much of the
FIGURE 87.1.-Index map of central North Carolina showing lo-
piedmont terrane west of the slate belt (King, 1951, p.
calities sampled for zircon. Geology generalized from geo-
logic map of North ,Carolina (Stuckey and Conrad, 1958) ·and 119-144; 1955, p. 332-373; Criclanay, 1952, p. 31; Over-
from King ( 1955) . ' street and others, 1961, p. B104; Overstreet and others,
1962, p. C81). Moreover, stratigraphic equivalence of
Asheboro, and from the sedimentary rocks of the New- some units within the piedmont, such as the Carolina
ark Group on the east to the area near the Pee Dee
. slate belt and the Kings Mountain belt to the west
River on the west (fig. 87.1). The structure appears to
(King, 1955, map), has been suggested (Keith and
be that of a large southwest-plunging anticline. In the
Sterrett, 1931, p. 4; Kesler, 1936, p. 34; Overstreet and
upper part of the unit, poor bedding and a lack of
sorting of the constituent fragments and crystals sug- Bell, 1960, p. B199). The Ordovician age reported here
gest subaerial deposition. Therefore, this unit prdbably for rocks of the Carolina slate belt supports the opinion
represents an old landmass built up from the sea floor that many of the rocks in the southeast piedmont are
by a series of volcanic eruptions and flows. The unit Paleozoic rather than Precambrian in age, and it per-
sampled is overlain by a younger sequence of volcanic mits for the first time the assignment of a definitive age
and sedimentary rocks extending at least to the bound- to part of the Carolina slate belt.
 ~.
WHITE, STROMQUIST, STERN, AND WESTLEY C109
REFERENCES rocks of South Carolina: Art. 87 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Conley, J. ~.... , 1962, Geology of the Albemarle quadrangle, North Paper 400-B, p. B197-B199.
Carolina: North Carolina Dept. Conserv. and Devel., Div. Overstreet, W. C., Bell, Henry, 3d, Rose, H. J., Jr., and Stern,
Mineral Resources Bull. 75, 26 p. T. W., 1961, Recent lead-alpha age determinations on zircon
Crickmay, G. W., 1952, Geology of the crystalline rocks of from the Carolina. Piedmont: Art. 45 in U.S. Geol. Survey
Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 58, p. 1-54. Prof. Paper 424-B, p. B103-B107.
Holmes, Arthur, 1959, A revised geologic time scale: Edinburgh Overstreet, \V. C., Stern, T. W., Annen, Charles, and Westley,
Geol. Soc. Trans., v.17, pt. 3, p. 183-216. Harold, 1962, Lead'-alpha ages of zircon from North and
Keith, Arthur, and Sterrett, D. B., 1931, Description of the Gaff- South Carolina: Art. 88 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
ney and Kings Mountain quadrangles [South Carolina- · 45(}.-lC, p. 081.
North Carolina]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 222, Stose, G. W., and Ljungstedt, 0. A., 1932, Geologic map of the
p. 1-13. United States: U.S. Geol. Survey.
Kesler, T. L., 1936, Granitic injection processes in the Columbia Stromquist, A. A., and Conley, J. F., 1959, Geology of the Albe-
quadrangle, South Carolina: Jour. Geology, v. 44, no. 1, marle and Denton quadrangles, North Carolina: Carolina
p. 32-42. Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, Oct. 24, 1959, North
King, P. B., 1951, The tectonics of middle North America: Carolina Div. Mineral Resources, Raleigh, N.C., 36 p.
Princeton, N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 3-203. Stuckey, J. L., and Conrad, S. G., 1958, Explanatory text for the
---1955, A geologic section across the southern Appala- geologic map of North Carolina: North Carolina Dept.
chians-An outline of the geology in the segment in Tennes- Conserv. Devel., Div. Mineral Resources Bull. 71, p. 3-51,
see, North Carolina, and South Carolina, in Russell, R. J., map.
ed., 1955, Guides to southeastern geology : Geol. Soc. White, A. M., and Stromquist, A. A., 1961, Anomalous heavy
America Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., p. 332-373. minerals in the High Rock quadrangle, North Carolina:
Overstreet, W. C., and Bell, Henry, 3d, 1960, Geologic relations Art 118 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-B, p. B278
~ . inferred from the provisional geologic map of the crystalline and B279.

.)...

)• ...

I
....
 'H.

Article 88

GRAVITY SURVEY IN THE RAMPART RANGE AREA, COLORADO

By CARTER H. MILLER, Denver, Colo.

A.bstraot.-Gravity interpretation indicates that the Rampart the beds southward around the end of the range. 1 A
Range is bounded on the east by a high-angle reverse dip fault syncline in the graben is suggested by westward-dipping
and that an outlier of sedimentary rocks on the west. is about beds on the east side of the graben and, in places, by
2,000 feet thick.
near-vertical beds on the west side.
The eastern foothills belt of the Front Range of
A gravity survey was made across the Manitou Park Colorado is composed of a thick section of sedimentary
graben, Rampart Range, and the eastern foothills belt rocks that dip steeply to the east, away from the Ram-
of Colorado (fig. 88.1) to obtain the depth and two- part Range. The foothills belt is bounded on the west
dimensional configuration of the sedimentary rocks in by the Rampart Range fault. In parts of the belt the
the graben and in the foothills belt. The configuration beds are overturned, which indicates that the fault is
of the rocks in the foothills belt and in the graben is a high-angle reverse f.ault. The fault has cut out most
primarily controlled by the Rampart Range fault and of the sedimentary rocks older than Tertiary in that
the Ute Pass fault, respectively. part of the belt covered by this survey.
The Rampart Range extends about 40 miles north- THICKNESS AND DENSITY OF UNITS IN THE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE
west from Colorado Springs, Colo., to the South Platte The Pikes Peak Granite, of Precambrian age, is
River. The range is about 10 miles wide and is bor- homogeneous in mineral content and density. ~·

dered on the west by the Manitou Park graben, which In the Manitou Park graben, Cambrian to Mississip-.
is approximately 3 miles wide, and on the east by the pian formations, which include the Sawatch Quartzite,
eastern foothills belt (fig. 88.1). Ute Pass(~) Dolomite (Peerless Formation of current
GEOLOGY usage), Manitou Limestone, Williams Canyon Lime-
stone, and Madison ( ~) Limestone have a total thickness
The Rampart Range is an anticlinal horst of part of
of approximately 240 feet. 2
the Precambrian Pikes Peak batholith. The range is
The thickness of two sections of the Pennsyhranian
bounded by the Rampart Range fault on the east and
and Permian Fountain Formation, including the Glen
the Devils Head fault zone on the west (Boos and Boos,
Eyrie Shale Member, averages approximately 3,900
1957, p. 2657-2661).
feet. One section was measured at Perry Park by
The Manitou Park graben is bounded by the Devils
Aslani 3 and the other was measured in the valley of
Head fault zone on the east and the Ute Pass fault on
Fountain Creek, near Colorado Springs (McLaughlin,
the west. The southern part of the graben contains
1947, 1944, 1948).
outcropping Cambrian to Pennsylvanian sedimentary
T~e stratigraphic section between the Fountain For-
beds, which dip westward from the Rampart Range and
mation and the Arapahoe Formation of Late Cretaceous
are terminated at the Ute Pass fault. Some of the
Pennsylvanian section, of which the valley floor of the 1 Fowler, W. A., 1952, Geology of the Manitou Park area, Douglas and
Teller Counties, Colorado : Colorado Unlv. unpub. Ph. D. dissert., p. 24.
Monitou Park graben is composed, has been removed 12 Op. cit., p. 6-19.
by erosion. An anticline, consequent upon the Ram- a Aslani, Morad-Malek, 1950, The geology of southern Perry Park,
Douglas County, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines unpub. thesis, no.
part Range, is indicated by projecting the attitude of 686, p. 30-32. .);

GllO ART. 88 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C. PAGE$ CUG-Cl13. 1963.
 MILLER Clll

L2J
EXPLANATION
........
----------
__. - 205--...
-----
-
Contact Gravity contour
Quaternary alluvium Dashed where approximately Dashed where in/erred. Con~
located tour inteMXll 5 or 1 milligal

Permian through Tertiary

---rf---
Fault SECTIONS

R
rocks

D
Fountain Formation (Penn-
sylvanian and Pennian)
7,
Dashed where approximately
located. U, upthrown side;
0 , downthrown side

Strike and dip of beds

0
Observed Bouguer anomaly
X
Computed Bouguer anomaly
2 .39
Density, in grams per
:;! cubic centimeter
Strike and dip of over-
Cam brian through
Mississippian rocks turned beds
;X
D
Pikes Peak Granite
Strike of vertical beds

(Precambrian)

-185 Regiona l grad~nt -185

~-------------------------- -190
-190L ---~R~e~g~i~o~n~al~g~r~a~d~ie~n~t~------~- 0

<n-195 -195 <J)

...J 0 • ...J
~- 200 -200 <
3 -205 :!
"
-205 :::;
i -210 -210 ::;;
-215
-220

2.58
3000'--'-- '' - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - l L

0 DENVER
Area of
report - -. , I
° Colorado
Springs
I
-L-L--------------------------~9000'
COLORADO
0 3 MILES

FIGURE 88.1.-Geologic and gravity map of part of the Rampart Range area (geology adapted from Boos and
Boos, 1957! figs. 9 and 10). Sections show a tw()-dimensional analysis across Manitou Park and the
eastern foothills belt.
0112 GEOPHYSICS

age consists of shale and sandstone. At Perry Park average error within + 5 feet of the true value, which
the section is about 7,300 feet thick.4 corresponds to a gravity error of less than + 0.3 milli-
The Arapahoe, Denver, and Dawson Formations gals. The latter value may be considered to be the larg-
range in age from Late Cretaceous through Paleocene. est error in the gravity computations.
The formations are principally poorly cemented sand-
INTERPRETATION
stone and conglomerate and have a total thickness of
about 1,400 feet east of the Rampart Range. This The two-dimensional graticule interpretations (fig.
thickness was estimated from a section measured by 88.1, A-A', B-B') were aided by independent control.
Reichert (1956, pl. 2, p. 108-111)· in the Castle Rock In the Manitou Park graben, control was furnished by
quadrangle, Colorado. the known angle of dip of the beds oil the east side of
The total thickness of the stratigraphic sequence east the graben and by the limited range of density of the
of the Rampart Range . averages 12,800 feet. This Fountain Formation. The interpretation across the
thickness is presumed to be accurate within about 10 foothills belt was controlled by the known average thick-
pe~cent.
ness of the rocks ( 12,800 feet) and by theoretical limits
An average density of 2.58 g per ems for the Pre.:. of dip imposed by the observed gravity curve and den-
cambrian gr~nite of the Rampart Range was deter- sity contrast.
mined from six fresh samples. An average density of Because the average density of the Cambrian to Mis-
2.59 g per ems for the Cambrian to Mississippian sedi- sissippian formations is the same as that of the under-
mentary rocks was determined from eight samples lying Precambrian granite there is no gravimetric
picked at random from the section at Manitou Park. distinction between the two. Therefore, gravity com-
The density for the Pennsylvanian to Tertiary rocks putations were made to the base of the Fountain
is considered to be the same as the average density for Formation. A density contrast of 0.3 g per cm 3 be-
shale and sandstone. The bulk density of shale is taken tween the Fountain Formation and Mississippian to
_j.
to be 2.31 g per ems and that of sandstone 2.28 g per cm3 Cambrian formations was used in the interpretation of
(Birch and others,_ 1942, p. 22, 23) . the geology in the graben.
In the foothills belt, density is assumed to increase, as
GRAVITY DATA a result of compaction of the sedimentary rocks, at a
A total of 130 gravity. stations were established, and rate of 0.025 g per cm3 per 1,000 feet of depth. Values
the data from 71 stations were used in this article. for density contrast were chosen at 0.30, 0.20, and 0.05 g
The surv_ey was made with a Worden gravimeter that per ems, corresponding to three intervals of depth of
has a scale constant of approximately 0.227 milligals about 4,000 feet each. The intervals extend from the
per scale division. The survey was tied to base stations ground surface down to the base of the Fountain
that are part of a network established in 1961 by D. J. Formation.
Stuart, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Because the Pikes Peak batholith is extensive and is
Complete Bouguer anomalies were computed with constant in density and mineral content it was assumed
elevation corrections of 0.062 mgal per ft and with ter- that the regional gradient is flat over a relatively small
rain ·corrections that were computed or estimated distance. Therefore, the regional gradient along cross
through zone L of Hammer's tables (Hammer, 1939). section B--:B' is taken as a straight line of zero slope
These porrections were rriade using a density of 2.50 and of the same magnitude as the greatest gravity value
g per ems. along the cross section. This value is quite consistent
Latitude corrections were based on the international with gravity values of other stations on the long axis
gravity formula of 1930. of the Rampart Range.
Elevations of the gravity stations were taken from The regional gradient along cross section A-A' is
bench marks and photogrammetric points shown on taken as a straight line connecting· the two greatest
topographic maps published by the,_U.S.. Geological Sur- gravity values along the cross section.
vey. The station elevations are thought to have an The maximum computed depth to the base of the
Fountain Formation in the Manitou Park graben is
'Op. clt., p. 41-70. about2,000 feet (fig. 88.1,A-A').

\
I
 MILLER 011.3
CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

The sedimentary rocks in the Manitou Park graben Boos, C. M., and Boos, M. F., 1957, Tectonics of eastern flank and
fon;n a syncline, the west limb of which is truncated by foothills of Front Range, Colorado: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
the Ute Pass fault. Geologists Bull., v. 41, no. 12, p. 2603-2676.
Overturned beds, which might indicate reverse fault- Birch, A. F., Schairer, J. F., and Spicer, H. C., eds., 1942, Hand-
book of physical constants : Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper
ing, are not predon\.inant in the exposed parts of the
36,325 p.
foothills belt. I-Iowever, the computed dip of the Ram-
Hammer, Sigmund, 1939, Terrain corrections for gravimeter
part Range high-angle reverse fault, as defined by the stations: Geophysics, v. 4, no. 3, p. 184-194.
observed gravity curve is limited to a reversed dip of McLaughlin, K. P., 1947, Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of Colo-
50° to 75° (fig. 88.1, B-B'). rado Springs quadrangle, Colorado: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
The magnitude of the computed anomalies in the un- Geologists Bull., v. 31, no. 11 p. 1936-1981.
dulating basement rocks (fig. 88.1, B-B') approaches Reichert, S. 0., 1956, Post-Laramie stratigraphic correlations in
the maximum error in the gravity computations and, the Denver basin, Colorado: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v.
therefore, the validity of these anomalies is questionable. 67, pl. 2, p. 108-111.

.,...

(
Artide 89

GRAVITY SURVEY OF THE ISLAND OF HAWAII

By W. T. KINOSHITA/ H. L. KRIVOY,2 D. R. MABEY, 1 and R. R. MacDONALD/

1
Menlo Park, Calif., 2 Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii

Abstract.-Large gravity highs are centered over 4 of the island. Woollard (1951) found by a gravity-profile
5 major volcanoes on the island of Hawaii. A lower amplitude method that a density of 2.3 g per cc was the most
gravity high occurs near the fifth volcano, Hualalai. These
highs are attributed to intrusive rocks and denser parts of
applicable for his gravity study on ·Oahu.
tlows that are near the surface beneath the volcanoes and are The Bou·guer gravity-·a..nomaly map (fig. 89.1) shows
convergent at depth. pronounced gra v;ity highs over Koha;la Mountain,
M·a;urra Kea, Mauna Doa, and Kilauea, 4 of the 5 major
Local gravity surveys in the .vicinity of Kilauea volcanoes which make up the island of Hawaii~ H uala-
volcano and its two major associated rift zones (Krivoy lai, the fif.th volcano, lies ·at the north end of an elongate
and Eaton, 1961) have been supplemented by a regional high of much lower amplitude than those over the other
survey of the island of Hawaii (fig. 89.1). Measure- four. Other features of the gravity m·ap include an
ments along the main -roads and trails provided gen- east-trending gravity nose on the northe:ast slope of
erally good coverage at elevations below 6,000 feet, but Mauna Kea, south west-trending and east-trending gra v-
at higher elevations large areas are inaccessible and the ity noses from the summit of Kilauea, a south-trending
gravity map is necessarily generalized. An average gravity nose from the summit of Mauna Loa~ and low-
density of 2.3 g per cc was used for all above-sea-level gravity fields ·at Hilo ·and ·at the north weStern part of the
material in the gravity reductions and terrain correc- isl·and 'between Hualalai and Kohala ~Mountain.
tions. The reductions were made to sea level and the The general correlation between the gravity highs and
terrain corrections were made for above-sea-level ter- the topographic highs suggests that the density assumed
rain to a distance of about 100 miles from the station. in making the Bouguer corrections is too low, and that
Terrain corrections were made at about half the stations some discussion of these reductions is needed. There
and interpolated at the remainder because the topog- is little question that 2.3 g per ro is ·a reasonable approx-
raphy is such that a near-linear relation exists between imation of the dry density of the exposed flows, and
station altitude and amount of correction in many parts there is no reason to expect significant compaction of
of the island. A few corrections £or submarine topog- these fl'Ows between the surface and sea level. When this
raphy were made, and it was found that their effect on
a map with a 10-mgaJl contour interval was negligible.
density is used in making the Bouguer correction, the
anomalies obtained reflect· the presence of masses with
.
1

Because the total relief on Hawaii is more than 13,000 densities different from this value. In making the
feet, the selection of a density to compute the Bouguer
Bouguer reductions, no effort has been made to remove
corrections determines to a large extent the character
the part of the anomaly caused by density contrasts \
of the Bouguer anomaly map. The density of 63 dry
samples, collected by R. R. Doell from the denser parts above sea level. An examination of the gravity map
. of numerous flows for remanent-magnetization studies, reveals several areas where substantial gravity differ-
ranged from 1.8 g per cc to 3.0 g per cc but averaged ences do not correlate with surface topography. The
2.3 g per cc. Although the probable average density most striking example is the +251-mgal value on the
of the intrusive and nonvesicular flow rocks as shown 8,000-foot summit of Hualalai, which is about the same
by a few measurements is about 2.8 g per cc, these rocks as the gravity values at sea level along the southeast
constitute only a small part of the exposed rock on the and east shores of the island.

Cl14 ART. 89 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES CU4-cl16. 1963.
 KINOSHITA, KRIVOY, MABEY, AND MAcDONALD C115
156° 155°

20°

EXPLANATION
0
Gravity station

-Joo----
Gravity contour
Dashed where uncertain.
Interval 10 milligals

---------265--------
19° Gravity contour
Interval 5 milligals

-sooo--
Topographic contour
.1~ IntervallOOOfeet
5 0 5 10 15 20 MILES

FIGURE 89.1.-Bouguer gravity-anomaly map of the. island of Hawaii.

C116 GEOPHYSICS

The four gravity highs over the individual volcanoes south. This high has very small closure and its maxi-
are part of ·a more extensive high that covers the central mum value is about 85 ·mgals less than the maximums
part of the island, so that although the Wtal gravity over Mauna Kea or Mauna Loa, hurt the local relief of
relief is about 120 mgals, the gravity decreases only about 55 mgals is about the same as the relief between
about 50 mgals hetJween volcanoes. In this respect the the other volcanoes on the island. An interesting pos-
island of Hawaii is quite different from Oahu, where sibility is that Hualalai lies on the north rift zone of an
Woollard (1951) found maximums of about 110 ·mgals older volcano buried by Mauna Loa lavas. The elon-
over the volcanoes and no connecting high ;between vol- · gate, rather than bull's-eye, gravity-contour pattern
canoes. Horizontal distances between the adjacent vol- could be produced by diametrically opposed north- and
canoes on both islands are about the same. south-trending rift zones of the buried older volcano.
Quantitative analyses of the gravity highs are incom- The gravity effect of the southern rift zone could be
plete, but some qualitative conclusions on the cause of masked by its proximity to the larger Mauna Loa anom-
the anom-alies can ·be reached. The -amplitude of the aly. A recorded offshore eruption near the south end
highs and steepness of the gradient-S indicate that the of this high in 1877 (Dana, 1891) occurred at about the
highs are probrubly produced by mass anomalies rubove same time· as a Mauna Loa summit eruption, and pos-
the sea floor and maybe even 'above sea level. The cen- sibly the two were related.
tral high on Hawaii indicates the presence of rela;tively Relatively narrow, low-amplitude gravity noses oc-
dense rocks at depth between the 4 volcanoes and sug- cur over . or near the more conspicuous rift zones of ).}

gests the presence of one or more of the following rbck Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The east-trending high on
configurations: ( 1) ·a continuous intrusive mass, extend- the northeast slope of Mauna Kea lies between a rift
ing from Kohala Mountain to Mauna Loa and Kilauea, zone pointed out by Stearns and MacDonald ( 1946)
with cupolas ·beneath the 4 volcanoes having gravity and an east-trending submarine ridge off the northeast
maximums, (2) flow rocks between volcanoes, with a coast of the island. These highs are probably pro-
bulk density approaching that of intrusive rocks, or (3)
duced by the greater abundance of intrusive rocks in the
interfingering of intrusive rocks with flows from the 4
rift zones, although it is possible that ponded flows in
volcanic centers, the whole mass of which has a bulk
parts of the rifts are responsible for at least a part of )
density , approaching that of intrusive rocks.. East-
west asymmetry of the gravity anomalies requires the the gravity maximums.
denser rocks to have a greater lateral extent to the east 'fhe gravity lows at Hilo and at the western part of
than to the west in all three possibilities. The third the isla_nd in an area bounded by Kohala Mountain,
possibility is favored by the writers because there is no Mauna.Kea, and Hualalai are over areas probably cov- .....
evidence of interconnection between volcanoes above the ered with thick accumulations of low-density flow· rocks.
sea floor. Furthermore, although some massive parts
REFERENCES
of flows have measured densities of 3.0 g per cc, there
Dana, J.D., 1891, Characteristics of.volcanoes: New York, Dodd,
is no surface evidence that such fl:ows accumulate only Mead and Co., 399 p. ['1890].
in certain areas. Krivoy, H. L., and Eaton, J. P., 1961, Preliminary--gravity sur-
The absence of a pronounced closed high over Huala- vey of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: Art. 360 in U.S. Geol. Sur-
lai is surprising because Hualalai is the third highest vey Prof. Paper 424-D, p. D205-D208.
volcano on the island, and' it is similar in most resp.ects Stearns, H. T., and MacDonald, G. A., 1946, Geology and ground-
water resources of the isLand of Hawaii: Hawaii Div. Hy-
to the other volcanoes on Hawaii. Hualalai's summit drography Bull. 9, p. 168.
lies at the northern end of an elongate gravity high Woollard, G. P., 1951, A gravity .reconnaissance of the island o.f
that reaches a maximum value at least 8 miles to the Oahu: Am. Geophys. Union Trans~. v. 32, no. 3, p. 358-368.

/
 Article 90

EVALUATION OF MAGNETIC ANOMALIES BY ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

By F. C. FRISCHKNECHT and E. B. EKREN, Denver, Colo .

.Abstmot.-Good. agreement was obtained between field data of a buried sphere and suggests the extension of the
tnlcen over magnetic nonconductive iron-formation in the C,u- technique to bodies of other shape. Ward shows that it
yunn Range, Minn., and laboratory data using a scale model is possible to determine the permeability contrast be-
mnde of powdered magnetite. Field data are presented also
for a more complex situation in the Gogebic Range, Wis., in tween the sphere and the surrounding rock by using
l •. which the iron-formation is highly conductive electrically, as the ratio of the response extrapolated to zero fre-
well as magnetic. quency to the response extrapolated to infinite fre-
quency, without determining any of the other param-
Electromagnetic measurements were made over parts eters. The permeability contrast may also he ob-
of unoxidized iron-.formation in the Cuyuna Range, tained readily from the zero frequency response alone,
Minn., and the Gogebic Range, Wis., to determine the by comparison with model data.
practicability of estimating magnetite content by As an example of the latter ·approach (fig. 90.1), a
electromagnetic techniques. turam model profile was compared with a turam field
Parts of the iron-formation in both areas are highly profile and with a vertical-component magnetometer
{ profile taken over the thin-bedded facies of the main
magnetic and contain magnetite disseminated in a
qun:rtz- or chert-rich mrutrix. The iron-formation in iron-formation of the North Cuyuna Range, Minn.
''risconsin overlies quartzite, siltstone, and argillite and (Schmidt, 1959). In the turam method ( Frisehknecht
underlies slate that commonly contains conductive and Ekren, 1961), the complex ratio of the voltages in-
grnphitic layers. duced in two receiving loops is measured along tra-
Both electromagnetic and magnetic methods respond verses normal to a long wire carrying an alternating
to the magnetic susceptibility of a geologic body, and current. The profiles in figure 90.2 are the normalized
the relation between magnetic susceptibility and mag- vertical component of the alternating magnetic field
netite content is well known (Werner, 1945) . The calculated from the measured ratios~ A 200 X 200-foot
dominant cause of many anomalies obtained by mag- induction loop was used as the source, rather than a
netic methods is remanent magnetization, which is not grounded wire, to avoid the effects of galvanic currents.
predictably related to magnetite content. Because the The turam anomaly is typical of that obtained over a
electromagnetic methods are unaffected by remanent magnetic nonconducting·body (Tornquist, 1958). Other
l magnetization, they offer, in principle at least, a better data obtained by the turam and slingram methods sub-
means of estimating magnetite content than do the stantiate the indication that conductivity effects were
magnetic methods. negligible. The model was made of powdered magne-
T'he chief problem in using electromagnetic methods tite having a susceptibility of about 0.08 cgs units. The
to evaluate high-amplitude magnetic anomalies is that model and loops were scaled so that the model represents
deposits of the Lake Superior type containing a high a prism having dimensions of about 70 X 300 X 750 feet
percentage of magnetite often· are good electrical con- buried at a depth of 100 feet. There is good agreement
ductors, and, at the frequencies ordinarily used, elec- between the model profile and the field profile; there-
tromagnetic response is due to the combined effects of fore, the susceptibility, width, depth of burial, and dip
susceptibility and conductivity. of the scale model are probably a fairly accurate replica
( "Vard ( 1959, 1961) has outlined a theory for deter- of the actual magnetic bed involved. The depth and
mining the conductivity, susceptibility, size, and depth the extent along strike of the iron-formation are no
l.,
ART. 90 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES Cll7-C120. 1963. 0117
Cll8 GEOPHYSICS

doubt greater than in the model, but due to the rela- susceptibility, although conductive effects were usually
tively short distance between the transmitting loop and predominant. Variable frequency measurements were
the iron-formation, only the nearest part of both the made at a locality where the cont act between the Iron-
iron-formation and the model contributed significantly wood Iron-Formation and the Palms Quartzite is ex-
to the electromagnetic response. posed. A 50 X 50-foot horizontal transmitting loop
was used. A small receiving coil, a fixed reference coil,
and a ratiometer were used to measure the field at
120 various frequencies and distances from the transmitting
Turam model coil. Conventional tu.ram equipment was used to verify
Cl
...J
UJ
~le the results obtained with the experimental apparatus
"- 100 operating at a single frequency of 500 cycles per second.
...J
< /77777777777/ll/7 7 777777??/?7 Figure 90.2 shows profiles obtained at 3 different
::E
0:: frequencies: 40, 200, and 1,000 cps. Three anomalies,
0

0
z labeled A, B, and C, are recognized; only part of anom-
Powdered
"- r_----- magnetite
0 aly C was measured. There is, no doubt, some inter-
r-- dependence among these anomalies because of their
z
UJ
u
0:: 120 proximity to each other.
UJ
0..
Turam field
Anomaly A is characterized by in-phase values
~ profile greater than 100 percent and out-of-phase values that
0
...J 100 are essentially 0. These results are indicative of a mem-
UJ
Li: ber of the iron-formation having fairly high magnetic
..J
< susceptibility and low electrical conductivity. The
u
i= 120 10,000
anomaly increases slightly at the higher frequencies,
0::
UJ
>
showing a small conductivity effect, but at 40 cps the
anomaly is ·a lmost entirely caused by the high suscep-
100 0
tibility of the formation. It is probably caused by iron-
formation having considerable magnetite in the form
of discontinuous grains which do not increase signifi-
0 200 400 600 800 1000
FEET
cantly the overall conductivity of the rock. The sus-
ceptibility and dimensions of the unit could be readily
FIGURE 90.1.-Comparison of turam model profile with a turarn estimated by comparison with model experiments as in
field profile and a magnetometer profile taken over the Cuyuna
Range, Minn.
the preceding example.
Anomaly B is practically nonexistent at 40 cps. The
out-of-phase component is positive at 200 cps and nega-
In contrast with the amplitude of the electromagnetic
tive at 1,000, whereas the in-phase component is in-
field profile, which is largely the result of magnetic
creasingly greater at 200 and 1,000. Anomaly B must
susceptibility, the amplitude of the magnetometer pro-
therefore be caused by a part of the iron-formation
file is greatly affected by remanent magnetization.
having low magnetic susceptibility and intermediate
From other studies, Gordon Bath, of the U.S. Geologi-
electrical conductivity. A graphitic bed containing
cal Survey (oral communication, 1958), has deduced
little magnetite probably is the cause.
that the contribution of remanent magnetization to the
anomaly is 3 to 5 times the contribution of induced Anomaly Cis more complex than A or B. To bcili-
magnetization. . Because the anomaly represents about tate the study of anomaly C, figure 90.3 shows the max-
25 percent.of the earth's normal vertical field, the con- imum in-phase and out-of-phase values of anomaly C
tribution of induced magnetization is about 6 percent and A plotted against frequency.
of the earth's normal field. This agrees well with the At frequencies below ·aJbout 400 cps the in-phase com-
magnitude of the electromagnetic anomaly, even though ponent is greater than 100 percent, beooming larger as
the inducing electromagnetic field did not have exactly the frequency is decreased. Except for the inflection
the same direction as the earth's magnetic field. in the curve of the in-phase component at ·a:bout 50 cps,
j.
In tracing the Ironwood Iron-Formation in the both the in-phase ·a nd the out-of-phase curves resemble
Gogebic Range, Wis., by means of slingram traverses, theoretical curves for a conductive permeable sphere
it was found by Frischknecht and Ekren ( 1961) that the (Ward, 1959). The disturbing body certainly is not
response of the iron-formation depended parllly on spherical, but data ·a re nort available for other shapes.
 FRISCHKNECHT AND EKREN C119

1000 cps
eli -30 -30
1-
z
LIJ
z
0
Q.l-
~~ -20 -20
()~
LIJLIJ
C/JQ.
c(
J:Z
Q.-
~ -10 -10
9
1-
::J
0

110 110
•.l.. eli 40cps
1-
z
LIJ 200 cps
Zl-
oz
Q.LIJ
J._ ::~:u
oo::
()~
Ll.lz
~-
J:
-~ Q.
~ 90 f lOOOcps 90
Anomaly B Anomaly C
I
~
I

100 150 200 250 300 350 400

DISTANCE FROM TRANSMITTING LOOP, IN FEET

FIGURE 90.2.-Electromagnetic profiles at 3 frequencies across iron-formation on the Gogebic Range, Wis.

1.
 CI20 GEOPHYSICS

pret the anomaly further. In particular the measure-

///" ments need to be extended to lower and higher frequen-
-40
1--
Anomaly C, out of phase'\ / /
z cies. There is little difficulty in making measurements
'/ LLJ
/
I
(.)
0::: at higher frequencies than ~those used in these studies,
I
/ -30 LLJ
a.. but ·conventional electromagnetic equipment for use ~ak
I
I ~
lower frequencies is very bulky. One other possible

------
I
I u;
1--
120 I z
-20 LLJ approach to identify the effect of magnetic susceptibil-
;
1--
,/
I \Anomaly A, in phase z
0
ity is to use ·a very sensitive magnetometer and utilize
,.,.,,
z a..
LLJ
~ the natural time-variant magnetic field (Ward and Rud-
~ 110
LLJ
a..
,.,.,. -10 (.)
0
dock, 1962).
LLJ
(J) REFERENCES
~ <(
:I:
~100~------------------~~----------------~ 0 a.. Frischknecht, F. C., and Ekren, E. B., 1961, Electromagnetic
z Ll.
LLJ 0 studies of iron forma.'tion in the Lake Superior region: Min-
z ...:.
0 ::::> ing Eng., v. 13, no. 10, p. 1157-1162.
a..
~ +10 0 Schmidt, R. G., 1959, Bedrock geology of the northern and east-
0
(.) ern parts of the North Range, Cuyuna district, Minnesota :
LLJ
(J)
U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Map MF-182.
<(
:I: Tornquist, G., 1958, Geophy·sical history of the iron mine at
a..
Forsbo, Sweden, in Geophysical surveys in mining, hydro-
~
logical and engineering projects : European Assoc. Expl.
Geophysicists, p. 64.
Ward, S. H., 1959, Unique determination of conductivity, suscep-
20 40 100 200 500 1000 4000 tibility, size and depth in multifrequency electromagnetic
FREQUENCY, IN CYCLES PE.R SECOND explora•tion: Geophysics, v. 24, no. 3, p. 531-546. ...
'\

FIGURE 90.3.-Variation of electromagnetic anomalies with fre- - - 1961, The el~roma·gnetic response of u magnetic iron ore
quency on the Gogebic Range, Wis. deposit: Geophys. Prosp., v. 9, no. 2, p.191-202.
Ward, S. H., and Ruddock, K. A., 1962, A field ex·periment with
)
u rubidium 'napor magnetometer: Jour. Geophys. Research,
The body probably has a relatively high magnetic sus-
v, 67, no. 5, p. 1889-1898.
ceptibility and electrical conductivity. More detailed Werner, S., 1945, Determinations of the magnetic susceptibility
field work ·and model work are needed to explain the of ores and rocks from Swedish iron ore deposits: Sveriges
cause of rthe inflection in the in-phase curve and to inter- Geologiska Undersoknin, Arsbok 39, no. 5, 79 p.

I
..J..

••
 Article 91

GLACIOLACUSTRINE DIAMICTON DEPOSITS IN THE

COPPER RIVER BASIN, ALASKA

By OSCAR j. FERRIANS, JR., Washington, D.C.

A.bstt·aot.-The character, stratigraphic relations, and distri- The lake that existed during the last major glaciation
bution of nonsor'ted and poorly sorted diamicton deposits, in- covered more than 2,000 square miles of the basin floor,
.l.. terbedded with stratl:tled lacuSftrine sed.imenbs, indicate that and numerous glaciers and sediment-laden glacial·
many diami'cton units were deposited in a lacU'strine environ-
ment, and that turbidity currents and subaqueous mudflows streams debouched into it. At Gakona, in the north-
I were important as agents of deposition. Commonly,. tll.e diamic- eastern part of the basin, the age of the sediments that
...,
toni's t:'lll like in character. were deposited in this lake is bracketed between a maxi-
mum radiocarbon date of greater than 38,000 years B.P.
(before present) and a minimum date of 9,400+300
-~ Numerous diamicton units interbedded with strati- years B.P. (Rubin and Alexander, 1960, p. 170 and
fied lacustrine sediments occur within the unconsoli- 171, sam·p'les W-531 and W-714). Therefore, the last
dated deposits of Pleistocene age in the Copper River major glaciation in the Copper River Basin is compar-
(
'· Dn,sin, Alaska. The term "diamicton," proposed by able in age to the last major glaciation (Wisconsin) of
Flint and others ( 1960a, b) for "nonsorted or poorly central North America.
sorted terrigenous sediment that consists of sand and/ The conclusions presented in this article ·are based
or larger particles in a n1uddy matrix," is especially primarily on observations of the diamicton and asso-
applicable to both the nonsorted, till-like units not ciated materials deposited in the northeastern part of
deposited· directly by glaciers, and to poorly sorted the Copper River Basin during the last major glacia-
lUlits of sinular origin. tion. The diamicton units were examined in detail at
The Copper River Basin, in south-central Alaska, is Gakona, where river bluffs 250 feet high provide nearly
approximately 5,500 square miles in areal extent and is continuous exposure of these deposits for more than a
surrounded by high mountains with numerous glaciers. mile.
The Wrangell Mountains lie to the east, the Chugach The diamicton units range in thickness from less than
Mountains to the south, the Talkeetna Mountains to the 1 inch to as much as 150 feet. Some of the nonsorted,
west, and the Alaska Range to the north. till-like diamicton depo8its have only a few phenoclasts,
The distribution of glacial erratics and till around some are intermediate in character, and others consist
the margin of the basin and on top of bedrock hills predominantly of phenoclasts. The ·poorly sorted
within the basin indicates that the entire basin floor diamicton deposits· are relatively fine grained, with the
was covered with ice one or more times during early coarser fraction generally limited to sizes Sinaller than
Pleistocene time. In. addition, in the northeastern .part cobbles. Locally, these poorly sorted deposits show
of the Copper River Basin there is stratigraphic evi- well-dev~loped graded bedding.
dence of three younger, maj·or glaciations during which
ice did not completely cover the basin floor. TYPES OF DIAMICTON AND ASSOCIATED DEPOSITS
During each major glaciation, glaciers advancing in Nonsorted diamicton
the mountains surrounding the Copper River Basin Numerous units of nonsorted, till-like diamicton
dammed the dra.inage of the basin, thus impounding an alternate vertically with bedded lacustrine sediments
extensive proglaciallake (Nichols, 1956, p. 4; Ferrians and with poorly sorted diamicton (fig. 91.1). Locally
and Schmoll, 1957; Nichols and Yehle, 1961, p. 1066). these alternations may repeat several times within a

ART. 91 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C120-C125. 1963. 0121
Cl22 SEDIMENTATION

FIGURE 91.1.-Section of lacustrine deposits near Gakona con-

sisting of (A) nonsorted till-like diamicton, (B) interbedded
poorly sorted diamicton and well-stratified sediment, and
(0) poorly sorted diamicton (sand and granules in a clayey-
silt matrix). FIGURE 91.2.-Section of lacustrine deposits near Gakona con-
sisting of (A) well-stratified sediment interbedded with poorly
sorted diamicton units at bas~lower part deformed, (B)
stratigraphic thickness of a few feet. Generally, the gravel unit which has the form of a channel filling (man
contacts between these units are extremely sharp; the standing on unit), and ( 0) thick unit of nonsorted diamicton
beds immediately underlying the diamicton units gen- with numerous thin zones of bedded silt, sand, and gravel,
erally are not deformed, even though deformation is which give an overall bedded appearance to the unit.
common within the rest of the lacustrine sequence.
Many nonsorted diamicton deposits of this type occur Menard andLudwick (1951, p. 12) suggest that several
as thick units consisting of a series of superimposed superimposed currents depositing simultaneously also
diamicton beds. The character of these beds makes could cause deposition of material that would not show
them difficult to differentiate. These thick units gen- graded bedding.
erally include numerous thin, discontinuous deposits of Some nonsorted diamicton units occurring within the
horizontally bedded silt, sand, and gravel, which give lacustrine sequence contain rock types from a single
them an overall bedded appearance (fig. 91.2). The source area and have phenoclasts that are angular to
variety of rock types, from various source areas, subangular, whereas stratigraphic units immediately
occurring in these diamicton deposits indicates that below contain mixed rock types and have phenoclasts
considerable mixing has occurred. that are subrounded to rounded. The character of this
The stratigraphie relations, character, and distribu- type of diamicton is similar to that of a subaerial vol-
tion of these deposits indicate that they were deposited canic mudflow deposit that occurs in the Copper River
mainly by dense turbidity currents and (or) subaqueous Basin (Ferrians and others, 1958). A subaqueous mud-
mudflows. The intimate stratigraphic relation between flow is the most logical agent that could have trans-
the diamicton deposits and the bedded lacustrine sedi- ported these angular to subangular rock fragments
ments, plus the general lack of deformation of beds several miles out onto the lake floor without abrading
immediately underlying the deposits, precludes the pos- them, and without eroding the underlying sediments.
sibility that they were deposited directly by glaciers. Because large accumulations of glacial and fluvial
Kuenen and Migliorini (1950, p. 105) have shown ex- phenoclastic material with mixed rock types could have
perimentally that very dense turbidity currents could been the source of other subaqueous mudflows, it seems
deposit materials that do not show graded bedding, and likely that some nonsorted diamicton units not having

/
 FERRIANS Cl23
distinct mudflow characteristics also were deposited
by subaqueous mudflows.
Other nonsorted diamicton units grade almost imper-
ceptibly, both horizontally and vertically, into well-
stratified fine-grained sediment. Many o:f these units
occur as large lenses within bedded sediment and, con-
sequently, are isolated :from potential ice sources. De-
posits of this type typically have a fine-grained matrix
and relatively few pebble- and cobble-sized phenoclasts.
The character of the pebbles and cobbles is quite similar
to that of the ice-rafted pebbles and cobbles found in
the .associated· laminated sediment. The isolation of
these units from potential ice sources, the gradational
contacts with laminated sediment, and the character of
these deposits indicate that this type of nonsorted
diamicton was formed by rapid, uniform deposition of
fine-grained sediment, with the concurrent deposition
of ice-rafted stones, and that it was not deposited di-
rectly by glaciers. The stratigraphic data suggest that
the fine-grained fraction of this type of diamicton was
transported to deep parts of the lake by turbidity cur-
rents generated by sediment-laden glacier-fed streams
entering the lake. FIGURE 91.3.-Several fine-grained diamicton units, each of which'
grades upward from sand and granules in a clayey-silt mat-
Other, less important, depositional agents of non- rix to massive fine sand, silt, and clay. The fine-grained
sorted diamicton were glaciers and icebergs, which diamicton units are overlain by a coarse-grained till-like
locally dumped phenoclastic material into the lake. De- diamicton unit which is graded also, to the extent that the
posits of material dumped by glaciers characteristically cobble-sized phenoclasts are concentrated at the base. Slope-
have a chaotic stratigraphic relation with associated wash occurs in the lower right corner. See figure 91.4 for
closeup view of one of the fine-grained diamicton units.
bedded sediment, because of subaqueous slumping and
sliding. Material forming small pods of nonsorted
diamicton is present locally within the bedded lacus- currents can be distinguished by the presence or absence
trine sediments and probably was dumped into the lake of well-developed graded bedding, by the character
by overturning icebergs which held large quantities of of the included phenoclasts, and by the degree of mix-
ablation debris in depressions on their upper surfaces. ing. However, it is very difficult to distinguish between
the two types of deposits in the intermediate range.
Poorly sorted diamicton
Bedded sand and gravel
Poorly sorted diamicton units occur interbedded with
nonsorted diamicton and bedded lacustrine sediments Numerous relatively thin discontinuous deposits of
(fig. 91.1). Generally, contacts are sharp between bedded sand and gravel, ranging in thickness from less
these units and dissimilar materials lying below and than 1 inch to several feet, are interbedded with the
above them; bedded materials immediately underlying diamicton, especially within many of the thick units
... the diamicton units are not deformed. The variety of (fig. 91.2). Generally these deposits are relatively
rock types occurring in these diamicton units indicates uniform in thickness, but locally they occur as what
that considerable mixing has occurred. Some of these appear to be channel fillings (fig. 91.2). Commonly
units display well-developed graded bedding (figs. 91.3 the included phenoclasts are not so well rounded as
and 91.4) and, consequently, provide good evidence of normal stream-deposited phenoclasts, indicating that
the material was not transported far by water currents.
•. deposition by turbidity currents. Many of these units
that do not display well-developed graded bedding have The character of these bedded sand and gravel deposits
stratigraphic relations and a lithologic composition and their association with lacustrine diamicton units,
similar to those that do; therefore, they also are con- plus the lack of any evidence suggesting that deposition
sidered to have been deposited by turbidity currents. in the lake was interrupted by subaerial conditions,
The end members of the continuum represented by indicate that these deposits were laid down by turbidity
typical deposits of subaqueous mudflows and turbidity currents with a velocity high enough, in relation to
,.
694-()27 0--63-9
C124 SEDIMENTATION

density, to remove the fine-grained material and to with suspended sediment. For example, the Copper
deposit sand-, pebble-, a:rrd cobble-sized material. River near Chitina, in the southeastern part of the basin,
discharged 71,395,000 tons of suspended sediment dur-
ing the period June 17 to September 6, 1957 (U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, 1960, p. 40), an average of 870,670 tons
a day.
Stratigraphic analysis of the lacustrine sediments in-
dicates that much of the fine-grained bedded sediment,
as well as the relatively fine-grained diamicton, was
transported by turbidity currents generated by sedi-
ment-laden glacial streams entering the lake. N umer-
ous thin sand beds interbedded with the varve-like
clayey silt attest to the presence of currents, even
in the relatively quiescent lacustrine environment. An
apparent secondary preferred orientation of the A -axis
of ice-rafted phenoclasts in these varve-like sediments
may have been caused by currents, according to Schmoll
(1961, p. C195). Kuenen (1951a, b) has postulated
that even "glacial varves" can be deposited by turbidity
currents formed by sediment-laden melt water entering
lakes.
The rapid accumulation of deltaic material where
major streams entered the lake, and of ice-deposited
material where glaciers bordered the lake, created un-
stable slope conditions which resulted in slumping.
FIGURE 91.4.-Closeup view of a fine-grained, poorly sorted Slumping of this type probably generated t~e sub-
diamicton unit which grades upward from sand and granules aqueous mudflows and dense turbidity currents that
in a clayey-silt matrix to massive fine sand, silt, and clay.
Base of overlying diamicton unit is at top of picture. This
deposited many of the coarse-grained diamicton units.
unit is one of several shown in figure 91.3. In summary, the character, distribution, and strati-
graphic relations of the various types of lacustrine
DEFORMATION OF LACUSTRINE BEDS
diamicton conspicuous in the Copper River Basin indi-
cate four agents of deposition, the first two of which
Deformation of beds is common within the stratified were most important: (1) Turbidity currents; (2) sub-
lacustrine deposits; however, the bedded sediments that aqueous mudflows; (3) glaciers, which dumped
underlie the diamicton units deposited by turbidity cur- phenoclastic material into the lake; and ( 4) icebergs,
rents and subaqueous mudflows generally are not de- which dumped phenoclastic material into the lake.
formed. Most of the deformation probably was caused
REFERENCES
by subaqueous slumping and sliding. Nichols (1960)
l!'errians, 0. J., Jr., Nichols, D. R., and Schmoll, H. R., 1958,
has described two types of deformation of lacustrine
Pleistocene volcanic mudflow in the Copper River Basin,
beds in th~ southeastern part of the Copper River Basin, Alaska [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, p. 1563.
and has postulated that the deformation was caused by Ferrians, 0. J., Jr., and Schmoll, H. R., 1957, Extensive pro-
slumping, triggered by earthquakes. glacial lake of Wisconsin age in the Copper River Basin,
Alaska [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, no.12, p.1726.
CONCLUSIONS Flint, R. F., Sanders, J. E ., and Rodgers, John, 1960a, Symmic-
tite: a name for nonsorted terrigenous sedimentary rocks
Gould (1951) discusses turbidity currents formed by tbat contain a wide range of particle sizes: Geol. Soc.
the sediment-laden Colorado and Virgin Rivers enter- America Bull., v. 71, p. 507-510.
- - 1960b, Diamictite, a substitute term for symmictite:
ing Lake Mead in the western United States. The
Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 1809.
glacier-fed sediment-laden streams debouching into the Gould, H. R., 1951, Some quantitative aspects of Lake Mead
proglaciallake that existed in the Copper River Basin turbidity currents, in Society of Economic Paleontologists
also must have created turbidity currents because of and Mineralogists, Turbidity currents and the transporta-
tion of coarse sediments to deep water-a symposium: Soc.
the heavy load of suspended sediment. Even today, Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 2, p.
the glacier-fed streams in the basin are heavily laden 34-52.
 FERRIANS 0125
Kuenen, Ph. H., 1951a, Mechanics of varve formation and the Nichols, D. R., 1960, Slump structures in Pleistocene lake sedi-
action of turbidity currents: Geol. foen. Stockholm Forb., ments, Copper River basin, Alaska: Art. 162 in U.S. Geol.
v. 73, p. 69-84. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B. p. B353-B354.
- - - 1951b, Turbidity currents as the cause of glacial varves: Nichols, D. R., and Yehle, L. A., 1961, Mud volcanoes in the
Jour. Geology, v. 59, no. 5, p. 507-508.
Copper River basin, Alaska, in Geology of the Arctic:
Kuenen, Ph. H., and Migliorini, C. I., 1950, Turbidity currents
Toronto, Univ. of Toronto Press, p. 1063--1087.
as a cause of graded bedding: Jour. Geology, v. 58, no. 2,
p. 91-127. Rubin, Meyer, and Alexander, Corrinne, 1960, U.S. Geological
Menard, H. W., and Ludwick, J. C., 1951, Applications of hydrau- Survey radiocarbon dates V : Am. Jour. Sci. Radiocarbon
lics to the study of marine turbidity currents, in Society of Supp., v. 2, p. 129-185-.
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Turbidity Schmoll, H. R., 1961, Orientation of phenoclasts in laminated
currents and the transportation of coarse sediments to deep glaciolacustrine deposits, Oopper River Basin, Alaska: Art.
water-a symposium: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Min-
218 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 42~0. p. C192-C195.
eralogists Spec. Pub. 2, p. 2-13.
Nichols, D. R., 1956, Permafrost and ground-water conditions in U.S. Geological Survey, 1960, Quantity and quality of surface
the Glennallen a,rea, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file waters of Alaska, 1957: U.S. Geol. Survey W·ater-Supply
report, 18 p. Paper 1500, 100 p.

(
'
Article ·92

COMPETENCE OF TRANSPORT ON ALLUVIAL FANS

By LAWRENCE K. LUSTIG, Sacramento, Calif.

A.bstract.-The competence of transport on alluvial fans in bles (Menard, 1950) and boulders (Fahnestock, 1961).
Deep Springs Valley, Calif., is estimated by using a field approxi- Even the data of Fahnestock, which cover particles as
mation for tractive force based on maximum particle size and
on slope. The distribution of tractive force 'is shown on isopleth
large as 1.8 feet in diameter, cannot be safely extra-
maps together with an orthogonal net that represents inferred polated to embrace the much larger boulders that oc-
sediment-transport paths. cur on alluvial fans~ The use of any velocity power
law, therefore, should be avoided in determining com-
petence of transport on alluvial fans on which large
One of the most important factors in the transport of boulders have been moved downslope.
sediment on alluvial fans is the competence of the trans- As an alternative to velocity of flow, tractive force
porting medium. The occurrence of large boulders on can be used as a measure of competence. Tractive force
an alluvial fan implies, of course, a high degree of can be expressed as T=A.dS, where A. is the specific }-

competence, but boulder size alone is not an entirely weight of the transporting medium, d is the depth of
valid indicator of competence. The nature of the source flow, and S is the slope of the energy gradient. The
rocks also is important, because the competence of the tractive force thus defined pertains to the shear exerted
transporting medium may have been sufficient to move on the upper layer of the bed material. The formula, or
even larger particles than those occurring on a given some variant thereof, is widely used in engineering
~
fan, had they been available at the source. The problem studies and provides one of the few means of obtaining
considered in this article, however, is how best to esti- an approximation of competence from field data. 1,
mate the competence of past flows from field data, which Substitution of field data for the variables in the trac-
admittedly can yield only a rough approximation of the tive-force expression was suggested, in part, by personal
actual competence. Field data for this study were taken observation in Deep Springs Valley, Calif. Boulders -t
from observations in Deep Springs Valley, in eastern that contained pockets of pebbles, sand, silt, and clay
~
California, northwest of Death Valley. on their uppermost sides, several feet above fan sur-
Competence is usually equated with the velocity of faces, were noted in several places. The lithologic di- ~
flow, and the relation is expressed in terms of particle versity of the sediment in these pockets, as well as the
diameter. Leliavsky (1955, p. 34) stated that the ear- variation in size, suggests that this material represents
a portion of the finer sediment that was transported -";
liest formula was provided in 1753 by Brahms, who
with the boulders and trapped upon cessation of move-
used particle weight rather than diameter. The report
ment. Either the depth of flow exceeded the diameters
...
of Suchier ( 1883), listing velocities required to trans-
of the boulders or the finer sediment was acquired by
port particles of "pea," "hazelnut," and "pigeon egg" the rolling of boulders through a shallower flow. Ob- ~
dimensions, is typical of several early treatments. Gil- servation of mudflows ·and the examination of alluvial-
bert (1914) considered the transport of particles as fan deposits in section suggest that the depth of flow
large as 6 mm in diameter, as did Nevin ( 1946), who may have been greater than the diameters of the par-
reviewed the competence problem. The basic compe- ticles transported, at least over the upper and middle
tence curves of Hjulstrom (1935, p. 298) have been reaches of the fans. In the lower reaches of the fans,
extended and modified to include the transport of cob- the depth of flow was probably less than these particle

C126 ART. 92 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C126-C129. 1963.
 LUSTIG C127
diameters. In order to obtain a field approximation for crease in the direction of flow. Of the infinite number
tractive force, maximum particle size was substituted of possible orthogonal paths, one set has been drawn
for d, the depth of flow. The approximations obtained through contour trends on figures 92.1 and 92.2. Be-
in the calculations may therefore be too low for the cause this drawn set closely corresponds to the location
upper fan reaches and too high for the lower reaches. o£ channels on alluvial fans, which are the known paths
Slopes were measured in the field to the nearest 0.5 of recent sediment transport, the method is probably
percent over a 100-foot reach upfan from each maxi- valid and holds some predictive possi.bilities.
mum-sized particle. Local runoff has undoubtedly As stated previously, specific weight of the transport-
modified the slope, but 'this might well consist of uni- ing medium has been disregarded, and one would neces-
form lowering over· each reach. Again, for the sake of sarily have to select some value for density of flow to
expediency, approximation was used; the determined obtain the tractive foree implied by the approximrution.
slope was substituted for the formula slope required. The reader can at least determine from the m·aps the
It is thought that the local slope determined at each relative order of magnitude of the tra·ctive force, how-
point should at least provide a more accurate represen- ever. The zero isopleth also provides useful informa-
tation of the former flow conditions than could be tion. In figure 92.1 this isopleth encloses the central por-
determined from topographic maps. tion of the basin ·and on figure 92.2 it is shown near the
The remaining variable is specific weight, or density lower part of the fan. Competence therefore ap-
times gravity. Sharp and Nobles (1953) have provided proaches zero in these regions because the slopes
one of the few density values obtained for mudflows; approach zero, within the limits of error of the measure-
one sample from a mudflow at Wright wood, Calif., is ments. The transport of large particles extends beyond
reported to have had a density of 2.4 grams per cubic the boundary however, and is attested to in· reports
centimeter. Although this density seems excessively by McAllister and Agnew ( 1948), Kirk ( 1952) , and
.. I high, the density of a mudflow can vary considerably
during the downfan progress of the flow. The varia-
others, of boulders on playas. This seeming anomaly
of the transport of large particles across regions _of
tion may result from water loss through the permeable negligible slope must reflect a mass-transport mechan-
I
\
bed or from the addition of water from the high waters ism attended by buoyancy and momentum effects; the
that commonly follow close behind mudflows. Because mass-transport mechanism in turn indicates that the
no single value for the density of any flow can reason- method outlined here can approximate the competence
ably be postulated for flow down ail alluvial fan, sub- of mudflows.
stitution for the specific weight of the transporting REFERENCES
medium has been omitted from the approximation of Fa.hnestock, R. K., 1961, Competence of a glacial stream : Art. 87
tractive force. in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-B, p. B211-B213.
Thus, the field approximation used for ·determining Gilbert, G. K., 1914, The transporita,tion of debris by running
the tractive force or competence of transport consists water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 86, 263 p., 3 pls.
of substituting maximum particle size (to the nearest Hjulstrom, Filip, 1935, Studies of ·the morphological activity of
t.enth of a foot) for depth of flow, and local slope (in rivers as illustrated by the River Fyris: Uppsala Unoiv. Geol.
lust. Bull., v. 25, p. 221-527.
feet per 100 feet) for slope of the energy gradient. Kirk, L. G., 1952, Trails ·and rocks observed on a pl•aya in Death
The product of these variables wa~ calculated for 496 Valley Na.tional Monument, Calif.: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v.
sampling stations in Deep Springs Valley, Calif., the 22, no. 3, p. 173-181.
distribution was mapped, and the resulting isopleths Leliavsky, Serge, 1955, An introduction to fluvial hydraulics:
were interpreted as reflecting the competence of trans- London, Constable and Co., Ltd., 257 p.
port. The interpretation of the maps will be considered McAlUster, J. F., and Agnew, A. F .. 1948, Playa scrapers and
furrows on Rac~track Play•a, Inyo County, Cali·f. [abs.]:
in a future report, but the results obtained in the north Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 59, p.1377.
end of Deep Springs Valley and for a single alluvial Menard, H. W., 1950, Sediment movement in relation to current
fan in the south end are shown here in figures 92.1 velocity: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 20, no. 3, p. 148-160..
and 92.2. Nevin, C. M., 1946, Competency of moving water to transport
If the tractive-force isopleths based on slope and debris: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 57, p. 651-674.
maximum particle size are accepted as approximations Sharp, R. P., and Nobles, L. H., 1953, Mudflows of 1941 at Wright-
wood, southern California: <kol. Soc. America Bull., v. 64,
of the competence distribution, then the orthogonals to p. 547-560.
these isopleths should represent paths of sediment Suchier, A., 1883, Die Bewegung der Geschiebe des Oberrhein :
transport; this assumes only that competence must de- Deutsche Bauzeit., no. 56, p. 331-356.
C128 SEDIMENTATION

37"
25'

~I

J;
~~;

\
j

37" ~
22'
30"

-~

2000 0 2000 4000 6000 FEET

FmuBE 92.1.-Approximate tractive-force isopleths (explained in text) and inferred sediment-transport paths in the north
end of Deep Springs Valley, Calif. Dashed line represents the approximate basin boundary. Isopleth interval, 0.05,
0.1, and 0.2.
 LUSTIG C129:
118°05'

Apex

'''
''
''
' ' ',
' ' .,
',
' ' .,
',
' \
\

·~
I
'' ' ......, _______ _
--- ---
I
'

).
500 0 1000 2000 FEET

FlOURE92.2.-Approximate tractive-force isopleths (explained in text) and inferred sediment-transport paths on the Antelope
Springs fan in the .south end of Deep Springs Valley, Calif. Dashed line represents the approximate fan boundary.
Isopleth interval, 0.05.
 .'

Article 93

DISTRIBUTION OF GRANULES IN A BOLSON ENVIRONMENT

By LAWRENCE K. LUSTIG, Sacramento, Calif.

4)

A.bstract.-DBJta on the occurrence of granules (2 to 4 mm) in The weight percentage of granules in the gran~le-to­
Deep Springs Valley, Calif., suggest that 1these pal'INcles •axe clay size fraction was determined for 90 samples.
mechanically unstable polyminevaHc aggregates that are rapidly
Among these samples, 71 were obtained from alluvial-
reduced to their sand-size components by weathering. A de-
ficiency of minera·l grains in the gvanule size range in the source fan and valley-floor surface sediments in the north end
rocks is the basic cause of the scarcity of granules in the sedi- of Deep Springs Valley (fig. 93.1) and the remainder
ments. from an alluvial channel in another part of the basin.
Of the fan and valley-floor samples, 24 were unimodal
In a review of the various size grades, Pettijohn and 47 were bimodal. In the unimodal group no mode
(1957, p. 47) noted that the results of many studies .coincided with the granule, very coarse sand, fine-sand,
118'00'
indicate that granules (2 to 4 mm) are less abundant in
nature than are other size classes. He also noted that
there seems to be a deficiency of very coarse sand ( 1 to
37°
25' ',
'
2 mm) as well. The basis for these statements is the
fact that a sedimentary deposit consisting of both gravel ,/1'f"t--,
f-../' ) \/
'r·
and sand generally exhibits a distinct mode for each of
these two fractions. The break in the frequency curve \...__,o
I
between these two modes falls within the 1- to 4-mm I
I
size range. \

Various investigators have attempted to explain the

\
'-s
I
,.,,
deficiency of granules. Sundborg (1956, p~ 191-194), .... _ /
I
\
·for example, argues that particles between 1 and 6 mm
are those most readily moved hydraulically when bed
,----1
I

transport commences and are the last to come to rest /

......
..........
, .....I
I
when it ceases. Accordingly, granules are scarce in I
I
nature because they are in nearly constant motion, rela- I
I
tive to other size classes, and therefore simply wear out. 37" I
22' I
Kagani (1961, p. 523-532) also advances a hydraulic 30" I
I
explanation and, in addition, advocates placing size- I
I
class boundaries at all conspicuous minimums in fre- I
I
quency curves. This would, in effect, tend to remove I

granules entirely from consideration as a distinct size

class.
, An investigation of the clastic sediments in Deep 0 5000 FEET

Springs Valley, Calif., in the eastern part of the State,

northwest of Death Valley, provided a good opportun- FIGURE 93.1.-Distribution of granules in the north end of Deep
ity to consider the problem of the scarcity of granules. Springs Valley, Calif. Isopleths represent weight percentages
Because sediment transport is typically both brief and of granules in the granule-to-clay size fraction.
intermittent in a bolson environment, the conditions and clay size classes. Granules, however, occurred as
postulated by Sundborg do not prevail. Therefore, the primary mode of 4 of the bimodal samples and the
granules should be no less abundant than other size secondary mode of 5. Among the 19 alluvial channel
classes if the hydraulic theory is correct. samples, 13 were unimodal and 6 were bimodal. Gran-

0130 ART. 93 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C13G-Cl31. 1963.
 LUSTIG C131

ules again failed to occur as the modal class in the uni- of Sundborg (1956, p. 191-194). Because transport of
modal sediments. The secondary mode of 5 of the 6 the surface sediments considered here is infrequent, the
bimodal srunples, however, did coincide with the granule granules are not in constant motion. Selective sorting
size class. If the frequency of occurrence of each of 8 in a downfan direction may appear to be a likely alter-
size classes as both primary and secondary modes is native, but if this is true, then it is difficult to understand
calculated, then one find~ that granules occur more fre- why granule concentrations are absent in ancient as
quently than 3 of the size classes and less frequently well as recent sediments, as reported in studies referred
than 4. On this basis, therefore, granules are very to by Pettijohn (1957, p. 47). Lag deposits would nec-
nearly the median mode of the bolson sediments. essarily have to accumulate in some areas, but, to the
The basis for this calculation is, of course, arbitrary writer's knowledge, none have been reported in the
and results in an exaggeration of the frequency of literature. A mechanical theory, suggested by the data
modal occurrence of granules. The arbitrary nature of from Deep Springs Valley, is thought to be the most
modality itself is, however, often forgotten and is reasonable explanation.
worthy of mention here. Only a single sample among Approximately 80 percent of the granules examined
the ·90 studied was unimodal when class intervals were were found to consist of polymineralic rock fragments;
chosen at ·half-phi units; the remaining 89 samples were quartz and feldspar grains made up the remainder.
polymodal. When the weights were grouped to pro- This implies that the plutonic rocks that are the pri-
duce intervals in accord with the full-phi units of the mary source of the clastic sediments considered must
Wentworth size classjfication, however, the 37 unimodal consist of mineral grains that are predominantly less
samples discussed previously were produced. Because than 2 mm in size. The results of Dake (1921, p. 162),
any classifieation of size must be considered arbitrary who found that less than 10 percent of the quartz grains
rather than natural, the obvious conclusio11- to be drawn in plutonic rocks exceed 1 mm in size, tend to confirm
I
is that the unimodal samples result from averaging of this implication. The fact that medium or coarse sand
~
the data. Many of the bimodal distributions could be is the dominant size class in all the unimodal samples
transformed into unimodal distributions by the simple studied, whereas granules are more abundant in the
I expedient of setting the class intervals equal to 2 phi bimodal samples, suggests that the polymineralic gran-
' units. In the limit, of course, any sediment could be ules are unstable a.ggregates of sand-size grains. These
shown to be not only unimodal but of the same size aggregates tend to disappear in nature by reason of
class as any other. rapid reduction to their components. The reduction
A more pertinent factor than frequency of occurrence is achieved by mechanical disintegration through weath-
as a modal class, however, is the absolute abundance of ering and is aided by periods of transport, however
granules. Their abundance in the granule-to-clay size brief. The transition from polymineralic granules to
fraction (fig. 93.1) ranges from 15 to 20 percent near sand-size components is accompanied by a consequent
the basin margin to the north and east and is slightly change from predominantly bimodal to unimodal fre-
,... less on the western side. At least 3 to 5 percent of this quency distributions. The deficiency of discrete min-
fraction consists of granules at any point in the center eral grains larger than 2 mm in plutonic source rocks
of the basin. Although this percentage is a maximum should be regarded as the fundamental cause of the
for the total sediment, because gravel has been omitted, relative scarcity of granules in nature.
it is pertinent to the observations of Y atsu .( 1959, p. REFERENCES
224-242), who argued that the break in slope along the
Dake, C. L., 1921, The problem of the St. Peter sandstone :
intersection of an alluvial fan with the valley floor Missouri School Mines and Metallurgy Bull., v. 6, p.
coincides with the modal-frequency break in the gravel- 158-163.
to-sand qistribution referred to previously. Granules Kagani, H., 1961, Modal analysis of marine sediments in the
should therefore be absent below this break in slope or southern part of Tokyo Bay: Japan Jour. Geology and
in the central part of the basin. The evidence from Geography, v. 32, p. 523-532.
Pettijohn, F. J., 1957, Sedimentary rocks, 2d ed.: New York,
Deep Springs Valley, however, suggests a decrease in Harper and Bros., 718 p.
..... abundance of granules toward the basin center but not Sundborg, Ake, 1956, The River Klaralven; A study of fluvial
the disappearance of this size class. process: Geogratlska Annaler, v. 38, p. 127-316.
The decrease in abundance of granules within rela- Yatsu, E., 1959, On the discontinuity of grain size frequency dis-
tributions of fluvial deposits and its geomorphological sig-
tively short distances from source areas not only re- nificance: Geog. Union Regional Council Proc., 1957,
quires explanation but serves to refute the suggestion Internat. Sci. Council of Jnpan, Tokyo, p. 224-242.

...

\
Article 94
1
SEDIMENTS ON THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN OFF EASTERN UNITED STATES

By ELAZAR UCHUPI, Woods Hole, Mass.

Abstract.-Relict glacial sediments blanket most of the Portsmouth, N.H.; Trowbridge and Shepard (1932)
continental shelf north .of Hudson Canyon, and relict fluvial or on Massachusetts Bay; Hough (1942) on Cape Cod
nearshore q~artzose sands occur throughout most of the shelf
Bay; ·and Hough (1940) and Sanders ( 1958) ·on Buz-
from Hudson Canyon to Cape Hatteras. Calcareous organic .~
and authigenic sediments are the dominant sediment types on zards Bay. Farther south, Alexander ( 1934), Colony
the continental margin farther souith. Present-day detrital sedi- (1932),' McMaster (1962), and Shepard and Cohee
ments are restricted to a narrow zone near shore, to the outer (1936) reported on the sediment distribution and com-
edge of the shelf off Long island, and to the -continental slope position on the central section of the shelf from Rhode
north of Cape Ha:t'teras. The predominance of reli'ct and cal-
Island to Maryland. Sediments on the shelf from
careous sediments indica•tes thtat present rate of deposition of
detritus derived from land is very low over most of tfue con- Maryland to Key West, Fla., were examined by Gins-
tinental shelf. The report and ·accompany'ing sediment map burg ('1956), 'Moore and Gorsline ( 1960), Pearse and
were compiled from published and unpublished reports. Williams (1951), Thorp (19'39), and Tyler (1934); and
those of the Bahama Banks by Tiling (1954) and Im-
brie and Purdy (1962) . Deposits on the continental
Sediments on the continental margin along the At- slope and the submarine canyons were studied by Eric- \
/
lantic coast have been investigated over a long period of son and others ( 1961) and Stetson ( 1949). Sediments
time. Among the earliest descriptions are those of atop the Blake Plateau and on the plateau's marginal
Pourtales (1850, 1854, 1870, 1871, 1872), Bailey (1851, escarpment were described by Ericson and others,
1854, 1856), and Agassiz ('1888) . Pourtales examined (1961), Moore and Gorsline (1960), and Stetson and
9,000 samples collected by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic others (1962). These reports are the basis for the ·bot-
Survey during its lead-line sounding program, and from tom-sediment chart shown in figure 94.1; no samples
these compiled the first sediment map ( 1871). During were examined during the study. The compilation was
World War II, H. C. Stetson compiled 'bottom notations a prelude to a new sampling program initiated in Sep-
from Coast and Geodetic Survey smooth sheets into a tember 1962 by the U.S. Geological Survey in coopera-
series of sediment maps for use· in submarine opera- tion with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
tions. Similar charts, in somewhat more detail, were
also compiled by the German Navy for the same pur- CLASSIFICATION
pose and probably from the same data ( Oberkommando The sediments are classified on the basis of their
der Kriegsmarine, 1943) . mineral composition and carbonate content into three
Stetson (1938, 1939) examined the shelf deposits groups: detrital sediments, which consist mainly of
along 13 widely spaced profiles ·from Cape Cod, Mass., aJlogenic mineral grains and have a calcium carbonate
to Cape Canaver~l, Fla. More detailed studies of content of less than 50 percent; calcareous sediments,
smaller 'areas off northern New England inc'lude those which are composed of the skeletal debris from mollusks,
of Burbank ·( 1929) and Shepard ( 1939) on the Gulf algae, bryozoans, foraminiferans, and coelenterates
of Maine; Shepard and others ( 1934) and Wigley and have a. carbonate content greater than 50 percent;
( 1961) on Georges Bank; Phleger and Ericson 2 off and authigenic sediments, which have a wide range in
1 Contribution No. 1367 from the Woods Hole Oceanographic carbonate content and consist of a mixture of authigenic
Institution.
12 Phleger, F. B., and Ericson, D. B., 1947, Bottom sedllments in the
and allogenic minerals and foraminiferal tests. These
submarine operating areas off Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Woods three-major groups are subdivided into sediment types
Hole Oceanographic Inst., unpublished completion report on the hydrog-
raphy of the western Atlantic, contract N6onr-227, 15 p. named on the basis of the percentage distribution of

0132 ART. 94 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 47~, PAGES C132-cl37. 1963.
 UCHUPI 0133
·?

grain sizes (fig. 94.1), using triangular diagrams similar and clayey sediments in the Gulf of Maine are the fine
to those of Shepard ( 1954). The calcareous deposits fractions that were winnowed out of the Georges Bank
are further subdivided on the basis of the composition till.
,
.... of the organic calcareous components. From Nantucket Island to Hudson Canyon, four
broad sediment zones parallel the shelf-break. A near-
DISTRIBUTION
shore zone about 9 kilometers wide extends from shore
Continental shelf and Bahama Banks to a depth of 28 meters. It consists of large patches of
Sediments on the Nova Scotia shelf range from rock silty sand and sandy silt separated by areas of medium
and gravel near shore and on the banks at t~e outer to fine sand. From a water depth of 28 to 59 meters
edge of the shelf to coarse sand on the- remainde~ there is a 50-kilometer-wide zone of coarse sand and
of the shelf. The silty sediments off the east coast scattered patches of gravel containing glacial erratics.
of Nova Scotia are confined to a shallow depression on The sand grains in this zone are heavily stained with
the shelf. Sand is the most abundant deposit in the iron oxide, and limonitic pellets formed by the altera-
Bay of Fundy. Silty sand, sandy silt, and silt are tion of biotite are common. Farther sea ward is a 74-
limited to the upper reaches of the hay and the lee of kilometer-wide band of silty sand, sandy silt, and silt
Grand Manan Island. From the Bay of Fundy to found at a water depth of 59 to 135 meters. From
Cape Cod the bottom deposits near the coast are scat- Martha's Vineyard to Long Island this zone contains
tered rock outcrops covered by a thin veneer of sand an admixture of frosted rounded quartz grains that
and gravel ; the finer sediments are restricted to the are thought to be the remnants of a Pleistocene dune
fiordlike valleys along the Maine coast. field. Authigenic sediments consisting of glauconite
Topographically the floor of the Gulf of Maine is pellets and foraminiferal tests, some of which are filled
extremely irregular and consists of numerous banks and with pyrite, are present near the shelf-break and at the
ridges separated by broad and flat basins (Murray, head of Hudson Canyon. Tertiary strata that probably
1947). These topographic highs rise 25 to 50 meters crop out on the shelf near these two areas may be the
-4 above the surrounding basins and are blanketed by source of the glauconite.
I
gravel and sand. · Sediments on the flanks and in the From Hudson Canyon to Cape Hatteras the sediment
' ..
I
\
basins surrounding these topographic highs consist of has a simpler pattern and consists of medium to fine
silty sand and sandy silt that grade into silt and clay sand. The sand can be divided into two zones: an inner
toward the center of the basins. Many of the foraminif- one, 56 ki'lometers wide, that extends from sho~e to a
eral tests in the basin and basin-slope. sediments are 40-meter water depth and is heterogeneous with scat-
filled with pyrite. The two sills of the Gulf of Maine tered patches of gravel; and an outer one, 30 kilometers
(Eastern and Great South Channels) are blanketed by wide, that extends to a depth of 40 to 60 meters and
coarser deposits than those present in the gulf. Great contains finer grajned and more uniform sand. There
South Channel is floored by coarse sand and small is a tendency for the sediments of the outer zone to
patches of gravel, and the sediments in Eastern Chan- coarsen at the shelf-break, partly because of the presence
nel are predominantly gravel. of glauconite and an increase in foraminiferal tests.
Sedhnents on Georges Bank consist of coarse sand From shore to a depth of 24 to 29 meters, the shelf
and scnttered patches of gravel; the largest area of from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral is mantled by
gravel occurs along the bank's northeastern margin. fine sand, silty sand, and sandy silt. Beyond these
Clasts in the gravel are predominantly crystalline, gran- depths, shell fragments, calcareous oolites, ·and phos-
ite and gneiss being the 1nost abundant. Felsite and phorite nodules are more abundant in the direction of
quartzite are also common, and a few fragments of theshelf-hreak. Phosphorite and the oolites reach their
calcareous sandstone and limestone containing Cretace-
maximum concentrations in 39 meters of water, 80 kil-
ous fossils have also been r~covered. These coarse
ometers from shore; the shell fragments are most
deposits atop the topographic highs within the Gulf of
l\1aine and the gravel in Great South and Eastern abundant in 30 to 40 meters of water 70 to 80 kilometers
Channels are believed to have been transported to their from shore. The oolites and phosphorite range in size
present sites by Pleistocene glaciers. Below the coarse from 0.2 to 1.2 mm, and have a polished and waterworn
sand and gravel, Shepard and others (1934) found appearance. Most of the shell fragments associated
gravelly silt which they believed to be a till deposit, and with the oolites and phosphorite are polished and
they suggested that the coarse sediments above the till rounded. Near the shelf-break the molluscan frag-
represent a lag formed by tidal currents which have ments are replaced by waterworn calcareous algae,
winnowed out the fine sediments. Possibly the silty bryozoans, barnacles, and echinoid fragments.
CI34 MARINE GEOLOGY

86
GULF OF

MEXICO

84

82

.......c
....,, I'
'\

80

EXPLANATION

-
DETRITAL SEDIMENTS

Rock and (or) gravel

-
CALCAREOUS SEDIMENTS

Shell sand and gravelly

shell sand
~
~
. ~
Globigerina-pteropod OQZe with
manganese and phosphorite

h\::~::~
--~-
Depth contours,.in meters

-l+f'H+H+H+
GJa-yconitic sediments
Gravel, sandy gravel,
and gravelly sand
Shell-oolitic sand

~
Calcareous silt and clay

~
....
probably present

·""'·
DSand .
.
Bryozoan-algal sand Calcareous silt and clay, oolitic
pisolitic: sand, and coral-algal sand
Pyrite-filled foraminiferal
tests

B
Algal-shell-foraminiferal-
AUTHIGENIC SEDIMENTS

Silty sand, sanoy silt,

coral sand ·
~ 1, boundary of zone of -round-
ed quartz grains; 2, ·limonite
\

~)
silt and clayey silt ~ Glauconitic sand, silty sand •
L..!:..TI and sandy silt pellets ...,~

Coral sand and gravel ~ '

FIGURE 94.1.-Sediments of the continental margin off eastern United Stat~

 UCHUPI C135

640

Gulf of

OCEAN

~. 100 0 100 200 300 400 5!X> KILOMETERS

CLAY

CLAY GRAVEL

J •
TETRAHEDRON
UN.FOLDED
,!""\

~ ~
TETRAHEDRON OF
SEDIMENT NAMES

~,'------------------------------------------------------------------1
/
tetrahedron shows names of sediments, based on percentage distribution of grain size.
)
,..,.._
C136 MARINE GEOLOGY

Calcareous sediments dominate the shelf from Bis- ORIGIN OF THE SEDIMENTS /
,..-.
(
cayne Bay to Key West, although there is a consider- Sediments on the continental margin can be classified
able amount of quartz in the sediments north and east according to the dominant cause of deposition, as sug-
of Marquesas Lagoon. From shore to a depth of about gested by Emery ( 1952). One kind is the detritus
5 meters the sediment consists mainly of calcareous contributed to the ocean by present-day streams. The
algae, tests of Foraminifera, coral, and shell fragments. silty sediments near the shore, those at the outer edge
Slightly more than 1 percent of the deposit consists of of the shelf off Long Island, possibly the sediments in
friable, elongate ellipsoidal bpdies of semiconsolidated the Gulf of Maine, and the silts and clays on the con-
calcareous material believed to be fecal pellets formed tinental slope north of Cape Hatteras are examples of
by maldanid worms. . Oolhes and phosphorite, elli p- present-day detrital sediments. A second kind, relict • !

soidal and 0.5 to 1.5 mm in size, are also present. The detrital sediments, is deposited under different environ-
sediments on the rest of the shelf are mainly calcareous mental conditions than those existing at present. The
silts and clays. An unusual constituent of these .fine- glacial debris scattered throughout the shelf north of
grained calcareous deposits is aragonite in the form of Hudson Canyon is an example of this type of deposit.
needles about 10 microns long. The fine to medium quartzose sands mantling most of
Sediments mantling the Bahama Banks consist of a the shelf from Hudson Canyon to Cape Hatteras are
patchy network of oolitic-pisolitic sands, calcareous probably also relict, as they cannot be in the process of
organic sands, and calcareous silts and clays. being transported over and beyond the finer. present-
day detrital sediments near shore. The sands are prob-
Continental Slope
ably of fluvial or nearshore origin and were deposited /'-
From Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras, sediments of the during the late Pleistocene when sea level was below
continental slope consist' mainly of silt and clay. Sed- its .present level. A third kind of deposit is the resid-
iments in the canyons that cut the slope range from silt ual debris left by in situ weathering of rocks cropping
and clay on the walls to silty sand, sand, and gravel out on the sea floor. Possibly the glauconitic sediments
along the axes. The~e coarse deposits probably repre- near the shelf-break north of Hatteras were formed by
sent displaced paralic sediments. From Cape Hatteras in situ weathering of Tertiary glauconitic sediments.
to lat 28° N. the slope is covered by glauconitic silty Sediments of organic origin, a fourth type, consist of
sand and sandy silt. South- of lat 28 ° N. the scarps calcareous foraminiferal tests, shell fragments, and cal-
east of the Florida peninsula, the scarp west of the careous algal skeletal debris. These deposits are dom-
Bahama Banks, and the trough between them (Florida inant south of Cape Hatteras.· A fifth kind is the chem-
ical precipitates or authigenic sediments, chiefly glau-
Strait) are blanketed by Globigerina-pteropod ooze.
conite, phosphorite, and manganese oxide. These de-
Blake Plateau and Outer Marginal Escarpment posits are scattered throughout the shelf south of Hat-
Globigerina-pteropod ooze, nodules and slabs of man- teras, and are very abundant on the Blake Plateau and
on the slope west of the plateau.
ganese oxide, and a few nodules of phosphorite mantle
In silmmary, relict detrital and calcareous organic
most of the surface of the Blake Plateau. The blanket sediments are the two dominant types on the continental ...(,
of unconsolidated ooze is only a few centimeters thick margin, followed by present-day detrital,· authigenic,.
and rests on a Globigerina- pteropod limestone of Mio- and residual deposits. The predominance of relict and
cene age. The only region of the plaJteau not blanketed calcareous sediments_ indicaJtes that present rates of de-
by Globigerina- pteropod ooze is an area of 3,600 of 4,500 position of detritus derived from land are very low over
square kilometers, located 90 kilometers southeast . of large areas of the continental shelf.
Charleston, S.C. Scattered within it are about 200
REFERENCES
mounds or banks, having a relief of 30 to more than 300
meters, that are formed by the accumulrution of coral Agassiz, Alex·ander, 1888, Three cruises of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey steame~ "Blake," v. I : Harvard
debris mainly from Lophelia prolifera and Dendro- Con: Mus. Comp. Zoology Bull, v. XIV, 314 p.
phyllia profunda. Alexander, A. E., 1934, A petrographic and petrologic study of
Sediments on the marginal escarpment east of the some continental shelf sediments: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v.
Blake Plateau consist of Globigerina-pteropod ooze. 4,p.12-22. .
Bailey, J. W., 1851, Microscopical examination of soundings,
These unconsolidated sediments are thin, as indicated made off the coast of the United States by the Coast Survey :
by the abundant rock outcrops on most of the slope. Smithsonian Contr. Knowledge, v. 2, Art. 2, 15 p.
 UCHPPI 0137
Bailey, J. W·., 1854, Examination of some soundings from the Gulf Stream by Lieutenants Comg. Craven and Maffit: Re-
Atlantic Ocean: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 17, p. 176-178. port of the superintendent of Coast Survey during 1853, p.
- - - 1856, On the origin of greensand and its formation in 82-83.
the oceans of the present epoch: Boston Soc. Nat. History ---1870, Der Boden des Golfstromes und der Atlantischen
Proc., v. 5, p. 364-368. KUste Nord-America: Petermanns Mitheilungen aus Justus
Burbank, W. S., 1929, The petrology of the sediment of the Gulf Perthes Geographischer Anshalt, v. 16, p. 393-398.
of Maine and Bay of ll'undy: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file - - - 1871, Constitution of the bottom of the ocean off Cape
report, 74 p. Hateras: Boston Soc. Nat. History Proc., v. 14, p. 58-59.
Colony, R. J., 1932, Source of Long Island and New Jersey ---1872, The characteristics of the Atlantic sea bottom off
sands: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 2, p. 150-159. the coast of the United States: RepQrt of the Superintendent
Emery, K. 0., 1952, Continental shelf sediments ~f southern of the U.S. Coast Survey for 1869, App. 11, p. 220-225.
California: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 63, p. 1105-1108. Sanders, H. L., 1958, Benthic studies in Buzzards Bay, I. Ani-
Ericson, D. B., Ewing, Maurice, Wollin, Goesta, and Heezen, mal-sediment relationship: Limnology and Oceanography,
B. C., 1961, Atlantic deep sen cores: Geol. Soc. America v. 3, p. 245-258.
Bul·l., v. 72, p. 193-286. Shepard, F. P., 1939, Continental shelf sediments, in Trask,
Ginsburg, R. N., 1956, Environmental relationships of grain size ·P. D., ed., Recent marine sediments, a symposium: Tulsa,
and constituent particles in some Florida sediments: Am. Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 219-229.
Assoc.. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 40, p. 2384-2427. ---1954, Nomenclature based on sand-silt-clay ratios: Jour.
Hough, J. H., 1940, Sediments of Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts: ·sed. Petrology, v. 24, p.151-158.
Jour .. Sed. Petrology, v. 10, p. 19-32. Shepard, F. P., and Cohee, G. V., 1936, Continental shelf sedi-
I ---1942, Sediments of Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts: Jour. ments off the mid-Atlantic states: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
' Sed. Petrology, v. 12, p. 10-30. v. 47, p. 441-458.
llUng, L. V., 1954, Bahamian calcareous sands: Am. Assoc. Shepard, F. P., Trefethen, J. M., and Cohee, G. V., 1934, Origin
Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, p. 1-95. of Georges Ba'nk: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 45, p. 281-302.
Imbrie, John, and Purdy, E. G., 1962, Classification of modern Stetson, H. C., 1938, The sediments of the continental shelf off
Bnhnmiun carbonate sediments. Classification of cnrbon- the eastern coast of the United States: Massachusetts Inst.
nte rocks: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geolqgists Mem. 1, p. Technology and Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst., Papers in
253-272. Physics, OceanograPhy and 'Meteorology, v. 5, no. 4, p. 5-48.
MacCarthy, G. R., 1933, Calcium carbonate in bench sands:
---1939, Summary of sedimentary conditions. on the eon-
Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 2, p. 64-67.
tinental shelf off the east coast of United States, in Trask,
McMnster, R. L., 1962, Petrogrnphy and genesis of recent sedi-
P. D., ed., Recent marine sediments, a symposium: Tulsa,
ments In Nnrrugnnsett Bay and Rhode Island Sound, Rhode
Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 230-244.
Island: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 32, p. 484-501.
Moore, J. E., and Gorsline, D. S., 1960, Physical and chemical - - - 1949, The sediments and stratigraphy of the east coast
continental margin; Georges Bank to Norfolk Canyon:
data for bottom sediments ; South Atlantic coast of the
Massachusetts Inst. Technology. and Woods Hole Oceanog.
United States: U.S. Fish .and WLldlife Service, Spec. Sci.
Report-Fisheries Pub. 366, 84 p. Inst., Papers in Physics, Oceanography, and Meteorology,·v.
r 11, no. 2, p. 1-60.
Murray, H. W., 1947, Topography of the Gulf of Maine, field
season of 1940: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v .. 58, p. 153-196. Stetson, T. R., Squires, D. F., and Pratt, R. M., 1962, Coral
bank~ in deep water on the Blake Plateau: Am. Mus.
Oberkommnndo der Kriegsmarine, ~943, Uboot handbuch der
ostktlste der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordameria, Nord- Novitates, no. 2114, p, 1-39.
Ueber Tell (atlas) : Berlin, 124 charts. Thorp, E. M., 1939, Florida and Bahama marine calcareous
Pe11rse, A. S., and Williams, L. G., 1951, The biota of the reefs deposits, in Trask, P. D., ed., Recent marine sediments, a
off the Carolinas: Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., v. 67, p. symposium : Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists,
133-161. p, 283-297.
Pourtn·les, L. 1!"., 1850, On the distribution of the foraminifera Trowbridge, A. C., and Shepard, F. P., 1932, Sedimentation in
on the coast of New Jersey, as shown by the off-shore Massachusetts Bay: ·Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 2, p. 3-37.
soundings of the Coast Survey: Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc., Tyler, S. A., 1934, A study of sediments from the North Caro-
Bt·d meeting, Charleston, S.C., p. 84-88. lina and Florida coasts: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 4, p. 3-11.
---1854, Extrncts from letters of assistant L. F. Pourtales Wigley, R. L., 1961, Bottom sediments of Georges Bank : Jour.
,upon examination of specimens of bottom obtained in the Sed. Petrology, v. 3, p. 165-188.

'·
Article 95

POSSIBLE WIND-EROSION ORIGIN OF LINEAR SCARPS

ON THE SAGE PLAIN, SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO

By DANIEL R. SHA WE, Denver, Colo.

Work tlone in coOf}eration with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

A.bstract.-Low straight subparallel s:carps in Pleistocene The broad mesalike flats, generally bounded by a scarp )
loess on the Sage Plain, southwestern Colorado, bound elongate on either side, consist of relrutively undissected loess and
flat areas oriented about N. 25° E. Swales between the flats
probably resulted from excavation of 'an old weathered surface
lie about 5 to 15 feet above intervening swales. All the
now represented by the flats. The most likely agent of ex:cava- flats narrow to the northeast (figs. 95.1 and 95.2) and
are separated by hroad intricately eroded, hummocky
tion was prevailing southwesterly winds.
swales a:bout the same width :as the fla·ts. Both the swales ·•
and the flats are moderately dissected iby dendritic inter-
Low straight· subparallel scarps 1 to 3 miles long
mittent streams, along which 'bedrock is exposed locally.
bound broad mesalike flats trending about N. 25° E.,
Bedrock 'also is exposed in many other places in the
in loess of Pleistocene age on the Sage Plain in south-
swales. The stream ohannels locally are cut as much as
western Colorado. The scarps are conspicuous on aerial
photographs but are difficult to discern on the ground. 100 feet below the level of the fl:ats. The flruts thus a.p-
1

They have been mapped previously as fractures (Kelley, pear to he relict foo,tures of an older surface.
1955, fig. 2, p. 14). The flats have ~a superficial resemblance to wide longi-
Study of the linear features in 1956 by W. B. Rogers tudinal dunes illustra,ted by Lueder ( 1959, p. 23'6, fig.
and the author showed that they· are formed entirely 14-5), hut the resemblance probably is misleading. Sev-
in a thin blanket of loess. Sandstone expos~res along erallines of evidence oppose a dune origin : the flats ·are
the trace of the linear scarps show no fractures parallel relatively wide in comparison with the swales, where!as
to the scarps but commonly are crossed by joints and longitudinal dunes are much narrower than associa:ted
faults trending about 65° to the scarps. The original interdune areas; barchan or similar dunes usually
interpretation of the linear features as fractures ap- associated with longitudinal dunes are lacking on the
pears tO be incorrect. Fractures restricted to the loess Sage Pl,ain ; the mruterial of the fl-ats is composed of silt
and orien~ed parallel to the scarps may have somehow ra;ther than sand; ·and the extreme width, about hal·f -a
controlled development of the scarps, but there is no mile, of some of the flats is greater than that of dunes.
eviderice qf such fractures. Soil relations also rule out a dune origin. A light-
The 1oess, which is of pre-Wisconsin age (Hunt, 1956,
colored calcareous s'Oil horizon crops out near the top
p. 38), e~tends nearly 100 miles along the Colorado-
Utah boundary, has a maximum width of a-bout 70 miles, of -the scarps, just helow the surface ·of the fl'ats. The
and covers about 3,500 square miles. On the Sage Pl,ain soil horizon evidently deve'loped during we-athering of
the deposit commonly is 'a.s much as 20 feet thick. The an original blanket of loess that presumably ·was con-
loess consists largely of sHt but contains some fine sand tinuous across the whole area and was exposed !by ex-
and clay. Quartz is ·the dominant cons·tituent, and feld- cavation of the intervening swales.
spar is present in sma'll ·amounts; heavy minerals m~ake The difference between the soil of the swales and
up ~a:bout 0.5 percent of the total. that of the fi.arts is illustra;ted hy other properties. The

ART. 95 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES CU8-C141. 1963.
0138
 SHAWE C139

EXPLANATION

D
Surficial deposits
Largely loess of Pleistocene age
except for alluvium of Recent
age along drainage courses

I (jflv I
Bedrock
Largely Dakota Sandstone of
Cretaceous age

Scarp in lc>ess
Hachures on low side

'.........
Fault
r· Dotted where concealed; bar and
ball on downthrown side

I
\ :'
: ((
~
0

.JJ.·.·.
0

COLORADO

, ... A··\..
of

0 1 MILE

FIGUim 95.1.-Geologic sketch map of an area on the Sage Plain, southwestern Colorado, showing linear features po&Sibly
formed by wind erosion of loess. Bedrock mapping chiefly by George C. Simmons.
694-027 0-68--10
0140 GEOMORPHOLOGY

loess everywhere is reddish brown, hut t:hat in the swales content of the l'oess suggest that the heavy-mineral suites
is relatively darker and grayer than thrut on the flats from flats and swales are general1y similar, although
and appears to represent a deeper soil horizon, exposed resistant minerals such as zircon are more abundant in
by erosion. The loess on the flats is slightly more co- soil from the swales. Presumably, weathering h'as de-
1
herent, and its greater redness suggests near-surface stroyed some black opaque minerals and apati~te in soil
oxidation. Pr~limirtary studies of the heavy-mineral on the flats. ·

l~IGURE 95.2.-Aerial photograph showing linear features on the Sage Plain, southwestern Colorado. Location shown on
figure 95.1.
 SRAWE 0141
The relict flats are remnants of an earlier, weathered flats and the swales, except for local small consequent
flat-lying depositional surface, and the swales thus streams along the edges of some flats (fig. 95.1).
seem to have been formed by excavation of material. Active sand dunes in northeastern Arizona, north-
rro the author it appears most likely that the excavation western New Mexico, and southeastern Utah are
was performed by prevailing southwesterly winds that oriented about N. 45° E. (Thorp and Smith, 1952),
blew across a level deposit of loess laid down in pre- indicating the general trend of present-day prevailing
vVisconsin time. If we assume that the soil is of Pleis- winds. The relict flats on the Sage Plain thus are
tocene age, excavation possibly began near the end of oriented nearly parallel to prevailing winds, which
the Pleistocene. 'Vind and climate changes probably probably have not changed direction appreciably since
were responsible for the change from deposition to Pleistocene time.
excavation of loess. The swales started locally as shal- REFERENCES
low troughs scooped out by the wind; as they grew Hunt, C. B., 1956, Cenozoic geology of the Colorado Plateau:
deeper and wider they developed a wedge shape in u.s: Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 279, 99 p.
· Kelley, V. C., 1955, Regional tectonics of the Colorado Plateau
plan, the point of which migrated windward; thus the and relationship to the origin and distribution of uranium:
points of the flats are all oriented northeastward. The New Mexico Univ. Pubs. in Geology, no. 5, 120 p.
present dendritic drainage pattern probably was estab- Lueder, D. R., 1959, Aerial photographic interpretation: New
lished upon the original loess surface prior to excava- York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 462 p.
Thorp, James, and Smith, H. T. U., co-chm., 1952, Pleistocene
tion and became entrenched as excavation proceeded. eolian deposits of the United States, Alaska, and parts of
The stream directions are thus independent of the relict Canada: Washington, Natl. Research Council, map, 2 sheets.

>

.);.
 Article 96

GLACIAL LAKES NEAR CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS

By CARL KOTEFF, Boston, Mass.

Work done in cooperation with the Massachusetts Department of Publio Works

Abstract.-Detailed mapping in the Concord 7%-minute quad-

or more thick, and :few exposures reach that depth.
rangle has revised the .history of the Cherry Brook stage of
The collapsed form of the deltas indicates that they
glacial Lake Sudbury, and has delineated a separate lake,
glacial were built in contact with ice on one or more sides;
Lake Concord. The recalculated postglacial tilt in the
area is between 5 and 6 feet per mile. accordingly, they are called kame deltas. The lake-
bottom sediments include fine sand, silt, and clay. The
clay, which is generally very silty, has been found in
Surficial geologic mapping in the Concord, Mass., Bedford, Concord, and Sudbury, and according to local
71h-minute quadrangle has resulted in a revision of the residents was used for making bricks in colonial times.
history of. part of glacial Lake Sudbury, and the de- Six outlets, 3 for the Cherry Brook stage and 3 for
lineation of a separate lake, glacial Lake Concord (fig. Lake Concord, have been found. They are numbered
96.1). Lake Sudbury as first outlined by_J. W. Gold- in chronological order on figure 96.1.
thwait (1905) extended much farther south than the A postglacial tilt of 5 to 6 feet per mile is calculated
Cherry Brook stage shown in figure 96.1. The present for this area. The divide at outlet 2 (about 155 feet in
article considers only the Cherry Brook stage of Lake altitude) is approximately 30 feet lower than the high-
Sudbury, and its relation to glaci~l Lake Concord. est foreset beds (about 185 feet) observed ·in a delta at
The shorelines are based primarily on the distribu- the northern limit of the Cherry Brook stage, more
tion of lake sediments and on the present altitude of than 5 miles north of the outlet. It is assumed that the
outlets; no shoreline :features such as wave-'cut benches ice retreated northward parallel to the direction of
and beach deposits were found. The absence of such advance (approximately S. 10° E.) and that the strike
features was noted by Goldthwait ( 1905, p. 273), and of .the tilt is normal to this direction. This tilt is a little
was explained by Hansen ( 1956, p. 77-78) as the result less than the 7 feet per mile calculated by Goldthwait
of the presence of large residual ice blocks, which re- (1905, p. 286-287).
duced the area of open water and thus limited wave Outlet 1, at an altitude above 160 feet, represents the
action. The shoreline itself consisted, at least in part, first major spillway of the Cherry Brook stage of Lake
of ice. Colluvium and slope movement also may have Sudbury. The outlet is floored in the upstream part
masked or destroyed some shore features. The shore- mostly by swamp and has gentle side slopes; down- ·<
line shown for the Cherry Brook stage was modified in stream it is narrow and its walls show bedrock outcrops
the western part from Goldthwait ( 1905), and in the through a cover of large boulders and very thin till and
northwestern part from Hansen ( 1956). Hansen's data colluvium. The kame delta 11h miles west of Wayland
also were used in interpreting the shoreline of Lake was constructed at the time when outlet 1 was used.
Concord in its western part, near Maynard. Goldthwait (1905) originally described this delta as
Delta deposits are distributed throughout the lake having an altitude of 175 feet, and placed it in an ear-
area; the more conspicuous ones are indicated in figure lier and higher "Weston stage" of Lake Sudbury, with
96.1. The deposits consist chiefly of fine sand to very a higher outlet somewhat south of outlet 1. However,
coarse gravel. Foreset beds were observed in only a the foreset beds that underlie more than 10 feet of top-
few deltas, because the topset beds generally are 10 feet set beds in this delta have an altitude of a little ~ess
ART. 96 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES CU2-C144. 1963.
C142
 K-oTEFF 0143
than 165 feet, and outlet 1 of the Cherry Brook stage lets 2 and 3 probably were used contemporaneously, be-
appears to be the likely control for the lake in which cause a postglacial tilt of between 5 and 6 feet per mile
the delta was constructed. indicates that these outlets were at. the same altitude
When the main ice margin had retreated far enough during glacial-lake time, even .though there is about a
..,.. northward to allow Cherry Brook drainage· to ~come · 10-foot difference in altitude at present. Outlet 3 was
integrated with .that of Stony Brook, outlet 2 at about used only temporarily, until aggrading streams choked
155 feet altitude became the controlling outlet, and the it off with deposits 10 to 15 feet higher than the outlet.
lak~ l~vel dropped more than 5 feet. The upper part Then outlet 2 again became the only major spillway.
of the Cherry Brook valley has a few areas of boulder The northernmost part of Lake Sudbury during the
pavement, but for a mile a:bove the junction with Stony Cherry Brook stage apparently' became filled by large
Brook, numerous bedrock exposures and large boulders, masses of delta deposits when the main ice front stood
some as much as 20 feet across, occur both in the floor 3!bout 1 mile south of Concord. This prevented any
and along the walls of the valley. The deltas north of further drainage of glacial melt water into the Lake
Wayland were constructed at this time. Sudbury basin. The highest altitude determined for
Outlet 3 came into use when the ice front had retreated the delta foreset beds here is 185 feet, and the topset
to a position just south of Fairhaven Bay. This outlet, beds of the deltas are more than 190 feet in altitude,
a;t an altitude of about 165 feet, is floored mostly by except ~t 3 places. Two of these places are railroad cuts
swamp, together with a few large boulders and scattered through drift that was originally above 190 feet; the
bedrock outcrops. Its walls are mostly bedrock. Out- third place is the valley of the Sudbury River, where
71°22'30"
42° EXPLANATION
30'
00"
_.,.,-- ...... __
Shoreline of glacial Lake
Concord, low stage

-
Shoreline of glacial Lake Concord,
high stage. North shote is an ice
front

Shoreline of glacial Lake Sudbury,

Cherry Brook stage

Ice-contact head and generalized

flow lin.es of delta deposits
Flow lines not shown for low stage
of glacial Lake Concord. Saw-
teeth point away from ice

~---"'"'
Location of glacial-lake
I outlet or spillway
I Number explained in text
420 I /)
22'
30"
l( /

--
""-.~

"
"'""' \
1
I
'----...... -....... 0 2 MILES

FIGURE 96.1.-Map of the Concord, Mass., area showing the maximum extent of glacial Lakes Sudbury (Cherry Brook stage)
and Concord.
C144 GEOMORPHOLOGY

melt-water deposits stand on either side of the valley indicate that large masses of ice lay in Lake Concord
at an altitude of more than 190 feet and appear to have throughout its history. ·
been once continuous across the valley. Large ice Goldthwait (1905, p. 291) described the deposits west
masses may have lain in and north of Fairhaven Bay; of Concord as belonging to what is called the low stage '"•.,
melting of the ice and erosion of adjacent deposits would of Lake Concord in the present article, but he did not
have allowed escape of the lake waters northward at a recognize the high stage. He also believed that the lake
later date. was controlled by a pass at the head of Hobbs Brook.
Lake Concord came into existence immediately after However, there is no possible spillway lower than 195
retreat of the ice from its position south of Concord. feet at the head of Hobbs Brook, so that this brook could
The positions of ice fronts during Lake Concord time not have served as an outlet for even the high stage.
are more difficult to determine than those during the Hansen (1956, p. 78-79) stated that the deposits west
Cherry Brook stage. The lake was bordered on the of Concord at altitudes of approximately 155 feet were
north, for the most part, by ice, and on the south and not lacustrine, hut rather were deposited in contact with
west by higher ground. The ice front, hence the shore- ice by running melt water after the lake was drained.
line, is inferred to have retreated farther north during The deltaic bedding and consistent 150-foot altitude of
the low stage of the lake than during the earlier, high these deposits for a distance of more than 6 miles, how- fJ/.,

stage (fig. 96.1). Outlet 4 controlled the high stage ever, indicate that they are lacustrine, although large
of Lake Concord, whose altitude as determined from ice masses that could have affected deposition probably
foreset beds was between 180 and 185 feet. The valley were present in the lake.
of outlet 4 is at an altitude of less than 180 feet, and is As the ice front retreated northward from Bedford,
characterized by bedrock covered by thin till ; a few the Shawsheen River valley was exposed, allowing com-
outcrops occur downstream. Although it is not evident plete drainage of Lake Concord through outlet 6. Some
today because of postglacial tilt, the altitude of Lake very fragmentary evidence in the lake area indicates
Concord was relatively lower than the maximum 185- temporary water levels below 145 feet that may have / "
foot altitude of the Cherry Brook stage. been controlled by outlet 6, but deposits below 145 feet
Outlet 5 has an .altitude of about 145 feet, and is in altitude are included with lake-bottom deposits. The
floored mostly by swamp and scattered small boulders. present floor of the Shawsheen is at an altitude of 100
The south wall of the valley is composed of sand and feet or less where the river has cut down to bedrock.
gravel, and the north wall is composed of till, probably Water-polished bedrock on the valley walls indicates an
thin .. Outlet 5 was probably covered by ice and glacial earlier threshold at about 115 feet, but it is not. clear
drift during the high stage of Lake Concord, but grad- whether most of the erosion was caused hy discharge
ual dissipation and erosion of the ice and the drift of the lake or by the present Shawsheen River.
lowered this outlet and the lake level to the low stage
at 145 to 150 feet. Foreset bedding at an altitude of REFERENCES

less than 170 feet in a delta west of Concord indicates Goldthwait, J. W., 1905, Tbe sand plains of glacial Lake Sud-
a steplike lowering of Lake Concord from the high to bury: Harvard College Mus. Comp. Zoology Bull., v. 42,
p. 263--301.
the low stage. Three exposures in low-stage deltas Hansen, W. R., 1956, Geology and mineral resources of the
show bedding dipping eastward. The ice-contact slopes Hudson and Maynard quadrangles, Massachusetts: U.S.
of the deposits of the low stage (not shown in fig. 96.1) Geol. Survey Bull. 1038.

.~
 Article 97

CHANNEL CHANGES ON SANDSTONE CREEK NEAR CHEYENNE, OKLAHOMA

By DEROY L. BERG·MAN and C. W. SULLIVAN,

Elk City, Okla., and Oklahoma City, Okla.

.Abst·ra,ct.-The cross-sectional shape of the channel of Sand- from reservoir seepage, which is considered the princi-
stone Creel\:, 'in western Oklahoma, has ·changed from rectangu- pal factor; and ( 2) the resulting estahlislunent of perm-
lar •to V-s'haped during the period i957-62 due to susltained
anent vegetrution. The vegetation anchors previously
seepage from upstream floodwater-ret'arding structures, which
has encouraged rapid growth of vegetation that anchors sedi- unchained deposits within the channel. The deposits
ment wttJhin the channel. Floodwaters now fiow a.t higher thus retained have contributed to a gradual change in
sta·ges, and low flows 1are enitrenching in a narrowed low-'water the cross section of the channe'l from rectangular t o V-
1

channel. shaped. Though ·the change is marked, the total oross

sectional area of the channel at 'bankfull stage has not
Channel changes near the streamflow gaging station changed ·materially.
J
\
on Sandstone Creek near Cheyenne, Okla., have become The sequence of ·channel changes on Sandstone Creek
very evident since 1957, and the ·changes are still occur- during the years 1950 to 1962 is vividly pictured in fig-
ring. The channel changes are 'Of interest because of ure 97.1. Streamflow characteristics during this time
the factors causing a trend toward 'hank stabilization can ibe separa;ted into two regimes: intermittent and
and because of the effect of the changes on the stage- perennial. During the period of intermittent stream-
discharge relation at this location. The changes appear flow, prior to mid-19·57, the channel was barren and
to 'be related to a change in the pa·tJtern of streamflow rectangular, with an ill-defined low-water channel (fig.
resulting from ·an upstream flood-prevention work phtn 97.1A, B). Silt from the undercut and wea;thered banks
'being a;pplied to the wrutershed. and ·fron1 basin erosion was deposited in the channel
Sandstone Creek basin lies in the rol1ing red-phtins after each rise in water level, and was subsequently
region of extreme west-central Okla;homa. The crook car:ried downstream during high-water periods. Days
drains an area of 107 square miles and is tributary to the of no flow were quite :common ( 114 days in 1954) . Since
WaShita River. Elevations in the 'basin range from mid-1957, the steamflow has been perennia:l. During
1,750 to 2,400 feet. Valley slopes are 1noderate and up- this period the channel has 'been changing from barren
l·and slopes range fro~ 2 to 20 percent. The climate in to thickly vegetated, from rectangular to V-shaped, and
the ·area is dry subhumid, and the mean annual precipi- the Iow-water ~hannel from ill defined to well defined
trution on ~the basin is ·a!bout 25 inches. ·Most of rbhe rain- ('fig. 97.10, D).
fa;H occurs during st~Qrms of moderate· to intense severity The· permanent vegetation established itself in the
and af short duration. riparian area of the low-water channel during the inter-
The watershed contains 24 floodwater- retarding struc- val from mid-1957 to mid-1959. Streamflow character-
tures and 17 gully plugs constructed hy the Soil Con- istics in the years since mid-1957 have been ideal for
servation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, vegetation growth. The riparian vegetation within the
under an upstream flood-prevention work plan. By channel, which is now growing aJbove the 31f2-foot stage,
1952, the floodwa.ter-retarding structures had been com- is inundated only about 1 percent of the time, and the
1.
pleted, and more than 80 percent of recommended land- · perennial streamflow provides the needed moisture fo:r.
trea.tment measures had been applied. growth. The kinds of vegetation, in order of appear-
The faotors a;pparently ·causing channel changes h~ ve ance, are: sedge; native grasses and weeds; willow, salt-
been : ( 1) the esta;blishment of perennial streamflow cedar, and cottonwood trees.

ART. 97 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C145-Cl48. 1963.
0145
Cl.W GEOMORPHOLOGY

A B

c D

FIGURE 97.1.-Sandstone Creek near Cheyenne, Okla., looking upstream from gaging station. A, 1950; B, 1954;
C, 1960; D, 1962. (Photographs A, B, and C, by U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

The sediment deposited in the vegetated area has con- Instrument surveys of the channel cross section were
stricted the low-water channel to one-third its former made in 1954 and 1961. The survey notes were plotted
width, and has ca.used development of the V-shaped with the 1961 cross section superimposed upon the 1954
channel (fig. 97.10). The continued growth of the cross section for comparison. The areas of erosion and
vegetation and addition of deposits from floodflows has deposition during the intervening period are evident in
further developed this channel shape (fig. 97.1D). The figure 97.2. The change in cross-sectional area within
constricted channel now has been scoured below the the channel through the range of stage is illustrated
normal level of the former streambed by the relatively in figure 97.3 by the stage-area curves for the cross
silt-free water from the upstream detention structures. sections.
25

25
20
20
- I t;j
....UJ I
I UJ
I "- 15
UJ
"- 15 I
I, 1961
~ ''
10 ~ 10
i.... ....<(
0..
5 (/)
UJ 5
0 0

oL-----~----~----~----~----L-----L---~
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 200 400 600 BOO 1000 1200 1400
DISTANCE, IN FEET AREA , IN SQUARE FEET

FIGURE 97.2--Comparison of channel crass section for 1954 and FIGURE 97.3-Comparison af stage-area curves fur 1954 ·a nd
1961 at gaging station. 1961 for cross section at gaging sltation.
 BERGMAN AND SULLIVAN C147
Bankfull stage
The overall redistribution o'f the channel·area, coupled 22

with the increased retarding action of the vegetation,

results in a higher stage for a given discharge above the 20
r 3'1h-foot stage than occurred during the intermittent
streamflow period. However, the well-defined channel
18
below the 3lh-foot stage has greater discharge capacity
than the previous ill-defined low-water channel. To
illustrate this point, figure 97.4 presents representative 16

stage-4ischarge relation curves during the two periods

as computed from the gaging-station records. · 14
f-
IJJ /""
""
IJJ

"" ""
20 u..
/
15 ~ 12 /
w /
~ 10 (!) /
c{ /
IJJ f- /
u.. (/)
/
10
/
/
/
/
/
8
./~
"
__ ... ....... / 1952-56
1
10 50 100 500 1000 5000 10.000 I 6

DISCHARGE. IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

;, FIGURE 97.4--0omparlson of average stage-di'scharge relati'on

for the period 1952-56 ·and the year 1961 at gaging station.
2~----------~--~~--------~----~~~
The effects of the change in the streamflow capacity 1.01 1.5 10 15
RECURRENCE INTERVAL. IN YEARS
of the channel can be illustrated by using the flood dis-
charge-frequency curve based on the 10 years of record FIGURE 97.5--Comparative stage-frequency -curves rela,nlve to
for this site. This frequency curve has been converted channel characteristics during 1952-56 and 1961.
to a comparable stage-frequency curve for eadh type 10
period based on the stage-discharge relation for the re-
spective periods (fig. 97.5). The effects of changes in
the channel are illustrated also through use of the flow-
duration curve of record for the stream-gaging station. 5
The flow-duration curv:e has been converted to equiv- f-
~ 4
alent stage-duration curves by using the representative u..

curve of stage-discharge relation for each period dis- w 3

cu$ed (fig. 97.6). (!) --- 1952-56
-----1
The continued effect of regulation from the upstream
c{
f-
C/)

2
---
reservoirs on the low-water channel is noticeable in two
ways. First, the 9:ppearance of the bed-load material
has changed from a mixture of fine-grained sand and
silt to sand of fine- to medium-grain size. Very little
1~----~------~------~--L---~--L-~~
silt is noticeable in the bed of the stream during low- 0.01 0.1 1 10 50
PERCENT OF TIME
water periods. Second, the continued scour has pro-
duced many small riffles composed of medium- to coarse- FIGURE 97.6--Comparative stage-duration curves relative to
grained sand, shaly pavticles,. and oblong clay balls. channel characteristics during 1952-56 -and 1961.
The drop over the riffles is usually less than half a foot, ing to note whether the stream will continue to imbed
1

and the length of the pools is usually no more than ten in the existing channel, or whether it will begin to'
times the channel width. The riffles, and the nature of increase in meander amplitude and shorten in meander
the material comprising them, indicate that the present length.
channel may have reached the level of previous maxi- Changes similar to those discussed above appear to be
mum scour. Should this be the case, it will be interest- c;>ccurring throughout the length of Sandstone Creek.
Cl48 GEOMORPHOLOGY

A reach of channel downstream from the gaging station weathering and grading of the old vertical banks above
is in a later stage of development. Using this down- the tree line, and the continued deposition of sediment
stream reach as a guide, the next stage of development in the medium-water channel. Small trees growing
should be the introducttion of more trees in the medium- below the top bank are evidence that this stage of de-
and high-water parts of the channel, the continued velopment has started within the reach (fig. 97.1D).

J...

\
/

_J...

I
(
 Article 98

ORIGIN AND GEOLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BUTTRESS ROOTS

OF BRISTLECONE PINES, WHITE MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

By VALMORE C. LaMARCHE, JR., Cambridge, Mass.

Abstract.-Many roots <Yf bristlecone pines (Pinus aristata

Engelmann) are characterized <by an asymmetrical distribution
of secondary wood along the bottom of the root. The vertical
buttress form develops dter diametral growth and slope denuda-
tion have exposed the upper root surface to abrasion and weath-
ering and the cambial area is reduced to a small segment of the
circumference. Dating of the initial exposure indicates that
local rates of denudation have been fairly uniform during the
past 3,000 years.

Exposed roots of millenia-old bristlecone pines

(Pinus aristata Engelmann) growing high in the
White Mountains of eastern California are being used
to measure local rates of slope denudation (LaMarche,
1961). Many of the exposed roots are asymmetrical in
transverse section. One lateral root studied is 25 feet
long and 3 feet high but only 6 inches wide (fig. 98.1).
Such roots have been termed "buttress roots."
The asymmetry of a buttress root reflects the internal
distribution of secondary wood. The older part of the
root is near the top, where the root axis is enclosed in
concentric growth rings. The younger wood forms a
downward extension that is bounded on the lower sur-
face by the cambium and bark. This wood is made up
of gently curved annual layers that terminate at the
FIGURE 98.1.-Longitudinal view of a 2,500-year-otd buttress
vertical sides of the root. The buttress roots are similar root. The root is 3 feet high (1 foot is below ground), 6
in shape and internal structure to the "massive slab" inches wide, and 25 feet long. The stem and another root
type of bristlecone pine stem described by Schulman are in the background. The increment borer (center) is 18
( 1958). In both types, the shape results from reduc- inches long.
tion of the cambial area to a small segment of the cir-
cumference, which restricts the addition of new wood by slope denudation, they typically have the buttress
to a narrow longitudinal strip along the side of the stem form.
or the bottom of the root. The slopes in the area are denuded by erosion and
The roots are concentrated in the upper foot of the shallow mass movement. When diametral growth and
rocky, dolomitic soil. Where exposed in roadcuts or on slope recession expose the upper surface of a root (fig.
uprooted trees, the roots are circular in cross section and 98.2B), angular soil particles move downslope across
have a continuous cover of bark (fig. 98.2A). In con- the top of the root. Consequent abrasion and weather-
trast, where the roots of living trees have been exposed ing probably remove the protective layer of bark faster
ART. 98 IN U.S, GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES Cl48-Cl49. 1963.

C149
0150 GEOMORPHOLOGY

A
0 1 FOOT

FIGURE 98.2.-Cross sections of a buttress root, showing evolution. A, shallow roots beneath ground surface; B, exposure
of root and reduction of cambial area; 0, buttress root after several hundred years of restricted growth.

than it is replacf:ld. Stripping of the bark and cambium The roots of some bristlecone pines were first exposed
from the upper root surface, with continuing secondary at least 2,500 years ago, and initial exposure of the roots
growth on the lower side, produces the vertical buttress of younger trees has been taking place up to the present
form (fig. 98.20). · time. Therefore, the root exposure sho,-rn by these trees
The buttress roots studied range from 400 to 3,000 cannot be attributed to accelerated erosion in response
years in age, as determined by counting and correlating to changes in climate or land use in recent times. Thus,
growth rings. Further, the age of the root at the time it can be inferred that in the White Mountains area,
of initial cambial reduction can be estimated from the local denudation rates have been fairly uniform during
shape and continuity of the growth rings. This esti- the past 3,000 years.
mated age gives a measure of the time that elapsed be-
REFERENCES
tween longitudinal growth of the root and its exposure
at the ground surface and consequent downward LaMarche, V. C., Jr., 1961, Rate of slope erosion in the White
Mountains, California: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 72,
growth. The elapsed time ranges from 200 to about p. 1579.
1,000 years and depends on the initial depth of burial Schulman, Edmund, 1958, Bristlecone pine, oldest known living
and the local denudation rate. thing: Natl. Geog. Mag., v. 113, p. 355--372.
 Article 99

BAUXITIZATION OF TERRA ROSSA IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION

By MAXWELL M. KNECHTEL, Washington, D.C.

Abstract.-The bauxite of many deposits in the southern association with terra rossa elsewhere in the world
Appalachian region is envisaged as a product of leaching in has been described by Zans ( 1952, 195·9a,b). The pr~­
sink holes, wherein silica is removed from aluminiferous matter
present in fill (terra rossa) consisting of argillaceous, chert-
portion of soluble to relatively insoluble constituents of
bearing residual material. The terra rossa has resulted from the underlying unleached rock differs from place to
earlier leaching of soluble c01·bonates from rocks of Paleozoic place and from stratwn to stratum; therefore the
age. ratio of the volume of terra rossa to the volume of the
rock through which the insoluble constituent particles
The bauxite of many deposits in the southern were once disseminated must vary within wide limits.
Appalachian region consists primarily of gibbsite This ratio would be infinitesimal if the particles were
(Al20a·3I-I20) mixed in varying proportions with ka- derived from rock of a stratum composed almost ex-
olinite ( Al20s · 2Si02 · 2H 20). Also generally present clusively of carbonates, but it would approach unity
are finely divided ferruginous matter, grains of heavy for rock composed of silicates that would break down,
minerals, and rarely a little quartz. The high alumina with only slight change in composition, to clay con-
content presumably represents concentration by geo- sisting chiefly of hydrous mica particles. A ratio some-
chemical processes whereby silicates of alumina, such where between these extremes would result from loss of
as feldspar, mica, and various clay minerals, have lost silica and of such components as calcium and ·potassium
all or part of their silica content. Opinion has been in the alteration of feldspathic or micaceous materials
divided, however, as to whether the parent aluminif- ·to pure kaolinite. Because of the probable wide varia-
erous materials were constituents of bedrock cropping tions in this ratio, and in such factors as porosity and
out close to the bauxite deposits, in accordance with a water content, there is little basis for even a rough
view fn.vored in this article, or were transported from estimate of the compaction that has occurred in de-
distant outcrops, as suggested by Bridge ( 1950, p. 195- velopment of the terra rossa of given localities. Con-
196). currence in this conclusion is implied by White and
The deposits occur in association with formations of Denson (1952, p. 8) concerning the compaction of resid-
PnJeozoic age composed largely of chert-bearing car- ual deposits in the northwest Georgia bauxite district.
bonate rock interstratified with variable amounts of Inasmuch as the terra rossa has not been removed by
shaly and sandy material. Near most if not all of the
erosion during the ·great length of time presumably
bauxite deposits, however, .leaching of the bedrock in
required for its development, it is reasonable to suppose
the process of weathering has removed virtually all
the readily soluble minerals, chiefly carbonates, as well that throughout most of its history any thick blanket
as appreciable amounts of silica and other relatively in- of such noncohesive material has been overlain by a
soluble constituents. The undissolved residue, mostly protective cover of more durable material, such as a
of a type called terra rossa, consists largely of chert- sheet of gravel or cherty debris, in the manner described
bearing red, yellow, or brown argillaceous material. by Hack ( 1960a, fig. 179.2; 1960b, p. 88-89, fig. 1).
Such material commonly forms an extensive blanket During progressive decomposition of the underlying
and locally underlies the surface to a depth of several bedrock, any such protective cover presumably would
hundred feet. Occurrence of bauxite deposits in close settle gradually to lower altitudes.

ART. 99 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C151-CIG5. 1968.

0151
C162 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The characteristic shape of bauxite deposits in the bauxite in the Cold Spring pit appear to represent a
Appalachian region is that of subconical bodies taper- still more advanced stage of alteration, involving re-
ing downward, and it is generally agreed that these moval of a large part of the silica from the terra rossa.
represent sink-hole fillings (Adams, 1923; Bridge, No necessity is therefore seen for postulating, as did
1950, p. 193). As such, they may be related in origin Bridge ( 1950, p. 193, fig. 7), that the kaolin and bauxite
to ancient karst surfaces comparable to the pediment were derived from crystalline-rock debris transported
existing today at and near the bauxite-hearing kaolin to the pit site from outcrops of igneous and meta-
deposit exposed in the Cold Spri,ng 'clay pit in Augusta morphic rocks in the Blue Ridge or Piedmont provinces.
County, V a., at the southeast margin of the Ridge and It is difficult to imagine a sequence of events in the
Valley province (Knechtel, 1943, p. 16'5). The view evolution of the present local drainage pattern whereby
that this deposit originated in the manner here sug- appreciable quantities of debris could have been stream
gested is favored by its proximity to numerous sink transported to this site from even the nearest such out-
holes, many of which are marked by subcircular ponds. crops across intervening terrain which today is moun-
The karst terrain is underlain by dolomite, limestone, tainous. The fragments making up the extensive de-
shale, slate, and sandstone belonging to formations of posits of gravel that rest on the terra rossa were evi-
early Paleozoic age, whereas the adjacent mountainous dently transported here from the direction of the Blue
terrain to the southeast is underlain by still older for- Ridge. They consist exclusively, however, of material
mations composed predominantly of quartzite and in- derived from the formations of Cambrian age, chiefly
durated shale. Beyond the crest of the Blue Ridge quartzite, that crops out in the area between the crystal-
and in the Piedmont province are extensive outcrops line rocks and the pit. There is no direct evidence that
of crystalline rocks. Beneath the sink-hole-studded either the gravel or the terra rossa were derived from
plain, unleached dolomite rests on quartzite and is over- the crystalline rocks whose nearest outcrops today are
lain by a blanket of terra rossa consisting of argil- near the crest of the Blue Ridge, 3% miles south-south-
laceous to sandy residual material. In places this east of the pit. ·
blanket is known to be several hundred feet thick and These considerations are the basis for a hypothetical
--nearly everywhere it underlies a protective cover of geologic history of bauxite deposits enclosed in terra
coarse gravel. rossa at imaginary sites A, B, C, and D (fig. 99.1).
In the finely divided ( <2 microns) fractions of two The bauxite deposits at these sites are conceived to be
specimens of highly ·argillaceous terra rossa, one from closely similar in form, mineral content, and physical
the Kennedy manganese mine, 6 miles east of the Cold environment to the J. F. Smith ore body in the Chat-
Spring clay pit, and another from the Vesuvius man- tanooga district, Tennessee. The associated geologic
ganese mine, 31h miles southwest of tjhe pit, the kaolin- phenomena and the sequence of events involved in the
ite content is estimated by J. C. Hathaway (written origin of this body are thought to ·apply to other de-
communication, 1958) to be 50 percent and 30 percent, posits in the region,. including the one at the Cold
respectively; the mica content of each is 30 percent. Spring pit in Augusta County, Va. Details of the J. F.
Hathaway estimates, further, that feldspar makes up Smith deposit are from unpublished data of J. C. Dun-
approximately 40 percent of a finely divided ( <2 lap, of the U.S. Geological Survey. The two grades
microns) fraction, and approximately 60 percent of of bauxite shown in figure 99.1 (phases 3 and 4) are
a coarser ( 2-62 microns) fraction, of a shale specimen based on differences in content of alumina and silica.
from undecomposed strata of the Waynesboro Forma- Grade B bauxite contains 50 to 55 percen't alumina and
tion (Lower Cambrian) near Lyndhurst, Va., about 11 less than 15 percent silica, and grade C contains 45 to
miles east of the Cold Spring pit; the estimated mica 50 percent alumina and less than 30 percent silica.
content of these two fractions is 20 percent and 10 per- The body of bauxite at site A has roughly the shape
cent, respectively. An even larger percentage of feld- of an upward-flaring funnel. It encloses a subconical,
spar was estimated for a specimen of light-yellow sand- downward-tapering body of material, chiefly cherty
stone of the Waynesboro Formation exposed in the city clay and sand, which is similar in composition to the
of Waynesboro, Va., about 15 miles northeast of the terra rossa that surrounds the bauxite body. The sur-
pit. ' rounding material and the enclosed material were
It·seems reasonable, therefore, to infer that the clay- derived from weathering of bedrock that has been de- (
mineral content of the terra rossa represents alteration composing near the site during much of post-Paleozoic.
in situ of feldspathic and other aluminiferous mineral time. The weathered material forms part of an exten-
matter derived from the local sequence of sedimentary sive blanket of terra rossa that rests on undecomposed
roc}rs of Paleozoic age. Furthermore, the kaolin and bedrock and is overlain by a protective cover of gravel.
''
 KNlDCHTEL Cli53
At site A the bauxite deposit is thus enclosed by pro- verted all of this rock to terra rossa containing little or
tectively covered terra rossa. In the vicinity of sites no carbonate.
B and C, the protective cover and much of the terra Phase 3.-All the adjacent carbonate rock has de-
rossn. have been stripped away, as have also the upper cayed and, as a result of both compaction and erosion,
parts of bauxite bodies similar to the body at site A. the land surface has been lowered still further, to
The n1aterials so removed have been transported down- level 3. Bauxitization has ceased and the partly baux-
slope, as indicated by bauxite float strewn over the itized body of fill is surrounded by chert-bearing terra
surface to the right of site B (fig. 99.1). Near site D, rossa. A funnel-shaped mass of bauxite separates the
all the terra rossa has been removed and carbonate- surrounding material from a central subconical mass
bearing bedrock is exposed. of similar material that escaped bauxitization. An in-
If it is assumed that the terra rossa removed by ero- crease in iron content, indicated by the dotted line
sion from site D enclosed a body of bauxite similar to within the ore body (fig. 99.1), appears to have
the body at site A, then the history of such a bauxite resulted from outward migration of the iron. The
deposit can be illustrated by 5 phases, shown in figure migration may result from the reaction of the iron
99.1, that correspond to the 5 levels numbered 1n oxide with organic matter that reduced the iron from
downward sequence in the profile. the ferric to the more soluble ferrous state. The iron
Phase 1.-Carbonate rock, envisaged as present in would thereupon move outwar~, possibly in the form
the space above site D (fig. 99.1), is overlain by a of chelates or other organic complexes, and would pre-
gravel-protected blnnket of terra rossa more than 100 cipitate in the highly ferruginous outer part of the
feet thick that represents a large volume of bedrock bauxite deposit. The reduction of the ferric iron would
that already has been compacted by leaching during generate the C0 2 that is required by the Carroll-
lowering of the surface from altitudes higher than Starkey hypothesis for bauxitization in the presence of
level 1. A depression in the lever-1 surface above site C carbonate rock. The concept is consistent with the
represents an ancient sink comparable to that today marked tendency of the inner limit of the highly ferru-
marked by the pond between sites A and B. The baux- ginous material of the ore body to coincide with the
ite exposed at site C owes its origin to phenomena outer limit of the grade-C bauxite (fig. 99.1, phase 3).
related to this ancient sink. As the ore body contains no fragments of chert, any
silica that may once have been present in that form
Phase ~a.-Owing to further leaching of carbonate
may be assumed to have been dissolved and carried
rock at site D, the terra rossa has increased slightly in
a way along with the silica that was leached from the
thickness and the gravel has dropped to level 2a. A
other constituents of the parent terra rossa.
large cavern with downward-tapering walls has formed
In the interval since phase 2b, compaction of the sur-
in the subsurface and is partly filled with debris
rounding material due to loss of a large volume of solu-
composed largely of clay. ·
ble matter in the bedrock has greatly exceeded any re-
Phase ~b.-The roof of the cavern has collapsed, and duction in the volume of the cavern fill due to removal
part of the overlying terra rossa has subsided into the o£ silica. The material within the sink hole has accord-
cavern. The gravel forms the bottom of a resulting ingly tended to subside more slowly than the surround-
subcircular depression or sink, presumably occupied by ing terra rossa. Some of the terra rossa directly above
a pond or swamp. The carbonate-bearing rock around the ore body has consequently tended to remain higher
the walls and under the floor of the former cavern is than that surrounding the ore and has been removed by
thus in contact at this phase with a downward-tapering erosion. The ore body itself has so far remained intact.
body of predominantly argillaceous materials. The In the level-3 surface above site B is a depression repre-
materials in contact with the carbonate-bearing rock senting a newly formed sink wherein will develop the
are perh1eated by water saturated with carbon dioxide bauxite deposit today exposed at this site.
that is derived in part from decay of vegetal matter in Pha8e ,4..-The surface above siteD has subsided from
the pond. Through a process comparable to that sug- level 3 to level4, owing to continued leaching and com-
gested by Carroll and Starkey ( 1959), the materials paction of bedrock, as well as to a small amount of ero-
begin to undergo ·intensive leaching of their silica and sion that has occurred since phase 3. Reworked gravel,
iron. This process of bauxitization continues so long introduced from adjacent areas, temporarily serves as
as the contiguous carbonate-bearing rock remains in- a protective cover.
tact, preserving the geochemical environment described Phase 5.-The gravel-capped terra rossa and bauxite
by Carroll and Starkey as favoring the extraction of have beeh completely removed by erosion from site
silica, but the process ceases whenever leaching has con- D, and carbonate rock is exposed.
 0.....
EXPLANATION

~
~
ResidU!ll (terra rossa)
•
Grade B bauxite
Early land surface
~

- •
Composed l•rgely of clay and chert,
beneath capping of stream-trans- ~

•
ported gravel Present land surface and baux-
Grade C bauxite ite float fragments
Levell

- I
--~e oo-~-~~ ------~-----Level2a-----
Bedrock
Contains soluble carbonates as
predominant constituents

~
~
Undifferentiated bauxitic
material
Dotted line indicates inside limit of
material with high iron content
/
~
~
Vertical arrow indicates lowering of
~ land surface due to compaction of
Debris bedrock through loss of its
Composed largely of clay occupying soluble constituents; slanted arrow
lower part of cavern denotes lowering due to erosion of
insoluble residue (terra rossa) and
protective gravel cover; zt"gzag
arrow signifies lowering due to
compaction plus erosion

-_\L~vel3 t;l
c
0
Level4~=.5-"'i":'

iQ

s
t;l

Phase J
Sections representing phases in history of bedrock compaction, bauxitization, and erosion

-~------------------------------------i-----1---~~~~~~~===~J ~:::: ~

~--------- -------~-- --~ oo o o o_o o ~r\ .o.o01~~ o oo __.__ ~~I::.-_-_-~::_::_-_-_-_-~:::t..:-.=-::::t_-_-::::=.::.::.:::::_-:_~::_:-_-_:-.=-_-_-_-_-_-_-_::_::_~::_:::_:-_-_--~=====t~~~t~====--------===j t:~:: !

:S., ~.. ~a 6 ~-----------1;-.:.:.:t:_-:_-:_~_:-_=-.=-.=-.=-_-_-=.~::_::_-:._-:_-

Level 5
(Recent)

SITE A SITE 8 SITE C SITE D

Profile through imaginary sites A, 8, C and D, at which bauxite deposits have formed in tbe manner indicated in t!le sections illustrating phases 1 to 4
Horizontal scale roughly 2 inches to the mile. Vertical scale greatly exaggerated

FIGURE 99.1.-Profile and sections illustrating a hypothetical sequence ot events in the geologic history of bauxite deposits in the southern Appalachian region.

4 ."''. .:y ;)... ....

 KNECHTEL C155
At site A the protective gravel cover is still preserved REFERENCES
above a blanket of terra rossa containing a bauxite Adams, G. I., 1923, The formation of bauxite in sink holes:
Econ~ Geology, v. 18, p. 410-412.
deposit that has descended in its entirety from a higher
Bridge, Josiah, 1950, Bauxite deposits of the southeastern United
altitude; the upper parts of comparable bauxite depos- States, in Snyder, F. G., ed., Symposium 'on mineral re-.
its at sites B and C have been carried away by erosion sources of the southeastern United States: Knoxville, Tenn.,
and are represented by float fragments on the surface Univ. Tennessee Press, p. 170-:201.
downslope from these sites (fig. 99.1). A pond between
1 Carroll, DorQ.thy, and Starkey, H. C., 1959, Leaching of clay
sites A and B marks the location of a recently formed minerals in a limestone environment: Geochim. et Cosmo-
chim: Acta, v. 16, p. 83-87.
sink comparable to that which was present at level 2, Hack, J. T., 1960a, Relation of solution features to chemical
site D, during phase 2b. In this sink, bauxitization of character of water in the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia: Art.
terra rossa may already be in phase 2b. Th~ roof of a 179 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B387-B390.
cavern between sites B and C is about to collapse, and - - 1960b, Interpretation of erosional topography in humid,
it is possible that the bauxitization process will be re- temperate regions: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258-A, p. 80-97.
Knechtel, M. M., 1943, Manganese deposits of the Lyndhurst-
peated here again in the sink that is expected to form
Vesuvius district, Augusta and Rockbridge Cou~ties, 'Vir-.
in the near future. ginia: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 940:....F, p: 163-198.
The hypothesis that has been described implies that: White, W. S., and Denson, N. M., 1952, The bauxite deposits of
( 1) the existing widely scattered bauxite deposits of Floyd, Ba.l"tow and Polk Counties, northwes,t Georgia: U:S.
the Appalachian region ~re of many different ages, (2) Geol. Survey Circ. 193, 2fT p. · -- ·
Zans, V. A., 1952, Bauxite resources of Jamaica and their
countless bauxite depos!ts similar to these ha-ye formed
development: Colonial Geology and Mineral Res.ources,. v.
n.nd disn. ppeared in this region since .the close of the 3,_rio. 4, p. 307-333. · .· ·... ·. · · .· ·, : · ·· · · .·.
Paleozoic Ern., n.nd ( 3) the requisite conditions for cur- - ·- 1959a,· Recent views on the origin of baliiite : "Geonotes~''
rent and future evolution of bn.uxite deposits probably Quarterly Newsletter,· Geologists' Assoc. nondon, J arriaica
Group, Geol. Survey Dept., Kingston, Jamaica., p. 123-132;·
exist in sink holes within parts of the region today un- - - 1959b, Review of "Bauxite§, their mineralogy ~:and
derlain by thick n.ccumulations of terra rossa. genesis," Moscow, 1958: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 957-:965.

·-

. :

,..

694-027 0-63--11
Article 100

AN ORE-BEA~ING CYLINDRICAL COLLAP~E STRUCTURE

IN THE AMBROSIA LAKE URANIUM DISTRICT, NEW MEXICO

By H.. C. GRANGER and E. S. SANTOS, Denver, Colo.

"
Abstract.-A cylindrical collapse structure in sandstone of San Mateo fault (fig.. 100.1). West of the mine the
the .Mo~ison Forlll'ation near Ambrosia Lake, N. Mex., -has pro- surface is hummocky and rises to merge with the cliff
v,ided a structural control on a primary uranium ore body in
a .di'strict in which. most other _c_!eposirts of the same age are con-
of Dakota Sandstone.
t~olled predominantly ·by sedimentary features. The mine is entered by a 30° inclined shaft about 170
feet long that is collared in mudstones of the Brushy
Basin Member of the Morrison Formation. The work-
The ·Doris No. { o~ body is a sm'all sandstone-type in~ at the foot of the shaft are in sandstone and. consist
uranium deposit that is controlled by -a cylindrical col- ol' rooms that generally conform to the shape of
l-apse structure. It is unique because ~all ot~er primary the circula.r structure (fig. 100.2) .
uranium deposits of the sta~dstone_ type In the Am- In the Ambrosia Lake area, the Morrison Formation
brosia -Lake -district seem to be stratigraphic~Jly con- of Late Jurassic age is divided in ascending order into
trdlled.1 the Recapture, Westwater Canyon, and Brushy Basin
The mine is in McKinley County, N. Mex., near the Members. The Doris No. 1 deposit is in the Poison
center of sec. 21, T. 13 N., R. 9 W~; the collar of the Canyon Sandstone of Zitting and others (1957) of the
shaft is about 400 feet northwest of New Mexico State Westwater Canyon Member. This is a local sandstone
Highway 53, a mile sou·thwest of its junction with New unit at the top of and generally separated from the main
Mexico State Highway·509 ('fi.g.100.1). body of the West water Canyon by a few feet of typical
The Doris No. 1 (Little Doris) mine was apened Brushy Basin mudstone. ·
originally by W estvaC!o Corp. hut was later 'acquired
Most large uranium deposits in the Ambrosia Lake
by Phillips Petroleum Corp. and mined under lease .by
district are a few miles north of the Doris deposit in an
K!SN Co., Inc. Permission to map ·and sample the mine
area where the Poison Canyon Sandstone is not readily
was granted by R. C. Kirchman of the KSN Co., but,
distinguished from the main body of the vVestwater
because of reportedly high radon content in the air and
Canyon member. Several relatively small ore bodies in
dangerous rock conditions, we were not P?rmitte~ to
the Poison Canyon, however, constitute an arcuate min-
enter the western parts of the mine. For Inaccessible
eralized belt (Granger and others, 1961) about 7 miles
parts ·of the mine we used m-aps ·and data supplied ~y
long and as much as a mile wide (fig. 100.1). The
E. D. McLau'ghlin, Jr., who was the first to recognize
Doris No. 1 deposit is near the middle of this belt in an
the unusual structural control of the ore body.
area where the Poison Canyon is about 40 to 50 feet
The mine is in a reentrant along a generally north-
thick.
west-trending escarpment capped by the Dakota
Sandstone (Granger and others, 1961). Near the collar DrillinO'
0 from the
. surface showed that the ore body is
of the shaft the ground surface slopes smoothly toward largely within a part of the Poison Canyon ~andstone
Arroyo del Puerto and San Mateo Creek, which occupy that is lower, structurally, than the surrounding strata.
a fault-line valley cut through the escarpment along the The circular pattern of the structure was identified by
mapping the several arcuate.segn1ents of the boundi~g
1 Since this .article was written, Clark and Havenstrite (1963) have
reported on two circular collapse structures of pre-Dakota age in the fault which are exposed in the mine workings (fig.
Cliffside mine, about 4% miles northeast of the Doris No. 1 mine. One 100.2). Strata within the structure are virtually un-
of these is within an ore zone and is ore bearing; the other is just north
of this zone and is reportedly barren. broken and only locally warped. Some cross beds are

ART. 100 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C156-Cl61. 1963.
0156
 GRANGER AND SANTOS C157.
nearly vertical in zones in which the bedding is con- Oxidation has affected much of the deposit but did not
torted. No evidence of the structure can be seen at the completely destroy the primary ore layers. Secondary
surface outcrop over the mine, and no data are available uranium minerals are sparsely disseminated within the
to indicate to what depth the structure may extend. ore, .and barren sandstone near the ore contains iron
Displacement along the east side of the structure is oxide minerals. Secondary iron and ma.nganese min-
about 30 feet, a.nd there is an additional few feet of sag erals are also present locally within the circular fault
in the central part of the collapsed cylinder. The dis- zone. This deposit may have contained less pyrite than
placement is probably less on the west side of the struc- i~ usually associated with other ore ·deposits in the
ture, but data here are meager. district because oxidation has produced only a pale buff
An authigenic carbonaceous gangue material (Gran- color in the rock in contrast tO reddish brown and
ger a.nd others, 1961); which forms films on sand grains yellow ·seen in oxidized zones in other parts of the Am-
and locally fills interstices in the sandstone, is coexten- brosia Lake district.
sive with the ore. This material causes the ore to be Attempts to identify the primary uranium mineral in
generally gray to black and readily distinguishes it from the carbonaceous material have not been succ~ssful.
the lighter hued waste rock. X-ray powder patterns of the carbonaceous material
The ore is very spotty and occurs as several scattered show only a few diffuse unidentifiable lines, other than
thin layers and pods at various stratigraphic and struc- quartz lines; probably the uranium is now present
tural positions. Most of the ore is inside the collapsed largely as TJOs because 'of the pervasive o:xidation that
cylinder and largely conforms to stratigraphic features. has affected the deposit. Similar organic material from
Some ore, however, was mined from undisturbed rocks unoxidized depoSits throughout the district almost in-
as much as 25 feet northwest of the bounding fault. variably contains enough coffinite to produce a clearly
Layers, or veins, of ore that are parallel to and occur identifiable pattern.
within the circular fault zone are sporadic but common. Uranopilite and a zippeite-like mineral (Fronde!,
This ore apparently was not dragged into position by 1958, p. 146) occur together with sparse gypsum about
.:.. the faulting but was emplaced after faulting and was 15 feet north of the foot of the shaft (fig. 100.2) where
controlled by the fault. they form an effiorescent coating on the exposed surface

,-
1

I
I
I
I I
I I I
L-------~-------L----
1 I I

iI IN !I 3P iI 25

I I I
• I I I
L------~-------~-
R.lOW

0. 1 MILE

EXPLANATION
!I ~ ~
Vertical or inclined shaft ' Adit Open pit.

·PIGURE 100.1.-Map showing location of Doris No. 1 mine. within the belt (s~aded). of primary deposits in the Poison
Canyon Sandstone of Zitting and others (1957).
- .
Ct58' ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

..._:

40 FEET -

EXPLANATION

Contorted sandstone
Showing dir~ctio_n of dip
Sandstone
-~
=oo
Inclined workings
Chevrons point downslope Mudstone or
conglomerate layer
IZI
Raise
Carbonaceous ore

A'
__)
••

FIGURE 100.2.'-Map and section of the Doris No.1 mine.

 GRANGER AND SANTOS Cl59
of a black ore layer. The uranopilite is bright yellow part of the mine are shown graphically in figure 100.3.
and has a moderately strong greenish-yellow fluores- The content of organic carbon, lead, .molybdenum, vana-
cence. It forms small aggregates with a finely felted dium; and selenium correlate, tto some extent, with the
texture n1ade up of short disoriented bladed or needle- uranium concentration. Pervasive weak oxidation of
like crystals. The zippeite-like mineral forms minute the host rock may have resulted in some redistribution
rounded aggregates of powdery yellow crystals. The of these elements, bu£ it is believed that the effect has
same mineral has been noted in. several mines through- been minor. A sample of ore from the cylindrical fault
out the district but it generally forms minute "pin- north of the shaft has a composition similar to the
cushions" of radiating needlelike crystals. Sparse coat- samples within the ore layer described. The ·character
ings of the same or, perhaps, other yellow efflorescent and thickness of the rock sampled in suite 30G62 are
uranium minerals also occur elsewhere on the mine given below.
walls. Descri'Ption ot samtple in su_it 30G26 Thickne 88
Minute scattered flakes of greenish-yellow to green [Letters refer to zones shown ln figure 100.3] (inches)
nonfluorescent uraniun1( ~) minerals occur in the partly a. Medium-grained barren sandstone 20 to 16 inches above
oxidized black ore layers, but no attempt has been made ore layer; yellowish gray with scattered kaolinite
to iden~ify them. nests 1.0 'to 1.5 mm across. Limonite -occurs as dls-
Limonitic iron oxides and partly oxidized pyrite are semina.ted specks, clay stain, and thin films on
quarrt:z grains. Quartz overgrowths are sparsely
disseminated throughout both the mineralized and present on sand gra.ins and form minute triangular
barren sandstone. Where it has been protected from crystal faces. Calcite is extremely sparse________ 4
oxidation by the abundant organic gangue in the ore, b. Fine-grained moderately wen sorted barren sandstone
pyrite occurs as minute ·cubes and irregularly shaped 16 to 4 inches rubove ore layer ; ranges from very pale
tnasses less than 1 mm across. Calcite is scarce and may orange to grayish orange with small white kaolini·te
nests. Pyrite is mostly oxidized, leaving specks and
have been largely removed ·by acid solutions created by
films of limonite. Sand grains commonly coated
the oxidizing pyrite. · with a film of whilte clay. A few thin lenticular
Elsewhere in the district, native gray selenium is streaks containing needles of gray selenium were
cotnmon at the interfaces between oxidized and unoxi- noted------------------------------------·-------- 12
dized rock. In the Doris No. 1 mine, however, the rocks c. Fine-grained barren sandstone 4 to 0 inches above ore
are pervasively oxidized, and the only selenium .noted layer ; yellowish gray with local pale reddish-brown
hematitic specks and stain. Kaolinite may be pres-
was in fractures in mudstone above the ore and in thin ent but doesn't form nests. A loose claylike material
gray streaks less than 2 inches long in partly oxidized fills many intertices. Minute disseminated flakes
sandstone adjacent to black ore layers. Tiny selenium of -a greenish-yellow uranium mineral are present__ 4
needles are disseminated in the interstices throughout d. Fine-grained to very fine grained dark-gray ore in
the gray streaks. · upper 2 inches of ore layer ; well cemented by car-
bonaceous material. Pyrite is sparse and largely
l{aolinite "nests" (Granger, 1962) are distributed oxidized to limonitic stain. Kaolini-te ·aggregates
throughout the host rock, forming aggregates as much are present but very smalL____________________ 2
as several millimeters across. They are most abundant e. Middle 2 inches of ore layer identical with 30G62d__ 2
in the coarser grained barren sandstones and are either f. Very fine grained grayish-black ore in lower 2 inches
sparse or extremely small in the finer grained sandstones of ore layer. Carbonaceous material fills nearly all
interstices. All interstices not completely filled by
and ore layers. carbonaceous mrutedal are filled with kaolinite. A
Walls of open fractures in the cylindrical fault zone few scattered flakes of an unidentified greenish
north of the foot of the shaft (fig. 100.2) are locally nonfiuoreseent uranium(?) mineral are present____ 2
coated with dull velvety-black todorokite, 2(Mn,Ca) g. Fine-grained .barren sandstone 0 to 4 inches below the
0.5Mn02 ·4H20. It forms tiny radiating crystalline ore layer; yellowish gray with local moderate yel-
lowish-brown limonite specks and stain. Sand
pisolitic aggregates less than 0.2 mm in diameter which grains all coated with a thin film of white clay____ 4
have grown, one upon the other, to form microbotry- h. Fine-grained barren sandstone 4 to 16 inches below
oidal textures and minute knobby columns. The in- the ore layer ; yellowish gray with local grayish-
dividual crystals are fibrous platelets which are darlr orange limonilte stain. Some clay disseminated
throughout the rock but doesn't form either nests
brown in transmitted light under a microscope. This or coatings on the sand gra-ins__________________ 12
is the only occurrence of todorokite yet known in the i. Fine- to medium-grained ·barren sandstone 16 to 20
Ambrosia Lake area and is one of few localities known inches below the ore layer; yellowish gray with local
in the United States. grayish-orange limonite stain and specks that re-
semble corroded pseudomorphs. A few small scat-·
The results of analyses of a suite of samples (No. tered kaolinite nests are present, and each sand
30G62) that were taken across an ore layer in the central grain is coated with a film of white clay ___ _:_____ 4
 . ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

CLASSIFICATION OF THE DEPOSIT deposits in time formed long after the Morrison was
deposited and displace the primary ore, the Dakota
Un~~ddized.urani~m: o~~ of two types is recognized in
Sandstone, and at least the lower part of the overlying
,· th~ ~mb~o~i~ Lake dist.~~~~ :. a prefault type, cop.sidered·
Mancos Shale.
to be -p-rimary, and ·a_ postfault type, believ~d to be
Chemically, the ore in the Doris No. 1 deposit (fig.
. redistr.ibuted . (Granger and others, 1961). The pre-
100.3) is similar to the ores in prefault deposits else-
: fault ore is sttatigraphically controlled and invariably
where in the district and contrasts with the postfault
a~sociated with an abundant gangue of authigenic c~r­
ores. The organic carbon, lead, and molybdenum con-
.honaceou:s _material; 'it generally contains concentra- tent is typical of prefault ore and much higher than in
.t.1ons of, lead, molybde~um, _and vanadium. In con- most postfault ore. Although the vanadium content
trast, postfault ore is partly structurally controlled and is greater than in most prefault ore, it is not abnormally
ordinarily contains . much le~s, if any, carbonaceous high for prefa.ult ores in the Poison Canyon Sandstone,
· material, Jead,' ~nd. molybdenum but,' more vanadium and the uranium-vanadium ratio in the ore layer is
than th_e p~~fault ore." . The.· faults that separate these higher than in much of the postfault oi·e in the district.
e.

Mine pillar
b

a Mine
·4 in. working

Ph
b
_12 in. 0 5 FEET

N
ID
(!)
c
4 in.
0
('t) .,..,
w d
!:. 2 ln.
:::;)

"'
(/) e
2 in. ) O.e
layer
w
...J f
ll.
~
ot·
(/)
2 in.
g
---- -~
4 in.
I
I
I
I
h
12 in.
t
I:Mo
I
I v
I
I
I
I
i 1
4 in.

. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

PERCENT

FIGURE 100.3.-Graph s·howing distribution of selected elements in sample suite 30G62 across an ore layer in the Doris No. 1 deposit.
Pb, Mo, and V determined by semiquantitative spectrographic methods by J. C. HaPiilton, U determined volumetrically by H. H.
Lipp or fluorometrically by E. J. Fennelly. Organic C determined by induction furnace, gasometric difference by L. C. Frost.
Se determined volumetrically by G. T. Burrow. Samples in suit 30G26 are described in text.
 GRANGER AND SANTOS 0161
In the nearby Laguna district are hundreds of col- and thus seem to have had control on ·mineralization.
lap.se structures, locally called sandstone pipes (Schlee, Similarly, the Doris No. 1 deposit is one df a group of
1959; I-Iilpert and Moench, 1960). These pipes are deposiot.s which are generally stra;tigraphically con-
kno,vn to cut only rocks of Jurassic age extending from .trolled.
the Summervi~Ie to the Morrison Formations. The Although coHapse structures in some places may. have
bottoms, where exposed, are in sharp contact w1th ·been conduits through which mineralizing solutions
little-deformed underlying strata; the tops generally from deep-se:ated sources gained ·access to. sedimen~ary
sag and contain detritus from the uppermost units of · rocks, the shallow depths .to ·which ·they extend in
the
rocks that contain them. Schlee ( 1959 ). considers the Ambrosia Lake and Laguna districts rules them out
pipes to have been caused by gravitational foundering as pathways between a juvenile source and the ore de-
of sand into mud and locally by collapse resulting from posits. It seems more like:ly that tJhey have acted only
the removal of underlying gypsum. The pipes com- as localizing features, in much the same way as bedding
nlonly ttre concentrated ~long Jurassic folds of low planes and disconformities, for solutions largely moving
nmplitude, and they seem to be contemporaneous with laterally. through the rocks. We ·believe that any p~e­
Jurassic sedimentation. Two 6f the sandstone pipes existing structure, whether sedimentary or tec~onic,
are known to contain uranium ~re: one at the Woodrow along the ·general trend of minerali:mtion can serv~ as
mine, rund the other at the Jackpile mine (Hilpert and a control for sandstone-type uranium.depooiits.
Moench, 1960, p. 441).
:~. We believe that tJhe collapse structure in the Doris REFERENCES
No. 1 mine is genetically similar to the sandstone pi pes Ola•r:k, D. S., and Ha·venstrirte, S. R:, 1963, Geology and ore
in the Laguna ·area ·and that it was formed hefore the deposits of ·the Cliffside mine, Ambrosia Lake area, in Soci-
ety of Economic Geologists, V. C. Kelley, chm., Uranium
Dakota Sandstone 'WaiS deposited. The collapse, there- field conference, Geology and technology of the Gmnts [New
fore, is prdba:bly not ·related in any way to the major Me::dco] umnium regoion: New Mexico Bur. Mines and
faults, ·which are post-Dakota in age ·and ·which sep- Mineral Resources Mem. 15, p. 108---116.
·rurate, in time, .the prefault and postfault ore deposits. Frondel, Clifford, 1958, Systematic mineralogy of uranium and
Even though it is partly structurally controlled, the th'Orium: U.S. Geol. Survey BU'll. 1064 [1959].. ,
Granger, H. C., 1962, Clays •in the Morrison Formation and their
Doris No. 1 ore body was evidently deposi·ted 'before spatial relation to the uralllium deposits at A~brosia Lake,
the major period of faulting in the regi'On. The ore New Mexico: Art. 124 i.n U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 45o-
is so similar in appearance and ~hemical composition D, p. D15-D20.
to proved prefau'lt ore, ·that it is probably temporally Granger, H. C., Santos, E. S., Deane, B. G., and Moore, F. B.,
and gen~tically related to the other prefault deposits 1961, Sandstone-ty·pe uranium deposit~ at Ambr~a Lake,
New Mexico--an interim report: Econ. Geology, v. 56, p.
in the Ambrosia Lake district. The fact that the deposit H79-1210. ..
is, in part, controll~d by a structure necessitates a minor Hilpert, L. S., ·and Moench, R. H., 1960, Uranium deposits of •the
revision in the premise that the prefaul·t ore bodies are southern .part of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico: Econ.
.., ' entirely stratigraphically controlled. Geology, v. 55, ·p. 429-464.
Schlee, J. S.,_1959 Sandstone pipes ~f the Laguna ·areoa, New
CONCLUSIONS Mex~co [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bun.,. v. 70, no. 12, pt. 2,
p. 1669. .
... it may be significant that, of the hundreds of sand-
stone pipes in the Laguna district, only the two which
Zi'tting, R. T., M-asters, J A, Groth, F. A., •and Webb, M.D., 1957,
Geology of the Ambrosi1a Lake area uranium deposits, Mc-
are near or in -the large stratigraphically controlled Kinley County, New Mexico: The Mines Maga~ine, v. 47,
sandstone-type ore depositS ·are known to be mineralized no. 3, p. 53-58.

•
Article 101

FORMATION OF RIDGES THROUGH DIFFERENTIAL SUBSIDENCE OF PEATLANDS

OF THE SACRAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN DELTA, CALIFORNIA

By GEORGE H._ DAVIS, Washington, D.C.

Abstract.----comparison af topographic maps of 190€H>S with

maps of 1952 in thepeatlands of the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Delta shows that local relief of more than 15 feet has developed
on formerly level terrain. Relative subsidence of peat soil
through surface wastage_ is the cause ; soils of high mineral
content marking old channels.and dunes stand out as ridges·.

Comparison of topographic mapping of 1906-08

with mapping of 1952 in the peatlands of the Sacra-
mento-San Joaquin Delta shows that ridges having a
relief of more than 15 feet (three 5-foot contour in-
tervals) have developed on land that was nearly level
in 1906-08.
The delta is an area of about a quarter of a million
acres of islands and interlacing tidal channels near
the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Rivers in north-central California (fig. 101.1). Under
natural conditions the surface of the islands stands .,..._
about at mean sea level and is inundated at high tide.
Prior to reclamation the entire area was covered with
a dense growth of tule (Soirpus lacustris). Virtually
all of the delta -was reclaimed from tule swamp during
the period 1850-1920 by enclosing the islands with
levees and draining the swamps. -~
The soils of the delta are predominantly peat, which
in some places extends as deep as 60 feet below sea level.
Around the margins of the delta, the peat soils grade
into mineral soils. The mineral content of the soils
within the delta is generally highest along the rims of
the islands and on the sites of abandoned channels and -..:
sloughs. Wier ( 1950) described subsidence of peat- 0 10 MILES

lands in the delta and concluded that the loss of altitude

was due principally to wastage of the peat through ( 1)
oxidation by exposure to the air, (2) burning of the
FIGURE 101.1.-Location map showing surface extent of peat
(shaded) in the Sacrament()-San Joaquin Delta (generalized
-.
peat soils to destroy weeds and plant pests, and ( 3) after Cosby, 1941).

ART. 101 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C16!-C165. 1963.
0162

.....
 DAVIS Cl63
wind erosion of the loose peat. 1Vier ( 1950, p. 55) rest of the area has subsided. Most of the island, which
reported that the subsidence had been as much as 10 stood at 0 to + 5 feet altitude in 1906-08 is now 10 feet
feet up to 1950 and was continuing at a rate of about or .more below mean sea level. Comparable subsidence
3 inches per year. l\1inor subsidence due to other has taken place on Bradford Island and in other parts
causes may nlso be occurring in the delta area. For of the delta. Most of the islands have 1become saucer
exnmple, tectonic movement, and compaction at depth shaped, sloping away from the rimming levees, toward
due to production of natural gas from the Rio Vista their centers. Although due partly to reinforcement of
gas field, which underlies much of the delta, are likely the levees, the saucer shape of the islands is due largely
causes. Jiowever, leveling now avnilable is insufficient to the fact that peaty materials beneath the levees are
to confirm or rule out these possibilities. Relevelihg by protected from oxidation by the dredged inorg~nic
the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey programmed for channel deposits that are used in levee construction.
1963 may resolve this question. The soils map of Contra Costa County (Carpenter
The soils of the delta islands not classified as peat and Cosby, 1939) shows the ridges as formed chiefly
(fig. 101.1) are for the most part classified as muck of Piper fine sandy loam; the highest knob on the west-
and organic soils (Cosby, 1941, map) ; the distinction ern edge of Bradford Island is shown as Oakley sand.
is based on the content of rock material, peat consisting The rest of the islands are shown almost entirely as
almost entirely of organic m~~tter. The organic soils "peat." On aerial photographs the ridges appear light
nJso are subject to surface "·astage but to a lesser extent colored, probably because of their sandy character and
than peat. As the subsidence is due to surface wastage good drainage. The Piper fine sandy loam is described
of organic material, the extent and amount of subsi- as having a dark-gray or dark-brownish-gray, ca:lcare-
dence (tre closely related to the organic content of the ous organic surface layer over a ·less organic ~ubsoil.
surface soils. The lower part of the subsoillayer.consists of compact
Remapping of the Jersey Island 7¥2-minute quad- partly consolidated sandy material contain!ng little or-
rangle by the U.S. GeologicnJ Survey in 1952 at a scale ganic matter. The Oakley is described as a brown or
of 1:24,000 offers an instructive example of the develop- light-brown loose sand that drifts b~dly in high winds.
nlent of ridges of inorganic soils by wastage of the sur- Both Piper and Oakley soils are interpreted by Car-
rounding peat soils, as first noted by 1Vier (1950, p. 47). penter and Cosby ( 1939) as being channel deposits or
The quadrangle (formerly named the Jersey quad- dune sand.
rangle) was first mapped in 1906-08 at a scale of The relation of topography and soils indicates that
1 :31,680 by the plane-table method. The remapping of in the peatlands of the delta the ridges develop where
the topography in the flat-lying islands was also done the surface is formed by inorganic soils, which are not
by the plane-table method, although the culture and subject to wastage as are the surrounding peat and or-
drainage were compiled from aerial photographs. ganic soils. The elongate sinuous shape of the ridge
The same contour interval ( 5 feet) was used on both in the Webb Tract suggests that it probably represents
maps. The contours on both maps are of about the an ancient stream channel. The isolated sandy kndbs
same order of accuracy and precision (C. V. Eckhardt, on Bradford Island, especially the highest ( + 20 ;feet
U.S. Geological Survey, Topographic Division, oral in i952), may well be dunes. The local relief can be
con1munication, Oct. 22, 1962) ; therefore, only a minor expected to increase as the exposed peat soils in the low
part of the differences in topography shown is believed· parts of the islands waste away. Peat that Underlies
to be due to differences in mapping. An area including the sandy soil of the ridges at sorrie depth would be
Bradford Island and the western part of the 1\Tebb protected from oxidation and erosion by the sandy sur-
Tract, along the San. Joaquin River in northeastern face material. Because surface· subsidence of the min-·
Contra Costa County, is shown as mapped in 1906-08 eral soils of the ridges is negligible, 'these areas are·; the
(fig."101.2) nnd in 1952 (fig. 101.3). Both maps are most favora1ble sites for bench marks, buildings, or other
reproduced here at a common scale for comparison. structures such as electric-power facilities that require
The change in topography is especia'lly obvious in the stable foundations.
Webb Tract, which in 1906-08 stood between sea level REFERENCES

and +5 feet (fig. 101.2); only 3 small rises, indicated Carpenter, E. J., and Cosby, S. W., 1939, Soil Survey; Contra
Costa County, California: U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Ser. 1933,
by arrows, exceeded 5 feet in altitude. By 1952, the 3 no. 26, 83 p., map.
small rises were the high points on a sinuous ridge that Cosby, S. W., 1941, S·oil survey; the Sacramento-San Joaquin
had a relief of as much as 15 feet and extended west- Delta area, C'alifornia: U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Ser. 1935,
ward across the part of the Webb Tract shown on the no.. 21, 48 p., map.
Wier~ W. W., 1950, Subsidence of the peat lands of 'the Sacra-
map (fig. 101.3). Note, however, that the high points mento-San Joaquin Delta, California: Hilgardia, v. 20,
are at virtually the same altitude on both maps; the ·no. 3.
C164 ENGLNEERLNG GEOLOGY

121 °40'

t-

0 R D l)
~·

\
~
<(

:::;;:)
Ql ~ 0::
.d
~
L A N D +5
)t-

I
I ~ +5
~
oO

I
I

. /
J
~~~
/

FIGURE 101.2.-:----Part ·of Jersey, 7%-minute quadrangle showing topography as mapped in 1906-08. Contour interval, 5 feet.'
P~rts of Bradford· Island and the WebQ Tract below -'5 feet altitude shown by shading; above +5 feet by diagonal
pattern and number. ·~.

-1,
 DAVIS C165
121 ° 40'

l
.

0 1 MILE

FIGURE 101.3.-Part of Jersey 71;'2-minute quadrangle showing topography as mapped in 1952. Contour interval, 5 feet.
Parts of Bradford Island and the Webb Tract below - 5 feet altitude shown by shading; above +5 feet by diagnoal
pattern and number.
 Article 102

CHEMICAL PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSIS

By JOHN C. ANTWEILER, Denver, Colo.

A.bstract.-High-purity samples for lead isotope analysis are TABLE 102.1.-Summary of spectrographic analyses of "15 galena
prepared by decomposing the lead minerals with hot dilute samples, showing number and percentage of samples having
contaminating elements at tour levels ot concentration )
n~tric acid, followed by four precipitations of lead nitrate with
s~rong nitric acid. The lead nitrate obtained can be readily [Analyses by R. G. Havens, P. R. Barnett, N. M. Conklin, J. Hafity, C. Annen,
converted to the iodide, sulfide, or other compounds for isotopic H. W. Worthing]
analysis.
Level of concentration

1 percent or 0.1 percent or 0.01 percent or 0.001 percent or

Tpe wide application· of lead isotope data to geologic Element more more more more
problems has been discussed by Cannon and others
Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per-
(1!;)61) with special emphasis on problems of ore gene- ber of centage ber of centage ber of centage ber of centage
samples of total samples of total samples of total samples of total
sis. Some of these problems· can be solved with im-
- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
perfect data, but .other!? require extremely precise and Fe •• _--------- 12 16.0 36 48.0 62 82.7 75 100
SL------------ 11 14.7 32 42.7 71 94.7 75 100
accurate data. Isotope geologists can obtain far better BL------------ 9 12.0 24 32.0 35 46.7 36 48.0
Zn. _---------- 8 10.7 31 41.3 47 62.7 (1) 0
dat~ now than they could just a few years ago because Sb ____________ 5 6. 7 22 29.3 44 58.7 (1) 0
cu ____________ 4 5.3 23 30.7 52 69.3 61 81.3
mass spectrometrists are constantly improving the pre- As. __ --------- 4 5.3 11 14.7 (1) 0 (1) 0
Ag. ----------- 2 2. 7 33 44.0 55 73.3 62 82.7
cision of mass measurements. However, advancements Ca._----------
Ba ____________ 2 2. 7 22 29.3 55 73.3 56 74.7
1 1. 3 6 8.0 10 13.3 41 54.7
in mass spectrometry that contribute to more precise Mg ____________
0 0 15 20.0 36 47.8 60 80.0
AL------------
Cd ____________ 0 0 14 18.7 45 60.0 70 93.3
and accurate data may be offset if chemical purification 0 0 3 4.0 23 30.7 (1) 0
Te. _---------- 0 0 2 2. 7 (1) 0 (1) 0
pf samples for isotope analysis is om~tted. By care- NL ___________ 0 0 2 2. 7 7 9.3 (1) 0
u 0 0 2 2. 7 3 4.0 5 6. 7
fully controlling sample purity and total pressure, Na'------------
____________ 0 0 2 2. 7 3 4.0 (1) 0
Sn ____________ 0 0 1 1. 3 8 10.7 24 32.0
Richards (1962) obtained with a mass spectrometer of v-- ----------- 0 0 1 1.3 5 6. 7 (1) 0
Mn. _--------- . 0 0 0 0 22 29.3 45 60.0
6-inch radius of curvature, results comparable to those Co.-----------
Sr _____________ 0 0 0 0 8 10.7 (1) 0
0 0 0 0 7 9. 3 25 33.3
obtained by others with a 12-inch instrument. Mo ____________ 0 0 0 0 5 6. 7 12 16.0
TL------------ 0 0 0 0 4 5. 3 20 26.7
Treatment. of lead ores before lead isotope analysis B.------------ 0 0 0 0 3 4.0 4 5.3
Cr __ ---------- 0 0 0 0 2 2. 7 6 8.0
has varied from no treatment, as shown by Ehrenberg La..-----------
TL ____________ 0 0 0 0 2 2. 7 (1) 0
0 0 0 0 1 1. 3 (1) 0
(1953) and Zykov and Stupnikova (1957) who made Zr _____________ 0 0 0 0 1 1.3 3 4.0
y- ------------ 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 12.0
isotope analyRes directly on lead. ores, to the thorough Sc _____________
Au ____________ 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 9.3
0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5.3
and exhaustivA purification by Harvard chemists of the In _____________
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2. 7
Nb------------ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.3
samples analy7.ed by Nier. (1938). Galena, the prin- K.------------ 0 0 (1) 0 (1) 0 (1) 0
cipal ore of leatl, like most minerals is not a chemically
1 Below detection limit by method used.
pure compounrl. The summary of spectrographic 2 Chemical determination.
analyses of 75 gv.lena samples in ta:ble 102.1 shows that
galena may contaitl half a dozen or more metal impuri- A method for preparing high-purity ore-lead samples
ties in the concentration range of 100 to 10,000 parts per for isotopic analysis was desired that would be simpler
million. Most of these samples contain appreciable and shorter than the sulfate separation method (Scott,
amounts of iron, silicon, bismuth, antimony, copper, sil- 1939) used by the U.S. Geological Survey for several
ver, and zinc.· Some contain significant amounts of tin, years. The sulfate method is generally satisfactory
cadmiu!ll, molybdenum, or other metals such as arsenic, when 10 milligrams or more of Pb is available, but it is
manganese, and cobalt. time consuming and requires the use of a number of

ART. 102 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C166-Cl70. 1963.
C166
 ANTWEILER CI67
lead-free reagents. Most of the other lead-separation
methods are useful in certain circumstances, but they (.)
~
have one or more of the following disadvantages: they 0
!::t-
zz
are lengthy, require the use of a number of lead-free u
c(
141
1.1..(.)
Oa:
~ ~
reagents, fail to achieve complete separation from other a: . HN03 +HN02 +N0 2
.. 1-
Zl-
eleme~ts, are limited by interferences, or result in a
!:::
z - - - - - - · - - - - 100 percent HN0 3 ------·----- 100 5:x:
HN03 +H 2 0 :::E~
1.1..
compound not amenable to isotopic analysis. 0 c(141

89 141 ~
The method described below overcomes most of these ~ ~~
> :E.
-c
disadvantages. It is simple and comparatively fast, c(
a: 1.45
(!) 8o ~u
requires only two lead-free reagents (water and nitric (.) g:~
i:i: Cl.
acid), separates lead from most other elements (barium u
141
1.42 72 c( '

and strontium excepted), is not limited by the elements Cl.

Cll
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
commonly found in galena, and results in a compound LEAD .DISSOLVED, IN MICROGRAMS PER MILLILITER OF ACID
(the nitrate) that is readily converted to the sulfide, the
iodide, or to other compounds for mass analysis. The FIGURE 102.1.-Solubility of lead as a function of nitric acid
concentration at 24°0. and 0°0.
procedure is based on the fact that lead is selectively
precipitated with strong HN0 8 • This selectivity was
used by Baxter and Grover (1915) to purify lead for TABLE 102.2.-Solubility of lead in nitric acid of various concer~r
trations at 2~ o 0 and 0 o 0
atomic-weight determination, by Schrenck and Delano
( 1931) to purify lead for electrodeposition studies, by Solubility of Pb
Speclftc gravity of HN0 8 (micrograms per
Neumann and Perlman (1950) to separate radioactive Approximate HNOa . 200 milliliter)
(weight percent) at
40c
bismuth from lead, and by the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (W. C. Davis, written communication,
1961) to remove all spectrographically detectable im- 67--------------------- 1.40- -------------- 230
purities from separated lead isotopes. 72_-------------------- 1.42_---------:..---- 85 50
81_ __ --- --------------- 1.454_--- ---------- ------ 17
84 _____________________ 1.465 ______________ ------ 8
EXPERIMENTAL WORK 88 _____________________ 1.478------------~- 10 2. 9
The first experiments showed that all spectrographi- 93_-------------------- 1.489-------------- ------ 1.. 4
95_-------------------- 1.494_------------- 4 1. 0
cally detectable impurities were removed by repeated 98 _____________________ 1.503 ______________ ------ .9
precipitations of lead nitrate with concentrated ( sp gr 100- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 510 - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - .9
Fuming ________________ 1.59_______________ 18 10
1.42) HNOa. The procedure was satisfactory except
that lead loss was significant. Although quantitative tions are required to remove all impurities from lead
recovery is not essential for samples prepared for iso- nitrate, because any precipitate may occlude small
topic analysis, small samples could be lost before being .amounts of other elements in the solution. To deter-
purified to the desired degree. A study was made, mine the number of precipitations required, the N a-
therefore, of the solubility of lead nitrate in various tional Bureau of Standards lead 'isotope reference
concentrations of nitric acid at room temperature and sample ( NBS-200, galena from ivigtut, Greenland)
at 0°C. This was done as follows: a saturated solution was decomposed with nitric acid. The lead nitrate ob:
of lead nitrate in nitric acid was prepared by adding to tained was precipitated with 100-percerit · HN0 8 , and
100 ml of HN08 an excess of finely ground Pb(NOa)2; the precipitate was collected on a filter disk, sampl~d,
the mixture was warmed and stirred, allowed to reach and redissolved. This procedure was repeated until a
the desired temperature, and filtered. Lead in the fil- total of five precipitations had been made. Samples
trate was determined colorimetrically by the dithizone taken .after the first, fourth, and fifth precipitations
method, or gravimetrically as the sulfate or chromate. were analyzed spectrographically. The analyses, given
Figure 102.1 and table 102.2 show the rapid decrease in in table 102.3~ show considerable purification after just
lead solubility as nitric acid concentration is increased one nitric acid precipitation. Only calcium· was de-
and temperature is decreased; less than 1 microgram of tectable after the fourth precipitation, and it was re-
Ph dissolves in 1 ml of 100-percent HN0 8 ·at 0°C. It moved by one more precipitation. The purity obtained
will be noted that the solubility of lead nitrate in fum- by 4 precipitations is thought to be adequate for iso-
~- ing HN0 8 is greater than in 100-percent HNOa; this topic analysis, and .therefore the recommended proce-
is attributed to the action of nitrous acid and nitrogen dure for most ore-lead samples consists of sample
oxides present in fuming HNOa · decomposition with dilute HN0 3 ·followed · by . 4
As one would expect, several nitric acid precipita- consecutive precipitations with 100-percent HNOa.
 .C168 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
TABLE 102.3.-Semiquantitative spectrographic anal?Jses, in percent, is evaporated, some lead may be precipitated as lead
.of the National Bureau of Standards lead isotope reference
sample (NBS-200) and of lead compounds prepared from it sulfate; repeated precipitation and solution as de-
[Only elements found are shown. The "less than" (<)values were generally reported scribed usually eliminates the sulfate interference by
as "looked for but not found," but estimated visual detection limits have been
substituted to show amounts that might be present but escape detection. Silicon the end of the second or third precipitation.
was not specifically looked for. Analyses in Pbi2 column by Nancy Conklin; all
· others by R. G. Havens) R.esults.-The procedure was used to purify a large
number of galena samples from Colorado for isotopic
Pbi2 from Pb(NOah :J=>b(NOah
·Element Raw galena lHNOa from4 HNOa from5HN0a analysis. The following five of these samples were
precipitation precipitations precipitations
used to evaluate the procedure:
1. Specimen Co-P-Bl-1. Galena from the Boomer
AL_~----------
Fe ____________ 0.. 015 <O. 001 0. 003 <O. 001.
Mg ____________ 15 . 0007 <· 0007 <. 0007 mine, Lake George district, Park County, Colo.
. 00015 . 00015 <· 00015 <. 00015 Collected by W. N. Sharp and C .. C. Hawley, 1959.
Ca _!,_. _ _ _ ~ ______
. 0007 . 0005 . 0007 <· 0007
Mn ___________ . 0015 <. 0002 <. 0002 <. 0002 2. Specimen Co-L-Hg. Galena from the Homestake
Ag ____________ ·. 7 . 015 <. 0001 <. 0001
Bi __________ . : __ 1.5 . 01
mine, Lake County, Colo. Collected by Ogden <
Cu ____________ <· 001 <· 001
Sb ____________ . 07 <. 0001 <· 0001 <· 0001 Tweto, 1951.
sn ____________ :. 015 03 <. 01
<. 001
<· 01
<· 001
<. 01
<· 001 3. Specimen Co-J-Og. Galena from the Augusta lode
near Evergreen, J e:fferson County, Colo. Collected
Reagents.-To prevent the possibility of isotopic by R. S. Cannon, Jr., and J. C. Antweiler, 1961.
contamination, only lead-free reagents were used. 4. Specimen Co-Ch...,.Tg. G~lena from Turret district,
Water was prepared by double distilling demineralized Chaffee· County, Colo. Given to J. C .. · Antweiler
distilled w~ter in an all-quartz still. "Concentrated" by George Corley, Corley Mining Co., 1961.
HN0 3 ( sp gr 1.42') was prepared by distilling analytical 5. Speqimen Co-l{o-Vgc. Galena from Victory mine,
reagent-grade HNOa under reduced pressure. Dilute Kokomo district, Summit County, CoJo. Collected
HN9a (1.:1 v/v) was p~epared by diluting a volume of . by S. C. Creasey, 1949.
concentrated HNOa ( sp gr 1.42) with an equal volume Evaluation should be based upon a comparison of
ofwater. ·Very strong HN0 3 (100 percent, sp gr 1.50- isotopic analyses and the chemical purity of samples
1.51) was .prepared by carefully distilling equal prepared by this and by other methods. The isotopic
volumes of ~nalytical reagent-grade HN0 3 and H 2 S04 analyses have not yet been made, but spectrographic
at 0.01-mm Hg pressure in .a still equipped with a Vig- analyses of the five samples are given in table 102.4.
reaux fra.ctionating column. (Rapid distillation re- Methods of preparation used were ( 1) the sulfate
sults in carryover of some sulfate ion, which would form metJhod (Scott, 1939), (2) galena-to-lead-iodide
insoluble lead sulfate.) Very strong HN0 3 should method ( Cuttita and W arr, 1960), ( 3) method of this
be handled. qnly in .a. well-ventilated hood, and only article with just 1 nitric acid precipitation, and ( 4)
with protective gloves .. method of this articJe with 4 nitric acid precipitations.
Procedure.~Dis~olv:e abo:ut 0.1 g galena or other All samples were converted to lead iodide for uniform-
lead mineral ~y heating. with 30 m} 1:1 (v/v) HN0 3 ity. The nitrate method. is superior to the others in
until decomposition is complete. If samples are small, terms of product purity. Even one nitric acid pre-
de~rease .quantity. of r~agents accordingly. Filter and cipitation results in a product with .fewer impurities
wa~h residue 5 times with hot 1 :1 HN0 3 • Collect fil- · than is obtained. by the lengthy sulfate procedure.
trates and.washings,ina vycor or quartz dish and evapo- Four nitric acid precipitations reduced all impurities to
rate to incipient crystallizati·on. of lead nitrate. Pre- less than 0.1 perc~nt (.in the extreme· example); im-
cipitate lead nitrate by adding 15 ml of lOO-percent pur:ities in .the samples from Turret and Kokomo were
HN0 3 (sp gr 1.50), warm, and stir to maximize solution reduced to a few parts per million. Comparatively
of imp.uritie.s.. Chill to ooc,, and decant t;hrough a flne- little purific~tion was ol:>ta!ned by use of the galena-to-
p.orosity .fritted disk. Wash precipitate with two 5-ml lead-iodide procedure. Similarly, one would expect
portions of <?Ol~ ·HN03 ( sp gr 1.50) ; discard filtrate and little purification by the use of other sample-prepara-
washings. Dissolve. lead nitrate. in dish and on filter tion procedures, such as acid ·decomposition of galena
with 1:1 HNOa .. Evapor~te solution to incipient crys- followed directly by reconstitution -of lead sulfide, that
tall~zation of .lead· nitrat.e, Jtnd. precipitate .lead nitrate do not selectively isolate lead from impurities inherent
as before. Repeat fi:ltr~tion, solution, and pr~cipitation in the sample.
at least twice more: . Dissolve lead nitrate from fourth D,i8cussion.-The .alkaline earth metals are the most ...
precipitat~o~ with '~ate~, and ey~por~~e soluti~n.to dry- serious interferences in, the nitrate method. Strontium
n,ess. . Dry purified lead nitrate crystals for .2 hours at and barium, like lead, are quantitatively precipitated by
100°C. · · · · · strong HN0 3 , and .precipitates o~ these metals carry
•, . - .
Note : Some sulfuric acid is obtained by decomposing calcium (Meinke, 1955). The effect of the alkaline
galena with nitric acid. When the lead nitrate solution earth metals on lead isotope analysis is no better known
 ANTWEILER C169

than the effect of other impurities. ·Although it might TABLE 102.4.-Semiquantitative fjpectrographic analyses, in per-
cent, of galena samples and of lead iodide prepared from them by
seem desirable to make certain that samples submitted different methods-Continued ·
for isotopic analysis are free of these metals, it is [Analyst: NIUlcy Conklin. The "less thiUl" (<) values were generally reported asS
doubtful in most cases .whether such effort is justified. "looked for but not found," ·but estimated visual detection limits have been sub-
stituted to show a~o~ts that might be present but escape detection}
Less than 10 percent of the samples summarized in table. 3. <?alena sample Co-J-Og
102.1 contained 0.01 percent or more Sr, and less than
15 percent contained 0.01 percent or more Ba. Further- Pbi2 from Pbi2 from
'-1" · Rawgalena Pbi2 from Pbi2 from. · ~1 HNOa. · ·4HNOa
more, strontium or barirun, even though present in the H,so., HP precipi- ,precipi-
tat! on tations
purified nitrate, would be greatly reduced by subsequent
conversion to either the sulfide or iodide. for isotopic ..
analysis.
BL ____ --
Fe _______
0. 07 0.·07 0. 007 .o. 003. 0. 003
. 05 . . 05 < .. 001 . .002 . 015
Ca _____ -- . 015 . 0015 <. 0005 <. 0005 < .. 0005
TABLE 102.4.-Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses, in per- Ag.:. ______ '. 02 . 001 .. 007 .0015 <:COOl
cent, of galena samples and of lead iodide prepared from them by BL------ . 02 <. 001 . 0015 .003'. <· 001
different methods Cu _______ .7 . 0005 .. 02 <. 0001 . . 0005
[Annlyst: Nnncy Conklin. Tho "less thiUl" (<) values were generally reported as M~~----- . 003 <: 0005 . 0015 <. 000,5 <:.
9005
"looked for but not found," but estimated visual detection limits have been sub-
stituted to show amounts thnt might be present but escape detection} ·
4. Galena sample Co-Ch-Tg
1. Galena sample Co-P-Bl-1

Pbi, from
SL ____ -- 0. 03 0. 3 0. 03 <O. 001 <O. 001
Pbbfrom
Rnwgalenn Pbit from Pbi, from lHNOs 4HNOs AL------ . 007. <. 001 . 007 <. 001 <· 001
H,SOcl HP precipi- precipi- Fe _______ . 001 . 003 . 005 . 0007 <· 0007
tat! on tatlons Mg ______ . 002 . 0005 . 0015 . 00015 . 00015
Ca _____ - _ . 002 . 0007 . 0005 <. 0005 <. 0005
Mn. _____ . 01 <. 0002 . 005 <. 0002 <. 0002
SL ______ 0.03 (8) 0.007 0.007 <O. 0015 Ag ____ -..:- . 05 . 001 . 03 . 005 <. 0001
Fe _______ . 03 <O. 001 . 02 . 03 <· 001 BL _----- . 01 <. 001 . 003 <· 001 <. 001 .
Mg ______ . 0002 <. 001 <. 00015 . 002 . 005 Cd _____ -- . 015 <. 005 . 01 <. 005 <. 005
Ca•.•. ___ . 0007 . 001 . 0005 . 0015 . 05 Cu _______ .3 <. 0001 . 15 <. 0001 <. 0001
Ag •••. - -- .5 . 01 . 07 . 02 . 003 In _______ . 002 <. 001 . 003 <. 001 <. 001
:~. Bi. ______ .7 . 003 . 015 . 007 <· 001 Ni_ ______ . 0007 <. 0003 <. 0003 <. 0003 <. 0003
Cu _______ .3 . 0005 . 007 . 01 . 0005 Sb _______ . 03 <. 01 <. 01 <. 01
<· 01
Nb.- _--- . 003 <. 001 <. 001 <. 001 <. 001 Zn _______ .7 <. 02 1. <· 02 <. 02
Sb _______ . 05 <.01 <. 01 <. 01 <."01
Sn _______ . 007
y ________ <. 001 <. 001 <. 001 <· 001 5. Galena sample Co-Ko-Vgc:
. 002
Yb. _____ <. 0003 <. 001
<. 0003
<. 001
<. 0003
<· 001 <· 001
<. 0003 <. 0003
Zn _______ . 03 SL ______ 0. 007'
<. 02 <.02 <· 02 <.02 0. 007 0. 07 <O. 001 <O~ 001
Fe _______ . 005 <. 001 <· 001 <· 001 <. 001
Mg.----- . 0005 . 00015 . 00015 <· 00015 <. 00015
2. Galena sample Co-L-Hg Ca _______
Mn ______
. 00015 <. 0005 <.
0005 . 0005 . 0005
. 0005 <. 0002 <. 0002 <· 0002 <. 0002
SL- __ - __ 0.07 (8) 0.015 0.003 0.03 Ag _______ .1 . 003 . 03 . 015 <. 0001
Fe _______ BL ______ < .. 001
2. 0. 1 . 007 . 002 <· 001 . 005 <. 001 . 001 . 0015
Mg.----- .3 . 01 . 002 . 0007 . 0007 Cd _______ . 005 <. 005 <. 005 . <· 005 <. 005
Ca _______ . 015 . 007 . 0015 . 0007 Cu _______ . 0015 . 00015 . 001 . 003 <. 0001
<· 0005
Mn ______ . 05 . 0015 <. 0002 <. 0002 <· 0002 Sb _______ <. 07 <. 01 . 03 <. 01 <. 01
Ag . 07 . 001 . 02 . 0015 . 007 Sn _______ . 005 <. 001 . 003 <· 001 <. 001
Bi_•••. ---
______ . 02 <. 001 . 002 . 003 <· 001
Cu _______ . 15 . 01 . 007 <. 0001 . 0003
Sb _______ . 02 1 PbS0 4 triUlsformed to Pbi2 ; PbS0 4 prepared for gravimetric Pb determination
Zn _______ <· 01 <· 01 <. 01 <· 01 as described by Scott (1939).
. 07 <· 02 < .. 02 <.02 <.02 2 Method described by Cuttita Md Warr (1960).
a Not specifically looked for.

_,...

l
C170 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

REFERENCES ·Nier, A. 0., 1938, Variations in the relative abundances of the

Baxter, G. P., and Grover, F .. L., 1915, A revision of the atomic isotopes of common lead from various sources : Am. Chern.
weight of lead. The analysis of lead bromide and chloride: Soc..Jour., v. 60, p. 1571-1576.
Am. Chem.,Soc. J:()ur., v. 37, p.1027-1061 . .·· Richards, J. R., 1962, Interpretation of lead isotope abundances:
Cannon: R. .S., J~ .• Pierce, A. P., Antweiler, J. C., and Buck, Nature, v. 195, p. 590-591.
K. L:·; 1961, TJ:i.e data ·of lead isotope geology related to
problems of ore genesis: Econ. Geology, v. 56, p. l-38. Schrenck, '\V. T., and Delano; P. H., 1931, Electrolytic determina-
Cuttita, Frank, .and Warr, -J. J., 1960, Preparation of lead iodide tion o! lead as lead dioxide: Indus. Eng. Chemistry, Anal.
for mass sP-ectrometry: Art. 221 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Ed., v. 3, p. 27.
. Raper 40~B. p. B487-B488. · Scott, W. W., (N. H. Furman, ed.), 1939, St~ndard methods of
Ehrenberg, H. Fr., 1953, IS<>topenanalysen an Blei aus Miner- chemical !'lll~lysis, 5th ed., v. 1, The elements: New York,
alen: Zeitschr. Physik, v. 134, p. 317-333. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., p. 504-505.
Mei:like, W. W~! 1955, Nuclear chemical research and radiochem-
ical separations, progress report 4, Nov .. 1954-0ct. 1965, Zykov, S. I., and Stupnikova, N. I., 1957, Izotopny analiz svintsa
·_'project No.: 7, ·contl"act' No. AT(ll-1)70: Michigan Univ. bez predvaritel'noy khimicbeckoy podrotovki minerala
81 p.; Aton;tic Energy Comm. U-3116. _ [Isotopic lead analysis without preliminary chemical prep-
Netunann, N. M., and Perlman, I., 1950, Isotopic assignments of aration of the mineral] : Geokhimiya, -1957, no. 5, p. 430-434.
·.bismuth isotopes produced with high energy particles: Pbys. [See also Geochemistry, a transl·ation of Geokhimiya, 1957,
Rev., v. 78, p. ·192. no. 5, p. 50S:..510.]

~-

~i ...
 Article 103

PERCENT-CONSTITUENT PRINTING ACCESSORY

AND FLOW-THROUGH CELL FOR A SPECTROPHOTOMETER

By LEONARD SHAPIRO and EDWARD L. CURTIS, Washington, D.C.

A.bstraat.-An accessory has been designed which converts an with a digital-voltmeter-printer. Any change in this
ordinary spectrophotometer to one which uses the color density measured voltage is directly proportional to the change
of a solution to automatically calculate and print on tape the
in angular rotation, which in turn is directly. propor-
con<:entratlon of the constituent in the solution. No computa-
tions are required, and the results are obtained more rapidly tional to the difference in concentration of the different
and are more dependable than by conventional methods. A solutions. The external voltage is adjusted so that the
newly designed simple flow-through cell provides greater con- voltage being read out for a known standard solution is
. venience and speed of operation. numerically equal to the known concentration expressed
as percent constituent. All subsequent readings are
An accessory has been designed to con vert an ordi- then printed automatically in terms of percent con-
nary spectrophotometer to one which automatically stituent.
calculates and prints on tape the percent constituent of Components
a solution. The accessory, which can be built with com-
mercially available components, is designed for use with The components for the printing accessory are shown
a Model B Beckman spectrophotometer. in the semischematic diagram of figure 103.1. All com-
An additional convenience in operating the accessory- ponents except the digital voltmeter and printer can
equipped spectrophotometer is a newly designed flow- be placed into the instrument box which serves as a
through cell for holding the solution to be tested. The support for the spectrophotometer (fig. 103.1).
cell, which is made of Lucite and glass, is relatively The oN-oFF toggle switch below the spectrophotom-
inexpensive and easy to make in the average machine eter turns on the line and battery power. The AUTO-
shop. MANUAL toggle switch is a 4-pole double-throw type
PRINTING ACCESSORY which in the MANUAL position causes the spectrophotom-
eter· to operate in the normal manner. When the
General description
switch is thrown to the AUTO position a logarithmically
The· sensitivity of the spectrophotometer is varied so wound potentiometer is switched into the sensitivity cir-
that the reading on the spectrophotometer meter is al- cuit of the spectrophotometer, and the pre-existing set
wnys 100-percent transmission. This is done by rotat- of resistors which normally controls the sensitivity in
ing a logarithmically wound potentiometer u.utomatic- three steps is switched out. The same switch also turns
ally with a small servomotor. The angular rotation on the servomotor, which drives the potentiometer and
required to vary the sensitivity to maintain 100-percent introduces a 3-volt battery and resistor across pins 11
transmission is directly proportional to the change in and 13 at ~he back of the spectrophotometer.
concentration from one solution to another. A gear on Normally, when the meter needle indicates lOO-per-
the · shaft of the logarithmic potentiometer drives a cent transmission, the voltage at pins 11 and 13 of the
linear potentiometer which serves as a read-out device. Model B Beckman spectrophotometer is 3 volts. This
An external voltage is applied across the ends of the voltage varies in the same direction as the percent trans-
!ll..
read-out potentiometer, and the voltage between one mission. When the ~ccessory is switched in, the 3-volt
end and the movable contact is measured and printed battery and resistor are placed across these pins, as

ART. 103 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-:C, PAGES C171-C174. 1963. ·
0171
694-027 0-63-12
C172 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

shown in figure 103.1. A current flows through the standard. (A PERCENT-CONSTITUENT knob is provided
resistor when the voltage is other than 3 volts at pins as shqwn in figure 103.1 for this adjustment.) Then
1i and 13. The input leads of a servoamplifier are con- when other sol.u.t ions are placed into the spectrophotom-
nected across the resistor, which causes the servomotor eter the digital voltmeter will automatically read per-
to rotate whenever a current flows through the resistor. cent constituent, provided that the color system follows
Whenever a new solution is poured into the spectro- Beers' law.
photometer, the servoamplifier causes the logarith- Two other controls are shown in figure 103.1. One is
mically wound potentiometer to restore 3 volts at pins a SERVO-SENSITIVITY knob, which varies the servoampli-
11 and ·13 and to give a meter reading of 100-percent
fier sensitivity by changing the value of R in the 3-volt
transmission.
circuit to a point where the servo does nqt hunt exces-
The read-out potentiometer, which is geared to the
logarithmic potentiometer, provides a measurement of sively. The other is a ZERO-ADJUSTMENT knob, which
the rotation required to restore equilibrium from one turns another potentiometer to balance the 3-volt bat-
solution to another. By manually adjusting the read- tery exactly with the spectrophotometer output, so that
out potentiometer across a 45-volt battery when a stand- the meter reading will be right at 100-percent transmis-
ard solution is in the spectrophotometer, the operator sion when it is to be automatically maintained at bal-
can make the digital-voltmeter reading numerically the ance. These last two control~, once they have been
same as the percent-constituent reading for the known adjusted, should rarely need readjustment.

Solution in

Digital
voltmeter
~:

-Sensitivity feedback

FIGURE103.1.-Semischematic diagram of percent-constituent printing spectrophotometer. The log-wound

potentiometer, read-out potentiometer, servomotor, and servoamplifier are contained in the instrument
box under the spectrophotometer.
 SHAPIRO AND CURTIS C173
Circuitry The foiJlowing procedure was used in building the
Two separate circuits are used. One is wired into the cell: A 7/32-inch-_d iameter hole was drilled through a
spectrophotometer through the 4-pole double-throw 1-inoh length of 1%-inch-diameter Lucite rod half an
switch (AUTO-MANUAL switch, figs. 103.1 and 103.2) SO
.
mch from the end and perpendicular to the axis, as
'
that it may be inrtroduceCI. into or eliminated from the shown in figure 103.4A.. Next, a %G-inch mill was used
normal existing circuit, as shown in figure 103.2; the to cut a slit half an inch high through the lengrth of the
other is a read -out circuit (fig. 103.3) not connected bar, perpendicu~ar to the 'Yb- inch hole (fig. 103.4B).
electrically with the previous circuit. The mill was then used at an angle to create a 'tapered
The toggle switches used for placing the 3-volt and cut (fig. 103.40). This is important, as ·t he sloped sides
-!5-volt babteries into operation, and for turning on the prevent the accumulation of ·a ir bubbles during use.
115-volt a-c for the whole instrument, may be placed on Two 1;4-inch-OD (Ys-ineh-ID) Luoi·te tubes about 1
one 3~pole double-throw toggle switch (ON-OFF switch, inch long were tapered an'd then force fitted and ce-
fig. 103.1). mented in'to the top and 'bottom of the hole •as shown in
The special components purchased from commercial figure 103.4D. Finally, two l-inch row1d microscope
sources included the log-wound potentiometer, special cover slips were cemented to the ends of the rod with
Helipot model 7603, function y= 10 2 <"'-1 >, resista111ce epoxy cement (fig. 103.4E).
16K +5 percent, conformity +0.4 percent; and a Brown A simple metal or plastic mounting bracket was built
"Elektronik" amplifier continuous-balance unit, model to fit into the spectrophotometer (fig. 103.5). It pro-
356358-1, with a 56-rpm servomotor. A Beckman digi- vides a light-tight h'olde.r for the flow-through cell,
tal voltmeter and printer, measuring to the nearest which can be readily removed or inserted.
millivolt, were used in the print-out circuit. The cell was mounted in its bracket, and a phtstic in-
let tube with a Ys-inch ID and about a 16-inch length
FLOW-THROUGH CELL
was att:Jached to the bottom tu·be of the ceJll. The outlet
A simple flaw-through cell (fig. 103.4E) and mount- was made of a short bent glass tube leading from the
ing bracket were 'designed to simplify and speed up top of the cell into a larger drain tube that passes
operation of the acce8sory-equipped spectrophotometer. through a hole in the bracket, with an air break between
the tubes to prevent a siphon effect.
The volume of the cell is a few milliliters. A solution
J-Disconnect is almost completely displaced ( >99.9 percent) by pass-
I i'9 11 13 _I ing 30 to 40 ml of a new solution through the cell.
L_
Spectrophotometer
terminal strip

45v

10· turn log-wound

p otentiometer

CW
-· I
~U'"t~
,.,. SL ;;;<>--+.-
/o"l Jconnect I
ccw
- -<> ONI + -
Soectrophotomet er
4 P.D.T. meter
(Auto-manual)
-
One of the
/ field coils
-

Servomotor

EfG,]
~ Servoamplifier
sensitivity

~----------~ p~~r
~KJ
~
lr Digital

voltmeter
115v, a.c. Servoamplifier 3v
Zero
adjustment

FIGURE 103.2.-0ircuitry of wiring into spectrophotometer. FIGURE 103.3.-Circuitry of read-out and print-out system.
0174 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Prepare a blank, a known standard, and a series of

unknown solutions in the usual manner for spectro-
photometry.
Pour about 40 ml of the blank solution into the fun-
nel. When the solution st~ps flowing, adjust the slit
to any position so that the meter needle is automatically
resetting itself. If this position is not 100 percent trans-
B mission + 1 percent, turn the ZERO ADJUSTMENT knob to
bring the transmission wi,t hin this limit. Note the exact
meter reading. Open the slit to a point where the meter
reading goes well above 100 and then close it carefully
to bring the needle just to the previously noted balance
position. It is naw rut ,t he zero position of the log-wound
potentiometer. Pour aJbout 40 ml of the standard solu-
tion into the funnel. When the overflow of the liquid
has stopped, adjust the reading on the digital voltmeter
D with the PERCENT-CONSTITUENT knob to read the Same
value as the known standard. Press the print button
to print the value of the standard. Pour each of the un- j..
known solutions into the funnel in sequence, and each
time the liquid stops flowing, press print button to print
the percent constituent of the solution.

DISCUSSION
E The use of the electronic arrangement described pro-
vides a uniform sensitivity across the full scale of the
FIGURE 103.4.-Step-by-step construction of fiow-throug,h cell. instrument because the amplifier receives the same volt-
Openina for outlet tube ttge change for the same change in absorbance. A devia-
tion of 0.001 in optical density is sufficient to initiate
corrective action. Theoretically, the servoamplifier-
servomotor combination can provide a more sensitive
response to color change than is obtained by normal
manual operation. In practice the accuracy of the sys-
tem may be limited by any deviation of the log coil
from its designed curve and any mechanical lag in the
links between the servomotor and the two potenti-
ometers. A special pair of gears cut to a logarithmic
relation is feasible and might be an improvement over
A
the existing log coil plus gearing.
Results obtained with the printing spectropho-
FIGURE 103.5.-Mo\lnting bracket for flow-through cell.
tometer for the determination of Si02, Al 20s, Fe20 3 ,
Ti02, MnO, and P 20s in silicate rocks do not differ
PROCEDURE significantly in accuracy and precision :from those ob-
The following procedure is suggested for operating tained with a manual spectrophotometer.
the spectrophotometer with the percent-constituent The benefits of this instrument include not only time
printing accessory and flow-through cell: saved by eliminating computations but also more de-
Turn ·on the instrument. and allaw it to warm up for pendability by eliminating human errors that arise in
at least 30 minutes. the computations.
 Article 104

DISSIPATION OF HEAT FROM A THERMALLY LOADED STREAM

By HARRY MESSINGER, Washington, D.C.

Ab8traot.-Energy-budget analysis of a heated stream fai·led Each of the preceding terms, except Qo, may be
to account for the observed ra·pid cooling. Discrepancies be- evaluated, either by direct measurement or by calcula-
tween predicted and actual d'ownstream temperatures are at- tion, by standard procedures developed for determining
tributed mainly to inadequacies in existing methods for meas-
uring the effective sol·ar and atmospheri'C irradiation of partially evaporation losses (U.S. Geological Survey, 1954).
shaded water surfaces. Conductive loss _to the streambed can be computed, with
reasonable accuracy, by multiplying the measured tem-
Effective planning for industrial and recreational. perature gradient in the bed at a representative point
utilization of streams commonly requires foreknowl- in the subreach by the average thermal conductivity of
edge of water-temperature variations that may be the bed materia;!.
expected throughout the year. Where water tempera- Equation 1 may be rearranged thus:
tures are raised significantly above the natural level, as
hy steam powerplants using water-cooled condensers,
a knowledge of the rate at which water temperatures where the left-hand term denotes the loss in sensible
are reduced downstream by natural cooling processes heat of the water as it passes through the subreach.
is important. A theoretically sound approach to the If the subreach originally selected is just long enough
problem is the energy-budget concept, which has been to produce a small, known temperature drop (for ex-
used extensively to calculate evaporation rates from ample, 1 °C) and if all the right-hand terms are ex-
lakes and reservoirs (Harbeck and others, 1958). pressed in units of heat flow per unit area, then the
THEORY required length, l, may be expressed as :
In applying energy-budget methods to st.reams, the (3)
various inflo,v, outflow, and stored-heat terms are eval-
uated for successive short subreaches. In each of the
subreaches, temperature change is as~umed to be' linear where F=average flow rate in subreach;
with distance. The energy ~budget for each subreach, ~T=temperature drop in subreach;
over any arbitrarily selected time period, may be writ- W=average Width of subreach; and
ten as: K=a constant, whose value depends on the units
employed in the other terms.
APPLICATION
where QR=net incoming atmospheric and solar radia-
tion, The energy-budget method was used to predict the
Qi=heat content of water flowing into subreach, temperature profile of a heated section of the West
Q8 = back radiation (long-wave) from water Branch of the Susquehanna River below Shawville, Pa.
surface, Use of the stream water for condensing steam from
QE= energy lost by evaporation, the turbines of the Shawville powerplant, which oper-
Q0 =energy lost by convection to atmosphere, ates at a constant· load of 600,000 kw, raised the tem-
Q0 =heat content of water flowing out of sub- perature of the river aJbout 15°C during the period of
reach, study. (October 17 and 18, 1962) .
Q0 =heat conducted to streambed, and Over a 24-hour period beginning at 0600 hours on
Q.s=increase of heat storage in subreach. October 17,1962, temperature measurements were made
ART. 104 !N U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-c, PAGES C175-C178. 1963.
0175
C17t6 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

approximately bihourly at several sections downstream Bed temperatures were measured by means of a hollow
and one upstream from the powerplant. Ten measure- plastic probe driven into the streambed at station 1.
ments were made at equal distances across the width of Three thermistors which were embedded 6 inches apart
·each section. Only one measurement was necessary at in the surface of the probe were connected to a portable
each point because vertical mixing was virtually ·com- wheatstone bridge circuit. The bed-temperature read-
plete. Calibrated thermistor probes, accurate to 0.1 °C, ings were taken simultaneously with the stream-
were used in the measurements. Average temperatures temperature readings. Total radiation, solar radiation,
at each of 4 sections downstream and 1 upstream from and humidity measurements were made in a well-
the powerplant are shown in figure 104.1. Station 1, exposed area on the roof of a local school about 0.1 mile
about 0.4 mile downstream from the powerplant diver- north of the river, between stations 3 and 4.
sion dam, included the flow from a small, unheated In calculating heat conduction to the streambed, Q0 ,
tributary (Trout Run). No other appreciable surface an average thermal conductivity of 0.004 cal per sec em
inflow occurred in the 4.9-mile reach between stations oc was used, corresponding to a value about midway
1 and 4 during the period of study. Streamflow was between that of wet mud and sandstone (Ingersoll and
virtually constant at 370 cubic feet per second, by ac- others, 1948, p. 244). The bed loss in each successive
tual measurement, and ground-water inflow in the reach subreach below station 1 was estimated by assuming
was insignificant. that it was approximately proportional to the difference
Wind velocity was measured with sensitive 3-cup between the average water temperature in the subreach .J...
totalizing anemometers that were installed in mid- and the natural water temperature, as measured up-
stream at stations 2 and 3, exactly 2 meters above the stream from the powerplant. No really serious errors
mean water surface, and were read at 2-hour intervals. can result from this assumption, because the actual
value of the Qa term was only about 5 percent that of
the sensible heat loss, ( Q i-Q o), in each subreach.
Conduction and convection losses to the atmosphere,
Qn, were calculated by multiplying the evaporation
losses, QE, by a modified Bowen ratio, R 8 • The method
has been used in previous energy-budget studies. The
modified Bowen ratio was calculated to fit a recently
UJ
developed theory (W. D. Sellers, oral communication,
0
<( 1962) that involves the ratio of the heat and momentum
a:
(!) transfer coefficients ( K n and K M) . In his original
i=
z
UJ
work, Bowen (1926) assumed that Kn/KM was vir-
(.)
(/)
tually unity, whereas Sellers considers it to be a func-
UJ
UJ tion of the Richardson number Ri. For the large
a:
(!)
UJ
differences between water and air tern peratures meas-
0 ured in this study, the ratio KniKM had an average
~ value of about 1.30. The effect of applying this factor
w
a:
~
to the Bowen ratio was to increase QH by an amount
1-
<( approximately equal to 7 percent of the (Qi-.Q 0 ) term.
a:
UJ
ll.
The actual rate of cooling of the stream, as deter-
:E
UJ
mined by the average temperature at each measuring
1:-
station over the 24-hour study period, was considerably
greater than that predicted by theory (fig. 104.2). The
average stream temperature fell 3°C in slightly less
than 2 miles of flo,v, whereas the predicted length of
reach, to effect the same temperature decrease was 3.3
miles. Several possible explanations for the discrep-
ancy, in' decreasing order of probability, are:
TIME 1. Excessive values were assigned to QR in the cal-
October 17, 1962 October 18, 1962 culation. The total radiant energy falling on
the stream surface may be considerably less than
FIGURE 104.1.-Variat}on of stream temperature with time in
the West Branch of the Susquehanna River, near Shawville, that measured by the radiometer, because of
Pa. shading by nearby hills and trees. The degree
 MESSINGER C177

of shading is a complex function of the sun adequate. Surface temperatures directly affect
angle, time of year, direction of flow, type and the Q B, Q EJ, and Q H terms of the energy budget.
amount of adjacent vegetation, and surrounding If, for example, during periods of high thermal
topography. radiation, the surface temperature were only
2. Errors were made in windspeed measurements. 1 oc higher than the bulk value, the ( Qi- Q0 )
':~;he average windspeed measured at station 3, term would be increased about 7 percent.
during the last 10 hours of the study period, was In an attempt to determine the causes of the dis-
less than 0.4 miles per hour. Accuracy of the crepancy, separate energy-budget computations were
measurement at such low velocities is question- made ·for each 4-hour period. The results, shown in the
able, because of friction losses in the bearings six curves of figure 104.3, suggest the explanation for
and gear trains. the discrepancy. ·
3. I<:now]edge of water-surface tempe:r:atures, rela- The curves show that the greatest deviation from
tive to the measured bulk temperatures, was in- theory occurred during the daylight hours; especially,
between 1000 and 1400 hours, when the net incoming
radiation was highest (288 cal per cm2 ) . During
the next 4-hour period (QR=211 cal per cm2 ) , the de-
viation was only slightly less. Conversely, the smallest
deviations are noted for the two 4-hour nighttime
periods beginning at 1200 hours ( QR=78 and 81 cal
per cm 2 , respectively).
These observations give greater weight to the possi-
bility of errors in the QR terms and in the ·assumed
water-surface temperatures, as discussed ~hove. On the
other hand, windspeed inaccuracies become somewhat
less important, because the lowest speeds occurred dur-
ing the nighttime hours when deviations ·from the
theory were smallest.
Future energy-budget. studies of streams will center
about the development of more reliable techniques for
evaluating the QR term. The·use of noncontacting, in-
frared thermometry should establish whether or not
temperature differences at the water surface are of suffi-
cient magnitude to affect the energy budget materially.

REFERENCES
Bowen, I. S., 1926, The ratio of heat losses 1by conduction and
by evaporation from any water surface: Phys. Rev., v. 27,
p. 779-787.
Ingersoll, L. R., Zobel, 0. J., and Ingersoll, A. C., 1948, Heat
DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM, IN MILES
conduction, 1st ed.: New Yo·rk, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
278 p.
FIGURE 104.2.-Variation of average stream temperature with U.S. Geologi'Cal Survey, 1954, Water-loss investigations-Dake
distance downstream from station 1 for entire 24-hour study Hefner studies, technical report: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
period. Paper 269, 158 p.
C178 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

0600-1000 HOURS 1000-1400 HOURS 1400-1800 HOURS

' .,
30 October 17, 1962

.......... '·' .........

28
.........
...........
.........
28
'• ---
26 26 26
w
0
<
Q:
(.'l
i=
z 24
w 24 24
u
x,

,1
C/)
w
w
Q:
(.'l
w 22 ___..J 220
I I
0 0 4 6 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
z

~l
30
w
Q: 1800-2200 HOURS 2200-0200 HOURS 0200-0600 HOURS
:::l October 18, 1962 October 18, 1962
1-
<
Q:
w 28
Cl.
:::;:
w
1-

26 26

24

22
0 2
~ 4 6
24

22
0 2 4
x,
6
24

22
0 2 4 6

DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM , IN MILES

FIGURE 104.3.-Variation of stream temperature with distance downstream for various 4-hour study periods. Solid line,
measured temperature ; dashed line, predicted temperature.

l
j
I

I
 Article 105

MOVEMENT OF WATERBORNE CADMIUM

AND HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM WASTES IN SOUTH FARMINGDALE,
NASSAU COUNTY, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK

By N. M. PERLMUTTER; MAXIM LIEBER/ and H. L. FRAUENTHAL; 2

Mineola, N.Y.; and Hempstead, N.Y.

Work done in cooperation with Nassau County Department

o! Health and Nassau County Department of Public Works
.~.

Ab8traot.-A slug of contaminated grouud water ~oving

through glacial outwash and containing as much as 3.7 parts
per million of cadmium and 14 ppm of hexavalent chrominum
was investigated by tes't drilling and Stampling in 1962. The
slug extends abou't 4,200 feet from recharge basins ·at a plating
plant to Mas!sapequa Creek, where pa·rt of the waste disch'arges
na'turaUy and part moves a short distance downgradienit .beneath
and into the stream.

A slug of contaminated ground water containing high

concentrations of cadmium and chromium from plat-
ing wastes, which have been discharged during the past
20 years by an industrial plant in South Farmingdale
in east-central Nassau County, was defined in detail by FIGURE 105.1.-Map of Long Island, N.Y., showing location of
test drilling in 1962 (figs. 105.1 and 105.2). The slug South Farmingdale, Nassau County.
has been mapped four times since 1949 to determine
changes in its size and to follow its course downgradi-
vVe wish to thank all the Nassau County and U.S.
ent. I-Iexavalent chromimum in excess of 0.05 parts per
Geoloaical Survey personnel who participated in the
field a~1d office work, particularly Mr. Charles Kirsner,
million and cadmium in excess of 0.01 ppm are consid-
ered objectionable in public-water supplies (U.S. Pub-
Department of Public. Works who supervised the well-
lic Ifealth Service, 1962), although the cumulative tox-
drilling program, Commissioner Eugene F. Gibbons
a
icity of these metals as result of long-term consump-
and Deputy Commissioner John H. Peters, Nassau
tion by humans n.nd animals is uncertain. Short-term
County Department of Public Works, and Dr. Joseph
ingestion of the metals may produce some ill effects, but
H. IGnnaman, Commissioner, Department of Health,
fortunately much of the contamination seems to be elim- for their support and· interest.
inated from the body by natural processes. Hexavalent chromium was detected first in a supply
1 Assistan't Director, in charge of Sanitation Laboratories, Division of well at the industrial plant in South Farmingdale in
I..aborntories and Research, Nassau County Department of Health.
1942 but no further study was made of the problem for
~:~Hydraulic Engineer, Division of Sanitation and Wn,ter Supply, Nns-
snu County Department of Public Works.
' years owing to a .shortage of personnel durmg
several .

ART. 105 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C179-Cl84. 1963.

0179
C1l80 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

1000 0 1000 2000 FEET

FIGURE 105.2.-Aerial photograph of South Farmingdale area showing extent of contamination in 1962 (ruled area), and
location of sections X-X' and Y-Y' .

World War II. In 1945, seven shallow test wells were treatment plant recommended by the State Health De-
installed, as far as 900 feet south of the plant, by the partment was put into operation at the industrial plant
New York City Department of Water Supply, Gas, and in 1949.
Electricity to investigate the potential hazard to the Because of continued concern over the effectiveness of
city's infiltration gallery at Massapequa, about 3% the treatment for chromium and the fact that cadmium
miles south of the source of contamination. The test and other metals were being removed from the waste
wells, which were bottomed only a short distance below water only incidentally, if at all, the Nassau County
the water table, showed little or no contamination in Departments of Health and of Public Works made a
1945, but a resampling of several of the wells by the series of surveys of the contaminated slug, including
New York State Department of Health in 1948 showed test drilling, in 1949, 1953, 1!>58, and 1962. The results
as much as 3.5 ppm of hexavalent chromium in the o£ the first two surveys were reported by Davids and
water. On the basis of these early studies, a chromium Lieber (1951), Lieber and Welsch (1954), and Welsch
 PERLMUTTER, LIEBER, AND FRAUENTHAL 0181
(1955). Their reports showed that the slug extended containing a trace of silt., and some subordinate .thin
at least 3,600 feet from the plant by 1949. The 1958 scattered lenses of silt and silty clay. The lower 20 to
survey was incomplete and the results were never 30 feet of the unit generally contains more clay than
published. the upper P'art. The total thickness of the upper Pleis-
INVESTIGATION IN 1962 tocene deposits ranges from ·ruoout 80 'to 130 feet. The
The 1962 investigation of the geologic, hydrologic, Magotihy ( ~) Formation consists chiefly of beds and
and chemic•al aspects of •the contaminated water was the lenses of gray fine sand and sandy and silty clay ·con-
most intensive to date. .A!bout 90 ·~t wells were drilled taining ligni·te, some beds of brown fine sand, ·and, in
1

in and near the slug by the Nassau County Department a few places, thin ibeds of coarse sand cont·aining some
of Public Works, and a series of water sa·mpies were col- gravel. The strata of the Magothy( ~) Formation have
lected from Massapequa Creek. The test wells were a lower average permooJbility than· those of the upper
dri}lled in the vicinity of the recharge basins at the Pleistocene deposits, 'because of their higher clay cJon-
plaiting plant, along Motor A venue, Lambert A venue, tent and poorer sort.ing. Neither of the geologic units
FaUwood Parkway, Plitt Avenue, Spielman Avenue, in the report area contains lenses of silt and clay that
Eas't Drive, and in the bed oi' Massapequa Creek and a~ either thick or ex·tensive enough to act as significant
along its 'banks between Spielman and Second A venues hydraulic harriers to ·tihe movement of water. However,
(fig. 105.2). M'OSt of 'the wells were driven with 1%- the lenses of silt and cl'ay doubtless have an import·ant
inch drive points, and ranged in depth from a;bout 8 to geochemical influence on local concentrations of cad-
75 foot. The fin'al depth of the driven wells was suffi- mium and chromium ions.
cient to determin·e ·the full thickness of the slug at m<>St About half the average annual rainfall of 45 inches
loc'tttions. W el'ls were drilled hy ~able tool to depths percolates down to the upper Pleistocene deposits, where
of 97 to 140 feet at 3 sites to check for contamination ·the ground water occurs under unconfined conditions.
in the deeper 1beds and 'to C'Ollect g~ologic samples. The water table, which is the upper surface of the zone
Water samples collected ait 5-foot intervals were of saturation in the ground-water reservoi.r, ranges in
analysed mainly for hexavalent chromium and c~dmium ·depth from about 15 feet below land surface in the
by -the Nassau County Health Department, Division of northern part of the area to within a foot of the land
La!boratories. Hex avalent chrom·i urn was determined surface at Massapequa Creek in the southern part. It
by the use of s-diphenylearbazide and colorimetric com- ·has an average gradient of about 12 feet per mile.
parison, and cadmium was determined by dithizone ex- Water in the underlying Cretaceous deposits is con-
traotion (American Pulblic Health Association and nected hydraulically with the water in the Pleistocene
others, 1960). The chromium determirrations are be- deposits but is increasingly confined at depth by layers
lieved to ·be re'lin;ble to the nearest 0.01 ppm. Because of silt and clay. However, the two geologic units form
the test for cadmium is still considered to he tentative a single aquifer having a wide range in permeability.
owing to prdblems in the analytical procedure that are Water enters the aquifer beneath the South Farming-
probltbly c·a used by interfering ·metallic ions, some doubt dale area by ( 1) direct recharge from rainfall, ( 2)
exists t11bout the reliability of cadmium determinations underflow from the adjoining area to the north, ( 3)
below concentrations of •a;bout 0.05 ppm. Results of return of industria1 waste water through recharge
chemical •and spootrographic analyses of several water · basins, and ( 4) seepage from hnndreds of domestic
samples by the Geological Survey were not availallJle cesspools. The ground water moves generally south-
at the time of preparation of this article. ward (fig. 105.3A.); some discharges into Massapequa
Creek, and some moves as underflow beneath the creek
GEOHYDROLOGIC ENVIRONMENT and the adjoining area. Most of the report area is sup-
The land surfa·ce in the South Farmingdale -area ('fig. plied with water from deep wells owned by the South
105.2) is a gently sloping outwash pl·ain notched by Farmingdale Water District. A small number of home-
several south-flowing shallow tribut•aries of Massape- owners maintain shallow wells that are used for lawn
qua Creek. It ranges in altitude from abou t 40 to 70
1
sprinkling only.
foot rubove sea level and is underlain 'by 2 geologic units
EXTENT AND MOVEMENT OF CONTAMINATION
of significn.nce in this study (fig. 105.3A.) : an upper
w1it of glacial outwash, cn;lled the upper Pleistocene Sampling of the test wells and Massapequa Creek
deposits, and a lower unit of stream deposits of Late shows 'that the contaminated slug of ground water is a
Cretaceous age, called the Magothy ( ~) Formation. The cigar-shaped body in plan view, and extends south from
upper Pleistocene deposits consist chiefly of highly the industrial recharge basins to the valley of Massa-
permeaJble beds of 'brawn fine to coarse sand and gravel pequa Creek, where it is moving slowly downgradient
C182 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

SOUTH NORTH
X ~ X'
... ~
......
Recharae buins-
source of
(/) l;;o
... :::i ~ij
~
II.
~ "'
lC
I
iJ::
zz

Upper
41.23 46.5
~

-
-80
~ §
Contact
-120'
Gravel Sand, alit
and clay
~
142.33 Maaothy(?)
Tlat·wtll. n u m•btr,and
ESl
Send Clay
Direction of
movemtnt
hlld, in feet a.bOVI
mean 111 level
-160'~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~~
A
X

.I.:.

Maaothy(?) Formation

-1~u··~--------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------------~

M••othy(?) Formation --.

-120'.'-----------------------------------------------=----------------------------~--------------_____J
c
0 400 800 1200 1600 FEET

FIGURE 105.3.-Sections showing geology and direction of movement of ground water (A.), and lines of equal chromium (B)
and cadmium (0) content, in parts per million, along line X-X' (fig. 105.2) in 1962. Contaminated water body shaded.
1..
.. ,
into and beneath the stream (figs. 105.2 and 105.3 B, 0). cadmium in a plane oriented along the approximate
The slug was about 4,200 feet long and had a maximum direction of flow in the center of the slug. The maxi-
width of about 1,000 foot in 1962. It is elongated gen- mum concentration of hexavalent chromium de·tected in
erally in the direction of natural ground-water flow and 1962 was 14 ppm at well23 near Spielman Avenue, and
is widest near Spielman Avenue. The width of the slug the maximum cadmium content was 3.7 ppm at well 67,
actually doubles in a distance of 2,700 feet between a short distance south of the recharge basins. Figure
Motor and Spielman Avenues, owing largely to dis- 105.3B shows that the concentration of hexavalent
persion. Further widening of the slug is apparently chromium is decreasing at the north end of the slug, and
deterred by Massapequa Creek, which acts hydraulically comparison of figures 105.3B and 105.30 shows that the
as a line sink or line discharge and hence deflects the chromium ions have migrated farther south than the
flow from its original path. The slug narrows consider- cadmium ions. Chemical analyses made in 1962 of the
ably a:t its southern extremity as it moves beneath the treated effluent from the plating plant show that the
valley toward points of discharge in Massapequa Creek. effluent is generally relatively free of hexavalent chro-
, Section X-X' (fig. 105.3 B, 0) shows the vertical mium but- at times contains as much as 3.5 ppm of
extent and concentration of hexavalent chromium and cadmium.
 PERLMUTTER, LIEBER, AND FRAUENTHAL C183
Section Y-Y' (fig. 105.4) shows the concentration of. The public-supply wells nearest the contaminated
hexavalent chromium beneath Lambert Avenue in a slug are those of the South Farmingdale Water District
vertical plane approximately perpendicular to the di- (fig. 105.2). The wells are screened to a depth of about
rection of ground-water flow. Two centers of contami- 150 to 600 feet in the Magothy ( ~) Formation and,
nation are illustrated on the section. The main center owing to their depth and the direction of movement of
is near the intersection of Woodward Parkway and· the slug, are in no danger of contamination now or in
Lambert Avenue. A second and smaller center of con- the foreseeable future under present hydraulic condi-
tamination at the east end of the section may be due to tions. No general-purpose domestic wells are known to
relatively minor leakage from one of the plating build- be in use in the present path of the slug. The Massa-
ings east of the main line of flow from the recharge pequa infiltration gallery, which serves as a standby
basins. source of water for New York City, is about 2lh miles
The 1962 survey showed for the first time that the south of the southern extremity of the slug. No water
contamination had not only reached Massapequa Creek has been drawn from the gallery since February 1958.
but was present in the stream as well as in the beds be- Because of the great dilution of the slug after it dis-
. neath it. The maximum concentration of hexavalent charges into Massapequa Creek, no significant concen-
chromium in Massapequa Creek was 2.1 ppm, about trations of metallic contaminants have reached or are
300 feet north of Tomes Avenue (fig. 105:2), and a likely to reach the vicinity of the gallery via the stream.
concentration of 0.01 ppm was found in a sample from Also, the opportunity for dilution, by millions of gal-
the creek about a mile south of Southern State Park- lons of fresh ground water, of any remnant of the slug
way. The maximum load of hexavalent chromium car- which might move to the gallery as underflow suggests
ried by the stream was calculated to be about 4.5 pounds that potential operation of the gallery in the future
per day at 2d A venue. The cadmium concentration in should not be seriously influenced by this source of
the stream ranged from 0 to 0.07 ppm north of Southern contamination.
State Parkway; it was not detectable south of Southern Because of the slow rate of ground-water flow, the
State Parkway. age of the contaminated water in different parts of the

WEST

y
,... rt) Land surface......., ~ C\1
6o·~F=~~==========~======~==========~=======F~==~F=====~=======+====~==+===1
Water table
r- ~ o:oi "< 0.01-- - -·- --- - - - - - - - - - ::-:.- -"0:07--o ~ ..:::-: 2.2~- --=---=- t-:-9o-:::-::.. - .:.. -=- ,cn-.o l --::------t..,o....l. o,_.7--+-o·.3~=-1, ::-- ~-~
40 .~r·<~o~~.o~t~<o.o~1~~---_-_--_·----+~4.-~oo_-
<0.01 2.5o
____~~< °~~~!~--~~--'.'_,~'~o.o~f~·~--~·~2~~~~:----~t.~2~·~=·-~~~-~-=9~·0~·
73.89 , __ ,<.o·:o(. 2.1o: . ( <o.o1
52~=-~~t.~~~~~o.3~o~'+~<wol.o~ll
< 0.01 -< 0.01 <o.o1 < .
<0.01 0
<0.01 <0.01 2.25 3.75 o:jo·. .(80 . ~~01 < 0.01
<0.01
< 0.01
<0.01
·< 0.01
0 01
< 0.01
< 0.01
3.00 3.13 .S.SQ--, '330. ··. 0.2f.', < 0.01
<0.01 <0.01
<0.01 <0.01 2.40 3.89 / ~ }.so· · ,: 4)if :·o.sci · ., < 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
20' < 0.01
<0.01 <0.01 I < 0.01 <0.01
I <0.01 <0.01
<0.01 < O.Ql I
<0.01 <0.01
I < 0.01 <0.01
< 0.01 <0.01
SEA <0.01 '' < 0.01
.l. LEVEL ', o,48 / <O.or---_
0 L4o' .7 <o.o 1 < 0.01
' ...... _______
8:dg .. /~ ~8:81 - <-o:ol--
<0.01

-20'
50 0 50 100 150 FEET

FIGURE 105.4.-Section along line Y-Y' (fig. 105.2) showing concentration of hexavalent chromium and lines of equal
chromium content, in parts per million, in wells along Lambert Ave., South Farmingdale, Nassau County, N.Y., in 1962.

,,.
C184 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

slug may span a 10-year interval or more, and is greatest water from the .plating plant. However, because of
to the south. The concentrations of hexavalent chro- the !Slow rate of movement of the ground water and
mium and cadmium reflect transient conditions. Those th~ slowness- of dilution by fresh ground-water re-
concentrations observed in_1~~2 are the result of past charge, it might be 10 to 15 years before the contam-
and .present intermittent recharge of varying concen- inated water could be completely flushed out under
trations a_nd quantities of plating .wastes, dilution by natural c~u'ditio~s, e~en if the treatment were lOO-per-
rain!all and. ground-water underflow., adsorption of cent effectiye.
contaminants on mineral grajns, particularly cJay mi~­ REFERENCES
erals,. and disch~rge into Massapequa .Creek. Concen:-. American. Public Health Association and others, 1960, Standard
trations of the Gontaminants in most parts of the sl1:1g methods for the examination of water and waste water,
ar~ .generally much lower than in previous years, al- 11th ed.: New York, Am. Public Health Assoc., Inc., 626 p.
though· the overall shape and dime~sions of the slug Davids, H. W., and Lieber, ··Maxim, 1951, Underground water
contamination by chromium_ wastes: Water and Sewage
have :not changed appredably since 1949, except for Works, v. 98, no. 12, p. 528-534:
substantial wi~ening at Spielman A venue and move- Lieber, Maxim, and Welsch, F. W., 1954, Contamination of
ment into a:nd beneath Massapequa Creek and vicinity. grou~d water 'by cadmium: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour.,
Contempl~ted improveil).ents in treatment procedures. v. 46,~no. 6, p. 541-547.
at. the plating. plant may result in further reduction U.S. Public Health Service, 1962, Drinking water standards:
'Federal Register, Mar. 6, p. 2152-2155.
in the conge:Qtration, if not elimina~ion, of most .of the Weise~, F, W., i955,· Ground..:water pollution !from industrial
co:ntaminants, including cadmium and other minor con- · wastes: Sewage and Industrial Wastes, v. 27, 'no. 9, ·p. 1065- .1..
stituents s1,1ch as nickel, copper, and cyanide in_the waste 1069.

-~

...._

_J.
 Artide 106

EFFECT OF URBANIZATION ON STORM DISCHARGE AND (?ROUND-WATER RECHARGE

IN NASSAU COUNTY, NEW YORK

By R. M. SAWYER, Mineola, N.Y.

Work done in cooperation with the Nassau Oounty Department of Public Works

A.bstract.-Urbanlzation in the East Meadow Brook drainage In order to test the change in regimen of streams, two
basin has decreased recharge to the ground-water reservoir streams were ehosen for study (fig. 106.1) -one af-
from which most water supplies on Long Island are taken. The
fected by urbanization (East Meadow Brook at Free-
loss of recharge during the period 1952-60 was equivalent to
u:bout 63,000 gallons per day. port), and one unaffected (Mill Neck Creek at Mill
Neck) . East Meadow Brook flows south through a
highly urbanized section of housing developments, shop-
N·assau County; N.Y., on Long Island, is one of the
fastest growing counties in the Nation. The large ex-
pansion of housing and highway construction, with the
ensuing replacement of permeable surfaces by impervi-
ous ones, has red~.ICed infiltration of precipitation to the
water table. A dual problem is created by this rapid
urbanization-loss of replenishment of underground
water supplies, and collection and disposal of storm
waters. SUFFOLK
The change from a rural to a suburban environment
COUNTY
was accompanied hy a program. of storm-sewer con-
struction. A system of short ~ewer lines and seepage 40°
45'
basins prc;n:ides ·a means o~ water co~servation com- QUEENS

parable in effectiveness to natural surface conditions. COUNTY NASSAU

Storm runoff is carried through relatively sh9rt sewer COUNTY
lines. to excavated. collecting pasins termed "r~charge
basins". ~rom these basins the water percolates down
through the underlying natural deposits of sand and
gravel and enters the ground-water reservoi.r ·from
which most water supplies ·on Long Island a~ taken.
Recharge basins m!ly ·be used in the interior of the ATLANTIC OCEAN
island where the depth to water table is as ·much as 200
feet. Near the south shore, however, the depth to water
0 5 10 15 MILES
table· decreases, becoming very shallow at the· shore. I i I i I I
I I
In the near-shore areas ·there is at present no'·other re- FIGURE 106.1.-Map showing the drainage basins of East Meadow
course than to discharge storm-water runoff to streams . Brook and Mill Neck Creek in Nassau County, N.Y. Triangles
or to Great South Bay. ·are stream-gaging stations.

ART. 106 I_N l!·S· GEO~. S~RYEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C185-C187. 1963.

0185
 C186 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

ping centers, and light industrial areas. Mill Neck Annual precipitation data for Mineola, the station
Creek, on the other hand, flows north through an area nearest the headwaters of both streams, are given in
consisting mostly of large estates and a few farms. table 106.1. The annual precipitation for the period
Gaging stations on both streams have the same length 1952-60 averaged 47.40 inches, an increase of 4.09 inches,
of record, 1938 to 1960. or 9.4 percent, over the 1938-51 average of 43.31 inches.
The following population figures prepared by the Annual mean discharge of both East Meadow Brook
Nassau County Planning Commission (1959 ). show the an~ Mill Neck Creek (table 106.1) shows an increase in
increase in population in the drainage basins of the two the average for the- period 1952-60, as compared with
streams in the period 1950-55 : 1938-51, due at least in part· to the increase in precipita-
Drainage basin Popu~ation tion.
1950 1955 Figures for direct discharge, as a percentage of total
East]deadowBrook ________________________ 43,821 101,019
]dill Neck Creek _______________________.____ 12, 120 15, 727 discharge (table 106.1) were obtained by subtracting
the base flow from the quantity shown on the discharge
In the densely populated East Meadow Brook basin hydr9graph during periods of direct runoff. The\base
(about 10 square miles) population increased about 130 flow during these periods was estimated from the base
percent in the 5-year period 1950-55, while in the Mill flow before and after the storm. Mill Neck Creek shows
Neck Creek basin (about 31 square miles) it increased no break in trend in these figures for the period of rec-
only about 30 percent. ord.~· East Meadow Brook shows.no break jn trend for
The data in table 106.1 indicate that ;thi~ increase in the period up to 1951, but shows a new upward trend
population in the East Meadow Brook drainage basin starting with 1952. ·In several years prior to 1951
probably occurred mostly in the periC}a 1951-52. There (1938, 1939, 19'40, 1942, 1945; 1947, 19.49) the percentage
was a slight increase previously in the immediate post- of direct discharge for Mill Neck Creek is larger than
war years of 1945 and 1946. Peak discharge for Mill that for East Meadow Brook, but after 1951, the Mill
Neck Creek shows no apparent change in trend over the Neck Creek percentage in every year is considerably
years, while that of East Meadow Brook shows an in- below that for East Meadow Brook.
creasing or rising trend starting about 19~2. Average annual total, direct, and base runoff for both
streams for the periods 1938-51 and 1952-60 are shown
TABLE 106.1.-A.nnuaJ precipitation at Mineola and diltcharge of
in table 106.2. At Mill Neck Creek, the increases in
Mill Neck Creek and EaBt Meadow Brook
percentage of total runoff, direct runoff, and base run-
Peak discharge Annual mean Direct discharge, off are similar, ranging from 6.1 to 7.3 percent, and are
(cfs) discharge (cfs) in percentage of
Precipi- total discharge closely comparable to the 9.4 percent increase in precipi-
Water year tation at
Mineola tation. At East Meadow Brook, on the other hand,
(inches) Mill East Mill East Mill East
Neck Meadow Neck Meadow Neck Meadow total runoff increased 1.15 inches, or 15.8 percent; direct
Creek Brook Creek Brook Creek Brook
- ----- ----- ---- runoff increased 0.80 inch, or 123.1 percent; base runoff
938••. - -------- 57.88 86 149 9.25 • 16.19 13.2 9.0 i-ncreased 0.35 inch, or only 5.3 percent. The changes
1939_______ ----- 36.32 36.6 72 10 ..41 21.35 7.0 5.6
1940________ ---- 42.01 38.7 130 9.77 15.28 8.5 8.1 at East Meadow Brook are probably due to the change
941. •• --------- 38.97 76.1 (1) 9.01 14.29 7.4 7.6
1942
1943 ____ --------
____________ 46.90 50.1 121 8.70 13.35 12.4 12.2 in land surface from pervious to impervious material as
38.76 32.6 78 9.09 16.03 5.9 6.5
1944 ________ - --- 49.20 104 297 9.60 18.31 13.8 14.9 well as to the increase in precipitation. .
945 _______ - ---- 45.51 61.8 74 9.98 16.74 9.3 7.6
946 ____________ 46.16 46.7 129
105
10.44 18.23
13.05
8.2
6.7
8.7
6:4
Base runoff is the discharge from the shallow, water-
1947------------ 32.60 31.6 9.11
1948________ ---- 50.43 51.9 190 9.99 20.87 8.9 9.9 table aquifer. In and near the East Meadow Brook
949 ____________
47.98 40.8 134 10.28 21.19 8.8 8.7
950••.__________
1951.. --------- 33.77
39.91
21.6
39.0
170
100
8.32
8.49
12.94
15.02
5.9·
8.1
7.9
10.6
drainage b~sin, ground-w~ter. pumpage _is almost en-
- - ---- - - - - - - - - - - tirely from the deeper, confined Magothy( ~) Fo~ma­
14-year aver-
age ___________
43.31 -------- ---------- 9.46 16.63 -------- ---------- tion. ;Increased pumpage, theref<;>re, would have only
- ----- ----- ----- ---- a slight net effect on the water table. Moreover, sewers
952 _______ - ---- 57.11 44.2 224 10.70 22.04 8.3 14.5
1953__________ --
954 ____________ 47.20 56.8 234 10.59 20.61 8.5 13.6 ,were not built in .this ~rea prior to 1960 an~ most. of
955 ____________ 45.02 67.8 270 9.46 14 .. 90 9.0 19.0
48.45 135 355 9.88 20.52 11.4 19.3 the ground-water -pump.ed was, therefore, returned to
956... --------- 43.70 59.6 185 10.75 22.02 7.3 11.8
1957------------
958 ____________
36.33 68.8 170
172
9.23 15.30 6.4
9.9·
13.0
19.. 4
the water table bY. septic t~nks a11d .cesspools. ·Con-
959 ____________ 57.64 61.7 "10.72 21.18
960 ____________ 38.74
. 52.44
30.9
137
250
835
9.70
10.2
18.42
18.3.
6.7
11.7·
16.0
"28.9
sumptive use ·in this area is llOt a: significant factor.;
- - - --- - ----- ---- --- hence, the difference in base flow between these two
47.40 ................ --------·- 10.1
9-year average __ 19.3 -------- ..........................
drainage basins is due to increased direct runoff in the
1 Not computed.
-East Meadow Brook basin. ·
 SAWYER Cl87
TAnLE 106.2.-.Aver·a,ge annual precipitation at Mineola and Had total runoff and direct runoff at East Meadow
r1mofj ot MiZZ Neck Creek and Ea8t .Meadow Brook
(All figures aro in inches per year unless otherwise indicated)
Brook increased at about the same rate as at Mill Neck
Creek, the increase of base runoff at both streams should
Runoff of Mill Neck Runoff of East Meadow have been comparable. It appears, therefore, that 2
J?rocip- Creek Brook
itation percent of the base runoff at East Meadow ·Brook-or 2
Total Direct Base 'rotal Direct Base percent of the recharge to the ground-water reservoir-
- - - - - - - - - - - -- 6.64
4 yoars (1938-51) ______ 43.31
- has been lost because of the change in the land surface.
1 11.17 0.99 10.18 7.29 0.65
9 yoars (195:3-60) _______ 47.40 11.97 1.05 10.92 8.44 1.45 6.99
Incroaso. __ ------------ 4.09 .so .06 .74 1.15 .so .35 This loss amounts to 0.1328 inch per year, or 63,000
Incroaso, in porcont ____ 9.4 7.2 6.1 7.3 15.8 123.1 5.3 gallons per day.
REFERENCE
Nassau County Planning Commission, 1959, Population analysis
for ~assau County, State of New York.

\ '•'I

694-027 0-63--13
Article 107

MAPPING TRANSMISSIBILITY OF ALLUVIUM IN THE

LOWER ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY, ARKANSAS

By M. S. BEDINGER and L. F. EMMETI, Little Rock; Ark.

Work ~one in cooperation with the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers

A.bstraot.-Areal differences in transmissibility were mapped in figure 107.2, which is based on a modified version of
by using information from aquifer tests, specific-capacity tests, the Thiem equation for determining the coefficient of
and lithologic logs. Aquifer-test results served as a basis for
estimating transmissibility from specific capacity, and labdl"a-
transmissibility, T, in gallons per day per foot (Ferris
tory determinations of the relation of permeability to grain size and others, 1962, p. 91) :
were used in estimating transmissibility from lithologic logs.

i.
(1)
Areal differences in transmissibility of the alluvial
aquifer in the lower Arkansas River valley have been
mapped as a prerequisite to construction of an electric- where Q is the well discharge, in gallons per minute,
analog model (Robinove, 1962; Stallman, 1963) of the and 8 1 and 8 2 are the drawdowns, in feet, at distances
alluvial aquifer in an area about 20 miles wide along r 1 and 8 2 , in feet, respectively, from the axis of the
the Arkansas River from Little Rock, Ark., to the pumped well.
Mississippi River. (fig. 107.1). If r 2 is assumed to be the radius at which 8 2 is zero, the
The coefficient of transmissibility of the alluvial equation may be written as
aquifer at 26 sites in and near the area was known from
T= 527.7 52 log 10 c~)·
aquifer tests made during this and previous studies. (2)
The aquifer-test results were used as a basis for estimat- . 81 r1
ing transmissibility from the specific capacity of wells,
and laboratory determinations of the relation of per- Then, if 8 1 is assumed to be the dra wdown at the casing
meability to grain size were used in estimating of the well (where r 1 is the radius of the well), the term
transmissibility from lithologic logs. Q I 81 is approximately equal to the specific capacity of
The specific capacity of a well is computed from the the well. The distance r2 is given by the following
yield and drawdown,. measured after equilibrium con- equation (modified from Ferris and others, 1962, p.
ditions have been reached, and usually is expressed in 100) :
gallons per minute per foot of drawdown. For wells of 0.30Tt
equal diameter and equal efficiency, the specific capacity r2 2=-s--' (3)
is directly proportional to the transmissibility of the
aquifer. Even where the efficiency is variable, the spe- where tis the time in days since pumping started, Sis
cific capacity affords a reasonably good rough measure the storage coefficient of the well, and r2 and 1' are as
of the ability of the aquifer to transmit water. previously defined.
Specific-capacity tests were made on 54 wells in and Values of r 2 were computed for various times from
near the project area. The specific-capacity values were the average transmissibility an.d storage coefficients as
converted to transmissibility values by using the graph determined from the 26 aquifer tests. The use of aver-
ART. 107 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAPER C188-Cl90. 1963.
0188
 BEDINGER AND EMMETT C189
EXPLANATION
N
Control point
Well used in making aquifer
test or specific-capacit'll test,
or test hole for which lithologic
log is available

I
It'
T. ~
~
<100

200-300
-•
1 00-:m

>300
Coefficient of transmis-
sibility, in thousands of
gallons per day per f~t

D
Area underlain by older
rocks having low coeffi-
cient of transmissibility

R.t W.

10 0 10 20 MILES

FIGURE 107.1.-Transmissibility of the alluvial aquifer in the lower Arkansas River val'ley.

age values for T and S in equation 3 has little effect on which is dependent upon the well diameter and duration
the T value computed from equation 2 because the ratio of pumping.
r2h\ enters equation 2 as the log1o· The value of r2 from Lithologic logs of 135 test holes in the area were
equation 3 was used to compute the term 527.7 log1o obtained and 59 samples were analyzed by the Survey's
( ?'2/r1). This wns done for various pumping durations hydrologic laboratory for particle-size distribution and
and well radii (fig. 107.2). permeability. The follmving table, which shows the
The graph in figure 107.2 was used to determine the range in field coefficient of penneability for various
transmissibility at the sites of the 54 specific-capacity types of material, has been derived from the relation
tests in the study area by multiplying the specific capac- between grain size and permeability in the Arkansas
ity of the well, QI 81, by a factor '527.7 log1o ( r2/r1), River valley (Bedinger, 1961).
 C190 GROUND WATER

3000 judgment in examination of the drill cuttin,gs. How-

ever, with experience in an area, one generally can esti-
2800
mate permeability by this method with fair to good
- accuracy.

---~rLL
The three methods of computing transmissibility-
0
2400
~ aquifer tests, specific-capacity tests, and estimates from

~~~~~~ L---CJ--~~
(.!)
0
lithologic logs-were used in the preparation of figure
...J

"N,...: ~
107.1. This map, which shows the areal differences in ··t
2200
'
:.--
I()

~~~
1_...;---:.-:.-~ transmissibility in the alluvial deposits, was the basis
for selecting the resistors used in constructing an
2000
electric-analog model of the area.
1800
4
I 10 30 100
This technique of mapping areal differences in trans-·
missibility should be applicable in many areas. How-
DURATION OF TEST, IN DAYS
ever, the permeability values for different types of mate-
FrGUl~E 107.2.-Values of 527.7 log10(r2/rt) for selected well rial and the values of 527.7 log1o ( r2/r1) given above
diameters and durations of pumping. are not necessarily applicable to other areas. Com-
parisons between field and laboratory determinations
of permeability should be made and values adjusted
Permeability of alluvial materials of the Arkansas River valley
as needed for each area in order to apply this technique
[Gallons per day per square foot] Field
coefficient of elsewhere. :~.
Material permeability
Sand, very coarse, and very fine graveL _________ 6, 000-15, 000 REFERENCES
Sand, very coarse------------------------------ 3,000-9,000 Bedinger, l\L S., 1961, Relation between median grain size and
Sand coarse and very coarse------------------- 1, 500-- 4, 000 permeability in the Arkansas River valley, Arkansas: Art.
Sand: coar~e---------------------------------- 800- 2,000 157 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-C, p. C31-C32.
Sand, medium and coarse______________________ 400-- 1, 000 •'i

s·and, medium_________________________________ 200-- 500 Ferris, J. G., Knowles, D. B., Brown, R. H., and Stallman, R. ,V,,
1962, Theory of aquifer tests: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-
Sand, fine and medium_________________________ 100- 250
Sand, fine_____________________________________ 50- 140 Supply Paper 1536--E, p. 69-174.
Sand, very fine and fine________________________ 20- 60 Robinove, C. J., 1962, Ground-water studies and analog models:
U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 468, 12 p.
Sand, very fine--------~----------------------- 10- 30
Stallman, R. W., 1963, Oalculation of resistivity and error
In using such tables to estimate transmissibility from in an electric analog of steady flow through nonhomogene-
lithologic logs, the choice of permeability within the ous aquifers: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1544-
indicated range for a given material involves subjective G,20p.
•.
· Article 108

SNOWMELT HYDROLOGY OF THE NORTH YUBA RIVER BASIN, CALIFORNIA

~·

By S. E. RANTZ, Menlo Park, Calif.

Work done in cooperation with Oalifontia Department of Water Resources

Abstract.-Formulas previously derived for computing daily March and .early April of each of those years, and daily
snowmelt during the melting season in three small mountain meteorological observations of the 'Veather Bureau
watersheds were tested in the North Yuba River basin, a larger,
gaged watershed. Observed and synthesized hydrographs com-
duringthe snowmelt seasons, were used in the formulas
pared well, but they showed that better estimates of snowmelt to compute synthetic records of daily discharge of the
can be made when the snowpack is heavy than when it is light. North Yuba River at the gaging station.
Many preliminary steps were necessary before the
snowmelt formulas could be applied. Because of its
Formulas for estimating snowmelt runoff from moun-
wide range in altitude, the basin was divided into 1,000-
tainous river basins were derived in an intensive
foot altitude zones, and the area and percentage of
cooperative investigation of three small laboratory
forest cover for each zone ''"ere determined from topo-
watersheds in the ~ierra Nevada by the U.S. Army,
graphic maps. From snow-survey data a relation was
Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Weather Bureau
obtained between altitude and the water equivalent of
during the years 1945-56. Other Federal agencies were
the snowpack at the start of each melt season. The
minor participants in the investigation; the author, as
snowmelt formulas require daily values of many me-
a representative of the U.S. Geoloo-ical Survey was
• t:l ' teorological elements of which only air temperature
assigned as an analyst.
and precipitation are observed in the ~Tort.h Yuba. River
The formulas are based on physical laws of heat
basin. It was necessary, therefore, to transpose records
exchange, and contain constants that account for the
from other '~rea.ther Bureau stations, or to derive by
effect of environmental influences such as forest cover
other means the daily values of such elements as dew-
and basin exposure.· These formulas, and the theory
point, windspeed, solar radiation, and snow-suface
upon which they are based, are not discussed here, but
albedo.
an excellent treatment of the subject appears in a sum-
After all the necessary meteorological elements were
mary report of the snow investigations (U.S. Army,
obtained, either by observation or by synthesis, the
Corps of Engineers, 1956) and in a condensed version
snowmel.t in eaeh altitude zone was eomputed. The
of that report (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 1960).
formulas were used to compute the daily magnitude of
This article describes a study to test the applicability
the various component.s of snowmelt; namely, the melt
of the derived formulas to larger river basins.
from short-wave and long-wave radiation, eonvection,
The 245-square-mile basin of the North Yuba River
condensation, and rain, and the melt at the ground sur-
upstream from the Geological Survey gaging station
face. These melt components were added together and
below Goodyears Bar, Calif., in the Sierra Nevada, was
routed to the gaging s,tat.ion as runoff (Carter and God-
selected for testing, partly because the river is unregu-
frey, 1960). The maximum snowmelt computed for
lated and partly because the altitude of its watershed
any one day was 2 inches. Rain that falls on a melting
ranges widely (2,450 to 8,590 feet above sea level).
snowpack is transmitted t.hrough the snow with only
Three years were selected for study: 1956 and 1958,
when the snowpack was the heaviest of the last decade, minor lag; therefore, any rain that fell during the melt
and 1959, when the snowpack was the lightest of the period was added to the snowmelt for that day. As a
last decade. The snow-survey data collected in late final step, the daily increment of. melt water, in inches,

ART. 108 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES Cl91-Cl93. 1963.
0191

~··
C192 SURFACE WATER

produced in each altitude zone was converted to equiva- component of river discharge (Carter and Godfrey,
lent depth of water over the entire basin. It is this 1960, p. 102). The daily increment of surface runoff
equivalent depth of water that is considered in the was routed by using unit hydrographs. In the years
following paragraphs. of heavy snowfall, 1956 and 1958, the ratio of com-
Because the rate (inches per hour) at which snow puted base flow to computed surface runoff was 5 to 3;
melts is slow, and because large parts of the basin be- in the year of light snowfall, 1959, this ratio was 14 to 1.
come bare of snow as the season progresses, a large part The computed daily values of base flow and surface run-
of the melt reaches the river as subsurface flow. Con- off were added together to give the synthesized total
sequently it was necessary to separate the melt and streamflow for each day·of the three snowmelt seasons.
rainwater into surface runoff and subsurface flow and Figure 108.1 is a comparison of synthesized and ob-
route each separately to the gaging station. After a served .daily discharge.
few trial computations the following assumptions were The observed and the synthesized graphs agree satis-
adopted as criteria for this separation : factorily, in general, thereby a-ttesting to the soundness
1. Throughout the melt season, the daily evapotran- of the method used. It is not surprising that the syn-
spiration loss is 0.10 inch. thesized discharge is too high during most of the snow-
2. When the snowline is at or below an· altitude of deficient year, 1959, when observed daily discharge
6,000 feet, the daily infiltration is 0.45 inch. ranged from a low of 750 cubic feet per second to a
3. When the snowline is between 6,000 and 7,000 feet high of only 1,300 cf. Whenever the snowpack is very
in altitude, the daily infiltration is 0.35 inch. light, many areas within the snowfield soon become bare
4. When the snow line is above an altitude of 7,000 of snow. As the depth and water content of the snow
feet, the daily infiltration is 0.25 inch. are measured at snow courses, which are few in number
5. The surface-runoff increment is the difference be- and are mostly in sheltered sites, the estimate of water
tween available supply and infiltration. (On those content of the snow over the basin tends to be too high.
days when infiltration exceeds available supply, the
The hydrographs of synthesized and observed runoff
surface runoff is zero and the increment to ground
would undoubtedly have agreed more closely in all
water is the difference between available supply and
3 years had there been a wider coverage of snow- :~'
evapotranspiration loss. On days when surface runoff
occurs, the increment to ground water is the difference measurement data and weather data within the basin.
between infiltration and loss.) REFERENCES
6. There is a 5-day time lag between the infiltration
Carter, R. W., and Godfrey, R. G., 1960, Storage and flood
of snowmelt or rain and the arrival of this infiltrated
routing: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1543-B.
water in the ground-water reservoir. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 1956, Snow hydrology, Summary
The daily increment of water reaching the ground- report of the snow investigations: Portland, Oreg., North
water body was routed to the gaging station by a sim- Pacific Division.
ple reservoir-type procedure to give the base-flow - - 1960, Runoff from snowmelt: Eng. Manual 1110-2-1406.

-~

..
 RANTZ C193

4000 \
\
\
\
v
11956 1
0 0
z ~
0 2000 r
u -<
w
(f) s:
Ct:
rn
)>
w 2
CL

1- 0 6000 0
w (jj
w ()
lJ._
I
)>
u :::0
CD G)
::J rn
u 4000 -_
I 2
z I
l ()
w 1958 c
<.9 '/ CD
Ct: I ()
<X: I
I 2000 "T1
u
(f)

0
Observed
/'
SyntheSii'":d f
"
/-
;",
' ...... --- rn
rn
--!
-u
z rn
<X: :::0
w
~
2000 0 (f)
rn
>-
_J
()
0
~ 2
0 0

1000 11959 1

FIGURE 108.1.-Synthesized and observed daily runoff during the snowmelt seasons, North Yuba River below Goodyears
Bar, Calif.
Article 109

FIELD VERIFICATION OF COMPUTATION OF

PEAK DISCHARGE THROUGH CULVERTS

By C. T. JENKINS, Denver, Colo.

A.bstract.-Tests on a battery of five 58- by 36-inch pipe-arch rectangular in cross section; the larger ·models include;d
culverts show that, for the range tested, agreement is good be- corrugated pipe arches. Carter (1957, p. 19) specified
tween measured discharges and those computed indirectly from
that his type-VI coefficients apply to pipe ·arches, but
studies of small-scale models.
did not state whether or not his type-II coefficients -t
J

apply to shapes other than those tested. In practice,

Tests made at a battery of five pipe-arch culverts they are used for pipe arches as well as for circular
indicate good agreement between results of indirect sections.
methods for computation of peak discharge at culverts Each of the culverts below Lake Granby was a 58-
and the results of current-meter measurements made by 36-inch standard corrugated metal pipe arch 51 feet
under the most favorable conditions.· The tests were long. The culverts were about 9 feet apart center-to-
made on the Colorado River about a mile downstream center, and were laid on slopes ranging from 0.004 to
from Lake Granby, Colo., during March and April 0.01. The entrance projections ranged from 1.2 to 2.8
1962. The methods of indirect computation are those feet from the embankment. The openings differed only
outlined by Carter ( 1957), based on laboratory model slightly from the standard dimensions and shape given
tests made by the U.S. Geological Survey at Georgia by the manufacturer.
Institute of Technology and on the results of previous During the test period, four discharges were held
tests by other investigators. steady long enough for flow to stabilize through the
Carter ( 1957, p. 2 ·and pl. 1) identified six types of culverts. Each flow was measured with a current meter
flow, classified according to the factor or factors that at an excellent measuring section just below the lake. .....
control the discharge through the culvert, and defined Surveys were made of the geometry of the culverts and.
coefficients of discharge for each type for a large range the approach section and of water-surface elevations
in entrance geometry. Generally, flow conditions in a for each flow. Values of the dis~harges computed as
culvert at the time of peak discharge are not observed outlined by Carter (1957, p. 2-10, 14) are shown in the
in the field, nnd the flow type must be deduced from accompanying table. Oa.rter (1957, pl. 1) indicated
criteria based on culvert geometry and relative eleva- that type-VI flow occurs only when the ratio of the
tions of high-water marks. However, during the tests height (h1. -z) of water a;bove the upstream invert to
below Lake Granby it was possible to classify the flow the diameter (D) of the culvert is greater than 1.5;
types by observation as Carter's types II and VI. The type-V flow was observed in the field in all five culverts
control for type II is critical depth at the outlet; for when (h1-z)jD ranged from 1.34 to 1.45. However,
type VI, entrance and harrel geometry. Carter's co- Carter implied that the ( ~- z) I D criterion is not in-
efficients for type-II flow are based generally on tests flexible, because he listed coefficients for "high-head"
on models with barrel diameters of 4 to 6 inches, and flow for ( ~- z) I D ratios as small as 1.3.
/
those for type VI on tests on models 18 to 36 inches in Agreement between computed and measured dis-
diameter. The small models were either circular or charge is good, indicating that, within the range tested,

ART •. 109 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C194-C195. 1963.
0194
 JENKINS C195

no serious error is introduced by applying the ·results Comparison oj measured and computed discharge tor five
culverts
of model tests to prototypes much larger than the model,
and in some instances, substantially different in shape. Type of flow 1 Discharge
1-Iowever, similar field tests on other prototypes, es- Range of (h1-z)/D
Observed From Measured Computed Difference
pecially at larger ( h1 -z) I D ratios, would be required to in field Carter's (cfs) (cfs) (percent)
criteria
confirm completely the results of the model study.
During such tests, the type of flow should be noted so II II 244 246;
0.92-1.03_----- :+0. 8
that criteria for flow classification, as well as discharge .99-1.10_------ II II 275 '268. -2.5
coefficients, can be tested. 1.34-1.45_----- VI -------- 373 374 + .3
] .34-1.45_----- -------- II 373 354 -5.1
REFERENCE
1.58-1.69_----- VI VI 413 445 ·j'
+7. 8

Carter, R. W., 1957, Computation of peak discharge at culverts: 1 Types of flow described by Carter (1957).
U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 376.

...
 Article 110

USE OF LOW-FLOW MEASUREMENTS TO ESTIMATE FLOW-DURATION CURVES

By OLIVER P. HUNT, Albany, N.Y.

Work done in cooperation with New York State Department of Public Works

A.bstract.-Flow-duration curves for streams where only a few on the basis of nine selected base-flow discharge mea-
low-flow measurements are av.ailable can be estimated on the surements. The dates and discharges used are shown
basis of nearby gaged streams. The low-flow measurements
in oolumns 1 and 2 of table 110.1 Columns 3 and 4 are
must be ma.de under base-flow conditions. A new technique is
described for estimating low flows under these conditions. corresponding daily discharges from Tenmile River and
Fishkill Creek, respectively. Columns 5 and 6 show
the percentage of time that discharges in columns 3 and
Flow-duration curves for streams where only a few 4 were equaled or exceeded, obtained from base-period
low-flow measurements have been made can be estimated duratiQn curves of daily flow for the Tenmile River
by relating the discharge of these measurements to the and Fishkill Creek gaging stations.
concurrent discharge at gaging stations on one or more Two independent duration curves of daily flow for
comparable streams for which flow-duration curves are vVappinger Creek were developed using logarithmic-
already available. A method of estimating the flow- probability paper (fig. 110.1). One of these curves was
duration curves is described by Searcy (1959). A based on the Tenmile River record and one on the Fish-
shorter method that gives practically the same results kill Creek record: For the curve based on the Tenmile
is described in this article. In both methods, the flow River record, discharges shown in column 2 of table
measurements must be made. during periods when the 110.1 ·were plotted at percentages listed for the same date
flow consists largely of ground-water efHuent (Lang- in column 5 of table 1. The smooth curve (solid line)
bein and Iseri, 1960, p. 5), and measurements must be on figure 110.1 was then drawn on the basis of these
made under several rates of base flow. plotted points. A curve based on Fishkill Creek record
The records for three recording gages in Dutchess (dashed line) was drawn in the same manner, using
County, N.Y., were selected to illustrate the use of this percentages shown in column 6 of table 110.1.
method. Sites with actual gaging-station records were The hypothetical flow of Wappinger Creek estimated
selected so that the duration curve developed by this as described above is compared in table 110.2 with the
method could be compared with the actual duration actual flow as recorded at the gaging station near Wap-
curve defined by many years of record. The stations pingers Falls, N.Y., for the period 1926-55. The dis-
used, with period of record available, are listed below: charges shown in column 2 of table 110.2 were taken
Fishkill Creek at Beacon, N.Y. (1944-55). from the correlation curve based on the Tenmile River
Tenmile River near Gaylordsville, Conn. (1929- record (solid line) on figure 110.1 for selected percent-
55). ages of time. Similarly, the discharges in column 3 of
Wappinger Creek near Wappingers Falls, N.Y. table 110.2 were taken from the correlation curve based
(1928-55). on the Fishkill Creek record (dashed line) on figure
As the records for the above stations were for dif- 110.1. The average of columns 2 and 3 is listed in
ferent periods of time, all were extrapolated to a com- column 4. Column 5 lists the discharges taken from
mon base period, 1926-55. (See Searcy, 1959, p. the actual duration curve of daily flow ·for Wapp'inger
1~14).
Creek for the base period 1926-55. Columns 6 and 7
On the assumption that Wappinger Creek is the un- indicate the difference (in cubic feet per second and
known, a duration curve of daily flow was developed in percent) between the mean of the duration curves .~

ART. 110 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES Cl96-Cl97. 1963.
0196
 HUNT C197
based on nine selected discharge measurements and that TABLE 110.1.-Base-ftow measurements tor Wappinger Creek
and concurrent daily discharges and percentage of duration
based on the 30-year base period 1926-55. for Tenmile River and Fishkill Creek
The mean duration curve of daily flow for Wappinger
Creek developed by use of the nine discharge measure- Discharge
measure- Daily discharge (cfs)
Percent of time dis-
charge equaled or
ments compares very favorably. This close comparison Date
ment, exceeded that shown
W~fe~gerl------~-------l-------------­
is believed due to the £net that (1) the centroid of each (cfs) Tenmile Fishkill Tenmile Fishkill
drainage area used for correlation is within 20 miles of River Creek River Creek
the Wappinger Creek site, (2) the precipitation pattern 2 3 4 6
is similar for all three basins, and ( 3) discharge
measuren1ents, column 2 of table 110.1, were of base 1956:
flow. May 10 _____ 380 492 519 18 16
June 30 _____ 49 80 79 73 71
In any study involving the derivation of duration Aug. 18 _____ 20 25 24 95.8 91
curves from base-flow measurements it is essential that 1957:
May 10 _____ 118 139 130 60 60
precipitation patterns be comparable in the basins July 1L _____ 14 17 11 98. 9 97
Sept. 13 _____ 4. 8 10 6. 0 99. 96 99. 3
considered. .
1958:
A substantial saving in time (about 50 percent) has June 20 _____ 71 113 118 65 62
Aug. 20 _____ 17 31 18 92. 8 93. 7
been achieved by using the method described in this Sept. 25 _____ 58 89 44 71 82.5
article in low-flow duration studies in New York. The
results com pare very closely with those obtained by
using the procedure described by Searcy {1959).
1000 TABLE 110.2.-Comparison of estimated discharge for selected
percent duration with discharge from base-period duration curve
700 for Wappinger Creek
5oo EXPLANATION Discharge from correlation Discharge Difference between
Percentage curve (cfs) of correlation curve and
~ of time W~pinger 1926-55 curve
~ Based on TeMlile River discharge reek,
equaled or Average from
-x- exceeded Tenmile Fishkill of col- 1926-55
Based on Fishkill Creek that shown River Creek umns 2 duration cfs Percent
o200 and 3 curve (cfs)
z
0
(,)
.....
(I)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a:
~100 20 _______ -10.8
30 _______ 355 340 348 390 -42
~ 265 255 260 280 -20 -7.1
..... 40 _______
lot. 70
50 _______ 200 190 195 200 -5 -2.5
.....
(,)
iii 60 _______ 148 ·138 143 142 +1 +. 7
~ 50
70 _______ 102 92 97 98 -1 -1.0
(,)
61 57 59 63 -4 -6.3
~ 80 _______ 38 36 37 39 -2 -5.1
~ 85 _______ 30 28 29 30 -1 -3.3
~
a: 90 _______ 23 22 22. 5 22. 5 0 0
< 95 _______
::t: 17 15 16 16 0 0
(,)
(I) 20 99 _______ 10 8. 4 9.2 10.2 -1.0 -9.8
0
,(A.

10

REFERENCES
5
S'earcy, J. K., 1959, Flow-durati'on curves, in Manu'al of hydrol-
ogy, pt. 2, Low-flow teChniques: U.S. Geol. Sur'Vey Water-
Supply Paper 1542-A., p. 1--33.
PERCENT OF TIME DISCHARGE EQUALED OR EXCEEDED THAT SHOWN Langbein, W. B., ·and Iseri, K. T., 1960, General introductioo
and hydrologic definitions, in Manual of hydrology, pt. l,
FIGURE 110.1-Estimated duration curve of daily flow, Wap- 'General surface-water techniques, U.S. Geol. Survey Water-
pinger Creek, near Wappingers· Falls, N.Y. Supply Paper 1541-A, p. 1-29.
Article lll

GRAPHICAL MULTIPLE-REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF AQUIFER TESTS

By C. T. JENKINS, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-The graphical metb.od of multiple regression de- model for pumping-test analyses is obvious. Mathe-
scribed is. well adapted to estimating the permeabilities of vari- matically, the relation expected is expressed by the
ous layers of an aquifer from well-log and pumping-test data.
equation
Results of graphical analysis of a set of hypothetical data agree
clo.sely with the results of algebraic analysis of the same data. X1=bX2+cX3+dX4 · · ··, (1)
where xl is the transmissibility of the aquifer (the
)
dependent variable), the coefficients b, c, d, · · · are
Multiple regression has been used to solve several the permeabilities of the various layers, and X 2, X 3'
problems in hydraulics and hydrology. Among these X 4 , • • • are the corresponding thicknesses (the inde-
are deter~ination of stage-fall discharge relations, rela- pendent variables). The expected relation is the sim-
tions between basin characteristics and index floods, plest form of multiple regression. The terms on the
and low-flow characteristics of streams. Although, to right side of the equation can be described graphically
the knowledge of the writer, the technique has not been by straight lines through the origin with slopes b, c,
widely used in analysis of well logs and of the results d, ... i.f x2, x3, x4, ... are plotted as abscissas
of pumping tests to estimate the permeabilities of vari- against the parts of X 1 that are due to the transmissi-
ous layers of an aquifer, it seems to be particularly well bilities of the corresponding layers as ordinates. Rig-
adapted to that purpose. The procedure in no way en- orous solution of the equation generally will show an
hances the data. The results are subject to errors intro- intercept; that is, the calculations will indicate a finite
duced by departure of the aquifer from the ideal and value, either positive or negative, for transmissibility
to· errors in the data, but the "best" answers can be of the aquifer when all thicknesses are zero. A large
obtained quickly and simply . value of the intercept is one indication that the data
.The method used may be either algebraic or graphi- are not consistent.
cal. A graphical method probably is faster, if there The graphical method of evaluating the intercept
are only a few tests and only 2 or 3 layers to be consid- and the coefficients b, c, d, · · · for the hypothetical
ered, and it has the advantage of revealing anomalous data shown in the accompanying table is illustrated in
data readily. Curvilinear relations between the thick- figure. 111.1. . ·
ness of a material and its permeability hardly would be The steps are :
expected, but if such relations exist, they can be de- 1. Plot the transmissibility of the aquifer as the ordi-
tected much more readily by the graphical method than nate against the independent variable that is estimated
by the algebraic method. On the other hand, the de- to have the greatest effect (in this case, the thickness
pendability of the results can be calculated if the alge- of the gravel, X 2 ) • Draw curve 1 as the average of
braic method is used. the points.
Both graphical and algebraic methods are described 2. Draw curve 2 through the origin parallel to
in many te~tbooks (for example, Ezekiel, 1941). The curve 1.
illustrations presented here are specific applications of 3. Measure the vertical deviation of each point from
long-known standard methods. curve 2 with dividers and plot it as the ordinate against
Selection of a "model" that the data are expected to the variable that has the second greatest effect (in this
follow is essential if the algebraic method is used, and case, the thickness of sand and gravel mixed, X3) as the
highly desirable if the graphical method is used. The abscissa. Draw curve 3 as the average of these points.

ART. 111 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES Cl98-C201. 1963.
0198
 JENKINS C199
4. Draw curve 4 through th~ ongn1. parallel to tions of the curves make little difference; it is their
eur.ve 3. slopes that are important, because the slopes represent
5. Plot the vertical deviations from curve 4 of each the first estimates of the permeabilities.
point against the thickness of sand. Draw curve 5 as 6. The next step is to remov~ the estimated effects
the average of these points. This line generally will of the last two variables from the .plotted position of
not pass through the origin. Because it is known that the points that defined curve 1. For example, well 9
there should be no intercept for the curve showing the penetrates 20 feet of sand and 24 feet of sand and gravel
estimated transmissibilities of various thioknesses of (see table). From curve 5, the estimated effect for 20
sand, it n1ight seem logical to draw a line through the feet of sand is 80,000 gallons per day per foot and for
origin parallel to curve 5. This oon be done, bu~ it is 24 feet of sand and gravel, 110,000 gpd per ft--a total
not necessary. At this point in the analysis, the posi- of 190,000. The transmissibility is 750,000 gpd per ft,

80 HI
• : .·
1
:t-:rH·lJt1
··:~t~T:OO
r.~
1- 70
u.. UJ,
a:: >'
a::
UJ I,
0.. 60 :::> 30
c . '' .:tt (.)

0.. ~
~ ·I·•. 0
50 a::
80 ' I...
u.. 20
z
~
~ 1..
0 ..
40 i= 10
~ ',, <(

~
>
UJ
:i 30
c
ii5
~
~ 20 en
rJ)
UJ
z >
~ ·a::
~ :::>
1- 10 (.)

~
0
0 a::
u..
z
0
i=
<(
>
UJ
c
... N
UJ
40
i!·'
i:r
>
a::
:::> 30 1-
(.) I u..
~ a::
0
a:: 20
~\ IJ ·n:l :_r. ' UJ
0..
u.. rl: .:fi. :·r~
... J c
0..
z ~
0
10
·:' .. 1:. ;' 0
~. i=
<( 0
:; ~·r 0
~ sf
c 0
.,.. ··I

I -~·
UJ :i
> 20
a:: t•t: :,J. ii5
:::> Ci).
':> H
rJ)
~
~ 10 ~
·: :t~!~

•
0 rJ)
a:: .z
u.. <(
a::
z 0 1-
0
i=
<( . ;t· (l"~.ni.
~ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
c
THICKNESS OF LAYER, IN FEET THICKNESS OF LAYER, IN FEET
~

FIOUlut lll.l.-Grnpbicnl determination of multiple-regression equation from pumping-test data and well logs.
C200 ANALYTICAL HYDROLOGY

so the adjusted ordinate value in units of 10,000 The lack of an intecept by curve 10 and the smal1
gpd per ft is 75-19=56. This value represents the new scatter about the curve probably would satisfy most
estimate of the transmissibility of 61 feet of gravel, and investigators, but the procedure outlined in step 6 has
the plotted position is indicated by a plus sign on the been repeated, resulting in curve 11, to illustrate that
first diagram. Similar treatment of the other points a further reduction in scatter can be attained. The
results in a new scatter diagram. slope of curve 11 is nearer to the correct permeability
The excessive deviation of the point for well11 indi- of gravel than that of curves 6 and 7.
cates that the data from well11 are anomalous. Either The regression equation. resulting from the graphical
the data are in error, or the aquifer differs from that analysis is
penetrated by the other 19 wells. Data from well 11
X 1 =10,000 gpd/:WX 2 +5,000 gpd/ft2Xs+1,000
were not considered in the rest of the analysis.
gpd/ft2X4 (2)
7.. Draw curve 6 as the average of the plotted plus
signs. The coefficients of X 2 , Xs, and X 4 are, respectively,
8. Draw curve 7 through the origin parallel to curve the permeabilities of gravel, sand and gravel mixture,
6. and sand.
9. Plot the vertic:al deviations from curve 6 of the The technique illustrated has been outlined in great
originally plotted points against the thickness of the detail in the interests of clarity, but several variations
sand and gravel mixture. Draw curve 8 as the average that entail a little less labor can be used. The two most
of the plotted points. Draw curve 9 through the origin important involve steps 1 and 6.
parallel to curve 8. In many analyses, it may be possible to make a better
1.0. Draw curve 10 through the origin if possible. first estimate of the slope of curve 1 than that of a line
If the intercept of curve 10 differs appreciably from through the average of the points. The investigator
zero, or if the remaining scatter seems excessive, steps may know intuitively the approximate value of the
6 through 10 can be repeated; otherwise, the slopes of permeability of the gravel. If so, he can eliminate
curves 7, 9, and 10 are the "best" estimates of the per- curve 1 and draw curve 2 initially. In some analyses,
meabilities of the materials. The scatter about curve a good estimate of the slope of curves 1 and 2 can be
10 and its intercept, if any, are related to the scatter and made by considering only those data that have
intercepts of all three curves, 7, 9, and 10, and are equal, or nearly equal, values of the second (and
measures of the. consistency of the data and the com- the third, if possible) most important independent
pleteness of the solution. variable. For example, in the illustration given,
wells 2, 7, 12, and 16 penetrate between 30 and
Hypothetical data from pumping tests and well logs
34 feet of the sand and gravel mixture, and the range
Thickness Thickness Thickness both in the transmissibilities of the sections penetrated
Well No. Transmissibility, of gravel of sand and of sand (ft)
(gpd per ft) Xt (ft) x, gravel (ft) x. and thicknesses of gravel is wide. If curve 1 had ·been
Xa
drawn through these 4 points, the resulting slope would
1__________________ 10 20 22
have been 9,400 gpd per ft 2 , much closer to the final
2 __________________ ·210,000
220,000 5 30 9 value of 10,000 than the slope of 8,600 that resulted
3__________________ 460,000 30 24 18
4 __________________ 130,000 5 10 42 from drawing curve 1 as the average of all the points.
5__________________ 560,000 20 60 38 The arithmetic involved in step 6 can be eliminated
6__________________ 490,000 41 20 0
7 __________________ 360,000 18 32 16 by applying, with div'iders, the vertical deviation of the
8__________________ 520,000 39 10 85
g __________________ 61 24 20 plotted points from curve 5 to curve 2, thus determining
750,000
10 _________________ 500,000 11 80 30 the position of the points that define curve 6. For ex-
11 _________________ 600,000 60 40 20
12 _________________ 790,000 60 32 15 ample, point 9 is about 40,000 gpd per ft above curve 5,
13 _________________ 480,000 31 28 31 and its position as a plus sign in the first diagram is
14 _________________ 270,000 20 0 82
15 _________________ 320,000 0 50 59 about 40,000 gpd per ft above curve 2, plotted against
16 _________________ 380,000 20 34 25
17 _________________ 10 62 18 61 feet, the thickness of gravel in well 9. Similarly,
440,000
18 _________________ 500,000 40 16 40 point 20 is about 20,000 gpd per ft below curve 5, and
19 _________________ 470,000 35 20 11
20 _________________ 280,000 20 10 31 it is plotted as a plus sign 20,000 gpd per ft below
curve 2.
 JENKINS C20J
The best estimate of the permeabilities can be ob- X 1 = - 800 gpd per ft + 10,000 gpd per ft 2X 2 + 5,020
tained without using curves 2, 4, 7, and 9, but if curves gpd per ft 2X a+ 900 gpd per ·ft2X 4
7 and 9 are not used, it will not be possible to measure (3)
the intercept, if any, of curve 10.
The close agreement between equations 2 and 3 illus-
All variations of the graphical method will give the
trates that the graphical method, used with a reason-
same results within the limitations of plotting accuracy
able degree of care~ gives results consistent with those
and individual judgment as to what represents ac-
computed algebraically.
ceptable scatter.
The mechanics of the algebraic meth'od will not be REFERENCE
discussed herein (see Ezekiel, 1941, or other texts), but Ezekiel, Mordecai, 1941, Methods of correlation analysis 2d ed.:
the resulting equation (excluding data from well11) is New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 531 p .

.,.

I~
Article . 112

NOMOGRAPH FOR COMPUTING EFFECTIVE SHEAR ON STREAMBED SEDIMENT

By BRUCE R. COLBY, Lincoln, Nebr.

A.bstract.-A nomograph for ·oomputing effective shear on bed- natural logarithm of 10, divided by the turbulence con-
sediment particles from known mean velocities is given and stant, k, which is here assumed to equal 0.40. The con-
explained. It is based on a slightly different velocity equation
from the one that is commonly used, and it eliminates the need
stant 12.27 is based on an equation given by l{eulegan
for trial-and-error computations of effective shear. (1938, p. 722, eq. 60)" and should be about correct for
the particular form correction that applies to a rec-
tangular channel whose hydraulic radius is 0.10 of the
Unless a streambed is approximateiy plane, only part width. The constant would be about 11.6 rather than
of the total shear on the bed is effective in moving sedi- 12.27 for a rectangular channel whose hydraulic radius
ment on the bed, and this part is related to mean ve- is 0.05 of its width. For such a channel the ratio of
locity and to bed configuration (Einstein, 1950, p. 9-10). hydraulic radius to average depth, R/d, is 0.90, which
Because bed configuration may vary widely and some- is lower than the ratio for many natural channels. For
what unpredictably in alluvial streams, the effective an infinitely wide rectangular channel, the constant is
shear frequently is computed from known mean velocity. the antilog of 6.00/5.75 (Keulegan, 1938, p. 717, eq. 38)
This article presents a nomograph for computing one or 11.1. The effect of a change from 11.1 to 12.27 under
measure of the effective shear from known mean the log sign is usually small, so that a precise constant
velocity. is not required, but a logical constant might be 11.4 or
Probably the most commonly used equation for com- 11.5 for many natural channels.
puting effective shear is one based on work by Keulegan However, the use of average depth rather than
(1938) and given by Einstein (1950, p. 10) as hydraulic radius is convenient and is, in general, su~­

..jgii S =5.75log" c2.2;, R'x} (1)

ciently accurate for most natural streams. Hence, In
the following discussion and definition of a practical ......
nomograph, 11.1d, a quantity that is theoretically indi-
in which
cated for infinitely wide rectangular channels, has been
u=mean velocity for a cross section;
used as follows :
.JgR'S=shear velocity with respect to sediment
particles (a specific form of effective
shear on bed sediment);
u
.Jg(RS)m 5.75logl0
(11.1 dx)·
---,c;- (2)
g=acceleration caused by gravity;
The use of the hydraulic radius R under the log sign
R' =hydraulic radius with respect to particles;
is consistent with Keulegan's (1938) equations, but
S =energy gradient;
Einstein (1950, p. 10) changed the R under the log
x=parameter for transition from a hydraulic-
sign to R', presumably when he changed t~e sh~ar
ally rough to a hydraulically smooth
velocity u* (equals .JgR'S) to the shear velocity with
boundary; and
respect to the particles u~ (equals .JgRS).
ks=grain roughness, usually assumed equal to
Two items should be noted with respect to the use of
diameter for which 65 percent of bed
R rather than R' under the log sign. One item is that
sediment by weight is finer.
the eq~ation 2 can be derived directly by integra~ion ?f
The two numerical constants in this equation need the point-velocity equation that was used by Einstein
further explanation. The constant 5.75 equals 2.30, the (1950, p. 8, eq. 3) from the streambed to a distanced
·~
ART. 112 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER '75-C, PAGES C202-C205. 1963.
0202
 COLBY C203
n.bove the bed. Hence, equation 2 correctly gives the has a constant relation to the logarithm of (xd/ks) if
u.verage velocity at a stream vertical whose point veloci- g and the turbulence constant k are both constant.
ties conform to the point-velocity equation used by That is, according to equation 3, uj.J (RS)m is deter-
Einstein. The second item is that the measure of mined uniquely by xd/k if g and k are constant. Thus,
8,

depth, whether R or d, under the log sign has the na- a horizontal line on the main graph of figure 112.1
ture of an upper limit for the integration of point ve- represents both a single value of uj,/ (RS)m on the left-
locities a.long a vertical. If R' is used under the log hand scale and the uniquely equivalent value of xd/ks
sign, the mean velocity 'It presumably should represent on the right-hand scale. When x= 1.00 on the right-
,. a mean for only that part of the cross section that is hand part of the graph, the boundary is hydraulically
within a distance R' from the channel boundary, and rough, and d/ks=xd/k 8 • If xis not equal to 1.00, log xis
this is a difficult mean velocity to determine by not zero, and the curv~d line for a particular value of djk 8
measurement. is below or above the horizontal line for a hydraulically
Because of the change under the log sign from R' to rough boundary by 32.6log x units on the uj.J (RS)m scale.
R or to d, a change that is usually far greater than the The horizontal scale of the graph is expressed as a
relatively insignificant change from 12.27 to 11.1, function of X and the ratio uf.J(RS)m. Einstein defined
.JgR' S or u~ computed from equation 1 may differ x in terms of k .JgR'S/(11.6v) in which vis the kinematic
8

appreciably for some flows f.r01n u;, computed from viscosity. The experimental basis for the definition
equation 2. of xis given by Keulegan (1938, p. 713-715). For the
Several other uncertainties may arise with respect to nomograph, xis in terms of the quantity 1,000 ks.J (RS)m/
the applicability of equation 2, but the only one of v 105), which requires a reduction from Einstein's func-
these to be discussed in this short article is the variahil- tion of x in the ratio of 11.6 · 1,000/(100,000-y'g) or
ity of k. Einstein and Chien (1954, fig. 12) showed a 0.0204. This quantity multiplied by u;.J (RS)m gives
decrease of k with an increase in a measure of the 1,000 k ..u/(v 105). If ii, k and v are known, the hori-
8,

energy that is required to transport suspended sediment zontal scale determines a vertical line that corresponds
over relatively smooth sand beds. Hubbell and Matejka to the logarithm of the product of the function of x
(1959, p. 71, 72, and 74) reported values for k much and uj.J(RS)m. The intersection of this vertical line
higher than 0.40 for some flows over dune beds. Sayre with the curve for a known d/ks ratio determines a
and Albertson (1961, p. 144-147) also found k much uj.J(RS)m ratio from which .J(RS)m can be computed
higher than 0.40 for flows over relatively widely spaced directly for the known u. If the quantity P (Einstein,
rigid baffies. (The term k is used here although some 1950, p. 40) is needed for computing sediment dis-
of the constants probably should not be called tur- charge, it is directly proportional to uj.J (RS)m and
·bulence constants.) An experimentally determined tur- can be taken from the scale near the left side of the
bulence constant for a given flow may be used, if it is nomograph. In other words, a horizontal line from the
considered to be more suitable than 0.40, by replacing intersection of the vertical line and a curve for the
5.75 in equation 2 with 2.30/k. d/ks ratio gives uj.J (RS)m and P on the two left-hand
The mean-velocity equation in the form scales.
The small graph at the right of figure 112.1 shows
v . 105 in terms of temperature.
u
.JVISfm - kdx)
5.75{{} logto (11.1
8
-
The measures on the horizon tal scale and on the
right-hand vertical scale are dimensionless. The ratio
=34.0+32.6 (logto ~+logto X) (3)
u.J (RS)m is in units of fee't and seconds but can readily
be made dimensionless by dividing each ratio by 5.68
which is the square root of 32.2. The small graph at
can be solved for .J(RS)m by trial and error, either the right is not in dimensionless quantities but a new
arithmetically by estimating a value of x and repeat- horizontal scale and curve can easily be added for cgs
ing the computation for .J (RS)~ or graphically accord- units.
ing to a method given by Colby and Hubbell (1961, If a variable k is to be used rather than a constant k
p. 3-5 and pl. 1). The trial-and-error'feature of the of 0.40 the adjustment for the variable k can be made
computation can be eliminated by use of the nomograph on the nomograph by multiplying the left-hand scale
shown on figure 112 .1. by 0.40/k.
The principles involved in the nomograph are fairly The .J(RS)m values from the nomograph are roughly
simple. Equation 3 shows that the ratio uj.J(RS)m 1 percent lower, at least for many flows, than the .J(RS)m
C204 ANALYTICAL HYDROLOGY

values that can be obtained from equation 2 with 12.27 Einstein, H. A., 1950, The bed-load function for sediment tran&-
substituted for 11.1. The values can be determined portation in open channel flows: U.S. Dept. Agriculture
Tech. Bull. 1026, 70 p.
considerably more rapidly and conveniently from the Einstein, H. A., and Chien, Ning, 1954, Second approximation to
nomograph than by arithmetic trial-and-error compu- •the solution of the suspended load theory: California Univ.
tation and a little more rapidly and conveniently than Inst. Eng. Research, Missouri River Div. Sediment Ser. 3,
from the procedure given by Colby and Hubbell (1961). 30 p.
Hubbell, D. W., -and Matejka, D. Q., 1959, Investigations of sedi·
ment transportation, Middle Loup River at Dunning, Nebr.:
REFERENCES
U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1476, 123 p.
Keulegan, G. H., 1938, Laws of turbulent fl.ow.in open channels:
Colby, B. R., and Hul)bell, D. "\V., 1961, Simplified methods for U.S. Natl. Bur. Standards Jour. Research, v. 21, p. 707-741.
computing total sediment discharge with the modified Ein- Sayre, W. W., and Albertson, M. L., 1961, Roughness spacing in
stein procedure: U.S. Geol. Survey W·ater-Supply Paper rigid open channels: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., v. 87,
1593, 17 p. no. HY 3, p.121-150.
 COLBY C205

200 100
rT
H

35
1-

-
t-11 90

30 l
1-

i-1-

1-
80
LtJ t- 1-.
0 i4i
~2 5 :I:
C!l zw
i= a:
zw :I:
0 1-
z (.) ~
0 1/) -f- en
(.) w If w
LtJ w ,_..t- 70~
1/) a: M
a: C!l C!l
LtJ W20 w
a.. 0 0
~
~....... ~ ~
~ LJ" 1-1- LJ"
LtJ a: a:
~
~
::::>
~
- ::::>
1-
<C
a: 1- a::
w
a.. 60~
~ 15 ~
w w
1- 1-
·~ Q: Q:
w LtJ
1- 1-
<C
~ ~

10 50

.,.
5
40

0 32
0.7 1.0 2.0
5
v·I0 , IN SQUARE
FEET PER SECOND
1000 ks. iJ
II •10 5

FIGURE 112.1.-Nomograph for computing V (RS) ....

 Article 113

DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR IN RECTANGULAR CHANNELS

By JACOB DAVIDIAN and D. I. CAHAL, Washington, D.C.

A.bstract.-Distribution patterns of boundary shear, measured The variation of the friction factor j, within .a Froude
with a Preston tube, were determined in a smooth, rectangular
flume at depths of 5 and 8 inches. A shift in aspect ratio
number range from IF =0.1 to 1.5, and a Reynolds
towards two-dimensional flow, or an increase in Froude number number range from IR=6X10 4 to 6X10 5, is well
from 0.1 to 1.5, tended to produce a more uniform shear distribu- . described by the equation 1/.fl =2.03 log IR {] -1.21.
tion throughout the boundary. The shear values computed from the Preston-tube
measurements around the wetted perimeter of the cross
section were all p~otted,_ and, by means of a pl~nimeter,
An analysis of the distribution of shear in open- average shears were determined for the walls, floor,
channel flow will materially contribute to an under- and entire cross section. The average shear thus com-
standing of the hydraulic geometry and geomorphic puted :for ali entire cross section was com pared with
evolution of channel systems. Therefore, shear values the value of shear as determined by the du Boys equa-
along the boundary of an open rectangular channel tion, 'To=yRS, in which y is the unit weight of water,
were computed from Preston-tube measurements, and . R is the hydraullc radius, and S is the floor slope. In
their distribution was examined with the view toward general, the measured (Preston-tube) shear w:as about
understanding the basic principles governing the self- 5 percent less than the computed ( du Boys) shear.
formation of natural river cha.nnels. The patterns that the shear distributions around the
The Preston method :for the determination of local boundaries take, as determined by the Preston tube, are
skin friction with the use ,of a surface pitot tube has of interest from the viewpoint of fluvial mechanics. In
been well described by Hsu' (1955). It is assumed that figul_'e 113.1, an increase in Fronde number is ~ssociated
in turbulent flow there is a region in the boundary layer with the following changes in shear distribu~ion :
near th.e wall or floor surface where the conditions are . ( 1) the rati~ of the maxii.nu~ 'vall s4ear to the
a :function ·only o:f the surface friction, the physical · average wall shear decreases towards unity,
·properties of fluid, and a representative length. A uni- (2) the ratio of the average floor shear to the average
versal nondimensional relation is obtained between sur- ' .. total cross-sectional shear decreases towards
face f~iction, the difference between the pressure in the . ·unity, · · · .· ·
pitot tube and· the static pressure on the surface, and (3) the ratio' of the average wall shear to the average
the pitot diameter, flo.or shear increases towards unity.
In figure 113.2 the ratio :of average floor s9-ea.r to aver-
log T 0 d2 f4pv 2 = -1.372+ (7 /8) log (pt-Po)d 2/4pv 2,
age total 'cross-sectional shear is plotted as the ordinate,
with its limits of applicability, 4.5<log (pt-Po)d2/ and the :ratio of depth to width of flow is plotted as the
4pv2 <6.5, where To is boundary shear, d is the pitot abscissa. The short horizontal lines show the center of
diameter, p and v are mass density and kinematic gravity of the data points for each depth-width ratio,
viscosity of water, and (pt-Po) is the pressure difference. and suggest a decrease in the shear ratio towards unity
All experimental data were collected at the National with a decrease in the depth-width ratio. For each
Bureau of Standards Hydraulic Laboratory at a cross ·aspect-ratio set of data, those points having the smaller
section about 118 feet downstream from the entrance shear-ratio values also tend to have the higher Froude
of a smooth tiltable flume 140 feet long, 18 inches wide, numbers, a tendency also noted in the middle curve of
and at normal depths of flow of 5 inches and 8 inches. figure 113.1.

ART. 113 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-c, PAGES C206-c208. 1963.
0206
 DAVIDIAN AND CAHAL C207

1.4.---------------------------------------~~ Along with the increasingly more uniform shear dis-

.,. ·...,;~.r.~~~~ions at the boundary, velocity distributions in the
0
'cliannel also tend to become more uniform with an in-
~ 1.2 crease in Fronde number,. as would be expected. Com-
c(
0::
0::
plete velocity traverses for each run were made at the
~ test cross section. At all depths, the transverse velocity
~ 1.0~------~--------====~==~~==~~~J distributions are more parabolic in shape for low than
u..
0 for high Fronde numbers, having more of a lag at the
w side walls and more of a peak at the center of the flume.
3c( 0.8 From these tests, it is apparent that a shift in aspect
>
ratio toward two-dimensional flow, or an increase in
0.6~--------~----------~---------L _________ j
Fronde number (trends similar to figure 113.1 would
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 have been evident if velocity or Reynolds number were
FROUDE NUMBER used as the abscissa instead of IF), will tend to produce
Il'mum~ 113.1.-Varintion in shear distribution with Froude a more uniform shear distribution in the boundary.
number. Top curve (circles), ratio of maximum wall shear to The relations shown in figures 113.1 and 113.2 can be
nverage wnll shenr; middle curYe (dots), ratio of average examined for an appreciation of the geomorphic
floor shear to average cross-sectional shear ; bottom curve
evolution of channel systems.
(X 's), ratio of average wall shear to average floor shear.
Plotted data include 5-inch and 8-inch depths. Most natural streams flow at values of IF below 0.3,
and are reasonably stable. Instances of natural stream
flow at IF > 0.6 are infrequent. The trend for propor-
1.20 tionately larger wall shears along with larger Froude
• numbers (bottom curve, fig. 113.1) suggests the possi-
bility that banks in a natural stream will erode until
the Froude number and wall-floor shear ratio are de-
creased again to values associated with stream stability .
...J 1.16
c( For any given discharge and a given "stable" value of
z Low o=
0 IF for a particular stream, an increase in width due to
~
u
w erosion will tend to bring about a decrease in depth, and
(/)

ch
(/)
• a larger width-depth ratio. Leopold and Maddock
0 1.12 ( 1953, p. 29) bring attention to the works of others who
0::
u claim that natural streams do indeed tend to develop
w
~ large width -depth ratios :
0::
w
~
• . . . To be stable, the channel carrying bed loads, therefore,
..... should have a higher velocity along the bed, but the same ve-
•
~ 1.08
• •• •
locity along the banks, and this could only occur with a wider,
J: • shallower section. . . . Indian rivers tend to adopt broad, shal-
•
(/)
low sections, and . . . this type of cross section is best adapted
•

-·-
0::
0 for the transportation of heavy silt.
0
...J
u..
• The rigid test flume cannot adjust its shape, of course,
•• ~ 1.04 • but at low Froude numbers (and also at large depths
c(
0:: • High o=
w • or small width-depth ratios), it is evident from figures
~
t 113.1 and 113.2 that the values of shear around the
perimeter tend to be more peaked or less uniform on
1.00 L-----L-----1------'-------IL-----L-----l
the wall (top curve, fig. 113.1), higher on the floor than
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 the average shear (middle curve, fig. 113.1; fig. 113.2),
DEPTH /WIDTH and smaller on the wall than on the floor (bottom curve,
ll'IoURE 113.2.-Variation in shear distribution with aspect ratio. fig. 113.1).
C208 ANALYTICAL FrYDROLOGY

An alluvial stream will react to nonuniform shear is gently curved upwards towards the shores :from a
stresses by erosion and deposition. Such a natural slightly deeper middle region.
stream, which has had opportunity to adjust and react REFERENCES
to the shear patterns of figures 113.1 and 113·.2 imposed Leopold, L. B., and Maddock, Thomas, Jr., 1953, The hydraulic
by the flow of water through it and which h~ achieved geometry of stream channels and some physiographic im-
a reasonably stable shape for the low Froude-nmnber plications: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 252, 57 p.
Hsu, E. Y., 1955, The measurement of local turbulent skin
range at which it usually flows, could develop a cross friction by means of surface pitot tubes: The David W.
section that is broad, has a large width-depth ratio, and Taylor Model Basin Research and Devel. Rept. 957.

\
'[

r;
 .....

Article 114

SULFATE AND NITRATE CONTENT OF PRECIPITATION

OVER PARTS OF NORTH CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA

By A. W. GAMBELL, Washington, D.C.

Work done in cooperation with the U.S. Weather Bureau

Abst?·aot.~Preliminary data from a precipitation-sampling Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, and Ca:pe Fear Rivers. The area
networl< covering a 34,000-square-mile study area suggest that included in the network is shown in figure 114.1 and
the atmosphere is a major source of sulfate and nitrate in the
stream waters of southern Virginia and eastern North Carolina.
location of the stations is shown in figures 114.2 and
114.3. Each sampling station is located at a U.S.
Weather Bureau cooperative observer site. With one
The chemical composition of atmospheric precipita- or two exceptions, sampling stations were ·purposely
tion has been the subject of several investigations in located outside the larger metropolitan areas. This was
recent years. Studies by Junge and vVerby (1958) done to minimize contamination from local sources.
and Eriksson (1959; 1960) are only two of the more The principal exception is the sampling station at Nor-
recent investigations indicating that the atmosphere is folk, Va. It is in the center of the city; accordingly,
the precipitation has a high sulfate content.
a potential source of large quantities of water-soluble
Each sampling station is equipped with a standard
material. To learn more about the origin of this
8-inch precipitation gage and a special collecting device.
material, the processes by which it is introduced into The collecting device consists of a ·5-inch-diameter glass
precipitation, and, ultimately, its role in determining funnel mounted in the top of an insulated enclosure.
the quality of water, a network of precipitation- The funnel drains through a polyethylene tube into a
sampling stations has been established covering a well- polyethylene bottle in the interior of the enclosure. The
defined drainage area. This article presents data ob- entire device is mounted with the rim of the collecting
I
tained from tHe first month of network operation. funnel 5 feet from the ground. The funnel is continu-
i~
Average concentration and approximate total load of ously open and therefore collects a certain amount of
the major ionic constituents in precipitation have been dry fallout as well as precipitation: Composite samples
computed. Some general comparisons with river- are collected monthly from each station and analyzed
quality data illustrate the magnitude of atmospheric for sulfate, chloride, nitrate, sodium, calcium, and po-
contributions to stream waters. Interpretation of the tassium.
I
data is, of necessity, quite limited. Detailed interpre-
J
MINERAL CONTENT OF RAINFALL AND STREAM WATERS
tation will be reserved for a later time when data for
Precipitati·on over the network area during August
a longer period are available. 1962 averaged slightly less than 4 inches. The heaviest
NETWORK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT precipitation fell in the southeastern part of the net-
work; however, the amounts were reasonably uniform
In July 1962, 28 precipitation-sampling stat:ions were throughout the area.
l;· established in North Carolina and Virginia. These sta- The areal variations of the major ionic constituents
:J tions form a network covering approximately 34,000 in precipitation are of considerable interest because they
I square miles, drained by 5 major streams: the Chowan, furnish valuable clues as to the source of these materials.
,'1

ART 114 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C209-C211. 1963.
0209
C210 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

Although only sulfate and nitrate are discussed here,

the distribution of sodium, chloride, and calcium also
displayed discernible patterns during August.
Figure 114.2 illustrates two important features of
the areal variation in sulfate concentration. It shows
first that sulfate is widely prevalent in precipitation on
the study area in August 1962 and, second, that the sul-
fate concentration increases inland from less than 1.5
parts per million along the Atlantic Ocean to more
than 4.5 ppm in the northwestern part of the area.
This trend of increasing concentration landward is
~.
contrary to what would be anticipated if the ocean were
the principal source of atmospheric sulfate.
The occurrence of sulfur in the atmosphere was dis-
cussed by Junge (1960). In unpolluted areas sulfur
occurs primarily in three forms: as 80 4 - 2 in aerosols,
and as 80 2 and H 2S gas. Sea-salt aerosols, soil dust,
and the oxidation of 80 2 and H 2 8 are sources of 804-2 •
A large part of the 802 in the ·atmosphere originates 0 50 100 MILES

from the combustion of fossil fuels. Most of the H28

EXPLANATION
in the atmosphere is probably of natural origin, result-
ing from the decay of organic m-aterial. Although the A -----
role played by these substances is not completely under- Location of river-quality
sampling stations
Drainage area represented
by river-quality sampling
Boundary of drainage
area
stood, previous studies suggest that industrial activity stations
and sea-salt aerosols are the predominant sources of FIGURE 114.2.-Sulfate content of precipitation (parts per mil·
atmospheric sulfur. Because there is little industry in lion) on study area, AUJgust 1962. Isopleth interV'al, 1.0 ppm.
the western part of the network area, a source other

..o:t
~
~
~
0
35° "'

0 50 100 MILES

EXPLANATION

A
.•.
Location of river-quality Drainage area represented . Boundary of drainage
0 100 290MILES sampling stations by.river-quality sampling area
stations

FIGURE 114.1.-Precipita'tion-sampling network (shaded ·area). FIGURE 114.3.-Nitrate content of preci·pitation (parts per mil-
lion) on study area, August 1962. Isopleth interval, 1.0 ppm.
 GAMBELL C211
than loc·al industry must a·ccount for the trend dbserved pheric contribution will prove to be substantial. Table
in figure 114.2. Either sulfur has been brought in by 114.2 illustrates this point with respect to sulfate and
advection from a nearby area, or some presently unex- nitrate. The river values are time-weighted averages.
plained natural source is responsible. The lines of The precipitation values are based on the volume of pre-
equal sulfate content (fig. 114.2) clearly indicate that cipitation on the respective drainage areas. The
.... the ocean was not the major source of atmospheric sul- shaded sections of figures 114.2 and 114.3 correspond
fur in this area during August 1962.. to the drainage areas represented. Although the aver-
Figure 114.3 shows a distinct pattern in the areal ages in table 114.2 cannot be used for direct compari-
variation of nitrate. Precipitation occurring over the son, the general implications are evident. In an area
coastal plain is almost devoid of nitrate. Farther in- where the natural water is of relatively low dissolved-
land, however, the precipitation contains nitrate in rela- solids content, such as that covered by the network, the
tively large concentrations. Several explanations atmosphere may be the principal source for a variety
might account for this striking difference. of constituents.
The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by lightning dis-
charges is one known source of nitrate. Sixteen TABLE 114.1-Average concentrations and approximate total loads
of major ionic constituents in precipitation on the study area
thunderstorm-precipitation samples collected by the during August 1962
author contained nitrate concentrations ranging from
.t.l, Average Total load
0.7 to 8.1 ppm; the average concentration was 2.9 ppm. Ion concentra- (tons)
tion (ppm)
Because August is a month of frequent thunderstorm
occurrence, at least part of the nitrate shown in fig- so.
Ca+-2 __________________________________
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~------------ - - - - - - 25,000
2 2. 8
_
ure 114.3 is probably the result of thunderstorm activ- ~a+1 __________________________________ _ 1. 1 10,000
ity. The fact that convective storms are more frequent .8 7, 500
~Oa-
1
----------------------------------_
CI-1 ___________________________________ .6 5, 300
along the mountains than near the coast further ]{+1 ___________________________________ _ .4 3, 800
.1 1, 200
strengthens this contention.
The soil may be an indirect source of atmospheric
nitrate, as ammonia is produced in the later stages of TABLE 114.2.-Comparison of sulfate and nitrate content of river
decay of most organic matter. If the pH of the soil waters with that of precipitation in August 1962
is relatively high, some ammonia will escape to the Nitrate (ppm)
Drainage Sulfate (ppm)
atinosphere. Junge ( 1958) proposed that the oxida- area
Sampling station upstream
tion of this ammonia may produce much of the nitrate (figs. 114.2 and 114.3) from River Precipi- River Precipi-
station water tation water tation
found in precipitation. Therefore, areal differences (sqmi)
in soil composition may account for differences in the - - -- -- - -
A. ChowanRiveratWinton,N.C. 4,198 5.6 2.5 0.9 0.1
nitrate content of precipitation. The addition to the B. Tar River at Tarboro, N.C ••••
C. Neuse River at Cowen Land-
2,140 5.1 2.9 2.3 .5

soil of commercial fertilizers containing nitrate may ingnear VanceboroNN.C ____

D. Cape Fear River at avassa,
4,027 7.4 2.7 4.6 .4

also be significant. N.C.------------------------ 7,060 9.4 3.1 .8 .5

Another possibility is that much of the sulfate and

~· nitrate in the western part of the area may have a com-
mon source. Oxides of both sulfur and nitrogen are REFERENCES

produced in the combustion of m·ost fuels. Data for Eriksson, Erik, 1959, The yearly circulation of chloride and
the winter months should help greatly to clarify the sulfur in nature ; meteorologic, geochemical and pedalogical
implications, pt.1: Tellus, v. 11, p. 375-403.
picture.
- - 1960, The yearly circulation of chloride and sulfur in
A summary of the data concerning sulfate and ni- nature; meteorologic, geochemical and pedalogical implica-
... trate, as well as the other major ionic constituents for tions, pt. 2: Tellus, v. 12, p. 63-109.
August 1962, is presented in table 114.1. The values in Junge, 0. E., 1958, The distribuhon of ammonia and nitrate in
table 114.1 are based on the total volume of precipitation rain water over the United States: Am. Geophys. Union
on the 34,000-square-mile, five-basin area. Trans., v. 39, no. 2, p. 241-248.
One important purpose of the network study is to --1960, Sulfur in the atmosphere: Jour. Geophys. Research,
v. 65, p. 227-237.
determine what fraction of the dissolved solids in the
Junge, C. E., and Werby, R. T., 1958, The concentrations of
natural water of the area is of direct atmospheric origin. chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, and sulfate in rain
Although data :for a single month are insufficient to water over the United States: Jour. Meteorology, v. 15,
make such an evaluation, it appears that the atmos- p. 417-425.
.,
 ......

Article 115

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIELD AND LABORATORY DETERMINATIONS OF pH,

ALKALINITY, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE OF NATURAL WATER

By C. E. ROBERSON, J. H. FETH; PAUL R. SEABER; and PETER ANDERSON,

Menlo Park, Calif.; Trenton, N.J.; and Philadelphia, Pa.

Work done in part in cooperation wtth the New JerBey DiviBion oJ

Water Policy ana Supply

.Abstract.-Determinations of pH and alkalinity of ground Field determinations of pH and alkalinity were made
and surface water from the Sierra Nevada, Calif., and ground
in a truck-mounted laboratory that provided electro-
water from the coastal plain of New Jersey indicate appreciable
static shielding and protection from the wind. These
differences between laboratory and field measurements. Special
caution is required for geochemical interpretations based ondeterminations were made immediately after the
laboratory determinations of these properties. samples were collected. Field pH of samples was
measured by a portable battery-operated meter (Beck-
man model N or model G). The meter was standard-
Scientific literature cites few if any data supporting ized using buffer solutions whose temperatures had been
the widely held belief that field measurements of some brought to that of the water to be tested. Field alka-
water-quality properties are more representative than linity of samples was determined by potentiometric
laboratory measurements. Because of this lack of data, titration to pH 4.5 (Rainwater and Thatcher, 1960, p. .
the U.S. Geological Survey has made two widely sepa- 94).
rated studies, comparing field and laboratory measure- Laboratory determinations of pH and alkalinity were
ments of alkalinity (as bicarbonate) and pH of water made in a temperature-controlled room where tempera-
samples collected in the Sierra Nevada of California tures of buffer solutions and samples were allowed to
(Roberson and Feth) and in the Atlantic Coastal Plain equilibrate with the ambient air temperature of the
of New Jersey ( Seaber and Anderson). The New J er- room. The time interval between field and laboratory
sey study also compared field and laboratory measure- determinations ranged from 5 to 120 days. Laboratory
ments of specific conductance. This article presents pH of samples was measured with a line-operated
some of the data obtained in these studies. (Beckman model H) pH meter. Laboratory alkalinity
of samples was determined by potentiometric titration
CALIFORNIA STUDY
to pH 4.5 (Rainwater and Thatcher, 1960, p. 94).
In the California study, field and laboratory de- Results obtained for the 88 samples studied are shown
terminations of pH and alkalinity were made of 88 in table 115.1. The difference between field and labora-
samples of water. Of these samples, 73 were from tory determinations of pH (ApR) ranged from 0.0 to
springs and 15 were from streams. Most of the samples 2.8 pH units. The average difference is 0.3, and the
( 76) were from areas of granitic rock, and the rest were standard deviation is 0.5 pH units. For alkalinity (as
from other geologic environments such as volcanic bicarbonate), the difference between field and labora-
rocks, alluvium, and serpentine. Most of the samples tory determinations ranged from 0 to 26 ppm. The
had a low dissolved-solids content, only 3 exceeding average difference is 3 ppm, -and standard deviation is
350 parts per million in calculated dissolved solids. 5 ppm. In general, the changes in alkalinity between
Samples for laboratory determinations were stored in field and laboratory determinations are less pronounced
350-ml pressure-sealed soft-glass ("citrate") bottles than the changes in pH. This difference in the two
filled virtually to capacity to minimize contact with sets of results indicates that field pH is a more critical
~ir during transport and storage. determination than field alkalinity.

ART. 115 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C212-C215. 1963.
C212
 ROBERSON, FETH, BEABER, AND ANDERSON C21.3
TABLE 115.l.-Oompari801~ of jlelct ana laboratory ctetermina- Water samples having a low dissoived-solids con-
tion8 of ~vater Bample8 coUeotect in the Sierra N evacta,
Oalif. tent showed, in general, slightly greater change in pH
[0, ground water; SW, surface water] than water having a higher mineral content. Similarly,
samples having a low total dissolved carbonate-species
pH Alkalinity as
HC0 8-J Temper- Calculated content generally showed appreciable variation between
Labor a- (ppm) Time ature of dissolved
"' tory No. Source
Labo- Field
interval sample solids
(days) at source (ppm)
pH determined in the field and in the laboratory.
rntory Labo- Field (OF) Although the time interval between field and labora-
rntory
- -- -- -- -- ---- --- tory determinations ranged from 5 to 120 days, com-
1204_ ------ 0 8.1 8.1 200 202 60 58 242 parison of pH with time of storage shows little corre-
1205_ ------ 0 6. 7 7.1 54 56 60 52 97
1207------- 0 7. 2 7. 5 64 62 60 52 106 lation. However, as a group, laboratory determinations'
1216.------ 0 s. 0 8. 2 109 107 21 58 135
1218_ ------ 0
0
7.4
7.1
7. 5
7.0
31 30 15 57 50 made within 1 week of the time that the samples were
1224.------ 66 64 19 47 82
1225.------ sw 7. 5 7.8 57 58 18 38 71 collected showed somewhat smaller changes than de-
1226.------ 0 6.9 8.2 42 37 13 51 73
1228.------ sw 6.0 8.1 3 6 18 60 9 terminations made after longer storage.
1229.------ sw 0.3 7.0 4 4 18 53 11
12a0. ------ sw 0.0 8.8 3 0 18 36 8 Some possible reasons for the differences between
12a2. ------ 0 6.1 6.3 5 5 17 53 12
12aa. ------ 0
sw
5.8
0. 9
5. 9
7.0
20
11
19
11
12
12
47
41
35
2a
determination of pH in the field and in the laboratory
1:.la4. ------
1:.!30. ------ sw 5.8 6.1 2 2 12 40 3 are worth noting. Determinations made in the labora-
1245.------ 0 0.2 6.8 2a 26 ao 40 54
1:.!40. ------ 0
0
7. 7
7. 7
7.9
7. 5
93
67
96
68
29
48
64
55
98
72
tory would be lower than those made in the field if,
1247-------
1248.------ 0
0
0. 8
7.a
7. 4
7. 7
35
75
38
78
29
28
52
53
49
88
during transport and storage, the water sample ab-
1249.------
1250.------ 0
0
7. 0
0.9
7. 9
7 .a
76
70
80
7:.!
28
28
52
61
87
79
sorbed 002 from the ·atmosphere. This could happen
1251-------
1252------- 0
0
7.4
0.2
7.4
0.2
88
17
89
19
28
28
69
50
93
a5
if the pressure stopper of the sample bottles leaked or if
1255-------
12a0------- 0
0
0.2
0.6
o.a
6.9
19
10
21
la
27
27
47
49
32
21
the samples stood open in the laboratory for a signifi-
1257-------
1258------- 0
0
5.9
5.7
0.2
5.6
8
10 14
8 27
27
59
41
18
23
cant length of time before pH measurements were
1259-------
1261------- 0
0
7.3
5.9
7.5
5.9
sa
9
84
10
60
13
50
56
93
23
made. The latter possibility is ruled out because read-
1287-------
1200------- 0
0
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.8
100
76
10a
80
12
19
70
54
154
Ill
ings were made as soon as the samples were removed
1291-------
12112------- 0
0
0.7
0.9
0.4
0.4
148
120
152
119
11
11
67
53
20 3
154
from the bottles, but the possibility of leakage cannot
129a-------
1295------- 0 0.1 5.5 20 24 11 50
52
54
91
be entirely eliminated. Reactions within the water
1290------- 0 0.2 5.5 48 46 11
1297------- 0
sw
6.4
7 .o
6.0
8.1
54
63
57
65
11
45
48
55
99
78
samples during storage, such as release of 00 2 by micro-
la04-------
1309------- sw 7.8 8.1 74 64 45 58 89 organisms, would also lower the pH.
1324------- 0 8.1 7.8 59 55 00 126 2,99 0
1325------- 0
0
7.7
7.6
7.6
7.3
93
81
86
79
19
19
48
40
11 9
17 7
Laboratory pH values higher than ·those measured in
la26-------
1328------- 0
0
6.8
7.2
6.8
7.1
740
67
738
71
90
16
86
51
1,870
84
the field would result from loss of 00 2 in water taken
laaO-------
1331------- 0
sw
7.4
7.7
7.2
8.2
105
273
107
280
16
120
49
48
100
347
in the field at low temperature and stored at a higher
1478-------
1479------- 0
sw
7.1
7.3
7.3
7.4
108
47
103
49
120
6
38
46
--------5-9 temperature in a bottle having some air space above the
1481-------
1482------- sw 7.3 7.4 47 49 6 41 57 water surface. Reaction between the water samples and
1500------- 0 5.8 5.8 11 14 6 43 28
1507------- sw 0.3 6.8 5 8 20 48 11 the soft glass of the bottles might also raise the pH.
1508------- sw 6.2 6.4 6 8 2() 48 13
1510------- sw 7.2 7.2 21 23 20 42
48
34
139
The change in pH between field and laboratory analy-
1526------- 0 6.6 6.8 101 103 7
1527------- 0
0
6.7
6.5
6.7
6.6
72
77
75
67
7
6
60
. 47
120
128
ses with the logarithm of total dissolved carbonate-
1528-------
1529-------
1530-------
0
0
7.4
5.6
7.4
5.8
84
14
95
14
6
6
53
51
127
29
species content calculated from the field pH and
1531-------
1532-------
0
0
6.8
7.0
6.9
6.9
34
97
32
100
6
6
62
51
53
13 3
alkalinity measurements is shown in figure 115.1. The
1534-------
1535-------
0
0
5.4
5.6
5.8
5.8
12
17
14
20
5
5
52
44
25
32
points scatter, but the trend suggests that exchange of
1539- --•---
1541-------
0
0
7.5
7.5
6.7
7.9
36
88
40
90
90
90
50
50
60
101
002 between water sample and atmosphere may be
1542-------
1548-------
0
0
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
91
73
92
76
90
90
45
45
101
90
largely responsible for observed changes. in pH.
1544------- sw 7.6 7.9 80 91
35
90
75
62
54
96
65
Water having a low content of carbonate species
11559------- 0 6.6 6.8 33
1560------- 0
0
8.0
7.1
8.2
7.6
190
109
216
93
75
75
56
56
17 2
150
(larger negative value of the logarithm) apparently
1561-------
1564.------
1565.------
0
0
7.5
6.2
8.0
6.5
143
31
168
34
60
60
60
44
149
54
tends to gain 002 and to show a decrease in pH,
1566------- 0 7.7 7.6 59 64 60 50 71 whereas water having a high total carbonate-species
1567------- 0 5.8 6.2· 19 21 60 44 53
1568.------
1569.------
0
0
7.4
6.3
7.1
6.7
68
40
70
41
60
60
50
41
82
64
content may lose 002 to the atmosphere and show an ·
52 60 46 78
1570.------
1571.------
0
0
6.3
7.4
6.5
7.5
49
63 63 60 48 79 increase in pH. Absence of persistent trends in study
103 108 60 48 106
11572.------
11578.------
0
0
7.4
6.15
7.7
7 .a· 13 15 60 44 32 graphs of other variables, however, suggests that more
38 60 44 54
11574.------
115715.------
0
0
6.8
7.8
7.2
7.4
37
108 111 60 83 1,190 than one factor is involved and that two or more may
88 81 60 44 102
11576.------
11577-------
0
0
7.6
5.8
7.4
6.2 18 18 60 48 41 interact to cause changes in pH and alkalinity in some
11578.------
11579.------
0
0
7.4
5.9
7.5
6.1
146
42
150
45
60
60
65
50
335
78
samples.
., 11580.------ 0 15.8 6.0 28 30 60 54 57
The changes observed in bicarbonate content and in
11581.------ 0 6.8 7.1 119 113 60 70 162
pH, when field and laboratory determinations are com-
C214 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

+1.0 were rounded to the nearest 0.1 pH unit. Alkalinity

I
I
,
IQ)
.... . . (as bicarbonate) was determined by titrating the sam-
~~
lg . ... .. . . ples with a standard solution of sulfuric acid using
I 0

... . . phenolphthalein and methyl orange as acid-base indica-

. ·-. . . ..: . .
IS

......
I Ill
f--f.-..J-'0 tors (American Public Health Association, 1960, p. 44-
~

.. .·'-·
I..,
II: . 4•• 48). On several water samples, alkalinity was
I~
,c: ~··· determined by both this indicator method and a modi-
8
Ia
lu
,'.c....
. .. . fication of the potentiometric method described by
Rainwater and Thatcher (1960, p. 94-95). Results
....Li obtained by the two methods agreed within 1 percent.

f---~'5
IE
I:J
:~
. Alkalinity was reported to the nearest part per mil-
lion. Specific conductance was measured to the nearest
IC'
IQ)
I c:
micromho (at 25°0) by a battery-operated instrument
I·: (Industrial Instruments Solu-Bridge). All instru-
-2.0 -'-~
I Ill
I~ ments were calibrated before and after fieldwork and
I
I were fourid to be within the accuracy of the determina-
-5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 tion as described by Hem ( 1959) .
log [ l; co;2 SPECIES] Laboratory determinations were made by the stand-
FIGURE115.1.-Graph comparing change in pH with calculated
ard methods of the U.S. Geological Survey (Rainwater
total dissolved carbonate-species content in sample. and Thatcher, 1960) , which also are the ones used in h
the California study. All laboratory determin.ations
pared, indicate that laboratory determinations of these were made within 1 month of date of collection.
variables are not reliable for use in geochemical equilib- The data obtained in the New tT ersey study are shown
rium calculations. The lack of correlation between in table 115.2. Except for one sample, field pH was
pairs of variables, such as pH and temperature, pH greater than laboratory pH. The maximum differ-
and time of storage, and pH and HC03 -1 , suggests that ence between field and laboratory determinations of .(1

projection.of laboratory-determined data to calculated pH was 2.5. For all samples, field alkalinity was
data indicative of conditions prevailing in the field can- greater than laboratory alkalinity. The maximum
not be made with confidence. Therefore, pH, and pref- difference between field and laboratory alkalinities was
erably also bicarbonate, should be determined in the 33 ppm, but most differences (29 samples) were in the
field if the data are to be used in thermodynamic calcu- range from 5 to 15 ppm. The difference between field
lations. Field determinations of pH can be made· to and laboratory determinations of alkalinity was
close limits of tolerance ( ±0.05) if considerable care greater than 5 percent for all but 1 of the 38 ground-
is exercised. water samples. According to Hem ( 1959, p. 97),
NEW JERSEY STUDY agreement closer than 2 to 5 percent cannot be expected
In the New Jersey study, field and laboratory deter- for duplicate alkalinity determinations. For all but
minations of pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance five samples, field specific conductance was greater than
were made on water samples collected from 38 wells that determined in the laboratory.
tapping the Englishtown Formation. At each well- The greatest differences between field and laboratory
head, samples were collected in 1-gallon polyethylene determinations of pH, alkalinity, and specific conduct-
bottles,. which· were kept capped as much as possible ance were found in samples whose iron precipitated
during the field determinations. For laboratory deter- during storage of the sample. Samples having a visible
minations, two citrate bottles were filled from each precipitate of iron had average differences of 0.9 pH
polyethylene bottle. One sample was used for deter- units, 19 ppm of alkalinity, and 28 micromhos of spe-
minations of pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance. cific conductance. Samples having no visible precipi-
The other sample was acidified and used for the deter- tate of iron had average differences of 0.6 pH units, 11
mination of iron. ppm of alkalinity, and 17 micromhos of specific
Field determi;nations of pH. alkalinity, and specific conductance.
.....
conductance were made on all samples immediately Iron precipitated in all 7 samples in which the field
after the samples were collected at the well site. The pH was 7.0 or less and in 3 of the 5 samples in which
pH was determined by a battery-operated pH meter the field pH ranged from 7.1 to 7.3. Iron did not pre-
(Beckman Model M). Although this meter can be cipitate in any of the remaining 26 samples, which had
read to the nearest 0.02 pH unit, pH data in table 115.2 a field pH of 7.4 or greater. Average differences be-
 ROBERSON, FETH, SEABER, AND ANDERSON

tween field and laboratory pH, alkalinity, and specific field analysis and laboratory analysis (Rainwater and
conductance for these pH ranges are shown in table Thatcher, 1960, p. 31-32). Because precipitations of
115.3. iron compounds and changes in temperatures would
result in a decrease in the bicarbonate concentration,
TABLE 115.2.-Field and laboratory determinations of physica the pH and the alkalinity concentration would be ex-
,., and chemical properties of water from the Englishtown Formation
in New Jersey pected to decrease; possibly the specific conductance
[Chemical analyses, in parts per million) would decrease also.
The following observations are based on a comparison
Specific con-
pH Alkalinity ductance (in Iron of the analytical data for water samples from 38 wells
(asHCOs) micromhos at (Fe) Precipitate
Well No. 25° C) in sample tapping the Englishtown Formation in New Jersey:
bottle
1. The field determinations of pH, alkalinity, and
l!'ield Lab. Field Lab. Field Lab. Lab.
- - - -- -- - - - specific conductance generally are higher than labora-
1---------- 4.8 3.8 3 0 148 166 11 Yellow. tory determinations.
a__________
2---------- 5.0 4.4 5 0 480 446 11 Red.
6.6 5.2 22 3 67 37 7.8 Yellow. 2. Samples in which iron precipitated between the
54----------
__________ 6.6 7.0 70 49 175 134 9.8 Do.
6 __________ 6.7 4.2 32 0 82 43 11 Red. time of the field determinations and the laboratory
6.9 5.8 48 16 110 59 11 Do.
s7----------
__________ 7.0 6.3 94 74 181 159 8.6 Yellow. determinations showed the greatest differences between
7.1 6.6 72 65 145 130 3.0 Clear.
g__________ 7.2 6.8 106 93 203 193 2.0 Yellow. the field and laboratory_ values of pii, alkalinity, n.nd
10 _________ .14 Do.
n _________ 7.3 6.7 156 132 285 270
7.3 6.8 56 52 141 133 .36 Clear. specific conductance.
12---------
13 _________ 7.3 7.0 152 129 260 242 3.4 Yellow.
14 _________ 7.4 6.9 98 88 215 195
104
1.6 Clear.
Do.
3. Iron precipitates appeared in all samples having
15 _________ 7.4 6.9 60 49 130 1.6
7.6 7.1 104 94 181 175
214
.68 Do .
Do.
a field pH of 7.0 or less, in some samples having a field
16--------- 7.7 7.3 138 129 230 1.5
17--------- 7.7 7.2 106 93 182 182
228
1.9
.62
Do.
Do .
pH of 7.1 and 7.3, and in no samples having a field
18---------
19 _________ 7.8 7.3 106 988 218
7.8 7.2 108 97 184 173 .47
.45
Do .
Do .
pH of 7.4 or more.
20--------- 7.8 7.5 112 104 202 175
21--------- 7.9 7.3 106 99 180 178
242
.46
.65
Do .
Do.
4. The highest concentrations of iron and the great-
22--------- 8.0 7.4 164 150 255
' 23---------
24---------
25 _________
8.0
8.0
7.5
7.4
132
96
121
91
235
183
211
171
2.0
1.7
Do.
Do.
est differences in pH, alkalinity, and specific conduct-
8.0 7.4 99 84
149
158 153
244
. 26
.35
Do .
Do .
ance characterized samples collected in areas where
26--------- 8.0 7.5 160 270
27--------- 8.0 7.3 164 151 265 267 .45 Do . little or no calcium carbonate is present in the natural
28.--------
29 _________ 8.0
8.0
7.3
7.5
106
138
100
129
167
238
177
228
.22
.64
Do .
Do. aquifer materials.
ao _________ 8.0 7.2 114 106 185 184 .31 Do.
31 _________
32 _________ 8.1 7.5
7.2
96
126
83
116
180
219
159
198
.59
.24
Do.
Do.
Because field determinations of pH, alkalinity, and
8.1
33 _________ 8.1 7.6 118 111 208 193 .30 Do. specific conductance probably are more representative
34 _________ Do.
35 _________ 8.2 7.7 122 120 208 191 .20
8.3 7.9
7.9
1149
1184
140
166
235
244
214
271
1.0
.24
Do.
Do.
of the actual state of the water in the Englishtown
36.-------- . 8.3
37--------- 8.5 7.5 8 246
• 251
218
218
'352
348
351
233
--------
.19
Do.
Do.
Formation, they should be preferred for geochemical
38.-------- 8.5 8.0
interpretations of this . aquifer system. On the other
I Includes equivalent or 2 ppm or carbonate (COs).
a Includes equivalent or 6 ppm or carbonate (COs).
hand, if water is being rated as to its suitability for
a Includes equivalent or 10 ppm or carbonate (COs). various uses after storage, laboratory determinations
• Includes equivalent or 8 ppm or carbonate (COs).
probably are more useful.
TABLE 115.3.-Average differences, ignoring sign, between field and
laboratory determinations of pH, alkalinity. and specific cond1tct- CONCLUSIONS
)..'
ance of water samples collected in the Englishtown Formation of
New Jersey In summary, both studies showed that field deter-
minations of pH and alkalinity are generally higher
Average differences between field
and laboratory determinations than laboratory determinations of these variables, and
No. or that field determinations of pH and alkalinity are more
Range 1n field pH samples Specific
Alkalinity conduct- representative of water in its natural environment than
pH (asHCOs) ance (in
micrombos are laboratory determinations.
at 25°C)
REFERENCES
4.8-7.0_-- ------------- 7 1. 1 19 34 American Public Health Association, 1960, Standard methods
7.1-7.3--- ------------- 5 .5 14 13
26 .6 11 17 for the examination of water and waste water: New York,
7. 4-8. 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4.8-8.5.--------------- 38 .7 13 19 Am. Public Health Assoc., Inc., 11th ed., 626 p.
Hem, J. D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical
The differences between field and laboratory data characteristics of natural water: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1473,269 p.
possibly can be explained by the precipitation of iron Rainwater, F. H., and Thatcher, L. L., 1960, Methods for col-
compounds, changes in temperature of the samples, and lection and analysis of water samples: U.S. Geol. Survey
changes in chemical equilibrium between the time of Water-Supply Paper 1454, 301 p.
Article 116

INCREASED OXIDATION RATE OF MANGANESE IONS

IN CONTACT WITH FELDSPAR GRAINS

By JOHN D. HEM, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-Solutions of Mn+ 2 in ·contact with feldlspathi'c Sland A second series of experiments was made with solu-
lose manganese by ion-eX'change adsorption on the feldspar tions at a higher and more constant pH. The six ·solu-
grains and by oxidation followed by precipitation of manganese
tions of this series differed from those of the first series
oxide. Removal of manganese i's subSitantially f!a·ster in s·olu-
tions at pH 8 than at pH 7. only in that they contained 100 parts per million of
HC0 3 -l added as sodimn bicarbonate. The pH of these
solutions was adjusted to 8.03 and remained near 8.0
Laboratory studies reported here indica~ that feld- throughout the experiments. In the second series, as in
spathic sand moderately catalyzes the oxidation of the first, the solutions were sampled and analyzed
Mn+ 2 in water and that pH strongly influences the rate periodically.
of oxidation. In these studies the effect of feldspathic Results of some of the experiments are shown in
sand on the rate of loss of Mn+ 2 from solution was figure 116.1. Test solutions that were not exposed to
studied by means of two series of batch-type experi- feldspathic sand showed little change in concentration
ments. of Mn+ 2 at either pH near 7 or near 8, even after more
In the first series of experiments, 500-ml volumes 'Of than 350 hours. At pH near 8.0, the oxidation rates of
aqueous solution containing 10 ppm of Mn+ 2 and ad- Mn+ 2 were too slow to be reliably measured. Test so-
justed to pH 7.70 with sodium hydroxide were placed lutions that were in contact with feldspathic sand
in each of 6 polyethylene bottles. Five of these bottles
contained feldspathic sand, in amounts ranging from 10 T

~\~
No sand present
10 to 100 g, that had been pretreated with sodium
chloride solution and washed so that ion-exchange sites

'\:'
were occupied by sodium ions; the sixth contained no 100g of sand
...............
sand. The sand used in these studies consisted of
rounded grains in the range 0.10 to 0.80 mm. Micro- ""-- ..........................
--• ---
scopic examination of a representative sample of the
sand showed that it consisted of approximately 45 per- ~ t
100g of sand
I ·--
~------ ....

cent quartz, 21 percent orthoclase feldspar, and 34 per-

cent plagioclase feldspar. The cation-exchange capa-
city of the sand, determined by equilibration with 1.0 ~

"""'
molar solution of manganese chloride, was 0.66 mini-
equivalents per hundred grams.
The solutions were kept in the laboratory at a tem- 0.2
0 100 200 300 400
perature of 25°-+-1 °0. Periodic sampling and analysis TIME, IN HOURS
of the solutions indicated that both the pH and the
FIGURE116.1.-Rate of loss of manganese from solutions near
manganese concentration of the test solutions decreased pH 7 (dashed lines) and pH 8 (solid lines) in presence and ....
with time. absence of feldspathic sand.

ART 116 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C216-C217. 1963.
0216
 HEM C21.7
showed a rapid initial decrease in Mn+2 concentration, sulfate ions, as observed in earlier work with manga-
followed by a slower, steady decrease. The decrease in nese oxidation rates (Hem, 1963). The catalysis mech-
Mn+2 concentration was approximately proportional to anism was not closely studied, but such an effect of solid
the weight of sand in the test bottles and was greater at surfaces on reaction rates is not particularly unusual.
pi-I near 8 (solid line, fig. 116.1) than at pH near 7 In order to compare the behavior of M::n+ 2 with a
(dashed line) . similar ion that is not subject to oxidation, a series of
The results of these studies are most readily explained experiments was run using calcium solutions in place of
by the hypothesis that some Mn+ 2 is adsorbed on the manganese solutions.. The ionic .radius of Mn+ 2 is
sand and some is oxidized to form a precipitate of man- slightly smaller than that of Ca+ 2 , and manganese is a
ganese oxide. Manganese is removed rapidly from so- little more strongly adsorbed by the sand than calcium.
lution at first, mostly by exchange for sodium on the The calcium experiments showed an initial period of
sand. As the solution and the exchange surfaces ap- rapid loss, but after 4 days the. solutions stabi-
proach equilibrium, the effect of ion exchange disap- lized and no further loss occurred, regardless of the
pears and the manganese-loss curve (fig. 116.1) becomes amount of sand present.
a straight line as the manganese is removed only by Nat ural mineral surfaces probably cat~tlyze the for-
oxidation catalyzed by the sand-grain surfaces. mation and precipitation of manganese oxide from
Several lines of evidence support this hypothesis. weathering solutions. The effect helps to explain the
For example, when other conditions were comparable, chemical behavior of manganese in natural water.
the slopes of the straight segments of the curves were
steeper for solutions in contact with larger amounts of REFERENCE

sand. Also, the slopes were steepened by increasing Hem, J. D., 1963, Chemical equilibria and rates of manganese
the pi-I and were flattened by adding bicarbonate and oxidation: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1667-A.
Article 117

SOLUTION OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE BY TANNIC ACID

By JACK RAWSON/ Austin Tex. 1

A.b.~tract.-Although manganese dioxide is nearly insoluble in value ranging in unit steps from 4.5 to 9.5. The ali-
distilled water, tannic ( digallic) acid may bring considerable quots were poured into polyethylene bottles, and 1 g of
amounts of manganese.into solution. The study suggests a pos-
sible mechanism for the solution of insoluble manganese from
reagent-grade manganese dioxide was added to each.
soils and sediments by natural wruters containing tannic ucid or The bottles were tightly stoppered and were placed in
similar organic extracts. a constant-temperature room at about 25°C.
Periodically for 56 days, the Eh (redox potential)
Manganese is usually present in s·oils and sediments in and pH of samples from each bottle were determined.
an oxidized, insoluble state~ Most of the manganese The samples were then passed through plastic-mem-
found in natural waters probably results from the solu- brane filters (average pore diameter of 0.45 micron)
tion of manganese from soils and sediments aided by to remove precipitated or colloidal manganese. The
organic matter and~ bacterial action (Hem, 1959, p. 66). concentration of the manganese irn the filtrates was r.hen
Manganese in excess of 0.3 parts per million is objec- determined by the permanganate method as described
tionable in public water supplies and may require re- by Rainwater and Thatcher (1960, p. 205-207).
moval for some industrial processes. After 56 days of storage, the 100-ppm tannic acid
Manganese dioxide is nearly insoluble in distilled solutions were separated from the solid manganese
water but is moderately soluble in tannic acid, which is dioxide and were filtered through plastic-membrane
common in organic soils and sediments. The action of filters. To determine whether or not collodial man-
aqueous solutions of tannic acid on manganese dioxide ganese passed through the filters, portions of these fil-
was studied with a view to a more thorough understand- trates were centrifuged at 3,000 revolutions per minute
ing and explanation of phenomena that occur when for 30 minutes and then refiltered. No appreciable loss
natural waters containing organic extracts come into of manganese from the filtrates occurred. Though not
contact with soils and sediments containing insoluble conclusive, the retention of manganese in 'a filterable
manganese. state suggests that the manganese was not colloidal.
Tannins are a large group of complex substances The remaining portions of the filtrates from the 100-
found in many plants. Gallotannin, the common tannic ppm tannic acid solutions were stored in tightly stop-
acid of commerce, is obtained principally from gallnuts pered plastic bottles to determine whether or not the
(Conant and Blatt, 1947, p. 506). This particular manganese would be retained in solution in the absence
tannin is a mixture of gallic acid esters of glucose. Ac- of excess solid manganese dioxide. After 111 days of
cording to Hem ( 1960, p. 77) the gallotannin molecule storage, no significant loss of manganese occurred from
. water solution, hydrolyzes to give glucose and di-'
In the solutions.
gallic acid. Digallic acid has the folJowing semistruc- The final portions of the 100-ppm t~nnic acid solu-
~ions were aerated by passing air, presaturated with
tural formula:
water, through them for 10 hours. Two weeks later,
( HO) ::~C6H2 · C02 · CsH2 ( OII) 200 2H the pH of the samples was raised to 9.0 with carbonate-
The tannic acid used in the experiments reported here free potassium hydroxide. TI1e samples were filtered
is represented by the above formula. and the concentration of manganese in the filtrates was
Solutions containing 10, 100, and 1,000 ppm of tannic determined. The results indicated that the manganese
acid were prepared, and each solution was divided into content had decreased only slightly. This retention
six aliquots. The pH of each aliquot was adjusted with of manganese in ·solution indicates a manganese-tannic
carbonate-free potassium hydroxide to a predetermined acid complex that strongly resists oxidation.

ART. 117 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C218-C219. 1963.
0218
 RAWSON C2l9
The table summarizes the effect of tannic acid on the
solution of manganese dioxide. The results indicate
that tannic acid, even in dilute solutions, may bring
considerable amounts of manganese into solution.
Figure 117.1 shows the relation between storage time,
pH, and manganese concentration in test solutions con-
taining tannic acid. The results indicate that the rate
of solution of manganese is a function of both the ini-
tial pH and the tannic acid concentration of the test
samples. In test solutions having the same initial pH,
the rate of manganese solution increases with the tannic
acid concentration. In test solutions having the same
tannic acid concentration, however, the reaction rate is
greater in those. samples having the lower initial pH.
The exact mechanism of manganese solution by tan-
nic ·~cid was not determined in this study. The per-
manganate method, though quite sensitive and specific STORAGE TIME, IN DAYS

for manganese, does not permit distinction of the forms

in which manganese was originally present in the solu-
tons. Manganese dioxide, however, is a strong oxidiz-
ing agent. Tannic acid, on the other hand, is a reducing
agent. In his study of complexes of iron with tannic
acid, Hem ( 1960, p. 84-85) demonstrated that the reduc-
tion of ferric iron to ferrous iron in acid solutions was
effected by tannic acid. Manganese is chemically re-
lated to iron. The solution of manganese by tannic
acid, therefore, probably results from chemical reduc-
tion. If this assumption is correct, complexing of
tannic acid with divalent manganese also occurs. The 6 --~l~O~O~P~P~m~---------e
retention of manganese in solution in the 100-ppm tan-
nic acid solutions supports this argument.
~ ~~.:~lO~pp~m~----------
The experiments suggest a mechanism for manganese r
solution from soils and sediments by natural waters 0 60
containing tannic acid or similar organic extracts STORAGE TIME, IN DAYS

leached from decaying organic debris. FIGURE 117.7-Solution ·of manganese by tannic acid.

]j]fJect of tannic acid concentration on solution of manganese dio:cide

[Eh in volts, Mn concentrations in parts per million]

·~,.. 10ppm 100 ppm 1,000 ppm

Initial pH After 3 hours After 56 days After 3 hours After 56 days After 3 hours After 56 days

pH Eh pH Eh Mn pH Eh pH Eh Mn pH Eh pH Eh Mn
- - -- - ------
4.5 __ -------- 5. 3 0. 577 6. 2 0. 598' 3. 6 5. 6 0. 539 6. 9 0. 565 21 4. 9 0. 547 6. 4 0. 512 112
5.5---------- 6. 2 . 527 6. 6 . 586 3. 5 6. 0 . 521 6. 8 . 568 14 5. 9 . 478 6. 2 . 515 90
6.5---------- 6. 6 . 492 6. 6 . 586 2. 4 6. 5 . 490 6. 9 . 563 13 6. 5 . 477 6. 4 .·537 80
7 .5_--------- 7.0 . 471 6. 6 . 579 1.8 7.0 . 490 6. 9 . 578 10 7. 1 . 477 6. 4 . 547 54
8.5---------- 7. 3 . 465 6. 6 . 579 2. 0 7. 4 . 483 6. 9 . 576 5. 2 8. 3 . 428 6. 6 . 545 21
9.5 __________ 8. 7 . 389 6. 7 . 562 . 79 8. 6 . 407 7. 0 . 571 5. 2 9. 2 . 357 6. 8 . 531 15
..
REFERENCES Hem, J. D., 1960, Complexes of ferrous iron with tannic acid:
Conant, J. B., and Blatt, A. H., 1947, The chemistry of organic U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1459-D, p. 75-94.
compounds: New York, Macmillan Co., 640 p.
Hem, J. D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical Rainwater, F. H., and Thatcher, L. L., 1960, Methods for col-
characteristics of natural water: U.S. Geol. Survey Water- lection and analysis of water samples: U.S. Geol. Survey
Supply Paper 1473, 254 p. Water-Supply Paper 1454, 297 p.

694-027 0-68--15
Article 118

EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMON AQUATIC ORGANISMS IN

REMOVAL OF DISSOLVED LEAD FROM TAP WATER

Bv EUGENE T. OBORN, Denver, Colo.

Abstract.-Lead sorbed by four kinds of aquatic plants is at room temperature and at 37°F. The remaining 47
approximately in proportion to the area of the plant-body surface percent were gram-positive cocci, able to reduce nitrates
in contact with the water. Symbiotic bacteria were the most
active of the organisms studied. to nitrites and capable of growing at 37°F but not at
room temperature.
The plants (each 1.0-g blotter-dry weight) were
Small amounts of lead taken in drinking water are placed in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 200 ml
not easily eliminated by the body, but accumulate, in- of tap water. The water contained 10 to 20 micrograms
stead, until irreparable body damage has been done of lead tagged with 0.1 microcurie of carrier-free Pb210
(Offner, 1944, p. 284). In a study of this danger the (equivalent to 1.2 X 10-3 p.g of radioactive lead) as lead
author investigated the effectiveness of aquatic vegeta- nitrate. The flask tops were covered with cellophane,
tion and associated microbiological symbionts in remov- secured with rubber bands, and the flasks were allowed
ing lead and other dissolved ions from· tap water. to stand undisturbed in natural light at the ambient
Experiments for this study were made during the sum- temperature of the laboratory for 2 weeks. The plants
mer of 1961. were then removed from the water, and the radioactive
Limnologists generally agree that soil-rooted aquatic lead content of plants and water was determined.
plants, although wholly submerged, obtain their min- The accompanying table, which lists the plants in
eral salts from the substratum and not from the sur- increasing order of surface area per unit weight, shows
rounding water. Floating plants that are not rooted the relative effectiveness of the bacteria and the three
in the soil, however, obtain their mineral salts directly species of aquatic plants in removing radioactive lead
from the surrounding water (Butcher, 1933). The from tap water. (Determinations by Division of In-
plants used in the experiments reported here were all dustrial Medicine, School of Medicine, University of
of the water-rooted variety. Colorado, with the cooperation of Dr. R. F. Bell.)
Submerged hornwort ( Oeratophyllum demersum L.) Radioactive lead (percent)
has an abbreviated root system. Common bladderwort In or on In the
Plant the plant water
( U tricUlaria vulgaris L.) likewise has an abbreviated Ilornwort _____________________________ _ 41 59
root system, but additional sorption may take place Bladderwort ---------------------------_ 58 42
Pond scum ____________________________ 21
through the many bladders present. With common 79
Bacterial slime________________________ _ 87 13
pond scum (Cladophora glomerata [L.] Klitz) direct
sorption is possible over most of the plant surface Evidently, removal of radioactive lead by the plants
except for the part floating above water. Rust-colored was approximately proportional to the amount of body
bacterial water slime used in this study was a very sorptive surface of the aquatic plants in contact with
mucoid symbiotic growth on which sorption could the surrounding water.
take place through any part of the completely sub- REFERENCES
mersed irregular mucous envelope. The bacteria 1 con-
Butcher, R. W., 1933, Studies on the ecology of rivers, pt. 1, On
sisted of 53 percent gram-negative rods, unable to the distribution of macrophytic vegetation in the rivers of
reduce nitrates to nitrites, but capable of growing both Britain: Jour. Ecology, v. 21, p. 58-91.
o. Determined by Bacteriology Laboratory, School of Medicine, Uni-
Offner, M. M., 1944, Fundamentals of chemistry: New York,
versity of Colorado. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 408 p.

ART. 118 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGE C220. 1963.

0220
 Article 119
-.
.
,

ADSORPTION OF THE SURFACTANT ABSss ON ILLITE

By C. H. WAYMAN, H. G. PAGE, and J. B. ROBERTSON, Denv~r, Colo

Work done in cooperation with the Federal Housing Administration

Abstraot.-A radiochemical-tracer technique was used to The composition of the mineral can he represented in
study the adsorption of the surfactant ABS 311 on illite. The a broad sense (Warshaw, 1958, p. 304) by
length of the ttll{yl chain, presence of phosphate ion, pH, and
the amount and type of ionic salt present influence this adsorp-
[ I\:o.5-0. 1 ( HaO) o-o.3] o.!H.o [ Al1. i-2.o~1go-o.a] 2.0
tion. Illite and other clay minerals are inefficient adsorbents
for ABS in comparison with synthetic materials (colloidal [Sia. a-a. sAlo.·4-o. 1 ]4. oOu> (OH)2
alumina and activated charcoal).
or in the form (Grim and others, 1937, p. 823)
Incompletely degradruble surfactants injected into the
ground in household waste water have in many areas
polluted ground-water supplies. One of the natural Microscopic and X-ray· diffraction examination indi-
1neans by which these surfactants are removed from cated that the clay contained about 12 percent impuri-
waste water is by their adsorption on soil minerals. ties in the form of sericite, quartz, plagioclase, calcite,
The ability of illite to adsorb alky lbenzenesulfonate pyrite, and a trace of carbonaceous material. The
( ABS), an essential incompletely degradable surfactant cation-exchange capacity of the clay is 25.0 milliequiva-
in detergents, is described in this article. As in similar lents per 100 g, and the pH of a suspension of 200 mg
studies of the adsorption of ABS on kaolinite (Way~ of the clay in 35 ml of distilled water is about 6.8.
man, Robertson, and Page, 1963) and on montmoril- Figure 119.1 shows that both pH and length of the
lonite (Wayman, Page, and Robertson, 1963) the ABS alkyl chain influence adsorption in solutions contain-
was tagged with 8 85 ( ABS 85 ) • The adsorption of ing 5.0 parts per million of ABS. Dodecyl (012) ABS
ABS on clay minerals is also compared with that on is only slightly adsorbed ( maximmn of 50 p.g of ABS
synthetic materials ( adtivated charcoal· and colloidal per g of clay) even at pH 4. Pentadecyl (01s) ABS
alumina). is adsorbed most readily at pH 4, but desorption seems
A radiochemical-tracer technique identical to that de- to occur· with time. Significant amounts of negative
scribed for the kaolinite study was used in this study. adsorption are indicated for both dodecyl and penta-
The effects of such variables as alkyl-chain length (012 decyl ABS at pH 10; this effect can be explained by
and 0 15 ) , pi-I, phosphate ion, and type and amount of repulsion of anionic ABS by the potential-determining
dissolved ionic salts (NaOl, GaOl2, and Al013) on ABS hydroxyl ions (OH)- 1 on the clay surface at pH· 10
adsorption by illite were studied. ABS was added as and by disparities in the electrical double layer at the
the sodium salt and can be represented in solution as clay-solution interface. The increased adsorption of
the anion .both types of ABS at low pH can be explained by sig-
(R-CoH4-SOs) -\ nificant numbers of positive sites on clay. In addition,
where R represents the alkyl chain. pentadecyl ABS exhibits a greater adsorption than
The preparation of the illite and the experimental dodecyl ABS because the longer chain material (Ots)
procedures were identical with those used in the study has a higher free energy of adsorption. Detailed sup-
of kaolinite. The illite . used was the standard clay porting data for these effects have been given previ-
mineral (No. 35) of the Americ~n Petroleum IJ.?.stitute. ously (Wayman, Page, and Robertson, 1963).
ART. 119 IN u.s. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C~ .. P~GES C221-C223. 1963.
0221
 C222 EXPERIMENTAL HYDROLOGY
~ 17 5 r-.---.---.---,-~--,-----r--r-.-----.----r-----.--r--~--.---,35
<(
g 150 /--0-----o.........
---
Pentadecyl ABS 30 have been described previously (Wayman, Page, and
~ 125 / '-... Dodecyl ABS 25
Robertson, 1963).
~ 100 i --6----..... --6-----~
'-. . . "-.. 0PH=4
.t. pH=?
20 w
1-
z
0
Figure 119.4 shows the relative adsorption capacity of
kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite in comparison
w
1-
75 / 15 w
a:
::::i
01
PH=10 Q.
with synthetic adsorbents (colloidal alumina and acti-
...J / 10 ~
u.. ci
vated charcoal). Colloidal alumina is positively
0 5 w
:::?! CD charged in acid solution. It consists of fibrils of
<( a:
a:
(!)
0
II) boehmite (AlOOH) approximately 5mp. in diameter
0
a: -25
w
-5 <(
II)
and 100 to 150mp. in length, a surface area of 274m 2 per
Q.
0
-50 -10~ g, ·a pore diameter of 77 A, and a pore volume of 0.53 cc
~ -75 -15 per g. Activated carbon is quite variable in physical
a:
~-100
0
-20 dimensions. Particle diameters range from less than
<(-125
~ o::----72 ---'4'--7-6~8::--:1:'=-0-:-'12::----:1:'-:-4----'-16_1..._8----1.20_2..._2---'-24_21-6--'-28_30L..--...J -25 100 .A. to 5,000 .A.,: average open-pore volumes range
<C TIME, IN DAYS from about 0.1 to 0.3 cc per g, total surface areas are
~ 400r--~~~~-~~---r----.--.-~---r-----.--r--.---.--,M
FIGURE 119.1---ln:fiuence of pH, length of alkyl chain, and time <(
on adsorption of ABS by illite. Test solutions contained ffi 350 70
0
5 ppm of pentadecy'l ABS and 5 ppm of dodecyl ABS. 5 300 60 1-
~ ~~
Figure 119.2 shows the results of adsorption of ABS ~ 0
w 40 ffi
on illite when 10 ppm of phosphate and either 5 ppm 1:: Q.
...J
30 ~
of dodecyl or 5 ppm of pentadecyl ABS ·are in solu- = ci
u..
20 ~
tion. Maximum adsorption of ABS takes place for 0
a:
:::?!
both forms of ABS at pH 4; apparent equilibrium ad- <( 10 ~
a: 0
(!)
sorption is attained in about 6 days. For dodecyl ABS, 0 <(

adsorption at pH 7 is similar to that at pH 10. For

a:
w
Q.
.
'-50 - 0 pH=4
-10<
II)
CD

----
Pe;:rta:Cyl ABS A pH=?
0
pentadecyl ABS, adsorption-desorption are indicated. ~-100 Iii pH=10 -20
a:
However, after lengthy periods of equilibration, the ~-150
Dodecyl ABS
-30
amount of either type of ABS adsorbed at a specified 0
<(
II) 0 2 4 6. 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
pH seems to approach the same value. In acid solu- ~ TIME, IN DAYS
tions (pH 4), phosphate seems to increase the amount
of ABS adsorbed by illite. The. effect of enhanced FIGURE 119.2.-In:fiuence of pH, phosphate, and time on ABS
adsorption by illite. Test solutions contained 5 ppm of
adsorption with phosphate in solutions might be
dodecyl or pentadecyl ABS 'and 10 ppm of phosvhate.
attributed to adsorption of ABS in the form of an
aluminum-phosphate-ABS complex; reasons for such MOLAR CONCENTRATION OF AICI 3
an adsorption mechanism have been given elsewhere II)
:::?!
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
450 r--~----~--r--~--~~--r--~~r-~----.---~90
<(
(Wayman, Page, and Robertson, 1963). a:
(!)
400 M
Figure 119.3 shows the influence of salt concentra- 0
a:
5::?
tion, valence,· and pH on the adsorption of ABS by :::?!
350 70
1-
illite. The data shown represent apparent equilibrium ~
60~
w 300 0
adsorption measured for as long as .10 days.· At any 1-
::::i 250 50ffi
pH the amount of ABS adsorbed increases with increase = 200
u..
0 NaCI 40
Q.

~
in salt concentration. The optimum conditions for re- :::?!
0

moval are at high salt concentrations and in acid solu- <( 150 30 ~
a: 0pH=4 a:
(!)
0
tions (pH 4). Trivalent (A1Cl 3 ) and divalent (CaC1 2 ) 100 ApH=7 20 :g
epH=10 <(
salts influence· ABS adsorption to a greater extent than 50 10 ~
NaCl, except in alkaline solutions (pH 10). These <(

adsorption phenomena can most readily be explained as

-------------------------------0
-10
being due to the combined effects of availability of posi-
tive sites on. clay at low pH, lowering of the critical ~-100~--~-----L----~----~----L---~~---J-20
<( 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750
micelle concentration of surfactants by ionic salts, rela- SALT CONCENTRATION, IN PARTS PER MILLION
tion of valency to action of cations as described by the
FIGURE 119.3.-Influence of salt concentration, valence, ·and pH
Schu1ze-Hardy rule~ and adsorption by an aluminum- on adsorption of ABS by illite. Test solutions contained 5
hydroxy-ABS complex. Details of these considerations ppm of dodecyl ABS. · .
 WAYMAN, PAGE, AND ROBERTSON C223

as much as 1,000 m 2 per g, and average pore diameters (/):::E

are about 20 A. The experimental method for the ~·looo,--..---===""'--,-~~----.--r-,,--.---.,--.---.---.----,
synthetic ads0r00nts Was identical with that Used for ...2 900 ' Ac~ivat~ carbon and
10 ppm of ABS
the clays. Figure 119.4 shows that, compared with the i 800 /Colloidal alumina and 010 ppm of ABS

synthetic adsorbents, natural clays are inefficient ad- ~ 700 ·',~

•' sorbents for ABS. These disparities in adsorption of z
~600 Activated <;arbon solution: pH=7
ABS can be attributed to the exclusively positive sur- o:: All others: pH =4

face and large pore diameter of colloidal alumina and ~

500

to the high external and internal surface area of acti- ~ 400

vated carbon. ~ 300
REFERENCES ~ 200 Kaolinite and 10 ppm of ABS
__....,
Grim, R. E., Bray, R. M., and Bradley, W. F., 1937, The mica Illite and 5 p~ of ABS
in argillaceous sediments: Am. Mineralogist, v. 22, p. ------ -- --
818-829.
Warshaw, 0. M., 1958, Experimental studies of illite, v. 7 of
Clays and clay minerals : · London, Pergamon Press, p. 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
(/)
303-316. CD
TIME, IN DAYS
... Wayman, C. H., Robertson, J. B., and Page, H. G., 1963, Ad-
sorption of the surfactant ABS 35 on lmolinite : Art. 238
<
FIGURE 119.4-Adsorption of ABS by clay minerals as compared
in. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 450--E, p. E181-E183. to synthetic adsorbents.
Wayman, C. H., Page, H. G., and Robertson, J. B., 1963, Ad-
sorption of the surfactant ABS 35 on montmorillonite: Art.
59 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 475-B, p. B213-B216.
Article 120

BIODEGRADATION OF SURFACTANTS IN SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS

UNDER AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS AT lOOC

By C. H. WAYMAN and J. B. ROBERTSON, Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with the Fedtera~ Housing Administration

.A.bstract.-Studies of bacterial degradation of ABS at 10°C Other forms of ABS branched structures may be
under aerobic and anaerobic ·conditions indicate significant re- represented as follows :
duction of ABS in samples containing 1,450,000 bacteria per
ml. Straight-chain ABS is degraded to a greater extent than CHs CHs
branched-chain ABS, and the aerobic environment is more ef- CHs-CH2-CH:r-CH2-b-CH:r-CH:r-b-o
fective than the anaerobic in ABS reduction. 6ns 6ns

Since World War II, more than 500,000 new synthetic NaSOs (2)

chemicals have been placed at public disposal, and this CHa CHs CHs
amount is increased by about 10,000 per year. Many :rkc-CH2-6-cH:r-CH:r-6-o
of these products are discharged directly into surface bns bHs bHs
water or into the ground. Unless these compounds can
be chemically degraded (by dissolution or hydrolysis) Nasos (3)

or oxidized by aerobic bacteria, pollution of ground · Because ABS is not completely degraded by bacteria
water or surface water may result. Anionic surfactants in water, pollution of surface water and ground water
in synthetic detergents resist biochemical degradation. by ABS has been reported from many localities
Thus, when sewage effiuents containing these refractory throughout the Nation (Lauman, 1959; Nichols and
substances are dumped into rivers or streams, pollution Koepp, 1961; Walton, 1960). McKinney and Symons
of ground water may occur from natural infiltration ( 1956) indicated that common soil or water bacteria,
from the streams. Likewise, septic-tank effiuents con- such as Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Aerobacter, Escher-
taining surfactants may pollute ground water unless ichia, and Flavobacteriwm a.re capable of surviving and
the·surfactants are adsorbed by soils during infiltration. growing in ABS agar when ABS is the only source of
In commercial detergents, alkylbenzenesulfonate carbon for metabolism. Wayman and others (1963)
(ABS) is the anionic surfactant that is responsible for have shown also that concentrations of ABS normally
pollution problems. The alkyl chain in this compound found in sewage or surface water are not toxic to hac-
probably contains 12 to 15 carbon atoms and apparently teria, especially Escherichia coli. These data suggest
is highly branched (Continental Oil Co., 1955), as indi- that bacteria can metabolize ABS, but not completely.
cated by the following structure: The inability of bacteria to degrade ABS completely
CHs cHs CHs seems related to the structure of ABS. For activated-
OR cH cH bn en bH en 6 cH 3 sludge systems in sewage plants, McKinney and Symons
s- :r- :r- - :r- - . :r-0- ( 1959) point out that ABS metabolism starts with the

terminal methy1 group (CH 3 ) on the hydrocarbon side

chain. The terminal methy1 group is oxidized by en-
NaSOs o> zymes to a carboxyl group. Then the hydrocarbon side
ART. 120 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C, PAGES C224-C227. 1963.
C224
.....
 WAYMAN AND ROBERTSON C225
chain is metabolized until it reaches the quaternary Solutions were prepared by either no dilution or dilu-
carbon. The qua.ternary carbon is probably located tion of the sewage effluent with distilled water to give
at the point where the hydrocarbon side chain joins the starting concentrations of total or coliform bacteria
benezene ring. This oxidation scheme would apply to that ranged from 6,000 to 1,500,000 per ml. Then three
the type 1 ABS structure shown above. In the normal types of ABS were added to various solutions, giving
mechanism of oxidation, two hydrogen atoms are re- starting concentrations of as much as 13 ppm: sample 1,
moved at a time and oxidized to water. When the oxi- branched-chain ABS; sample 2, domestic straight-
dation reaches the quaternary carbon, only one hydrogen chain ABS; and sample 3, German straight-chain
is available. This effect blocks ABS metabolism and ABS. All samples were prepared in 1-liter volumetric
tenninates the oxidation. Hence, the complex branch- containers and reduced to 500 ml for testing purposes.
ing of ABS prevents complete degradation by bacteria. Samples were placed in a constant-temperature bath
Other investigators (Hammerton, 1955; and Truesdale, (10° ± 0.1 °C). Periodically, samples were removed
1962) also attribute incomplete degradation of ABS to from solution and analyzed for ABS, total bacteria,
the branched structure. and coliform bacteria. ABS was determined by the
To remedy or to ameliorate this effect of incomplete methylene-blue method. Total bacteria and coliform
degradation of ABS, the development of ABS with a bacteria were determined by the pour-plate technique
straight-chain configuration as shown below has been using Nutrient and MacConkey agars, respectively, at
suggested: an incubation te1nperature of 37° for 72 hours.
Figure 120.1 shows the rate of degradation of both
CHs-(CHs)9-CH-o
branched-chain ABS and domestic straight-chain ABS
bRa -NaSOs under anaerobic conditions at 10°C. The starting
(4)
concentrations of ABS and bacteria studied were :
CBs
Sample 1:
CHs-(CHs)s-6-o Branched-chain ABS ____________ 13 ppm.
bHs
-NaSOs
(5)
Coliform bacteria--------------- 2,000 per ml.
Total bacteria ___________________ 6,000 per ml.
The ABS structures represented by types 1 to 3 are re- Sample 2:
ferred to .as "hard" substances, whereas those for 4 and 5 Domestic straight-chain ABS _____ 12 ppm.
are called "soft." Studies of ABS degradation by acti- Coliform bacteria--------------- 2,000 per ml.
vated sludge indicate that about 67 percent of the Total bacteria ___________________ 6,000 per ml.
"hard" type of ABS and 94 percent of the "soft" type The data indicate that about 6 days is required for
of ABS in solution can be degraded and thus be bacteria to become acclimated to the environment.
removed from solution. After 6 days, bacteria thrive more readily on straight-
In surface water or in water infiltrating the ground, chain ABS than on branched-chain ABS. The bac-
degradation of ABS can be achieved only by bacterial teria were unable to metabolize significant amounts of
activity. For surface water, the process involves an either form of ABS even after 50 days. Bacteria prob-
aerated system, and for infiltrating water, especially ably exist for long periods of time on other constituents
from septic tanks, an anaerobic system. Because pre- in the diluted sewage. The dying off of bacteria with
vious studies on ABS degradation by activated-sludge time might be attributed to the toxic effect of constitu-
treatment cannot be applied directly to surface water or ents concentrated in solution from bacterial metabolism.
to ground water, the authors studied the effects of Figure 120.2 shows the effect of degradation of ABS
aerobic and anaerobic systems on ABS in the tempera- under the conditions indicated in figure 120.1, but the
ture range 10° to 35°C. This article summarizes ex- starting concentrations were 15,000 per ml and ·60,000
perimental results for aerobic and anaerobic systems per ml for coliform and total bacteria, respectively.
at 10°C. No significant degradation of ABS was observed; with
The source of bacteria utilized in the study consisted increased concentration of bacteria, the period for accli-
o{the effluent from the Denver sewage treatment plant. mation to the environment increases. Both figures
The composition of selected constituents of this effluent 120.1 and 120.2 indicate that in moderate anaerobic
over a 1-year period indicated the following ranges : environments coliform bacteria die off more rapidly
bacteria, 100,000 to 4,000,000 per ml; detergent ( ABS), when branched-chain ABS is in solution. Thus, even
3 to 8 parts per million; dissolved solids, 450 to 1,000 in anaerobic environments coliform bacteria may per-
't ppm; dissolved oxygen, 0 to 5 ppm; biological oxygen sist for significant periods of time through metabolism
demand (BOD), 125 to 250 ppm; and pH, 6.2 to 8.1. of sewage constituents other than ABS.
C226 EXPER~ENTAL HYDROLOGY
~ ~
0
z
..~~--~~--~r-~~~--~~.-~~~~-.~~
Figure 120.3 shows the results of experiments on un-
~ 175 diluted sewage effluent for starting concentrations of
::::>
0 1,450,000 total bacteria per ml. These solutions had
:I:150 BACTERIA
~
an original content of branched -chain ABS of 4 ppm
z
-. 125
0::
in a somewhat degraded condition. Additional
UJ
j1oo branched-chain or straight-chain ABS was added to
::::i
...J
raise the initial ABS concentrations to between 10 and
i 75 11 ppm. Data are given for both anaerobic and aerobic
0::
UJ
a. 50 systems. Aerobic conditions were maintained by bub-
c(
ii:
bling filtered air through solutions at a constant flow
UJ 25
~
0
rate. Figure 120.3 shows that the time required for equi-
c(
m o~~~~--~--~~---L--~--~--~~---L---L__...J librium degradation of ABS in both aerobic and
~ 13~-.---.--,---.--.---.--~--.---r--,--~--~~ anaerobic systems is more than 10 days. In anaerobic
z~ environments, about 50 percent of both branched -chain
Q ::::i 12
~...J

~i and straight-chain types of ABS added to the undiluted

~ 0:: 11 sewage waste can be degraded. There seems to be little
UJUJ
oa..
~ ~ 10
difference between degradation of the German straight-
Oo: chain ABS in aerobic as compared to anaerobic
~ c( 9
~Q. 0~-L4~-8~~1~2~-1L6~~~~-2L4-L~2~8~3~2-~-3L6~.~~~-«L_~~~~52
environments; significant amounts of the German
TIME, IN DAYS

EXPLANATION

G> Branched-chain ASS / Total bacteria

0 Straight-chain ASS / / Coliform bacteria z (!

-:100
0::
FIGURE 120.1.-Rate of degradation of ABS under anaerobic UJ
~ 50
conditions at 10°0 for initial concentrations of coliform ::::i
::::i
bacteria (2,000 per ml) and total bacteria (6,000 per ml). ...J ~
:::!
0:: 10
4.5 UJ
a.
c( 5
~
z 4.0 ii:
0 ~ 2
::::i 0
3.5 c(

=
:::!!: BACTERIA
m
...J
~
.
0.5 L-...l....--L--..I---L--.L.._..J.-__L...__L---L--~--L---'-~--1...-~-L.J
~ 3.0
r:i ~ 11~~~--.-~--~----.-~-,,-.--.--~------~--n
UJ
~ 2.5
::::i
::::i
...J
2.0
i
0::
UJ
a. 1.5
c(
ii: 1.0
UJ
~
0
c(
m 0.5

3 oL..._~--L4--L6--L8__1L0__1L2--1~4~1~6---'18--~20--2~2--2~4,-2~6--2~8~3~0_u32

TIME, IN DAYS

EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION a Branched-chain ABS 8 No added ABS

e Branched-chain ASS / Total bacteria o Domestic straight-<::hain ABS / Anaerobic conditions

0 Straight-chain ABS ,; / Coliform bacteria 0 German straight-chain ABS ,; / Aerobic conditions

FIGURE 120.2.-Rate of degradation of ABS under anaerobic FIGURE 120.3.-Rate of degradation of ABS under anaerobic
conditions at 10°0 for initial concentrations of coliform bac- and aerobic conditions at 10°0 for initial total bacterial con-
teria (15,000 per ml) and total bacteria (60,000 per ml). centrations of 1,450,000 per ml.
 WAYMAN AND ROBERTSON C227
straight-chain ABS can be degraded in both environ- straight chain occurs after 2 days in the aerobic
ments. After about 19 days in an aerobic environment, environment described in (1). This may be com-
as much as 75 percent of the domestic straight-chain pared with degradations of 25 percent or less for
ABS added to the undiluted sewage effluent can be the other ABS types in both anaerobic and aerobic
degraded. The significant and rapid growth curves environments for 2 days.
of bacteria might be attributed to combined effects of
REFERENCES
1netabolizing both ABS and other nutrients in the sew-
age solutions. Results for coliform bacteria can be Continental Oil Co., 1955, Structure of a·lkyl benzene sulfonates:
Continental Oil Co. Central Hesearch Labs,. Rept.139-55-503.
explained on a basis identical to that for figure 120.2. Hammerton, C., 1955, Observations on the decay of synthetic
This study suggests the following conclusions: anionic detergents in natural waters: .Jour. Appl. Chem-
1. For both aerobic and anaerobic environments, at istry, (London), v. 5, p. 517-524.
10°C and having initial total bacterial counts of Dauman, H. E., 1959, Study of synthetic detergents in ground
1,450,000 per ml, the time required for equilibrium water, Suffolk County At•ea, Long Island: Prepared for the
Long Island Home Builders Inst., Inc., 9 p.
degradation of ABS is more than 10 days. McKinney, R. E., and Symons, J. M., 1959, Bacterial degra-
2. In anaerobic enviromnents described in ( 1), about dation of ABS, I. Fundamental biochemistry: Sewage and
50 percent of both branched-chain ·and straight- Indus. 'Vastes .Jour., v. 31, p. 549-556.
chain types of ABS added to undiluted sewage Nichols, M. S., and Koepp, E., 1961, Synthetic detergents as a
criterion of Wisconsin ground water pollution: Am. W·ater
waste can he degraded under conditions of equi-
Works Assoc. Jour., v. 53, p. 303-306.
librium. Truesdale, G.A., 1962, Pollution by synthetic detergents: Chern.
3. In aerobic environments described in (1), about" 40 Products, Jan. 1962, p. 1-8.
-1 percent of the branched-chain ABS, 75 percent of 'Valton, Graham, 1960, ABS contamination: Am. 'Vater Works
the domestic straight-chain ABS, and 50 percent of Assoc .•Jour., v. 52, p. 1354-1362.
a German straight-chain ABS can be degraded Wayman, C. H., Robertson, J. B., and Page, H. G., 1963, Factors
influencing the survival of Esche1·ichia coli in detergent solu-
under conditions of equilibrium. tions: Art. 57 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 475-B, p.
4. As much as 50 percent degradation of domestic B205-B208.
Article 121

DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR IN OPEN-C'HANNEL FLOW

By JACOB DAVIDIAN and D. I. CAHAL, Washington, D.C.

A.bstract.-A floating-plate and knife-edge beam-bRlance de- tion from the null or centered position of the plate is
vice designed for the direct measurement of the shear along the indicated on the dial of a transformer indicator.
boundary of an open rectangular channel was built and tested.
On the downstream end of the horizontal arm is a pan
The instrument was found to be unsatisfactory; 'its accuracy
was inadequate and its operation was erratic. to hold the weights necessary to maintain the null posi-
tion of the plate. Because the ratio between the plate
arm and the pan arm is unity, and because the knife
The standard method_ for the determination of shear edge of the balance is practically frictionless, the shear
in open-channel flow utilizes a. pitot tube as described can be computed as the ratio of the weight in the pan
by Hsu (1955). In an effort to make direct measure-
ments of shear in open rectangular channels, a floating-
plate beam-balance instrument was designed and built
by the U.S. Geological Survey. Tests of the instrument
in a laboratory flume indicated that its operation was
unsatisfactory and its accuracy was inadequate. A
schematic sketch of the instrument is shown in figure
121.1.
The shear-plate device was tested at the National
Bureau of Standards Hydraulic Laboratory in a smooth
tiltable flume 140 feet long and 18 inches wide. Tests
were made at normal depths of flow of 5 and 8 inches.
The shear plate, 1 inch high, 6 inches long, and %6 inch
thick, floats within an opening in the wall of the flume Shear plate floats
within opening
118 feet from the entrance and has a clearance of 0.015 in wall with
inch all around. The plate is set with its bottom 2 clearance of
0.015 inch all
inches off the floor of the flume. Behind the plate, on around
the outside of the flume, is a water-filled plastic com-
partment so .arranged that the plate is completely sur-
rounded by fluid. Four vertical fins are attached to the
back side of the plate, allowing free circulation of water
between the flume and the outside well, and serving as
hydraulic dampeners to lessen the tendency of the plate Transformer
indicator
to flutter. The shear plate is mounted on the vertical Fins on back side
arm of a knife-edge beam balance. of shear plate
The upstream end of the horizontal arm of the bal-
ance has suspended from it the core of a linear variable- '----------------------------------- ---- ------- --- --------------- --

differential transformer. The shear plate is positioned

free and flush with the flume wall in still water, then FIGURE 121.1-S.chematic sketch of shear-plate knife-edge beam-
exposed to the moving water in the flume. Any devia- balance device.

ART. 121 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-C. PAGES C228-C229. 1963.
0228
 DAVIDIAN AND CAHAL C229
to the area of the plate. The variation of the friction 8.0
factor f, within a Reynolds number range from IR = 6.0 Shear plate
6 X 104 to 6 X 105 , is well described by the equation
1/-yf/=2.0'3log IR yf-1.21.
The relationship between the velocity of the flow
and the plate shear as computed from the balance
weights is shown in figure 121.2 (top curve). All the 0
tests at 8 inches water depth and most of the tests at 0z (.)
5 inches depth show a relation well described by the 1&.1
(/)

solid line. The dashed line shows that at 5 inches ll.a: 0.6 1&.1

depth and between velocities of 2 and 5 feet per sec- 1- 0.4 1&.1
1&.1
ond (corresponding to Froude numbers, IF , of about .... 8.0
0.6 to 1.2) the measured plate shear is too high. Al- ~ Preston tube
~
though it was not possible to achieve critical flow in the u
8-inch depth series, there seems to be no shear increase 0_, 1&.1

at velocities in the 8-inch series which are critical in >

the 5-inch series. This apparent reaction of the shear
plate in the neighborhood of the critical Froude num-
ber has not been checked at other depths of water, but
has been affirmed in a repetition of the measurements
at the 5-inch depth. I I I
Figure 121.2 (bottom curve) shows the straight-line 0,001 0.01 0.1
relationship between velocity and the plate shear as SHEAR, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT

determined by measurements of local surface friction

made by the Preston-tube method, using a round pitot FIGURE 121.2.-Variation of shear with velocity. Top, shear
at the wall surface in the vicinity of the plate. The computed with shear-plate beam-balance device ; bottom,
5-inch-depth 1neasurements do not show an increase in shear computed with Preston tube. Circles, 8-inch depth;
dots, 5-inch depth.
shear at the critical Froude number. Additional
studies of boundary shear in this flume, using a Preston . ance the shear force varied as much as -+-20 percent. It
tube are reported in Article 113. is doubtful that an accuracy much better than ± 10
Although the reason for the high indicated shear percent can be ascribed to computations of shear based
values at IF = 1.0 is not known, it is not this phenome- on the shear-plate data, particularly for higher Froude
non alone which makes the shear-plate beam-balance numbers, even though repeatability was excellent in
device an unreliable instrument. The difficulty in vis- some runs.
ually adjusting the plate and in setting and keeping it The shear-plate device in its present form is an un-
free within its niche and flush with the wall becomes satisfactory means of measuring boundary-wall shear
')· greater with increase i1i velocity and associated in- directly in water. Its accuracy is limited by the
creases in opacity and turbulence. Furthermore, al- characteristics of the medium in which it is intended to
though it presents no difficulties if regularly removed, operate.
mineral matter deposited from the water and from the REFERENCE
aerosol wetting agent used, gradually builds up on Hsu, E. Y., 1955, The measurement of local turbulent skin fric-
various parts of the mechanism; however, it is easily tion by means of surface pitot tubes: The David W. Taylor
cleaned off. In some tests, the weight required to hal- Model Basin Research and Devel. Rept. 957.
 SUBJECT INDEX

[For maJor subJect heading such as "Economic geology," "Ground water," "Stratigraphy," see under State names or refer to table of contents]

A Page Page
Colorado, geomorphology, Sage Plain _________ C138 Hoplitoplacenticeras, Cretaceous, Wyoming___ C60
ABS. See Surtactants. Page geophysics, Rampart Range area .. -------__ 110 Hydraulics, direct measurement of shear in
Alaska, glacial geology, Copper River Basin __ _ 0121 stratigraphy, northeastern part_____________ 23 open-channel flow_ -------------- 228
paleontology, Gull of Alaska _____________ _ 73 Pueblo area .. --------------------------- 49 distribution of shear in rectangular chan-
stratigraphy, Cook Inlet area ____________ _ 30 San Juan Mountains.------·------------ 39 nels ____ -------- __ ---------------- 206
Alkalinity, of natural water, dlfi'erences In west-central part_- . -------------------- 35
determination.------- ___ ----- ___ _ 212 Conodonts, Ordovician and Devonian, Ten-
Alluvial fans, competence of transport on ____ _ 126 nessee.-------._--------------____ 55
Alluvium, transmissibility, ground water ____ _ 188 Continental shelf, submarine geology, east Idaho, petrology, idaho batholith____________ 86
Alpine mafic magma stem, definition of term._ 82 coast .. -------. ____ -----___________ 132 petrology, Yellowstone Plateau___________ 78
Alteration, dolomite, by ground wat~r_______ _ 00 Cretaceous, Idaho, petrology .. --------------- 86 Idaho batholith, modal composition__________ 86
Alumina, theory of concentration ____________ _ 151 Montana, petrology______________________ 86 Illite, adsorption of surfactants on.----------- 221
Ammonites, Cretaceous, Wyoming __________ _ 60 Wyoming, paleontology__________________ 60 Indiana tennesaeensis, Cambrian, Tennessee._ 54
Anhydrite, solution __ ---------- _____________ _ 91 Culvert coefficients, field vertification of Iowa, stratigraphy, Dubuque County _______ _- 11
Apatite, replacement of wood-------~--------­ 100 laboratory computation methods. 194 Isotope analysis, preparation of samples._____ 166
Appalachian region, origin of bauxite deposits_ 151 Cynthia Falls Sandstone, Alaska, redefinition_ 33 Israel, paleontology, Makhtesh Ramon •. _____ 58
See also under State names. Cyprus, petrology, Troodos Complex.-------- 82
Aquilar tests, analysis by graphical multiple J
regression._------------ _________ _ 198 D Jurassic, Alaska, stratigraphy________________ 30
Arlca }~ormation, Chile, paleontology _______ _ 69
Arizona, economic geology, Ambrosia Lake Detergents. See Surfactants.
area.- •• --- __ ---------_---- ______ _ 156 Devonian, Montana and Wyoming, stratig- L
stratigraphy, Defiance positive element __ _ 28 raphy__ ------------------------__ 17
Tennessee, paleontology__________________ 55 Lead, removal from water by aquatic orga-
Grand Canyon----------------------- 21 nisms _____ ---- __ ---_----- __ -----__ 220
Wyoming, stratigraphy___________________ 14
structural geology, Defiance positive Lead-alpha age determinations, Carolina slate
element _________________________ _ 28 Diamicton, in glaciolacustrine deposits .. _____ 121
Di .toms, Pleistocene, Chile__________________ 69 belt_-.----- __ ---_--_----------____ 107
Arkansas, ground water, Arkansas River Lead isotopes, preparation of samples for
188 Discharge, stream, etlect of urbanization on.. 185
valley---------------------------- analysis.------------------------- 166
Dolomite, calcitization by calcium sulfate____ 00
Leucophosphite, occurrence in nodules.------ 100
B
E Limestone, spirorbaL------------------------ 14
Bacteria, etlect on degradation of surfactants Lluta Formation, Chile, paleontology________ 69
Edgewood Dolomite, Iowa, stratigraphy____ 11
in detergents--------------------- 224
sorbtlon of lead In water__________________ 220 Elm, American, etlect of soil chemicals______ 105 M
Bauxite, theory of origin______________________ 151 Energy-budget analysis, of heated river______ 175
Bed sediment, computation of etlecti ve shear__ 202 Englewood Formation, South Dakota and Madison Limestone, Colorado, Nebraska,
Bolsons, distribution of granules______________ 130 Wyoming, correlation____________ 19 Wyoming, stratigraphy___________ 23
Bowser Formation, Alaska, definition________ 33 Erosion, vegetation as an indicator of rate____ 149 Magnetic anomalies, evaluation by electro-
Eureka Tuft Colorado, redefinition .. _________ 41 magnetic measurements.--------- 117
Bristlecone pines, origin of buttress roots.____ 149
Burns Formation, Colorado, redefinition.-.-.-- 41 Magnetite, estimation of content by electro-
Buttress roots, as indicators of erosion rate____ 149 F magnetic methods---------------- 117
Manganese, ·etlect of feldspar on oxidation.-__ 216
Feldspar, etlect on oxidation of manganese
c ions in water______________________ 216
Manganese dioxide, e1fect of tannic acid on
solubility------------------ ___ --__ 218
Cadmium, in ground water___________________ 179 Fenton Pass Formation, Wyoming, definition_ 45 Maquoketa Shale, Iowa, stratigraphy________ 11
Calcitization, dolomlt~, by ground water______ 00 Fitz Creek Siltstone, Alaska, definition______ 33 Massachusetts, glacial geology, Concord area_ 142
California, engineering geology, Sacramento- Flow-duration curves, estimated by low-flow Mexico, structural geology, northern Zacate-
measurements____________________ 196
San Joaquin Delta·--:------------ 162 cas. __ ----- __ ---------_--- ___ ----_
geomorphology, north-central part ________ · 162 Flow-through cell, for spectrophotometer_____ 173 Mine tailings, etlect on vegetation____________ 105
Foraminifera, Pleistocene, Alaska___________ 73 Minnelusa Formation, South Dakota and
White Mountains.------------------- 149
mineralogy, San Joaquin Valley__________ 100 Wyoming, petrology______________ 96
paleontology, San Luis 0 blspo-Bakersfield G South Dakota and Wyoming, stratig-
area.----------------------------- 63 Galkema Sandstone, Alaska, redefinition____ 30 raphy.--------------------------- 91
quality of water, Sierra Nevada__________ 212 Galena, in mine tailings, effect on vegetation.. 105 Minnesota, geophysics, Cuyuna Range_______ 117
sedimentation, Deep Springs Valley ____ 126, 130 Gilpin Peak Tuff, Colorado, definition______ 43 Miocene, California, paleontology------------ 63
surface water, Yuba River basin ___ ------ 191 Mississippian, Arizona, stratigraphy__________ 21
Glacial lakes, Massachusetts __ -------------- 142
Cambrian, Tennessee, paleontology._________ 53 Granules, origin in sediments___________ ____ 130 Colorado, stratigraphY--.----------------- 23
Canyon Mountain Complex, Oregon, defini- Gravity surveys, Colorado, Rampart Range Montana and Wyoming, stratigraphy____ 17
tion.--------- ____ -------- ___ ---__ 82 area. ___ -------------------------- 110 Nebraska, stratigraphY------------------- 23
Carbonate rocks, alteration by ground water.. 00 Hawaii, volcanoes________________________ 114 Wyoming, stratigraphY------------------- 23
Carboniferous. See Mississippian, Pennsyl- Moenkopi Formation, Arizona, structural
vanian. H geology--------------------------- 28
Chlle, paleontology, Arlca area.-------------- 69 Mollusks, Miocene, California________________ 63
Chromium, In ground water__________________ 179 Hawaii, geophysics, island of HawaiL-------- 114 Montana, petrology, Idaho batholith_________ 86
Collapse structures, as control for uranium Henson Formation, Colorado, redefinition____ 41 petrology, Yellowstone Plateau___________ 78
deposition .• -------------------___ 156 Hesse Quartzite, Tennessee, paleontology_____ 53 stratigraphy, southern part_______________ 17

0231
C232 SUBJECT INDEX

Page Page Page

Moreno Formation, California, mineralogy ___ C100 Pleistocene, Alaska, diamicton deposits ______ _ C121 Streamflow, computation of effective shear on
Morrison Formation, New Mexico, economic Alaska, paleontology __ ------------------- 73 bed sediment _____________________ C202
geology __________ .________________ 156 Chile, paleontology ______________________ _ 69 estimation of flow-duration curves________ 100
New Mexico, structural geology_--------- 156 Colorado, geomorphology __________ .. _____ _ 138 Subsidence, of peatland _______ ---------------- 162
Mudfiow deposits, subaqueous, in proglacial stratigraphy _________________________ _ 49 Sulfate, in precipitation ... ------------------ 209
lakes.____________________________ 121 Massachusetts, glacial lakes. ________ ----_ 142 Sunshine Peak Rhyolite, Colorado, redefini-
Multiple-regression analysis, graphical, of Wyoming, stratigraphy ___________________ - 45 tion _-------------------------- __ 43
aquifer tests .•. __ •. ___________ --__ 198 Pliocene, Colorado, stratigraphy _____________ _ 49 Surfactants, adsorption on illite_______________ 221
Murray Shale, Tennessee, paleontology....... 53 Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, petrology ___ _ 78 biodegradation in synthetic detergents____ 224
Potosi Volcan1c Group, Colorado, redefinition. 43
N
Precambrian, Wyoming, structural geqlogy __ _ T
Precipitation, content of sulfate and n1trate ••. 209
Tannic acid, effect on solubility of manganese. 218
Nebraska, stratigraphy, western______________ 23 Tennessee, paleontology, Blount County_____ 53
New Jersey, quality of water, coastal plain .. - 212 a paleontology, Flynn Creek area__________ 55
New Mexico, economic geology, Ambrosia Quaternary, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Terra rossa, as bauxite parent materiaL_._.__ 151
Lake.--- ___ -------_----------____ 156 petrology--------_________________ 78 Tertiary, Colorado, stratigraphy ______________ 35,39
structurnl geology, Ambrosia Lake_______ 156 See alao Pleistocene, Recent. Mexico, plutonic rocks. __ ---------------- 7
New York, ground water, Long Island ...• c 179,185 Thermal loading, heat dissipation from
surface water, Dutchess County__________ 196 R streams___________________________ 175
Long Island__________________________ 179 Transmissibility, alluvium___________________ 188
Nitrate, in precipitation______________________ ·209 Radioactive tracers, in study of removal of Triassic, Arizona, structural geology__________ 28
Nodules, leucophosphite______________________ 100 dissolved ions from waters________ 220 Israel, paleontology_______________________ 58
North Carolina, geochronology, Carolina slate Recent, Alaska, paleontology _________________ · 73 Oregon, petrology________________________ 82
belL_____________________________ 107 Recharge, effect of urbanization on.---------- 185 Troodos Complex, Cyprus, petrology_________ 82
quality of surface water, eastern region.-_ 209 Red Glacier Formation, Alaska, definition.... 30 Turbidity-current deposits, in proglaciallakes 121
Nussbaum Alluvium, Colorado, redefinition.. 49 Red wall Limestone, Arizona, definition of new Tuxedni Group, Alaska, definition___________ 30
members. _____________________ --- 21 Twist Creek Siltstone, Alaska, definition..... 33
0 s u
Ogallala Formation, Colorado, stratigraphy__ 50 Sand, feldspathic, effect on oxidation of man- Uranium, structural control of deposition..... 156
Ohio Creek Formation, Colorado, redefinition... 35 ganese ions in water______________ 216 Urbanization, effect on storm discharge and
Oklahoma, geomorphology, Sandstone Creek. 145 San Juan Formation, Colorado, redefin1tion.. 39 ground-water recharge____________ 185
Ordovician, Iowa, stratigraphy_______________ 11
Scarps, origin ______ --- __ ---------_------------ 138
North Carolina, geochronology _______ .___
Tennessee, paleontology__________________
107
55
Sediments, distribution on east coast con- v r,.
tinental shelf.--- ________ --------- 132
Oregon, petrology, Canyon Mountain________ 82 Vegetation, as an indicator of rate of erosion._ 149
transport on alluvial fans_________________ 126 effect of mine tailings _________ ------______ 105
Ostracodes, Triassic, IsraeL------------------ 58 Shear, direct measurement in open-channel
Oxidation, of manganese ions in water________ 216 effect on stream-channel geometry________ 145
flow-------------------------:---- 228 sorbtion oflead in water__________________ 220
distribution in rectangul:u channels.----- 206 Virginia, economic geology, Valley and Ridge
p on bed sediment, computation____________ 202 province .•••. _______ ---------_____ 152
Silurian, Iowa, stratigraphy__________________ 11
quality of surface water, southern region.. 209
Paleotemperature studies, Miocene, Cal1- Silverton Volcanic Group, Colorado, redefini- Volcanism, Colorado, San Juan Mountains... 39
forn1a __________ ------ _--- _-------- 63 tion.----------------------------- 41 Volcanoes, Hawaii, gravity survey____________ 114
Peak discharge, field verification of laboratory Snowmelt, determination by study of streani-
computation methods____________
Peatland, subsidence_________________________
194
162
fiow ------------------------------ 191
Solution breccia, in Minnelusa Formation.... 91
w
Pennsylvania, quality of water, Susquehanna Souris River Formation, Wyoming, stratig- Wisconsin, biogeochemistry, Grant County._ 105
River----------------------------- 175 raphy---------------------------- 14 geophysics, Gogebic Range_______________ 117
Pennsylvanian, South Dakota and Wyoming, South Dakota, petrology, Black Hills _________ 91,00 Wood, apatitized, occurrence_________________ 100
stratigraphy---_------_---------__ 91 stratigraphy, Black Hills_________________ 91 Wyoming, paleontology, Bighorn Mountains. 14
Percent-constituent determination, by print- , Specific conductance, of natural water, differ- paleontology, Carbon County-- __ .-.-.--- 60
Ing spectrophotometer____________ 171 ences in determinations___________ 214 petrology, \Black Hills ____________________ 91,00
Permeab1lity, graphical multiple-regression Spectrophotometer, accessory for calculating Yellowstone Plateau__________________ 78
analysis.------------------------- 198 and printing percent constituent._ 171 stratigraphy, Bighorn basin •. ------------ 45
Permian, South Dakota and Wyoming, Sphalerite, in mine tailings, eftect on vegeta- Bighorn Mountains ... --------------- 14
stratigraphy------------- ___ -----_ 91 tion. ________________________ ---__ 105 Black Hills.-------------------------- 91
pH, ofnatural water, differences in determina- Spirorbia, Devonian, Wyoming_______________ 14 Laramie Range_______________________ 23
tions._ ___ ___ ____ _____ ___ ___ _____ 212 Steele Shale, Wyoming, paleontology_________ 60 northern part. .•. _____________ c ___ •••• 17
Picayune Formation, Colorado, redefin1tion. 41 Stream channels, geometry ____________ ,______ 145 structural geology, Teton Range _________ _
 AUTHOR INDEX

A H R
Page Page Page
Addicott, W. 0............................... C63 Hamilton, Warren............................ C78 Rantz, 8. E---------------------------------- C191
And orson, Peter.............................. 212 Hem, J.D ...•.................. -------------- 216 Rawson, Jack ...• ------------------------____ 218
Antwoller, J. C............................... 166 Huddle, J. W -----·······················-··· 55 Reed, J. C., Jr•..•.. -------------------------- 1
Hunt, 0. P •...............•.......... ________ 196 Reeser, D. W ...••.. ----------------------···· 100
B Roberson, C. E .•.. -------------------------- 212
J Robertson, J. B .... ------------------------ 221,224
Bedinger, M. 8............................... 188 Rogers, C. L ....... ------------------········ 7
Borgman, D. L............................... 145 Jenkins, C. T _-····-··············----·-··· 194,198 Rohrer, W. L-------------------------------- 45
Bowles, C. G.•••............................. 91,96 Jones, D. L----------------------------------- 100 Ross, C. P .... _. _. _............ _.... __ . _... __ 86
Braddock, W. A.•............................ 91,96
Brown, C. E.................................. 11
K s
Burbank, W. 8............................... 39 Kinoshita, W. T _---------------------------- 114 Sandberg, C. A-----------------------········ 14,17
Knechtel, M. M .•••...... -------------------- 151 Santos, E. 8 .•...... --------·---------------- 156
c Kotefi, CarL •..... --------------------------- 142 Sawyer, R. M................................ 185
Cabal, D.!.. ••••........................... 206,228 Krivoy, H. L •.•... --------------------------- 114 Scott, G. R----------------------------------- 49
Cobban, W. A................................ 60 Seaber, P.R ... ------------------------------ 212
Colby, D. R.................................. 202 L Shacklette, H. T ... -------------------------- 105
Cserna, Zoltan do._.......................... 7 Shapiro, Leonard ....•. ___ -._ .... _... ___ ._. __ . 171
LaMarche, V. C., Jr__________________________ 149 Shawe, D. R--------------------------------- 138
Curtis, E. L.................................. 171
Laurence, R.A •.•.... ------------------------ 53 Smith, P. B---------------------------------- 73
D Leopold, E. B •. ------------------------------ 45 Sohn, I. 0 .... -------------------------------- 58
Lieber, Maxim ....... ------------------------ 179 Stern, T. W .. -------------------------------- 107
Davidian, Jacob ............................ 206, 228 Lohman, K. E------------------------------- 69 Stromquist, A. A... -------------------------- 107
Davis, G. H.................................. 162 Luedke, R. G-------------------------------- 39 Sullivan, C. W •..... ------------------------- 145
Detterman, R. L............................. 30 Lustig, L. K------------------------------- 126,130
·I
Dingman, R. ]............................... 69 T
M
E Tagg, K. M---------------------------------- 100
Mabey, D. R--------------------------------- 114 Ta era, E---------------------------------... 7
Ekron, E. B.................................. 117 MacDonald, R. R.--------------------------- 114 Thayer, T. P--------------------------------- 82
Emmett, L. F................................ 188
McKee, E. D-------------------------------- 21,28
Maughan, E. K------------------------------ 23 u
F Messinger, Harry ____________ ·---------------- 175 U chupi, Elazar ~- ____ . _.. _. _.. _. _.. _. _. _...... 132
Ferrians, 0. J.. .............................. 121 Miller, C. H .. -------------------------------- 110
Feth, J. H.................................... 212
0
v
Frauenthal, H. L............................ 179
Frischknecht, F. C........................... 117 Vedder, J. G .. ------------------------------- 63
Oborn, E. T---------------------------------- 220 Vloten, Roger van .• -------------------------- 7
G Ojeda, J. ------------------.--------- ....... __ 7
Gambell, A. W............................... 209 p w
Gaskill, D. L----------------·-··-············ 35 Wayman, C. H---------------------------- 221,224
Godwin, L. H................................ 35 Page, H. 0.---------------------------------- 221 Westley, Harold ••.. -------------------------- 107
Granger, H. C-------------------~---········· 156 Palmer, A. R--------------------------------- 53 White, A. M--------------------------------- 107
Gulbrandson, R. A........................... 100 Perlmutter, N. M.--------------------------- 179 Whitlow, J. W------------------------------- 11
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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1963 C>--694-027